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1-hop neighbor's text information: x3j13.x3j13 x3j13 name technical committee part international committee information technology standards incits named x3 x3j13 committee formed 1986 draw american national standards institute ansi common lisp standard based first edition book common lisp language also termed cltl cltl1 guy l. steele jr. formerly de facto standard language primary output x3j13 american national standard programming language common lisp x3.226/1994 approved december 8 1994 x3j13 later worked international organization standardization iso working group sc22/wg16 internationally standardised dialect lisp named islisp original chair committee doctor robert mathis ohio state university mary van deusen secretary guy l. steele jr. originally vice-chair later years mathis stepped chair steele assumed role efforts committee guided charter successful creation credited coordinating efforts susan p. ennis representative amoco production company charter lays committee goals priorities broadly defined list topics addressed committee formed several subcommittees help members better concentrate efforts cleanup subcommittee chaired larry masinter established standardised format submission proposals voting issue writeups part standard deemed sufficiently useful common lisp hyperspec include cross-reference benefit readers providing information original intent committee decisions writeups also serve historical record alternate solutions problems ultimately adopted chaired sandra loosemore subcommittee created proposals issues relating lisp compiling guy steele acknowledged second edition common lisp language large contribution compiler subcommittee toward clarifying compiling process described first edition parts steele describes vague jon l. white chair iteration subcommittee among issues dealt group generalized codice_1 macro – domain-specific language second edition cltl devotes full chapter algol-like syntax macro differing lisp usual s-expression syntax remains somewhat controversial character subcommittee chaired thom linden task defining standard would deal issues surrounding different character sets resolution matters particularly ability use character name symbol intended make common lisp simpler international users chaired kent pitman error handling subcommittee plugged described biggest outstanding hole common lisp condition system general mechanism handling errors warnings exceptional situations committee referred resulting specification condition system rather error system accommodate one system handling exceptional situations various kinds whether fatal non-fatal whether continuable whether result program error simple resource limit stack overflow conditions signaled one point code may handled another point use term signal different typical operating system notion signals except lisp machines variant use term evolved operating system notion signaling scope committee consequently addressed ansi common lisp standard asynchronous interrupts ieee floating point trapping also scope committee work addressed standard kathy chapman chair drafting subcommittee responsible drafting actual standard document subcommittee oversaw efforts keep terminology consistent accurate throughout committee activities final standard produced x3j13 committee published american national standard x3.226 also hypertext form common lisp hyperspec book common lisp language although authored mostly guy l. steele jr. product ad hoc committee formed around 1980 worked collaboratively produce original de facto standard common lisp formation x3j13 x3j13 began work common lisp language base document proceeded design would become ansi common lisp steele served committee gave permission use parts first edition efforts documents published x3j13 later used together quotations certain committee members production common lisp language second edition released 1990 giving common lisp community way preview many features expected appear committee final standard document edition bears similarity standard content though form however substantive changes made form additions deletions publication book final draft ansi standard sum original edition common lisp language document x3j13 originally based work second edition contrast steele work committee product official status within x3j13 ansi acknowledged second edition preface authorized x3j13 choice content snapshot work progress formally synchronized x3j13 final version reviewed approved x3j13 1-hop neighbor's text information: franz_lisp.franz lisp computer programming franz lisp discontinued lisp programming language system written university california berkeley uc berkeley ucb professor richard fateman several students based largely maclisp distributed berkeley software distribution bsd digital equipment corporation dec vax minicomputer piggybacking popularity bsd package franz lisp probably widely distributed used lisp system 1970s 1980s name pun composer franz liszt written specifically host running macsyma computer algebra system vax project began end 1978 soon uc berkeley took delivery first vax 11/780 named ernie covax ernie kovacs first many systems pun names ucb franz lisp available free charge educational sites also distributed eunice berkeley unix emulator ran vax vms time franz lisp creation macsyma computer algebra system ran mainly dec pdp-10 computer limited address space caused difficulties attempted remedies included ports maclisp multics lisp machines even successful would solutions massachusetts institute technology mit machines costly uncommon franz lisp first example framework large lisp programs could run outside lisp machines environment macsyma considered large program ported franz lisp macsyma distributed 50 sites license restricted mit interest making macsyma proprietary vax macsyma ran franz lisp called vaxima symbolics inc. bought commercial rights macsyma mit sell along lisp machines eventually compelled sell macsyma also dec vax sun microsystems computers paying royalties university california use franz lisp lisp implementations vax mit nil never fully functional university utah portable standard lisp dec vax lisp xerox interlisp-vax le lisp 1982 port franz lisp motorola 68000 processor begun particular ported prototype sun-1 made sun microsystems ran variant berkeley software distribution bsd unix called sunos 1986 purdue university franz lisp ported cci power 6/32 platform code named tahoe major contributors franz lisp uc berkeley john k. foderaro keith sklower kevin layer company formed provide support franz lisp called franz inc. founders richard fateman john foderaro fritz kunze kevin layer keith sklower associated uc berkeley development research franz lisp continued years acceptance common lisp greatly reduced need franz lisp first product franz inc. franz lisp running various motorola 68000-based workstations port franz lisp even done vax vms lawrence berkeley national laboratory however almost immediately franz inc. began work implementation common lisp allegro common lisp franz lisp interpreter written c franz lisp bootstrapped solely using c compiler franz lisp compiler written entirely franz lisp called liszt completing pun name composer franz liszt notable features franz lisp arrays lisp interchangeable arrays fortran foreign function interface ffi allowed interoperation languages binary level many implementation methods borrowed maclisp bibop memory organization big bag pages small integers represented uniquely pointers fixed values fields fast arithmetic 1-hop neighbor's text information: s-expression.s-expression computing s-expressions sexprs sexps symbolic expression notation nested list tree-structured data invented popularized programming language lisp uses source code well data usual parenthesized syntax lisp s-expression classically defined second recursive part definition represents ordered pair means s-expressions binary trees definition atom varies per context original definition john mccarthy assumed existed infinite set distinguishable atomic symbols represented strings capital latin letters digits single embedded blanks i.e. character string numeric literals modern sexpr notations addition use abbreviated notation represent lists s-expressions stands codice_4 special end-of-list object alternatively written codice_5 representation scheme lisp family programming languages s-expressions used represent source code data uses s-expressions lisp-derived languages dsssl mark-up communications protocols like imap john mccarthy cbcl details syntax supported data types vary different languages common feature among languages use s-expressions prefix notation many variants s-expression format supporting variety different syntaxes different datatypes widely supported character codice_15 often used prefix extensions syntax e.g codice_16 hexadecimal integers codice_17 characters representing source code lisp first element s-expression commonly operator function name remaining elements treated arguments called prefix notation polish notation example boolean expression written codice_18 c represented codice_19 lisp s-expr-based prefix notation noted precise definition atom varies across lisp-like languages quoted string typically contain anything quote unquoted identifier atom typically contain anything quote whitespace characters parenthesis brackets braces backslash semicolon either case prohibited character typically included escaping preceding backslash unicode support varies recursive case s-expr definition traditionally implemented using cons cells s-expressions originally intended data manipulated m-expressions first implementation lisp interpreter s-expression encodings m-expressions lisp programmers soon became accustomed using s-expressions code data means lisp homoiconic primary representation programs also data structure primitive type language nested lists written s-expressions codice_20 two-element s-expression whose elements also two-element s-expressions whitespace-separated notation used lisp article typical line breaks newline characters usually qualify separators simple context-free grammar tiny subset english written s-expression gazdar/melish natural language processing lisp s=sentence np=noun phrase vp=verb phrase v=verb program code written s-expressions usually using prefix notation example common lisp s-expressions read lisp using function read read reads textual representation s-expression returns lisp data function print used output s-expression output read function read printed data objects readable representation lisp readable representations numbers strings symbols lists many data types program code formatted pretty printed s-expressions using function pprint note two ps short pretty -print lisp programs valid s-expressions s-expressions valid lisp programs codice_21 valid s-expression valid lisp program since lisp uses prefix notation floating point number 1.0 valid operation first element expression s-expression preceded single quotation mark codice_22 syntactic sugar quoted s-expression case codice_23 s-expressions often compared xml key difference s-expressions far simpler syntax therefore much easier parse standards lisp-derived programming languages include specification s-expression syntax include common lisp ansi standard document ansi incits 226-1994 r2004 scheme r5rs r6rs islisp may 1997 ron rivest submitted internet-draft considered publication rfc draft defined syntax based lisp s-expressions intended general-purpose data storage exchange similar xml rather specifically programming never approved rfc since cited used rfcs e.g rfc 2693 several publications originally intended use spki rivest format defines s-expression either octet-string series bytes finite list s-expressions describes three interchange formats expressing structure one advanced transport flexible terms formatting syntactically similar lisp-style expressions identical advanced transport example allows octet-strings represented verbatim string length followed colon entire raw string quoted form allowing escape characters hexadecimal base64 placed directly token meets certain conditions rivest tokens differ lisp tokens former convenience aesthetics treated exactly like strings latter specific syntactical meaning rivest draft defines canonical representation digital signature purposes intended compact easier parse unique abstract s-expression allows verbatim strings prohibits whitespace formatting outside strings finally basic transport representation either canonical form encoded base64 surrounded braces latter intended safely transport canonically encoded s-expression system might change spacing e.g email system 80-character-wide lines wraps anything longer format widely adapted use outside spki users gnupg libgcrypt nettle gnu lsh rivest s-expressions web page provides c source code parser generator available mit license could adapted embedded programs addition restrictions independently implementing format Target text information: larceny_(scheme_implementation).larceny scheme implementation larceny implementation scheme programming language built around twobit optimizing compiler larceny offers several back-ends able target native x86 armv7 code petit larceny also available emits c source code compiled native code ordinary c compiler older versions 0.98 included support sparc architecture larceny microsoft common language runtime via common larceny larceny supports major scheme standards rrs ieee/ansi rrs rrs larceny software open source available online I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,849	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: tim_newsham.tim newsham tim newsham computer security professional contributing security community decade performed research working security companies including stake guardent iss network associates originally secure networks newsham best known co-authoring paper insertion evasion denial service eluding network intrusion detection thomas ptacek paper broke every network intrusion detection product market cited 150 academic works network intrusion detection since published prominent white papers addition research newsham also known pioneering work security products including newsham partially discovered newsham 21-bit wep attack newsham 21-bit attack method used primarily kismac brute force wep keys effective routers linksys netgear belkin d-link affect apple 3com use algorithms generating wep keys using method allows wep key retrieved less minute wep keys generated use text based key generated using 21-bit algorithm instead secure 40-bit encryption algorithm router presents key user 40-bit key method 2^19 times faster brute force 40-bit key would allowing modern processors break encryption rapidly 2008 newsham awarded lifetime achievement pwnie award 1-hop neighbor's text information: application_security.application security application security encompasses measures taken improve security application often finding fixing preventing security vulnerabilities different techniques used surface security vulnerabilities different stages applications lifecycle design development deployment upgrade maintenance always evolving largely consistent set common security flaws seen across different applications see common flaws different techniques find different subsets security vulnerabilities lurking application effective different times software lifecycle represent different tradeoffs time effort cost vulnerabilities found utilizing techniques appropriately throughout software development life cycle sdlc maximize security role application security team according patterns practices improving web application security book following classes common application security threats attacks owasp community publishes list top 10 vulnerabilities web applications outlines best security practices organizations aiming create open standards industry 2017 organization lists top application security threats proportion mobile devices providing open platform functionality expected continue increase future openness platforms offers significant opportunities parts mobile eco-system delivering ability flexible program service delivery= options may installed removed refreshed multiple times line user ’ needs requirements however openness comes responsibility unrestricted access mobile resources apis applications unknown untrusted origin could result damage user device network managed suitable security architectures network precautions application security provided form open os mobile devices symbian os microsoft brew etc. 2017 google expanded vulnerability reward program cover vulnerabilities found applications developed third parties made available google play store industry groups also created recommendations including gsm association open mobile terminal platform omtp several strategies enhance mobile application security including security testing techniques scour vulnerabilities security holes applications vulnerabilities leave applications open exploitation ideally security testing implemented throughout entire software development life cycle sdlc vulnerabilities may addressed timely thorough manner unfortunately testing often conducted afterthought end development cycle growth continuous delivery devops popular software development deployment models continuous security models becoming popular vulnerability scanners specifically web application scanners otherwise known penetration testing tools i.e ethical hacking tools historically used security organizations within corporations security consultants automate security testing http request/responses however substitute need actual source code review physical code reviews application source code accomplished manually automated fashion given common size individual programs often 500,000 lines code human brain execute comprehensive data flow analysis needed order completely check circuitous paths application program find vulnerability points human brain suited filtering interrupting reporting outputs automated source code analysis tools available commercially versus trying trace every possible path compiled code base find root cause level vulnerabilities many kinds automated tools identifying vulnerabilities applications require great deal security expertise use others designed fully automated use results dependent types information source binary http traffic configuration libraries connections provided tool quality analysis scope vulnerabilities covered common technologies used identifying application vulnerabilities include static application security testing sast technology frequently used source code analysis tool method analyzes source code security vulnerabilities prior launch application used strengthen code method produces fewer false positives implementations requires access application source code requires expert configuration lots processing power dynamic application security testing dast technology able find visible vulnerabilities feeding url automated scanner method highly scalable easily integrated quick dast drawbacks lie need expert configuration high possibility false positives negatives interactive application security testing iast solution assesses applications within using software instrumentation technique allows iast combine strengths sast dast methods well providing access code http traffic library information backend connections configuration information iast products require application attacked others used normal quality assurance testing advances professional malware targeted internet customers online organizations seen change web application design requirements since 2007 generally assumed sizable percentage internet users compromised malware data coming infected host may tainted therefore application security begun manifest advanced anti-fraud heuristic detection systems back-office rather within client-side web server code 2016 runtime application self-protection rasp technologies developed rasp technology deployed within alongside application runtime environment instruments application enables detection prevention attacks cert coordination center describes coordinated vulnerability disclosure cvd “ process reducing adversary advantage information security vulnerability mitigated. ” cvd iterative multi-phase process involves multiple stakeholders users vendors security researchers may different priorities must work together resolve vulnerability cvd processes involve multiple stakeholders managing communication vulnerability resolution critical success operational perspective many tools processes aid cvd include email web forms bug tracking systems coordinated vulnerability platforms 1-hop neighbor's text information: dynamic_application_security_testing.dynamic application security testing dynamic application security testing dast tool program communicates web application web front-end order identify potential security vulnerabilities web application architectural weaknesses performs black-box test unlike static application security testing tools dast tools access source code therefore detect vulnerabilities actually performing attacks dast tools allow sophisticated scans detecting vulnerabilities minimal user interactions configured host name crawling parameters authentication credentials tools attempt detect vulnerabilities query strings headers fragments verbs get/post/put dom injection customers benefit convenience applications tacitly taking risk private information stored web applications compromised hacker attacks insider leaks according privacy rights clearinghouse 18 million customer records compromised 2012 due insufficient security controls corporate data web applications dast tools facilitate automated review web application expressed purpose discovering security vulnerabilities required comply various regulatory requirements web application scanners look wide variety vulnerabilities input/output validation e.g cross-site scripting sql injection specific application problems server configuration mistakes copyrighted report published march 2012 security vendor cenzic common application vulnerabilities recently tested applications include commercial scanners category web-assessment tools need bought specific price usually quite high scanners include free features need bought full access tool power open-source scanners another class free nature best category since source code open user gets know happening unlike commercial scanners security researcher shay chen previously compiled exhaustive list commercial open-source web application security scanners list also highlights scanners performed benchmarking tests wavsep wavsep platform publicly available used evaluate various aspects web application scanners technology support performance accuracy coverage result consistency tools detect vulnerabilities finalized release candidate versions prior shipping scanners simulate malicious user attacking probing identifying results part expected result set dynamic testing tool web scanners language dependent web application scanner able scan engine-driven web applications attackers use tools tools find vulnerability attackers scanning dast tool data may overwritten malicious payloads injected subject site sites scanned production like non-production environment ensure accurate results protecting data production environment tool implementing dynamic testing method cover 100 source code application application penetration tester look coverage web application attack surface know tool configured correctly able understand web application tool implement variants attacks given vulnerability tools generally predefined list attacks generate attack payloads depending tested web application tools also quite limited understanding behavior applications dynamic content javascript flash report 2012 found top application technologies overlooked web application scanners includes json jquery rest google webtoolkit ajax applications flash remoting amf html5 well mobile apps web services using json rest xml-rpc soap technologies used web services complex workflows shopping cart xsrf/csrf tokens also listed Target text information: veracode.veracode veracode application security company based burlington massachusetts founded 2006 company provides automated cloud-based service securing web mobile third-party enterprise applications veracode provides multiple security analysis technologies single platform including static analysis dynamic analysis mobile application behavioral analysis software composition analysis march 9 2017 ca technologies announced acquiring veracode approximately 614 million cash april 3 2017 ca technologies announced completed acquisition veracode july 11 2018 broadcom announced acquiring veracode parent ca technologies 18.9 billion cash november 5 2018 broadcom announced completed acquisition ca technologies thus officially became new owner veracode business day thoma bravo private equity firm headquartered san francisco california announced agreed acquire veracode broadcom 950 million cash veracode founded chris wysopal christien rioux former engineers stake cambridge massachusetts-based security consulting firm known employing former “ white hat ” hackers l0pht heavy industries much veracode software written rioux 2007 company launched securityreview service used test code order find vulnerabilities could lead cybersecurity breaches hacking service intended used alternative penetration testing involves hiring security consultant hack system november 29 2011 company announced appointed robert t. brennan former ceo iron mountain incorporated new chief executive officer company issued report cybersecurity june 2015 report found sectors failed industry-standard security tests web mobile applications government worst performing sector regards fixing security vulnerabilities report issued company december 2015 found four five applications written popular web scripting languages contain least one critical risks industry-standard security benchmark 2014 veracode customers included three top four banks fortune 100 fortune reported march 2015 veracode planned file initial public offering ipo later year order go public major investors company include .406 ventures accomplice starvest partners meritech capital partners funding round announced september 2014 firm raised late-stage investment led wellington management company participation existing investors 2013 veracode ranked 20th forbes list top 100 promising companies america veracode named one 20 coolest cloud security vendors 2014 cloud 100 crn magazine gartner named veracode leader four consecutive years 2013 2014 2015 2016 gartner magic quadrant application security testing I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,665	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: saber_(software).saber software saber general purpose simulation program synopsys inc originally developed analogy inc. bought avanti corporation 2000 bought synopsys inc. saber began single-kernel analog simulation technology brought vhdl-ams verilog-ams spice saber-mast language single environment saber coupled digital simulators via calaveris algorithm 1-hop neighbor's text information: synopsys.synopsys synopsys american eda company majority products include tools used design application-specific integrated circuit products include logic synthesis behavioral synthesis place route static timing analysis formal verification hardware description language systemc systemverilog/verilog vhdl simulators well transistor-level circuit simulation simulators include development debugging environments assist design logic chips computer systems recent years synopsys also expanded application security market founded 1986 aart j. de geus engineers general electric microelectronics center research triangle park north carolina synopsys first established optimal solutions charter develop market synthesis technology developed team general electric section lists various acquisitions synopsys made 1994-present synopsys three primary areas business including silicon design verification silicon intellectual property software integrity order preserve full history acquisitions included history across three business units coware part synopsys supplier platform-driven electronic system-level esl design software services coware headquartered san jose california offices around world major r offices belgium germany india coware development initiated interuniversity microelectronics centre imec belgium internal project 1992 1996 coware spun independent company coware one founding member systemc language 2005 coware acquired signal processing department cadence february 8 2010 synopsys announced acquisition coware products included platform architect model designer model library processor designer signal processing designer virtual platform designer novas software often referred novas company founded 1996 dr. paul huang address ongoing problem debugging chip designs novas purchased taiwan-based eda company springsoft may 2008 prior purchase novas partly owned springsoft developed underlying debug technology 2008 novas grew employ 50 people office locations across world headquartered san jose california springsoft novas acquired synopsys 2012 novas offered debugging visibility enhancement products cut verification time novas main product offerings included debussy debug system verdi automated debug system siloti family visibility enhancement products 2006 study found novas software sixth most-used eda vendor along novas software topped user satisfaction ratings 100 respondents europe 83 north america 69 asia saying either somewhat satisfied distinction also awarded novas software four years prior 2006 numerical technologies inc. san jose california united states based eda public nasdaq nmtc company company primarily known ip portfolio software tools services covering alternating phase shift mask alt-psm technology providing sub-wavelength design manufacturing solutions january 10 2000 numerical technologies acquired transcription enterprises inc. primarily known cats software mask data preparation october 27 2000 numerical technologies acquired cadabra design automation inc. cadabra provider automated ic layout cell creation technology used create building blocks standard cell semi-custom custom integrated circuits purchase price 99 million march 3 2003 acquired synopsys springsoft software company developed vlsi design debugging software company founded grant taiwanese national science council february 1996 1997 springsoft established novas software silicon valley market springsoft vlsi debugging software springsoft created custom layout tool called laker us-based company called silicon canvas may 2008 springsoft purchased novas software silicon canvas combined form wholly owned subsidiary springsoft usa springsoft employed 400 people office locations across world synopsys announced acquisition springsoft 2012 synplicity inc. supplier software solutions design programmable logic devices fpgas plds cplds used communications military/aerospace consumer semiconductor computer electronic systems synplicity tools provided logic synthesis physical synthesis verification functions fpga fpga-based asic prototyping dsp designers synplicity listed nasdaq acquired synopsys 227 million transaction finalized may 15 2008 synplicity founded ken mcelvain chief technical officer alisa yaffa former ceo arc international plc designer arc argonaut risc core embedded processors widely used soc devices iot storage digital home mobile automotive applications arc processors licensed 200 companies shipped 1.5 billion products per year arc international acquired synopsys 2010 roots arc international date back early 1990s company founded jez san build upon 3d accelerator technology previously developed super nintendo entertainment system division argonaut software forerunner arc originally called mario mathematical argonaut rotation i/o chip later dubbed super fx went sell millions time outselling arm risc core following success super fx designers split main company subsidiary called argonaut technology ltd atl design renamed arc marketed general-purpose configurable microprocessor later atl spun separate company arc international 1995 bob terwilliger took arc first ceo created company licensing strategy commercialized product including acquisition metaware vautomation precise software raised 50 million pre-ipo took company public september 2000 raising additional 250 million list notable events following synopsys announced acquisition virage logic june 10 2010 research development clarified networks tools began 2002 continued four years oulu university secure programming group ouspg clarified networks spun research group 2006 company entered venture cup competition year one finalists 2007 founders clarified networks also awarded vmware applicance called hownetworks 2011 company acquired codenomicon 2015 synopsys announced acquisition codenomicon coverity provider software development tools coverity tools operated via static dynamic software analysis capable finding defects related security stability testing february 2014 coverity announced agreement acquired synopsys 350 million net cash hand november 2016 synopsys acquired cigital software security firm specializes source-code static analysis penetration testing november 2017 synopsys acquired black duck software software firm based burlington focuses software composition analysis black duck hub solution scans source binary code open source libraries components providing visibility license security risks may impact organizations major way across three core business areas synopsys products services ranging silicon software coverity static application security testing sast finds fixes security quality issues code–fast black duck software composition analysis secures manages open source development deployment accurate automated security testing web applications defensics comprehensive versatile automated black box fuzzer enables organizations efficiently effectively discover remediate security weaknesses software reduce risk breach identifying exploiting business-critical vulnerabilities on-demand security testing expertise managed services include dynamic application security testing penetration testing static application security testing mobile application security testing managed network security testing accelerate application security program help experts professional services include strategy planning bsimm architecture design red teaming insider threat detection embedded software testing secure coding guidelines thick client testing application security testing services on-demand expertise help quickly identify open source legal security quality risks software audit services include open source audits application security audits code quality audits merger acquisition audits product formerly known black duck ondemand black duck audit services 1-hop neighbor's text information: astap.astap astap advanced statistical analysis program general purpose analog electronic circuit simulator developed primarily in-house use ibm 1973 powerful program used simulation integrated circuit designs analysis statistical variations manufacturing process combination built-in monte carlo method capabilities allowed prediction performance electronic circuits wide range material parameters temperatures astap designed run ibm mainframe computers unlike spice used modified nodal analysis mna form system circuit equations astap instead used sparse tableau formulation sta construct solve sparse matrix sparse tableau formulation produced large sparse matrices required special techniques solve efficiently even time advantage sta statistical analysis originally outlined subsequent analysis circuit randomly varied parameters required changing entries matrix Target text information: spice.spice spice simulation program integrated circuit emphasis general-purpose open-source analog electronic circuit simulator program used integrated circuit board-level design check integrity circuit designs predict circuit behavior unlike board-level designs composed discrete parts practical breadboard integrated circuits manufacture high costs photolithographic masks manufacturing prerequisites make essential design circuit close perfect possible integrated circuit first built simulating circuit spice industry-standard way verify circuit operation transistor level committing manufacturing integrated circuit board-level circuit designs often breadboarded testing even breadboard circuit properties may accurate compared final printed wiring board parasitic resistances capacitances parasitic components often estimated accurately using spice simulation also designers may want information circuit available single mock-up instance circuit performance affected component manufacturing tolerances cases common use spice perform monte carlo simulations effect component variations performance task impractical using calculations hand circuit appreciable complexity circuit simulation programs spice derivatives prominent take text netlist describing circuit elements transistors resistors capacitors etc connections translate description equations solved general equations produced nonlinear differential algebraic equations solved using implicit integration methods newton method sparse matrix techniques spice developed electronics research laboratory university california berkeley laurence nagel direction research advisor prof. donald pederson spice1 largely derivative cancer program nagel worked prof. ronald rohrer cancer acronym computer analysis nonlinear circuits excluding radiation hint berkeley liberalism 1960s times many circuit simulators developed united states department defense contracts required capability evaluate radiation hardness circuit nagel original advisor prof. rohrer left berkeley prof. pederson became advisor pederson insisted cancer proprietary program rewritten enough restrictions could removed program could put public domain spice1 first presented conference 1973 spice1 coded fortran used nodal analysis construct circuit equations nodal analysis limitations representing inductors floating voltage sources various forms controlled sources spice1 relatively circuit elements available used fixed-timestep transient analysis real popularity spice started spice2 1975 spice2 also coded fortran much-improved program circuit elements variable timestep transient analysis using either trapezoidal second order adams-moulton method gear integration method also known bdf equation formulation via modified nodal analysis avoiding limitations nodal analysis innovative fortran-based memory allocation system developed another graduate student ellis cohen last fortran version spice 2g.6 1983 spice3 developed thomas quarles a. richard newton advisor 1989 written c uses netlist syntax added x window system plotting early public domain software program source code available spice widely distributed used ubiquity became spice circuit remains synonymous circuit simulation spice source code beginning distributed uc berkeley nominal charge cover cost magnetic tape license originally included distribution restrictions countries considered friendly us source code currently covered bsd license birth spice named ieee milestone 2011 entry mentions spice evolved become worldwide standard integrated circuit simulator nagel awarded 2019 ieee donald o. pederson award solid-state circuits development spice newer versions berkeley spice released version 3f.5 1993 since open-source academic continuations spice include xspice developed georgia tech added mixed analog/digital code models behavioral simulation cider previously codecs developed uc berkeley oregon state univ. added semiconductor device simulation spice opus developed maintained university ljubljana based spice 3f.4 xspice ngspice based spice 3f.5 xspice cider berkeley spice inspired served basis many circuit simulation programs academia industry commercial products first commercial version spice ispice interactive version timeshare service national css prominent commercial versions spice include hspice originally commercialized ashawna kim hailey meta software owned synopsys pspice owned cadence design systems integrated circuit industry adopted spice quickly commercial versions became well developed many ic design houses proprietary versions spice today ic manufacturers typically larger companies groups continuing develop spice-based circuit simulation programs among adice analog devices ltspice linear technology available public freeware mica freescale semiconductor tina texas instruments similarly linear technology texas instruments makes available freeware windows version tina software called tina-ti also includes version spice comes preloaded models company integrated circuits analog devices offers similar free tool called adisimpe based simetrix/simplis implementation spice companies maintain internal circuit simulators directly based upon spice among powerspice ibm titan infineon technologies lynx intel corporation pstar nxp semiconductor spice became popular contained analyses models needed design integrated circuits time robust enough fast enough practical use precursors spice often single purpose bias program example simulation bipolar transistor circuit operating points slic program small-signal analyses spice combined operating point solutions transient analysis various small-signal analyses circuit elements device models needed successfully simulate many circuits spice2 included analyses since spice generally used model nonlinear circuits small signal analyses necessarily preceded quiescent point calculation circuit linearized spice2 also contained code small-signal analyses sensitivity analysis pole-zero analysis small-signal distortion analysis analysis various temperatures done automatically updating semiconductor model parameters temperature allowing circuit simulated temperature extremes circuit simulators since added many analyses beyond spice2 address changing industry requirements parametric sweeps added analyze circuit performance changing manufacturing tolerances operating conditions loop gain stability calculations added analog circuits harmonic balance time-domain steady state analyses added rf switched-capacitor circuit design however public-domain circuit simulator containing modern analyses features needed become successor popularity spice yet emerged important use appropriate analyses carefully chosen parameters example application linear analysis nonlinear circuits justified separately also application transient analysis default simulation parameters lead qualitatively wrong conclusions circuit dynamics spice2 included many semiconductor device compact models three levels mosfet model combined ebers–moll gummel–poon bipolar model jfet model model junction diode addition many elements resistors capacitors inductors including coupling independent voltage current sources ideal transmission lines active components voltage current controlled sources spice3 added sophisticated mosfet models required due advances semiconductor technology particular bsim family models added also developed uc berkeley commercial industrial spice simulators added many device models technology advanced earlier models became inadequate attempt standardization models set model parameters may used different simulators industry working group formed compact model council choose maintain promote use standard models standard models today include bsim3 bsim4 bsimsoi psp hicum mextram traditional photonic device simulators apply direct methods solve maxwell equations complete structure whereas photonic circuit simulators based segmentation building blocks bbs represented logic level phothonic device coupled bbs guided modes optical waveguides circuit-level modeling photonic integrated circuit pic contain electrical wires optical signals respectively described voltage/current complex-valued envelope forward- backward-propagating modes building block netlist photonic electronic circuits including net port connections expressed spice format schematic editors like ones used electronic design automation reproduce complete photonic signal information without losing eventual optical phenomena needed real-time waveform electric magnetic field every mode polarization waveguide spice works 10 time steps timescale datacommunications ≈10–100 10 common make amount information tractable modulation increases complexity encode amplitude phase way similar simulation rf circuits however photonic integrated circuit simulators need test multiple communication channels match different carrier frequencies equivalently amplitudes single channel type sophisticated signal unsupported spice program features structure described 2019 spice ca n't used simulate photonics electronics together photonic circuit simulator thus n't yet considered test simulator photonic integrated circuits spice2 took text netlist input produced line-printer listings output fit computing environment 1975 listings either columns numbers corresponding calculated outputs typically voltages currents line-printer character plots spice3 retained netlist circuit description allowed analyses controlled command-line interface similar c shell spice3 also added basic x plotting unix engineering workstations became common vendors various free software projects added schematic capture front-ends spice allowing schematic diagram circuit drawn netlist automatically generated also graphical user interfaces added selecting simulations done manipulating voltage current output vectors addition capable graphing utilities added see waveforms graphs parametric dependencies several free versions extended programs available introductory limited packages without restrictions since transient analysis dependent time uses different analysis algorithms control options different convergence-related issues different initialization parameters dc analysis however since transient analysis first performs dc operating point analysis unless uic option specified .tran statement dc analysis algorithms control options initialization convergence issues apply transient analysis circuits oscillators circuits feedback stable operating point solutions circuits either feedback loop must broken dc operating point calculated initial conditions must provided simulation input dc operating point analysis bypassed uic parameter included .tran statement uic included .tran statement transient analysis started using node voltages specified .ic statement node set 5 v .ic statement value node first time point time 0 5 v. use .op statement store estimate dc operating point transient analysis codice_1 .tran statement uic parameter example bypasses initial dc operating point analysis .op statement calculates transient operating point 20 ns transient analysis although transient analysis might provide convergent dc solution transient analysis still fail converge transient analysis error message internal timestep small indicates circuit failed converge convergence failure might due stated initial conditions close enough actual dc operating point values I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,881	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: php.php php hypertext preprocessor simply php general-purpose programming language originally designed web development originally created rasmus lerdorf 1994 php reference implementation produced php group php originally stood personal home page stands recursive initialism php hypertext preprocessor php code may executed command line interface cli embedded html code used combination various web template systems web content management systems web frameworks php code usually processed php interpreter implemented module web server common gateway interface cgi executable web server outputs results interpreted executed php code may type data generated html code binary image data php used many programming tasks outside web context standalone graphical applications robotic drone control standard php interpreter powered zend engine free software released php license php widely ported deployed web servers almost every operating system platform free charge php language evolved without written formal specification standard 2014 original implementation acting de facto standard implementations aimed follow since 2014 work gone create formal php specification majority sites web using php still version 5.6 older versions prior 7.1 longer officially supported php development team security support provided longer third parties debian php development began 1994 rasmus lerdorf wrote several common gateway interface cgi programs c used maintain personal homepage extended work web forms communicate databases called implementation personal home page/forms interpreter php/fi php/fi could used build simple dynamic web applications accelerate bug reporting improve code lerdorf initially announced release php/fi personal home page tools php tools version 1.0 usenet discussion group comp.infosystems.www.authoring.cgi june 8 1995 release already basic functionality php today included perl-like variables form handling ability embed html syntax resembled perl simpler limited less consistent early php intended new programming language grew organically lerdorf noting retrospect n't know stop never intent write programming language ... absolutely idea write programming language kept adding next logical step way development team began form months work beta testing officially released php/fi 2 november 1997 fact php originally designed instead developed organically led inconsistent naming functions inconsistent ordering parameters cases function names chosen match lower-level libraries php wrapping early versions php length function names used internally hash function names chosen improve distribution hash values zeev suraski andi gutmans rewrote parser 1997 formed base php 3 changing language name recursive acronym php hypertext preprocessor afterwards public testing php 3 began official launch came june 1998 suraski gutmans started new rewrite php core producing zend engine 1999 also founded zend technologies ramat gan israel may 22 2000 php 4 powered zend engine 1.0 released august 2008 branch reached version 4.4.9 php 4 longer development security updates released july 14 2004 php 5 released powered new zend engine ii php 5 included new features improved support object-oriented programming php data objects pdo extension defines lightweight consistent interface accessing databases numerous performance enhancements 2008 php 5 became stable version development late static binding missing php added version 5.3 many high-profile open-source projects ceased support php 4 new code february 5 2008 gophp5 initiative provided consortium php developers promoting transition php 4 php 5 time php interpreters became available existing 32-bit 64-bit operating systems either building php source code using pre-built binaries php versions 5.3 5.4 available microsoft windows binary distributions 32-bit ia-32 builds requiring windows 32-bit compatibility mode using internet information services iis 64-bit windows platform php version 5.5 made 64-bit x86-64 builds available microsoft windows official security support php 5.6 ended 31 december 2018 debian 8.0 jessie extend support june 2020 php received mixed reviews due lacking native unicode support core language level 2005 project headed andrei zmievski initiated bring native unicode support throughout php embedding international components unicode icu library representing text strings utf-16 internally since would cause major changes internals language user code planned release version 6.0 language along major features development however shortage developers understood necessary changes performance problems arising conversion utf-16 rarely used web context led delays project result php 5.3 release created 2009 many non-unicode features back-ported php 6 notably namespaces march 2010 project current form officially abandoned php 5.4 release prepared containing remaining non-unicode features php 6 traits closure re-binding initial hopes new plan would formed unicode integration none adopted 2014 2015 new major php version developed numbered php 7 numbering version involved debate php 6 unicode experiment never released several articles book titles referenced php 6 name might caused confusion new release reuse name vote name php 7 chosen foundation php 7 php branch originally dubbed php next generation phpng authored dmitry stogov xinchen hui nikita popov aimed optimize php performance refactoring zend engine retaining near-complete language compatibility wordpress-based benchmarks served main benchmark suite phpng project showed almost 100 increase performance changes phpng also expected make easier improve performance future compact data structures changes seen better suited successful migration just-in-time jit compiler significant changes reworked zend engine called zend engine 3 succeeding zend engine 2 used php 5 major internal changes phpng must receive new major version number php rather minor php 5 release according php release process major versions php allowed break backward-compatibility code therefore php 7 presented opportunity improvements beyond phpng require backward-compatibility breaks particular involved following changes php 7 also included new language features notably introduces return type declarations functions complement existing parameter type declarations support scalar types integer float string boolean parameter return type declarations beginning june 28 2011 php development team implemented timeline release new versions php system least one release occur every month per year minor release occur may include new features every minor release least supported two years security bug fixes followed least one year security fixes total three-year release process every minor release new features unless small self-contained introduced minor release three-year release process mascot php project elephpant blue elephant php logo side designed vincent pontier 1998 php letters forming shape elephant viewed sideways angle elephpant sometimes differently colored plush toy form many variations mascot made years elephpants based original design vincent pontier considered official community highly collectible extremely rare different variations listed field guide elephpants following hello world program written php code embedded html document doctype html title php hello world program /title php echo p hello world /p however requirement exists php code embedded html simplest version hello world may written like closing tag omitted preferred files containing pure php code well requirement php file contain php code interpreter output data outside php tags unchanged simple text file containing codice_13 give output php interpreter executes php code within delimiters anything outside delimiters processed php although non-php text still subject control structures described php code common delimiters php open close php sections shortened form also exists short delimiter makes script files less portable since support disabled local php configuration therefore discouraged recommendation echo short tag prior php 5.4.0 short syntax echo works codice_14 configuration setting enabled php 5.4.0 later always available purpose delimiters separate php code non-php content javascript code html markup first form delimiters php xhtml xml documents creates correctly formed xml processing instructions means resulting mixture php code markup server-side file well-formed xml variables prefixed dollar symbol type need specified advance php 5 introduced type hinting allows functions force parameters objects specific class arrays interfaces callback functions however php 7.0 type hints could used scalar types integer string unlike function class names variable names case sensitive double-quoted heredoc strings provide ability interpolate variable value string php treats newlines whitespace manner free-form language statements terminated semicolon php three types comment syntax /* */ marks block inline comments // used one-line comments codice_15 statement one several facilities php provides output text terms keywords language syntax php similar c style syntax conditions loops function returns similar syntax languages c c++ c java perl php stores integers platform-dependent range either 64-bit 32-bit 128-bit signed integer equivalent c-language long type unsigned integers converted signed values certain situations behavior different programming languages integer variables assigned using decimal positive negative octal hexadecimal binary notations floating point numbers also stored platform-specific range specified using floating point notation two forms scientific notation php native boolean type similar native boolean types java c++ using boolean type conversion rules non-zero values interpreted true zero false perl c++ null data type represents variable value codice_16 allowed value data type old versions interpreter allowed multiple copies value exist variables resource type represent references resources external sources typically created functions particular extension processed functions extension examples include file image database resources arrays contain elements type php handle including resources objects even arrays order preserved lists values hashes keys values two intermingled php also supports strings used single quotes double quotes nowdoc heredoc syntax standard php library spl attempts solve standard problems implements efficient data access interfaces classes php defines large array functions core language many also available various extensions functions well documented online php documentation however built-in library wide variety naming conventions associated inconsistencies described history custom functions may defined developer function myage int birthyear string echo currently myage 1995 old 2019 output sample program currently 24 years old lieu function pointers functions php referenced string containing name manner normal php functions used example callbacks within function tables user-defined functions may created time without prototyped functions may defined inside code blocks permitting run-time decision whether function defined codice_17 function determines whether function given name already defined function calls must use parentheses exception zero-argument class constructor functions called php operator codice_18 case parentheses optional php 5.3 support anonymous functions closures exist php codice_19 exists since php 4.0.1 merely thin wrapper around codice_20 allows normal php functions created program execution php 5.3 added syntax define anonymous function closure capture variables surrounding scope function getadder x adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 example codice_21 function creates closure using passed argument keyword codice_22 imports variable lexical context takes additional argument returns created closure caller function first-class object meaning stored variable passed parameter functions etc unusually dynamically typed language php supports type declarations function parameters enforced runtime supported classes interfaces since php 5.0 arrays since php 5.1 callables since php 5.4 scalar integer float string boolean types since php 7.0 php 7.0 also type declarations function return types expressed placing type name list parameters preceded colon example codice_23 function earlier example could annotated types like php 7 function getadder int x closure adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 echo adder null // throws exception incorrect type passed adder getadder // would also throw exception default scalar type declarations follow weak typing principles example parameter type codice_24 php would allow integers also convertible numeric strings floats booleans passed function would convert however php 7 strict typing mode used disallows conversions function calls returns within file basic object-oriented programming functionality added php 3 improved php 4 allowed php gain abstraction making creative tasks easier programmers using language object handling completely rewritten php 5 expanding feature set enhancing performance previous versions php objects handled like value types drawback method code make heavy use php reference variables wanted modify object passed rather creating copy new approach objects referenced handle value php 5 introduced private protected member variables methods along abstract classes final classes abstract methods final methods also introduced standard way declaring constructors destructors similar object-oriented languages c++ standard exception handling model furthermore php 5 added interfaces allowed multiple interfaces implemented special interfaces allow objects interact runtime system objects implementing arrayaccess used array syntax objects implementing iterator iteratoraggregate used codice_6 language construct virtual table feature engine static variables bound name instead reference compile time developer creates copy object using reserved word codice_26 zend engine check whether codice_27 method defined call default codice_27 copy object properties codice_27 method defined responsible setting necessary properties created object convenience engine supply function imports properties source object programmer start by-value replica source object override properties need changed following basic example object-oriented programming php php abstract class user class student extends user class teacher extends user students teachers echo students \n foreach students student echo teachers \n foreach teachers teacher // output program // students // hello name alice learn computer science // hello name bob learn computer science // hello name charlie learn business studies // teachers // hello name dan teach computer science information security // hello name erin teach computer science 3d graphics programming // hello name frankie teach online marketing business studies e-commerce visibility php properties methods defined using keywords codice_30 codice_31 codice_32 default public var used codice_33 synonym codice_30 items declared codice_30 accessed everywhere codice_32 limits access inherited classes class defines item codice_31 limits visibility class defines item objects type access private protected members even though instance original complete widely used php implementation powered zend engine known simply php disambiguate implementations sometimes unofficially called zend php zend engine compiles php source code on-the-fly internal format execute thus works interpreter also reference implementation php php formal specification semantics zend php define semantics php due complex nuanced semantics php defined zend works difficult competing implementations offer complete compatibility php single-request-per-script-execution model fact zend engine interpreter leads inefficiency result various products developed help improve php performance order speed execution time compile php source code every time web page accessed php scripts also deployed php engine internal format using opcode cache works caching compiled form php script opcodes shared memory avoid overhead parsing compiling code every time script runs opcode cache zend opcache built php since version 5.5 another example widely used opcode cache alternative php cache apc available pecl extension zend php still popular implementation several implementations developed compilers support jit compilation hence offer performance benefits zend php expense lacking full php compatibility alternative implementations include following php free software released php license stipulates restriction use php makes php license incompatible general public license gpl zend license incompatible due advertising clause similar original bsd license php includes various free open-source libraries source distribution uses resulting php binary builds php fundamentally internet-aware system built-in modules accessing file transfer protocol ftp servers many database servers including postgresql mysql microsoft sql server sqlite embedded database ldap servers others numerous functions familiar c programmers stdio family available standard php builds php allows developers write extensions c add functionality php language php extensions compiled statically php loaded dynamically runtime numerous extensions written add support windows api process management unix-like operating systems multibyte strings unicode curl several popular compression formats php features made available extensions include integration irc dynamic generation images adobe flash content php data objects pdo abstraction layer used accessing databases even speech synthesis language core functions dealing strings arrays also implemented extensions php extension community library pecl project repository extensions php language projects zephir provide ability php extensions created high-level language compiled native php extensions approach instead writing php extensions directly c simplifies development extensions reduces time required programming testing php group consisted ten people thies c. arntzen stig bakken shane caraveo andi gutmans rasmus lerdorf sam ruby sascha schumann zeev suraski jim winstead andrei zmievski zend technologies provides php certification based php 5.5 exam programmers become certified php developers two primary ways adding support php web server – native web server module cgi executable php direct module interface called server application programming interface sapi supported many web servers including apache http server microsoft iis netscape defunct iplanet web servers omnihttpd support internet server application programming interface isapi microsoft web server module interface php module support web server always used common gateway interface cgi fastcgi processor case web server configured use php cgi executable process requests php files php-fpm fastcgi process manager alternative fastcgi implementation php bundled official php distribution since version 5.3.3 compared older fastcgi implementation contains additional features mostly useful heavily loaded web servers using php command-line scripting php command-line interface cli executable needed php supports cli server application programming interface sapi php 4.3.0 main focus sapi developing shell applications using php quite differences cli sapi sapis although share many behaviors php direct module interface called sapi different web servers case php 5 apache 2.0 windows provided form dll file called module among functions provides interface php web server implemented form server understands form known sapi different kinds sapis various web server extensions example addition listed sapis php language include common gateway interface cgi command-line interface cli php also used writing desktop graphical user interface gui applications using php-gtk extension php-gtk included official php distribution extension used php versions 5.1.0 newer common way installing php-gtk compiling source code php installed used cloud environments software development kits sdks provided using cloud-specific features example numerous configuration options supported affecting core php features extensions configuration file codice_40 searched different locations depending way php used configuration file split various sections configuration options also set within web server configuration php general-purpose scripting language especially suited server-side web development case php generally runs web server php code requested file executed php runtime usually create dynamic web page content dynamic images used websites elsewhere also used command-line scripting client-side graphical user interface gui applications php deployed web servers many operating systems platforms used many relational database management systems rdbms web hosting providers support php use clients available free charge php group provides complete source code users build customize extend use originally designed create dynamic web pages php focuses mainly server-side scripting similar server-side scripting languages provide dynamic content web server client microsoft asp.net sun microsystems javaserver pages codice_41 php also attracted development many software frameworks provide building blocks design structure promote rapid application development rad include prado cakephp symfony codeigniter laravel yii framework phalcon zend framework offering features similar web frameworks lamp architecture become popular web industry way deploying web applications php commonly used p bundle alongside linux apache mysql although p may also refer python perl mix three similar packages wamp mamp also available windows macos first letter standing respective operating system although php apache provided part macos base install users packages seek simpler installation mechanism easily kept date 20 million internet domains web services hosted servers php installed codice_42 recorded popular apache http server module php used server-side programming language 79.1 websites 83.5 previously language could determined web content management systems written php include mediawiki joomla ez publish ez platform silverstripe wordpress drupal moodle websites written php back-end and/or user-facing portion include facebook digg tumblr dailymotion slack specific advanced usage scenarios php offers well defined documented way writing custom extensions c c++ besides extending language form additional libraries extensions providing way improving execution speed critical room improvements using true compiled language php also offers well defined ways embedding software projects way php easily used internal scripting language another project also providing tight interfacing project specific internal data structures php received mixed reviews due lacking support multithreading core language level though using threads made possible pthreads pecl extension php used 240 million websites 39 sampled installed 2.1 million web servers command line interface php-cli two activex windows script host scripting engines php produced php 5 used web last updated security updates january 2019 php 5.6.40 2017 3 vulnerabilities listed national vulnerability database linked php historically 30 vulnerabilities listed since 1996 database linked php technical security flaws language core libraries frequent 22 2009 1 total although php applies 20 programs listed recognizing programmers make mistakes languages include taint checking automatically detect lack input validation induces many issues feature developed php inclusion release rejected several times past advanced protection patches suhosin hardening-patch especially designed web hosting environments historically old versions php configuration parameters default values runtime settings made php applications prone security issues among codice_43 codice_44 configuration directives best known latter made url parameters become php variables opening path serious security vulnerabilities allowing attacker set value uninitialized global variable interfere execution php script support magic quotes register globals settings deprecated php 5.3.0 removed php 5.4.0 another example potential runtime-settings vulnerability comes failing disable php execution example using codice_45 configuration directive directory uploaded files stored enabling result execution malicious code embedded within uploaded files best practice either locate image directory outside document root available web server serve via intermediary script disable php execution directory stores uploaded files also enabling dynamic loading php extensions via codice_46 configuration directive shared web hosting environment lead security issues implied type conversions result different values treated equal sometimes programmer intent lead security issues example result comparison codice_47 first compared value treated scientific notation value zero errors like resulted authentication vulnerabilities simple machines forum typo3 phpbb md5 password hashes compared recommended way use hash_equals timing attack safety codice_48 identity operator codice_49 results codice_50 2013 analysis 170,000 website defacements published zone-h frequently 53 used technique exploitation file inclusion vulnerability mostly related insecure usage php functions codice_51 codice_52 codice_53 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_web_analytics_software.list web analytics software list web analytics software used collect display data visiting website users comparison table web analytics software released free software license comparison table web analytics proprietary software comparison table hosted web analytics software service 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_analytics.web analytics web analytics measurement collection analysis reporting web data purposes understanding optimizing web usage however web analytics process measuring web traffic used tool business market research assess improve effectiveness website web analytics applications also help companies measure results traditional print broadcast advertising campaigns helps one estimate traffic website changes launch new advertising campaign web analytics provides information number visitors website number page views helps gauge traffic popularity trends useful market research web analytics processes come four essential stages steps another essential function developed analysts optimization websites experiments goal a/b testing identify suggest changes web pages increase maximize effect statistically tested result interest stage impacts impact i.e. drives stage preceding following sometimes data available collection impacts online strategy times online strategy affects data collected least two categories web analytics off-site on-site web analytics historically web analytics used refer on-site visitor measurement however meaning become blurred mainly vendors producing tools span categories many different vendors provide on-site web analytics software services two main technical ways collecting data first traditional method server log file analysis reads logfiles web server records file requests browsers second method page tagging uses javascript embedded webpage make image requests third-party analytics-dedicated server whenever webpage rendered web browser desired mouse click occurs collect data processed produce web traffic reports fundamental goal web analytics collect analyze data related web traffic usage patterns data mainly comes four sources web servers record transactions log file soon realized log files could read program provide data popularity website thus arose web log analysis software early 1990s website statistics consisted primarily counting number client requests hits made web server reasonable method initially since website often consisted single html file however introduction images html websites spanned multiple html files count became less useful first true commercial log analyzer released ipro 1994 two units measure introduced mid-1990s gauge accurately amount human activity web servers page views visits sessions page view defined request made web server page opposed graphic visit defined sequence requests uniquely identified client expired certain amount inactivity usually 30 minutes page views visits still commonly displayed metrics considered rather rudimentary emergence search engine spiders robots late 1990s along web proxies dynamically assigned ip addresses large companies isps made difficult identify unique human visitors website log analyzers responded tracking visits cookies ignoring requests known spiders extensive use web caches also presented problem log file analysis person revisits page second request often retrieved browser cache request received web server means person path site lost caching defeated configuring web server result degraded performance visitor bigger load servers concerns accuracy log file analysis presence caching desire able perform web analytics outsourced service led second data collection method page tagging 'web bugs mid-1990s web counters commonly seen — images included web page showed number times image requested estimate number visits page late 1990s concept evolved include small invisible image instead visible one using javascript pass along image request certain information page visitor information processed remotely web analytics company extensive statistics generated web analytics service also manages process assigning cookie user uniquely identify visit subsequent visits cookie acceptance rates vary significantly websites may affect quality data collected reported collecting website data using third-party data collection server even in-house data collection server requires additional dns lookup user computer determine ip address collection server occasion delays completing successful failed dns lookups may result data collected increasing popularity ajax-based solutions alternative use invisible image implement call back server rendered page case page rendered web browser piece ajax code would call back server pass information client aggregated web analytics company ways flawed browser restrictions servers contacted xmlhttprequest objects also method lead slightly lower reported traffic levels since visitor may stop page loading mid-response ajax call made logfile analysis programs page tagging solutions readily available companies wish perform web analytics cases web analytics company offer approaches question arises method company choose advantages disadvantages approach main advantages log file analysis page tagging follows main advantages page tagging log file analysis follows logfile analysis almost always performed in-house page tagging performed in-house often provided third-party service economic difference two models also consideration company deciding purchase solution cheaper implement depends amount technical expertise within company vendor chosen amount activity seen websites depth type information sought number distinct websites needing statistics regardless vendor solution data collection method employed cost web visitor analysis interpretation also included cost turning raw data actionable information use third party consultants hiring experienced web analyst training suitable in-house person cost-benefit analysis performed example revenue increase cost savings gained analyzing web visitor data companies produce solutions collect data log-files page tagging analyze kinds using hybrid method aim produce accurate statistics either method early hybrid solution produced 1998 rufus evison ip geolocation possible track visitors locations using ip geolocation database api visitors geolocated city region country level ip intelligence internet protocol ip intelligence technology maps internet categorizes ip addresses parameters geographic location country region state city postcode connection type internet service provider isp proxy information first generation ip intelligence referred geotargeting geolocation technology information used businesses online audience segmentation applications online advertising behavioral targeting content localization website localization digital rights management personalization online fraud detection localized search enhanced analytics global traffic management content distribution click analytics special type web analytics gives special attention clicks commonly click analytics focuses on-site analytics editor website uses click analytics determine performance particular site regards users site clicking also click analytics may happen real-time unreal -time depending type information sought typically front-page editors high-traffic news media sites want monitor pages real-time optimize content editors designers types stakeholders may analyze clicks wider time frame help assess performance writers design elements advertisements etc data clicks may gathered least two ways ideally click logged occurs method requires functionality picks relevant information event occurs alternatively one may institute assumption page view result click therefore log simulated click led page view customer lifecycle analytics visitor-centric approach measuring falls umbrella lifecycle marketing page views clicks events api calls access third-party services etc tied individual visitor instead stored separate data points customer lifecycle analytics attempts connect data points marketing funnel offer insights visitor behavior website optimization methods data collection sometimes used packet sniffing collects data sniffing network traffic passing web server outside world packet sniffing involves changes web pages web servers integrating web analytics web server software also possible methods claim provide better real-time data methods globally agreed definitions within web analytics industry bodies trying agree definitions useful definitive time main bodies input area iab interactive advertising bureau jicwebs joint industry committee web standards uk ireland daa digital analytics association formally known waa web analytics association us however many terms used consistent ways one major analytics tool another following list based conventions useful starting point off-site web analytics based open data analysis social media exploration share voice web properties usually used understand market site identifying keywords tagged site either social media websites using http referer webpage owners able trace referrer sites helps bring traffic site hotel problem generally first problem encountered user web analytics problem unique visitors day month add total unique visitors month appears inexperienced user problem whatever analytics software using fact simple property metric definitions way picture situation imagining hotel hotel two rooms room room b table shows hotel two unique users day three days sum totals respect days therefore six period room two unique users sum totals respect rooms therefore four actually three visitors hotel period problem person stays room two nights get counted twice count day counted looking total period software web analytics sum correctly chosen time period thus leading problem user tries compare totals historically vendors page-tagging analytics solutions used third-party cookies sent vendor domain instead domain website browsed third-party cookies handle visitors cross multiple unrelated domains within company site since cookie always handled vendor servers however third-party cookies principle allow tracking individual user across sites different companies allowing analytics vendor collate user activity sites provided personal information activity sites thought anonymous although web analytics companies deny companies companies supplying banner ads done privacy concerns cookies therefore led noticeable minority users block delete third-party cookies 2005 reports showed 28 internet users blocked third-party cookies 22 deleted least month vendors page tagging solutions moved provide least option using first-party cookies cookies assigned client subdomain another problem cookie deletion web analytics depend cookies identify unique visitors statistics dependent persistent cookie hold unique visitor id users delete cookies usually delete first- third-party cookies done interactions site user appear first-time visitor next interaction point without persistent unique visitor id conversions click-stream analysis metrics dependent activities unique visitor time accurate cookies used ip addresses always unique users may shared large groups proxies cases ip address combined user agent order accurately identify visitor cookies available however partially solves problem often users behind proxy server user agent methods uniquely identifying user technically challenging would limit trackable audience would considered suspicious cookies selected option reach lowest common denominator without using technologies regarded spyware may good aware third-party information gathering subject network limitations security applied countries service providers private networks prevent site visit data going third parties methods described methods mentioned like sampling central problem vulnerable manipulation inflation deflation means methods imprecise insecure reasonable model security issue addressed number papers to-date solutions suggested papers remain theoretical possibly due lack interest engineering community financial gain current situation provides owners big websites details consult aforementioned papers Target text information: open_web_analytics.open web analytics open web analytics owa open-source web analytics software created peter adams owa written php uses mysql database makes compatible running amp solution stack various web servers owa comparable google analytics though owa server software anyone install run host google analytics software service offered google owa supports tracking wordpress mediawiki two popular web site frameworks application helps keep track observe influx views website program also tracks competitors company growth compared I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	10,262	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ruby_(programming_language).ruby programming language ruby interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language designed developed mid-1990s yukihiro matz matsumoto japan ruby dynamically typed uses garbage collection supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming according creator ruby influenced perl smalltalk eiffel ada basic lisp matsumoto said ruby conceived 1993 1999 post ruby-talk mailing list describes early ideas language matsumoto describes design ruby like simple lisp language core object system like smalltalk blocks inspired higher-order functions practical utility like perl name ruby originated online chat session matsumoto keiju ishitsuka february 24 1993 code written language initially two names proposed coral ruby matsumoto chose latter later e-mail ishitsuka matsumoto later noted factor choosing name ruby – birthstone one colleagues first public release ruby 0.95 announced japanese domestic newsgroups december 21 1995 subsequently three versions ruby released two days release coincided launch japanese-language ruby-list mailing list first mailing list new language already present stage development many features familiar later releases ruby including object-oriented design classes inheritance mixins iterators closures exception handling garbage collection following release ruby 0.95 1995 several stable versions ruby released following years 1997 first article ruby published web year matsumoto hired netlab.jp work ruby full-time developer 1998 ruby application archive launched matsumoto along simple english-language homepage ruby 1999 first english language mailing list ruby-talk began signaled growing interest language outside japan year matsumoto keiju ishitsuka wrote first book ruby object-oriented scripting language ruby オブジェクト指向スクリプト言語 ruby published japan october 1999 would followed early 2000s around 20 books ruby published japanese 2000 ruby popular python japan september 2000 first english language book programming ruby printed later freely released public widening adoption ruby amongst english speakers early 2002 english-language ruby-talk mailing list receiving messages japanese-language ruby-list demonstrating ruby increasing popularity non-japanese speaking world ruby 1.8 initially released august 2003 stable long time retired june 2013 although deprecated still code based ruby 1.8 partially compatible ruby 1.9 ruby 1.8 subject several industry standards language specifications ruby developed open standards promotion center information-technology promotion agency japanese government agency submission japanese industrial standards committee jisc international organization standardization iso accepted japanese industrial standard jis x 3017 2011 international standard iso/iec 30170 2012 around 2005 interest ruby language surged tandem ruby rails web framework written ruby rails frequently credited increasing awareness ruby ruby 1.9 released christmas day 2007 effective ruby 1.9.3 released october 31 2011 ruby switched dual-licensed ruby license gpl dual-licensed ruby license two-clause bsd license adoption 1.9 slowed changes 1.8 required many popular third party gems rewritten ruby 1.9 introduces many significant changes 1.8 series examples ruby 1.9 obsolete since february 23 2015 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.0 added several new features including ruby 2.0 intended fully backward compatible ruby 1.9.3 official 2.0.0 release february 24 2013 five known minor incompatibilities obsolete since february 22 2016 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.1.0 released christmas day 2013 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates starting 2.1.0 ruby versioning policy like semantic versioning although similar ruby versioning policy compatible semantic versioning semantic versioning also provides additional labels pre-release build metadata available extensions major.minor.patch format available ruby ruby 2.1 obsolete since april 1 2017 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.2.0 released christmas day 2014 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates removes deprecated apis notably ruby 2.2.0 introduces changes memory handling incremental garbage collector support garbage collection symbols option compile directly jemalloc also contains experimental support using vfork 2 system spawn added support unicode 7.0 specification features made obsolete removed include callcc dl library digest :hmac lib/rational.rb lib/complex.rb gserver logger :application well various c api functions ruby 2.3.0 released christmas day 2015 notable changes include 2.3 branch also includes many performance improvements updates bugfixes including changes proc call socket io use exception keywords thread name handling default passive net :ftp connections rake removed stdlib ruby 2.4.0 released christmas day 2016 notable changes include 2.4 branch also includes performance improvements hash table array max array min instance variable access ruby 2.5.0 released christmas day 2017 notable changes include top come lot performance improvements like faster block passing 3 times faster faster mutexes faster erb templates improvements concatenation methods ruby 2.6.0 released christmas day 2018 notable changes include matsumoto said ruby designed programmer productivity fun following principles good user interface design google tech talk 2008 matsumoto stated hope see ruby help every programmer world productive enjoy programming happy primary purpose ruby language stresses systems design needs emphasize human rather computer needs ruby said follow principle least astonishment pola meaning language behave way minimize confusion experienced users matsumoto said primary design goal make language enjoyed using minimizing programmer work possible confusion said applied principle least astonishment design ruby nevertheless phrase come closely associated ruby programming language phrase source surprise novice users may take mean ruby behaviors try closely match behaviors familiar languages may 2005 discussion newsgroup comp.lang.ruby matsumoto attempted distance ruby pola explaining design choice surprising someone uses personal standard evaluating surprise personal standard remains consistent would surprises familiar standard matsumoto defined way interview ruby object-oriented every value object including classes instances types many languages designate primitives integers booleans null variables always hold references objects every function method methods always called object methods defined top level scope become methods object class since class ancestor every class methods called object also visible scopes effectively serving global procedures ruby supports inheritance dynamic dispatch mixins singleton methods belonging defined single instance rather defined class though ruby support multiple inheritance classes import modules mixins ruby described multi-paradigm programming language allows procedural programming defining functions/variables outside classes makes part root 'self object object orientation everything object functional programming anonymous functions closures continuations statements values functions return last evaluation support introspection reflection metaprogramming well support interpreter-based threads ruby features dynamic typing supports parametric polymorphism according ruby faq syntax similar perl semantics similar smalltalk differs greatly python syntax ruby broadly similar perl python class method definitions signaled keywords whereas code blocks defined keywords braces contrast perl variables obligatorily prefixed sigil used sigil changes semantics scope variable practical purposes distinction expressions statements line breaks significant taken end statement semicolon may equivalently used unlike python indentation significant one differences python perl ruby keeps instance variables completely private class exposes accessor methods codice_11 codice_12 etc. unlike getter setter methods languages like c++ java accessor methods ruby created single line code via metaprogramming however accessor methods also created traditional fashion c++ java invocation methods require use parentheses trivial change instance variable full function without modifying single line calling code refactoring achieving similar functionality c vb.net property members python property descriptors similar come tradeoff development process one begins python using publicly exposed instance variable later changes implementation use private instance variable exposed property descriptor code internal class may need adjusted use private variable rather public property ruby ’ design forces instance variables private also provides simple way declare codice_13 codice_14 methods keeping idea ruby one never directly accesses internal members class outside class rather one passes message class receives response see examples section samples code demonstrating ruby syntax ruby official distribution also includes codice_15 interactive command-line interpreter used test code quickly following code fragment represents sample session using codice_15 following examples run ruby shell interactive ruby shell saved file run command line typing codice_17 classic hello world example basic ruby code input conversions variety ways define strings ruby following assignments equivalent strings support variable interpolation following assignments equivalent produce raw strings constructing using array constructing using associative array ruby called hash statement two syntaxes creating code block code block passed method optional block argument many built-in methods arguments parameter-passing block closure computer science \|closure creating anonymous function returning closure computer science \|closures method yielding flow program control block provided calling time iterating enumerations arrays using blocks method codice_18 accept parameter block codice_18 method iterates member list performing function retaining aggregate analogous codice_20 function functional programming languages example first pass block receives 10 argument inject codice_21 1 first element array codice_22 returns 11 becomes codice_21 next pass added 3 get 14 added 5 third pass finally return 19 using enumeration block square numbers 1 10 using range invoke method item codice_24 synonym codice_25 following code defines class named codice_26 addition codice_27 usual constructor create new objects two methods one override codice_28 comparison operator codice_29 sort age override codice_30 method codice_31 format output codice_12 example metaprogramming ruby codice_33 defines getter setter methods instance variables codice_12 getter methods last evaluated statement method return value allowing omission explicit codice_35 statement preceding code prints three names reverse age order codice_26 constant reference codice_37 object ruby classes never closed methods always added existing class applies classes including standard built-in classes needed open class definition existing class new contents specified added existing contents simple example adding new method standard library codice_38 class adding methods previously defined classes often called monkey patch\|monkey-patching performed recklessly practice lead behavior collisions subsequent unexpected results code scalability problems since ruby 2.0 possible use refinements reduce potentially negative consequences monkey-patching limiting scope patch particular areas code base exception raised codice_39 call optional message added exception exceptions also specified programmer alternatively exception instance passed codice_39 method last construct useful raising instance custom exception class featuring constructor takes one argument exceptions handled codice_41 clause clause catch exceptions inherit codice_42 flow control keywords used handling exceptions codice_43 codice_44 common mistake attempt catch exceptions simple rescue clause catch exceptions one must write catch particular exceptions also possible specify exception object made available handler clause alternatively recent exception stored magic global codice_45 several exceptions also caught ruby code programmatically modify run time program lifecycle phase \|runtime aspects structure would fixed rigid languages class method definitions sort metaprogramming used write concise code effectively extend language example following ruby code generates new methods built-in codice_46 class based list colors methods wrap contents string html tag styled respective color generated methods could used like implement equivalent many languages programmer would write method codice_47 codice_48 codice_49 etc separately possible uses ruby metaprogramming include original ruby interpreter computer software \|interpreter often referred ruby mri\|matz ruby interpreter mri implementation written c uses ruby-specific virtual machine standardized retired ruby 1.8 ruby mri\|implementation written c programming language \|c single-pass interpreted language starting ruby 1.9 continuing ruby 2.x official ruby interpreter yarv yet another ruby vm implementation superseded slower virtual machine used previous releases mri number alternative implementations ruby including jruby rubinius mruby takes different approach jruby rubinius providing just-in-time compilation mruby also providing ahead-of-time compilation ruby three major alternate implementations ruby implementations include defunct ruby implementations maturity ruby implementations tends measured ability run ruby rails rails framework complex implement uses many ruby-specific features point particular implementation achieves goal called rails singularity reference implementation jruby rubinius able run rails unmodified production environment matsumoto originally ruby development bsd\|4.3bsd -based sony news\|sony news-os 3.x later migrated work sunos 4.x finally linux 1999 ruby known work across many different operating system including news-os sunos aix svr4 solaris operating system \|solaris nec up-ux nextstep bsd linux classic mac os\|mac os dos windows operating system \|windows beos modern ruby versions implementations available many operating systems linux bsd solaris aix macos windows windows phone windows ce symbian os beos ibm rubygems ruby package manager ruby package called gem easily installed via command line gems libraries though exist applications integrated development environment\|ides 10,000 ruby gems hosted rubygems.org many new existing ruby libraries hosted github service offers revision control\|version control repository hosting git software \|git ruby application archive hosted applications documentation libraries ruby programming maintained 2013 function transferred rubygems category ruby programming language category articles example ruby code category class-based programming languages category dynamic programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category free software programmed c category iso standards category object-oriented programming languages category programming languages created 1995 category programming languages iso standard category scripting languages category software using bsd license category text-oriented programming languages category free compilers interpreters 1-hop neighbor's text information: class_(computer_programming).class computer programming object-oriented programming class extensible program-code-template creating objects providing initial values state member variables implementations behavior member functions methods many languages class name used name class template name default constructor class subroutine creates objects type objects generated instantiating class distinct concepts easily conflated object created constructor class resulting object called instance class member variables specific object called instance variables contrast class variables shared across class languages classes compile-time feature new classes declared run-time languages classes first-class citizens generally objects typically type similar languages class creates classes called metaclass casual use people often refer class object narrowly speaking objects type interface namely types member variables signatures member functions methods properties satisfy time class implementation specifically implementation methods create objects given type given implementation terms type theory class implementationa concrete data structure collection subroutineswhile type interface different concrete classes produce objects abstract type depending type system example type might implemented two classes fast small stacks scales poorly scales well high overhead small stacks similarly given class may several different constructors types generally represent nouns person place thing something nominalized class represents implementation example type might represent properties functionality bananas general classes would represent ways producing bananas say banana suppliers data structures functions represent draw bananas video game class could produce particular bananas instances class would objects type often single implementation type given case class name often identical type name classes composed structural behavioral constituents programming languages include classes programming construct offer support various class-related features syntax required use features varies greatly one programming language another class contains data field descriptions properties fields data members attributes usually field types names associated state variables program run time state variables either belong class specific instances class languages structure defined class determines layout memory used instances implementations possible example objects python use associative key-value containers programming languages support specification invariants part definition class enforce type system encapsulation state necessary able enforce invariants class behavior class instances defined using methods methods subroutines ability operate objects classes operations may alter state object simply provide ways accessing many kinds methods exist support varies across languages types methods created called programmer code special methods—such constructors destructors conversion operators—are created called compiler-generated code language may also allow programmer define call special methods every class implements realizes interface providing structure behavior structure consists data state behavior consists code specifies methods implemented distinction definition interface implementation interface however line blurred many programming languages class declarations define implement interface languages however provide features separate interface implementation example abstract class define interface without providing implementation languages support class inheritance also allow classes inherit interfaces classes derived example class inherits class b class b implements interface interface b class also inherits functionality constants methods declaration provided interface b languages support access specifiers interface class considered set public members class including methods attributes via implicit getter setter methods private members internal data structures intended depended external code thus part interface object-oriented programming methodology dictates operations interface class independent results layered design clients interface use methods declared interface interface places requirements clients invoke operations one interface particular order approach benefit client code assume operations interface available use whenever client access object buttons front television set interface electrical wiring side plastic casing press power button toggle television example particular television instance method represented button buttons together comprise interface television sets model would interface common form interface specification group related methods without associated implementation methods television set also myriad attributes size whether supports colour together comprise structure class represents full description television including attributes structure buttons interface getting total number televisions manufactured could static method television class method clearly associated class yet outside domain individual instance class static method finds particular instance set television objects another example following common set access specifiers although many object-oriented languages support access specifiers semantics may differ object-oriented design uses access specifiers conjunction careful design public method implementations enforce class invariants—constraints state objects common usage access specifiers separate internal data class interface internal structure made private public accessor methods used inspect alter private data access specifiers necessarily control visibility even private members may visible client external code languages inaccessible visible member may referred run-time example pointer returned member function attempt use referring name member client code prevented type checker various object-oriented programming languages enforce member accessibility visibility various degrees depending language type system compilation policies enforced either compile-time run-time example java language allow client code accesses private data class compile languages feature accessibility schemes addition design standalone classes programming languages may support advanced class design based upon relationships classes inter-class relationship design capabilities commonly provided compositional hierarchical classes composed classes thereby establishing compositional relationship enclosing class embedded classes compositional relationship classes also commonly known has-a relationship example class car could composed contain class engine therefore car engine one aspect composition containment enclosure component instances instance enclosing object contains component instances value components enclosing object similar lifetime components contained reference may similar lifetime example objective-c 2.0 class instance string object array object classes derived one existing classes thereby establishing hierarchical relationship derived-from classes base classes parent classes derived class child class subclass relationship derived class derived-from classes commonly known is-a relationship example class 'button could derived class 'control therefore button control structural behavioral members parent classes inherited child class derived classes define additional structural members data fields behavioral members methods addition inherit therefore specializations superclasses also derived classes override inherited methods language allows languages support multiple inheritance example java allows class implement multiple interfaces inherit one class multiple inheritance allowed hierarchy directed acyclic graph dag short otherwise tree hierarchy classes nodes inheritance relationships links classes level likely associated classes different levels levels hierarchy called layers levels abstraction example simplified objective-c 2.0 code iphone sdk example uitableview uiscrollview uiview uiresponder nsobject conceptually superclass superset subclasses example common class hierarchy would involve superclass would subclass subset relations set theory well i.e. squares rectangles rectangles squares common conceptual error mistake part relation subclass example car truck kinds vehicles would appropriate model subclasses vehicle class however would error model component parts car subclass relations example car composed engine body would appropriate model engine body subclass car object-oriented modeling kinds relations typically modeled object properties example class would property called would typed hold collection objects instances etc object modeling languages uml include capabilities model various aspects part kinds relations – data cardinality objects constraints input output values etc information utilized developer tools generate additional code beside basic data definitions objects error checking get set methods one important question modeling implementing system object classes whether class one superclasses real world actual sets would rare find sets n't intersect one set however systems flavors clos provide capability one parent run time introduces complexity many object-oriented community consider antithetical goals using object classes first place understanding class responsible handling message get complex dealing one superclass used carelessly feature introduce system complexity ambiguity classes designed avoid modern object-oriented languages smalltalk java require single inheritance run time languages multiple inheritance may useful modeling implementation however semantic web application objects multiple superclasses volatility internet requires level flexibility technology standards web ontology language owl designed support similar issue whether class hierarchy modified run time languages flavors clos smalltalk support feature part meta-object protocols since classes first-class objects possible dynamically alter structure sending appropriate messages languages focus strong typing java c++ allow class hierarchy modified run time semantic web objects capability run time changes classes rational similar justification allowing multiple superclasses internet dynamic flexible dynamic changes hierarchy required manage volatility although class-based languages commonly assumed support inheritance inheritance intrinsic aspect concept classes languages often referred object-based languages support classes yet support inheritance examples object-based languages include earlier versions visual basic object-oriented analysis uml association two classes represents collaboration classes corresponding instances associations direction example bi-directional association two classes indicates classes aware relationship associations may labeled according name purpose association role given end association describes role corresponding class example subscriber role describes way instances class person participate subscribes-to association class magazine also magazine subscribed magazine role association association role multiplicity describes many instances correspond instance class association common multiplicities 0..1 1..1 1..* 0..* specifies number instances many categories classes overlap language supports inheritance abstract class abstract base class abc class instantiated either labeled abstract simply specifies abstract methods virtual methods abstract class may provide implementations methods may also specify virtual methods via signatures implemented direct indirect descendants abstract class class derived abstract class instantiated abstract methods parent classes must implemented class derivation chain object-oriented programming languages allow programmer specify classes considered abstract allow instantiated example java c php keyword abstract used c++ abstract class class least one abstract method given appropriate syntax language pure virtual function c++ parlance class consisting virtual methods called pure abstract base class pure abc c++ also known interface users language languages notably java c support variant abstract classes called interface via keyword language languages multiple inheritance allowed class implement multiple interfaces class contain abstract publicly accessible methods concrete class class instantiated opposed abstract classes languages classes declared scopes global scope various types classes inner class class defined within another class relationship inner class containing class also treated another type class association inner class typically neither associated instances enclosing class instantiated along enclosing class depending language may may possible refer class outside enclosing class related concept inner types also known inner data type nested type generalization concept inner classes c++ example language supports inner classes inner types via typedef declarations another type local class class defined within procedure function limits references class name within scope class declared depending semantic rules language may additional restrictions local classes compared non-local ones one common restriction disallow local class methods access local variables enclosing function example c++ local class may refer static variables declared within enclosing function may access function automatic variables metaclasses classes whose instances classes metaclass describes common structure collection classes implement design pattern describe particular kinds classes metaclasses often used describe frameworks languages python ruby smalltalk class also object thus class instance unique metaclass built language common lisp object system clos non-subclassable classes allow programmers design classes hierarchies classes level hierarchy derivation prohibited stand-alone class may also designated non-subclassable preventing formation hierarchy contrast abstract classes imply encourage require derivation order used non-subclassable class implicitly concrete non-subclassable class created declaring class c java php example java class designated final non-subclassable classes may allow compiler compiled languages perform optimizations available subclassable classes open class one changed typically executable program changed customers developers often change classes typically change standard built-in ones ruby classes open python classes created runtime modified afterwards objective-c categories permit programmer add methods existing class without need recompile class even access source code languages special support mixins though language multiple inheritance mixin simply class represent is-a-type-of relationship mixins typically used add methods multiple classes example class might provide method called included classes share common parent languages supporting feature partial class class whose definition may split multiple pieces within single source-code file across multiple files pieces merged compile-time making compiler output non-partial class primary motivation introduction partial classes facilitate implementation code generators visual designers otherwise challenge compromise develop code generators manage generated code interleaved within developer-written code using partial classes code generator process separate file coarse-grained partial class within file thus alleviated intricately interjecting generated code via extensive parsing increasing compiler efficiency eliminating potential risk corrupting developer code simple implementation partial classes compiler perform phase precompilation unifies parts partial class compilation proceed usual benefits effects partial class feature include partial classes existed smalltalk name class extensions considerable time arrival .net framework 2 microsoft introduced partial classes supported c 2.0 visual basic 2005 winrt also supports partial classes simple example written visual basic .net shows parts class defined two different files compiled result two files written one like objective-c partial classes also known categories may even spread multiple libraries executables like following example key difference objective-c categories overwrite definitions another interface declaration categories n't equal original class definition first requires last instead .net partial class ca n't conflicting definitions partial definitions equal others foundation header file nsdata.h user-supplied library separate binary foundation framework header file nsdata+base64.h app yet another separate binary file source code file main.m dispatcher find methods called nsdata instance invoke correctly uninstantiable classes allow programmers group together per-class fields methods accessible runtime without instance class indeed instantiation prohibited kind class example c class marked static instantiated static members fields methods may instance constructors sealed unnamed class anonymous class class bound name identifier upon definition analogous named versus unnamed functions benefits organizing software object classes fall three categories object classes facilitate rapid development lessen semantic gap code users system analysts talk developers users using essentially vocabulary talking accounts customers bills etc object classes often facilitate rapid development object-oriented environments come powerful debugging testing tools instances classes inspected run time verify system performing expected also rather get dumps core memory object-oriented environments interpreted debugging capabilities developer analyze exactly program error occurred see methods called arguments arguments object classes facilitate ease maintenance via encapsulation developers need change behavior object localize change object component parts reduces potential unwanted side effects maintenance enhancements software re-use also major benefit using object classes classes facilitate re-use via inheritance interfaces new behavior required often achieved creating new class class inherit default behaviors data superclass tailor aspect behavior data accordingly re-use via interfaces also known methods occurs another object wants invoke rather create new kind object class method re-use removes many common errors make way software one program re-uses code another data type class usually considered compile-time construct language may also support prototype factory metaobjects represent run-time information classes even represent metadata provides access reflection facilities ability manipulate data structure formats run-time many languages distinguish kind run-time type information classes class basis information needed run-time dynamic languages make strict distinctions run-time compile-time constructs therefore may distinguish metaobjects classes example human metaobject representing class person instances class person created using facilities human metaobject 1-hop neighbor's text information: hibernate_(framework).hibernate framework hibernate orm hibernate short object-relational mapping tool java programming language provides framework mapping object-oriented domain model relational database hibernate handles object-relational impedance mismatch problems replacing direct persistent database accesses high-level object handling functions hibernate free software distributed gnu lesser general public license 2.1 hibernate primary feature mapping java classes database tables mapping java data types sql data types hibernate also provides data query retrieval facilities generates sql calls relieves developer manual handling object conversion result set mapping java classes database tables implemented configuration xml file using java annotations using xml file hibernate generate skeleton source code persistence classes auxiliary annotations used hibernate use xml file java annotations maintain database schema provided facilities arrange one-to-many many-to-many relationships classes addition managing associations objects hibernate also manage reflexive associations wherein object one-to-many relationship instances class type hibernate supports mapping custom value types makes following scenarios possible definition objects object-oriented application follow oop principles objects back-end follow database normalization principles resulting different representation requirements problem called object-relational impedance mismatch mapping way resolving object-relational impedance mismatch problem mapping informs orm tool java class object store database table hibernate provides sql inspired language called hibernate query language hql writing sql-like queries hibernate data objects criteria queries provided object-oriented alternative hql criteria query used modify objects provide restriction objects hql hibernate query language object-oriented version sql generates database independent queries need write database-specific queries without capability changing database would require individual sql queries changed well leading maintenance issues hibernate provides transparent persistence plain old java objects pojos strict requirement persistent class no-argument constructor though necessarily proper behavior applications also requires special attention methods object classes hibernate recommends providing identifier attribute planned mandatory requirement future release collections data objects typically stored java collection classes implementations interfaces java generics introduced java 5 also supported hibernate configured lazy load associated collections lazy loading default hibernate 3 related objects configured cascade operations one object example parent class object configured cascade operations child class objects hibernate used standalone java applications java ee applications using servlets ejb session beans jbi service components also included feature programming languages example adobe integrated hibernate version 9 coldfusion runs j2ee app servers abstraction layer new functions syntax added cfml hibernate jargon entity stand-alone object hibernate persistent mechanism manipulated independently objects contrast component subordinate entity manipulated respect entity example album object may represent entity tracks object associated album objects would represent component album entity assumed tracks saved retrieved database album object unlike j2ee hibernate switch databases hibernate started 2001 gavin king colleagues cirrus technologies alternative using ejb2-style entity beans original goal offer better persistence capabilities offered ejb2 simplifying complexities supplementing certain missing features early 2003 hibernate development team began hibernate2 releases offered many significant improvements first release jboss inc. part red hat later hired lead hibernate developers order development 2005 hibernate version 3.0 released key features included new interceptor/callback architecture user defined filters jdk 5.0 annotations java metadata feature hibernate 3 version 3.5.0 certified implementation java persistence api 2.0 specification via wrapper core module provides conformity jsr 317 standard dec 2011 hibernate core 4.0.0 final released includes new features multi-tenancy support introduction serviceregistry major change hibernate builds manages services better session opening sessionfactory improved integration via org.hibernate.integrator.spi.integrator auto discovery internationalization support message codes logging distinction api spi implementation classes december 2012 hibernate orm 4.1.9 final released mar 2013 hibernate orm 4.2 final released december 2013 hibernate orm 4.3.0 final released features java persistence api 2.1 september 2015 hibernate orm 5.0.2 final released improved bootstrapping hibernate-java8 hibernate-spatial karaf support november 2018 hibernate orm 5.1.17 final released final release 5.1 series october 2018 hibernate orm 5.3 final released featured java persistence api 2.2 inheritance caching december 2018 hibernate orm 5.4.0 final released hibernate api provided java package org.hibernate org.hibernate.session interface represents hibernate session i.e. main point manipulation performed database entities latter activities include among things managing persistence state transient persisted detached objects fetching persisted ones database management transaction demarcation session intended last long logical transaction database due latter feature session implementations expected thread safe used multiple clients hibernate software includes following components Target text information: polymorphic_association.polymorphic association polymorphic association term used discussions object-relational mapping respect problem representing relational database domain relationship one class multiple classes statically typed languages java multiple classes subclasses superclass languages duck typing ruby necessarily case java persistence hibernate chapter 5 bauer christian gavin king manning copyright 2007 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	4,452	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: android_automotive.android automotive android automotive variation google android operating system tailored use vehicle dashboards introduced march 2017 platform developed google intel together car manufacturers volvo audi project aims provide operating system codebase vehicle manufacturers develop version operating system besides infotainment tasks messaging navigation music playback operating system aims handle vehicle-specific functions controlling air conditioning contrarily android auto android automotive full operating system running vehicle device relying external device operate operating system first announced google march 2017 february 2018 polestar volvo ’ brand electric performance cars announced polestar 2 first car built-in android automotive expected release 2020 april 2019 google opened apis developers start developing applications android automotive 1-hop neighbor's text information: android_marshmallow.android marshmallow android marshmallow codenamed android development sixth major version android operating system 13th version android first released beta build may 28 2015 officially released october 5 2015 nexus devices first receive update marshmallow primarily focuses improving overall user experience predecessor lollipop introduced new permissions architecture new apis contextual assistants first used new feature tap provide context-sensitive search results new power management system reduces background activity device physically handled native support fingerprint recognition usb-c connectors ability migrate data applications microsd card internal changes 16.9 devices accessing google play run android 6.0 single popular point release android android nougat oreo major releases 7.x 8.x larger install bases release internally codenamed macadamia nut cookie first developer preview build codenamed android unveiled released google i/o may 28 2015 nexus 5 nexus 6 smartphones nexus 9 tablet nexus player set-top box second developer preview released july 9 2015 third final preview released august 17 2015 along announcing android would titled android marshmallow september 29 2015 google unveiled launch devices marshmallow lg-produced nexus 5x huawei-produced nexus 6p alongside google pixel c tablet android 6.0 updates factory images nexus 5 6 7 2013 9 player released october 5 2015 older nexus devices including nexus 4 nexus 7 2012 nexus 10 receive official update october 14 2015 lg announced planned release marshmallow flagship lg g4 smartphone poland following week marking first third-party device receive update marshmallow android 6.0.1 software patch featuring security fixes support unicode 8.0 emoji although without supporting skin tone extensions human emoji return next alarm feature disturb mode released december 7 2015 new assist api allows information currently opened app including text screenshot current screen sent designated assistant application analysis processing system used google search app feature google tap allows users perform searches within context information currently displayed on-screen home button used android 5 show available apps home button used together voice command generate on-screen cards display information suggestions actions related content direct share allows share menus display recently used combinations contacts associated app direct targets adoptable storage allows newly inserted sd card secondary storage media designated either portable internal storage portable maintains default behavior previous android versions treating media secondary storage device storage user files storage media removed replaced without repercussions subject access restrictions apps designated internal storage storage media reformatted encrypted ext4 file system adopted operating system primary storage partition existing data including applications private data folders migrated external storage normal operation device becomes dependent presence media apps operating system functions function properly adopted storage device removed user loses access storage media adopted storage forgotten makes data permanently inaccessible samsung lg however removed ability use sd card internal storage galaxy s7 g5 devices samsung arguing feature could result unexpected losses data prevents users able transfer data using card android marshmallow introduces redesigned application permissions model apps longer automatically granted specified permissions installation time opt-in system used users prompted grant deny individual permissions ability access camera microphone application needed first time applications remember grants revoked user time new permissions model used applications developed marshmallow using software development kit sdk older apps continue use previous all-or-nothing approach permissions still revoked apps though might prevent working properly warning displayed effect marshmallow introduces new power management schemes known doze app standby running battery power device enter low-power state inactive physically handled state network connectivity background processing restricted high-priority notifications processed additionally network access apps deferred user recently interacted app apps may request permission exempt policies rejected google play store violation dangerous products policy core functionality adversely affected android marshmallow provides native support fingerprint recognition supported devices via standard api allowing third-party applications implement fingerprint-based authentication fingerprints used unlocking devices authenticating play store google pay purchases android marshmallow supports usb-c including ability instruct devices charge another device usb marshmallow also introduces verified links configured open directly specified application without user prompts user data apps targeting marshmallow automatically backed google drive wi-fi application receives 25 mb storage separate user google drive storage allotment marshmallow android compatibility definition document contains new security mandates devices dictating capable accessing encrypted data without affecting performance must enable secure boot device encryption default conditions comprise part specification must met order certified operating system able license google mobile services software requirement mandatory device encryption originally intended take effect lollipop delayed due performance issues 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_transfer_project.data transfer project data transfer project dtp open-source initiative features data portability multiple online platforms project launched introduced google july 20 2018 currently partnered facebook microsoft twitter apple project formed google data liberation front 2017 hoping provide platform could allow individuals move online data different platforms without need downloading re-uploading data ecosystem achieved extracting different files various available apis released online platforms translating codes could compatible platforms july 20 2018 joint project announced source code uploaded github mainly written google microsoft engineers july 30 2019 apple announced joining project allowing data portability icloud Target text information: android_q.android q android q upcoming tenth major release 17th version android mobile operating system currently public beta final release android q scheduled release q3 2019 google released first beta android q march 13 2019 exclusively pixel phones including first generation pixel pixel xl devices support extended due popular demand total six beta release-candidate versions released final release currently scheduled third quarter 2019 beta program expanded release beta 3 may 7 2019 beta available 14 partner devices 11 oems twice many devices compared android pie beta beta access removed huawei mate 20 pro may 21 2019 due u.s. government sanctions later reverted given access back may 31 google released beta 4 june 5 2019 finalized android q apis sdk api level 29 dynamic system updates dsu also included beta 4 dynamic system update allows android q devices temporarily install gsi generic system image try newer version android top current android version users decide end testing chosen gsi image simply reboot device boot back normal device android version google released beta 5 july 10 2019 final api 29 sdk well latest optimizations bug fixes google released beta 6 final release candidate testing august 7 2019 android q introduces revamped full-screen gesture system gestures swiping either side edge display go back swiping go home screen swiping holding access overview swiping diagonally bottom corner screen activate google assistant swiping along gesture bar bottom screen switch apps support gestures mandatory oems free add gestures alongside core gestures legacy three-key navigation style remains supported use edge swiping gesture back command noted potentially causing conflicts apps utilize sidebar menus functions accessible swiping api used apps opt handling back gesture within specific areas screen sensitivity control added adjusting size target area activate gesture google later stated drawer widget would support peeked long-pressing near edge screen swiped open feature known bubbles used present content supported apps pop-up overlays similarly overlay-based chat heads feature facebook messenger apps spawn bubbles via notifications example use cases feature include chat messaging apps reminders ongoing tasks updates bubbles designed replace existing overlay permission deprecated due security due use clickjacking malware performance concerns go edition forbids use overlay permissions entirely sideloaded apps automatically lose overlay permission 30 seconds apps play store lose overlay permission time device rebooted android q includes system-level dark theme third-party apps automatically engage dark theme mode active platform optimizations made foldable smartphones including app continuity changing modes changes multi-window mode allow apps run simultaneously rather actively-used app running others considered paused additional support multiple displays direct share succeeded sharing shortcuts allows apps return lists direct targets sharing combination app specific contact use within share menus unlike direct share apps publish targets advance polled runtime improving performance several major security privacy changes present q apps restricted users access location data actively used foreground also new restrictions launching activities background apps major change storage access permissions known scoped storage supported q become mandatory apps beginning next major android release 2020 apps allowed access files external storage created preferably contained within app-specific directory audio image video files contained within music pictures videos directories file may accessed via user intervention storage access framework apps must new read privileged phone state permission order read non-resettable device identifiers imei number I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,949	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: android_runtime.android runtime android runtime art application runtime environment used android operating system replacing dalvik process virtual machine originally used android art performs translation application bytecode native instructions later executed device runtime environment android 2.2 froyo brought trace-based just-in-time jit compilation dalvik optimizing execution applications continually profiling applications time run dynamically compiling frequently executed short segments bytecode native machine code dalvik interprets rest application bytecode native execution short bytecode segments called traces provides significant performance improvements unlike dalvik art introduces use ahead-of-time aot compilation compiling entire applications native machine code upon installation eliminating dalvik interpretation trace-based jit compilation art improves overall execution efficiency reduces power consumption results improved battery autonomy mobile devices time art brings faster execution applications improved memory allocation garbage collection gc mechanisms new applications debugging features accurate high-level profiling applications maintain backward compatibility art uses input bytecode dalvik supplied standard .dex files part apk files .odex files replaced executable linkable format elf executables application compiled using art on-device utility run solely compiled elf executable result art eliminates various application execution overheads associated dalvik interpretation trace-based jit compilation downside art requires additional time compilation application installed applications take slightly larger amounts secondary storage usually flash memory store compiled code android 4.4 kitkat brought technology preview art including alternative runtime environment keeping dalvik default virtual machine subsequent major android release android 5.0 lollipop dalvik entirely replaced art android 7.0 nougat introduced jit compiler code profiling art lets constantly improve performance android apps run jit compiler complements art current ahead time compiler helps improve runtime performance 1-hop neighbor's text information: position-independent_code.position-independent code computing position-independent code pic position-independent executable pie body machine code placed somewhere primary memory executes properly regardless absolute address pic commonly used shared libraries library code loaded location program address space overlap uses memory example shared libraries pic also used older computer systems lacking mmu operating system could keep applications away even within single address space mmu-less system position-independent code executed memory address without modification differs absolute code must loaded specific location function correctly load-time locatable ltl code linker program loader modifies program execution run particular memory location generating position-independent code often default behavior compilers may place restrictions use language features disallowing use absolute addresses position-independent code use relative addressing instructions refer directly specific memory addresses sometimes execute faster replacing equivalent relative-addressing instructions may result slightly slower execution although modern processors make difference practically negligible early computers ibm 701 april 29 1952 ibm system/360 april 7 1964 code position-dependent program built loaded run particular address multitasking operating system allowed multiple jobs run using separate programs time operations scheduled two concurrent jobs would run programs required load addresses example payroll program accounts receivable program built run address 32k could run time ibm dos/360 1966 ability relocate programs loading sometimes multiple versions program maintained built different load address special class programs called self-relocating programs coded relocate loading ibm os/360 1966 relocated executable programs loaded memory one copy program required loaded program could moved way comparison early segmented systems burroughs mcp burroughs b5000 1961 multics 1964 paging systems ibm tss/360 1967 base bounds systems gecos ge 625 exec univac 1107 code inherently position-independent since addresses program relative current segment rather absolute position-independent code developed eliminate restrictions non-segmented systems position-independent program could loaded address memory invention dynamic address translation function provided mmu originally reduced need position-independent code every process could independent address space range addresses however multiple simultaneous jobs using code created waste physical memory two jobs run entirely identical programs dynamic address translation provides solution allowing system simply map two different jobs address 32k bytes real memory containing single copy program different programs may share common code example payroll program accounts receivable program may contain identical sort subroutine shared module shared library form shared module gets loaded mapped two address spaces procedure calls inside shared library typically made small procedure linkage table stubs call definitive function notably allows shared library inherit certain function calls previously loaded libraries rather using versions data references position-independent code usually made indirectly global offset tables gots store addresses accessed global variables one got per compilation unit object module located fixed offset code although offset known library linked linker links modules create shared library merges gots sets final offsets code necessary adjust offsets loading shared library later position independent functions accessing global data start determining absolute address got given current program counter value often takes form fake function call order obtain return value stack x86 special register powerpc sparc mips probably least risc processors esa/390 stored predefined standard register processor architectures motorola 68000 motorola 6809 wdc 65c816 knuth mmix arm x86-64 allow referencing data offset program counter specifically targeted making position-independent code smaller less register demanding hence efficient dynamic-link libraries dlls microsoft windows use variant e8 call instruction call near relative displacement relative next instruction instructions need fixed dll loaded global variables e.g arrays string literals virtual function tables expected contain address object data section resp code section dynamic library therefore stored address global variable needs updated reflect address dll loaded dynamic loader calculates address referred global variable stores value global variable triggers copy-on-write memory page containing global variable pages code pages global variables contain pointers code global data remain shared processes operation needs done os load dynamic library arbitrary address windows vista later versions windows relocation dlls executables done kernel memory manager shares relocated binaries across multiple processes images always relocated preferred base addresses achieving address space layout randomization aslr versions windows prior vista require system dlls prelinked non-conflicting fixed addresses link time order avoid runtime relocation images runtime relocation older versions windows performed dll loader within context process resulting relocated portions image longer shared processes handing dlls windows differs earlier os/2 procedure derives os/2 presents third alternative attempts load dlls position-independent dedicated shared arena memory maps loaded users dll able use in-memory copy multics procedure conceptually code segment linkage segment code segment contains code linkage section serves template new linkage segment pointer register 4 pr4 points linkage segment procedure call procedure saves pr4 stack loading pointer callee linkage segment procedure call uses indirect pointer pair flag cause trap first call dynamic linkage mechanism add new procedure linkage segment known segment table kst construct new linkage segment put segment numbers caller linkage section reset flag indirect pointer pair ibm s/360 time sharing system tss/360 tss/370 procedure may read-only public csect writable private prototype section psect caller loads v-constant routine general register 15 gr15 copies r-constant routine psect 19th word save area pointed gr13 dynamic loader load program pages resolve address constants first page fault position-independent executables pie executable binaries made entirely position-independent code systems run pic executables reasons used pie binaries used security-focused linux distributions allow pax exec shield use address space layout randomization prevent attackers knowing existing executable code security attack using exploits rely knowing offset executable code binary return-to-libc attacks apple macos ios fully support pie executables versions 10.7 4.3 respectively warning issued non-pie ios executables submitted approval apple app store hard requirement yet non-pie applications rejected openbsd pie enabled default architectures since openbsd 5.3 released support pie statically linked binaries executables codice_1 codice_2 directories added near end 2014 beginning fedora 23 fedora maintainers decided build packages pie enabled default ubuntu 17.10 pie enabled default across architectures gentoo new profiles support pie default android enabled support pies jelly bean removed non-pie linker support lollipop 1-hop neighbor's text information: x86-64.x86-64 x86-64 also known x64 x86_64 amd64 intel 64 64-bit version x86 instruction set introduces two new modes operation 64-bit mode compatibility mode along new 4-level paging mode 64-bit mode new paging mode supports vastly larger amounts virtual memory physical memory possible 32-bit predecessors allowing programs store larger amounts data memory x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers 64-bit well extends number 8 limited fixed functionality e.g stack management 16 fully general provides numerous enhancements floating point operations supported via mandatory sse2-like instructions x87/mmx style registers generally used still available even 64-bit mode instead set 32 vector registers 128 bits used store one two double-precision numbers one four single precision numbers various integer formats 64-bit mode instructions modified support 64-bit operands 64-bit addressing mode compatibility mode allows 16- 32-bit user applications run unmodified coexisting 64-bit applications 64-bit operating system supports full x86 16-bit 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented hardware without intervening emulation older executables run little performance penalty newer modified applications take advantage new features processor design achieve performance improvements also processor supporting x86-64 still powers real mode full backward compatibility x86 processors done since 80286 original specification created amd released 2000 implemented amd intel via amd k8 microarchitecture opteron athlon64 processors first implement first significant addition x86 architecture designed company intel intel forced follow suit introduced modified netburst family software-compatible amd specification via technologies introduced x86-64 via isaiah architecture via nano x86-64 architecture distinct intel itanium architecture formerly ia-64 compatible native instruction set level x86 architecture operating systems applications written one run amd64 created alternative radically different ia-64 architecture designed intel hewlett packard originally announced 1999 full specification became available august 2000 amd64 architecture positioned amd beginning evolutionary way add 64-bit computing capabilities existing x86 architecture opposed intel approach creating entirely new 64-bit architecture ia-64 first amd64-based processor opteron released april 2003 amd processors implementing amd64 architecture include opteron athlon 64 athlon 64 x2 athlon 64 fx athlon ii followed x2 x3 x4 indicate number cores xlt models turion 64 turion 64 x2 sempron palermo e6 stepping manila models phenom followed x3 x4 indicate number cores phenom ii followed x2 x3 x4 x6 indicate number cores fx fusion/apu ryzen/epyc primary defining characteristic amd64 availability 64-bit general-purpose processor registers example rax rbx 64-bit integer arithmetic logical operations 64-bit virtual addresses designers took opportunity make improvements well significant changes described although virtual addresses 64 bits wide 64-bit mode current implementations chips known planning stages allow entire virtual address space 2 bytes 16 eb used would approximately four billion times size virtual address space 32-bit machines operating systems applications need large address space foreseeable future implementing wide virtual addresses would simply increase complexity cost address translation real benefit amd therefore decided first implementations architecture least significant 48 bits virtual address would actually used address translation page table lookup addition amd specification requires significant 16 bits virtual address bits 48 63 must copies bit 47 manner akin sign extension requirement met processor raise exception addresses complying rule referred canonical form canonical form addresses run 0 00007fff'ffffffff ffff8000'00000000 ffffffff'ffffffff total 256 tb usable virtual address space still 65,536 times larger virtual 4 gb address space 32-bit machines feature eases later scalability true 64-bit addressing many operating systems including limited windows nt family take higher-addressed half address space named kernel space leave lower-addressed half user space application code user mode stacks heaps data regions canonical address design ensures every amd64 compliant implementation effect two memory halves lower half starts 00000000'00000000 grows upwards virtual address bits become available higher half docked top address space grows downwards also enforcing canonical form addresses checking unused address bits prevents use operating system tagged pointers flags privilege markers etc. use could become problematic architecture extended implement virtual address bits first versions windows x64 even use full 256 tb restricted 8 tb user space 8 tb kernel space windows support entire 48-bit address space windows 8.1 released october 2013 64-bit addressing mode long mode superset physical address extensions pae page sizes may 4 kb 2 bytes 2 mb 2 bytes long mode also supports page sizes 1 gb 2 bytes rather three-level page table system used systems pae mode systems running long mode use four levels page table pae page-directory pointer table extended four entries 512 additional page-map level 4 pml4 table added containing 512 entries 48-bit implementations full mapping hierarchy 4 kb pages whole 48-bit space would take bit 512 gb memory 0.195 256 tb virtual space intel proposed scheme five-level page table implemented would allow intel 64 processors support 57-bit virtual address space operating system also limit virtual address space details applicable given operating system compatibility characteristics section current amd64 processors support physical address space 2 bytes ram 256 tb however known x86-64 motherboards support 256 tb ram operating system may place additional limits amount ram usable supported details point given operating system compatibility characteristics section article architecture two primary modes operation long mode legacy mode long mode architecture intended primary mode operation combination processor native 64-bit mode combined 32-bit 16-bit compatibility mode used 64-bit operating systems 64-bit operating system 64-bit programs run 64-bit mode 32-bit 16-bit protected mode applications need use either real mode virtual 8086 mode order execute time run compatibility mode real-mode programs programs use virtual 8086 mode time run long mode unless modes emulated software however programs may started operating system running long mode processors supporting vt-x amd-v creating virtual processor running desired mode since basic instruction set almost performance penalty executing protected mode x86 code unlike intel ia-64 differences underlying instruction set mean running 32-bit code must done either emulation x86 making process slower dedicated x86 coprocessor however x86-64 platform many x86 applications could benefit 64-bit recompile due additional registers 64-bit code guaranteed sse2-based fpu support compiler use optimization however applications regularly handle integers wider 32 bits cryptographic algorithms need rewrite code handling huge integers order take advantage 64-bit registers legacy mode mode used 32-bit 16-bit protected mode operating systems mode processor acts like older x86 processor 16-bit 32-bit code executed legacy mode allows maximum 32 bit virtual addressing limits virtual address space 4 gb 64-bit programs run legacy mode intel 64 intel implementation x86-64 used implemented various processors made intel historically amd developed produced processors instruction sets patterned intel original designs x86-64 roles reversed intel found position adopting isa amd created extension intel x86 processor line intel project originally codenamed yamhill yamhill river oregon willamette valley several years denying existence intel announced february 2004 idf project indeed underway intel chairman time craig barrett admitted one worst-kept secrets intel name instruction set changed several times name used idf ct presumably clackamas technology another codename oregon river within weeks began referring ia-32e ia-32 extensions march 2004 unveiled official name em64t extended memory 64 technology late 2006 intel began instead using name intel 64 implementation paralleling amd use name amd64 first processor implement intel 64 multi-socket processor xeon code-named nocona june 2004 contrast initial prescott chips february 2004 enable feature intel subsequently began selling intel 64-enabled pentium 4s using e0 revision prescott core sold oem market pentium 4 model f. e0 revision also adds execute disable xd intel name nx bit intel 64 included current xeon code-named irwindale intel official launch intel 64 name em64t time mainstream desktop processors n0 stepping prescott-2m first intel mobile processor implementing intel 64 merom version core 2 processor released july 27 2006 none intel earlier notebook cpus core duo pentium celeron mobile pentium 4 implement intel 64 intel processors implementing intel64 architecture include pentium 4 f-series/5x1 series 506 516 celeron models 3x1 3x6 355 347 352 360 365 later celerons models xeon since nocona models pentium dual-core processors since merom-2m atom 230 330 d410 d425 d510 d525 n450 n455 n470 n475 n550 n570 n2600 n2800 versions pentium pentium extreme edition core 2 core i9 core i7 core i5 core i3 processors xeon phi 7200 series processors via technologies introduced first implementation x86-64 architecture 2008 five years development cpu division centaur technology codenamed isaiah 64-bit architecture unveiled january 24 2008 launched may 29 via nano brand name processor supports number via-specific x86 extensions designed boost efficiency low-power appliances expected isaiah architecture twice fast integer performance four times fast floating-point performance previous-generation via esther equivalent clock speed power consumption also expected par previous-generation via cpus thermal design power ranging 5 w 25 w. completely new design isaiah architecture built support features like x86-64 instruction set x86 virtualization unavailable predecessors via c7 line retaining encryption extensions although nearly identical differences two instruction sets semantics seldom used machine instructions situations mainly used system programming compilers generally produce executables i.e machine code avoid differences least ordinary application programs therefore interest mainly developers compilers operating systems similar must deal individual special system instructions supercomputers tracked top500 appearance 64-bit extensions x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86 processors amd intel light olive circles red circles diagram provided section respectively replace risc processor architectures previously used systems including pa-risc sparc alpha others well 32-bit x86 green dots purple dots diagram even though intel initially tried unsuccessfully replace x86 new incompatible 64-bit architecture itanium processor main non-x86 cpu architecture still used supercomputing power isa used ibm power microprocessors blue diamond pattern diagram sparc far behind numbers top500 2011 fujitsu sparc64 viiifx based supercomputer without co-processors reached number one since dropped top-10 first arm-based supercomputer appeared list 2018 recent years non-cpu architecture co-processors gpgpu also played big role performance intel xeon phi knights corner coprocessors implement subset x86-64 vector extensions also used along x86-64 processors tianhe-2 supercomputer following operating systems releases support x86-64 architecture long mode preliminary infrastructure work started february 2004 x86-64 port development later stalled development started july 2007 continued google summer code 2008 soc 2009 first official release contain x86-64 support version 2.4 freebsd first added x86-64 support name amd64 experimental architecture 5.1-release june 2003 included standard distribution architecture 5.2-release january 2004 since freebsd designated tier 1 platform 6.0-release version cleaned quirks running x86 executables amd64 drivers work x86 architecture work currently done integrate fully x86 application binary interface abi manner linux 32-bit abi compatibility currently works x86-64 architecture support first committed netbsd source tree june 19 2001 netbsd 2.0 released december 9 2004 netbsd/amd64 fully integrated supported port 32-bit code still supported 64-bit mode netbsd-32 kernel compatibility layer 32-bit syscalls nx bit used provide non-executable stack heap per-page granularity segment granularity used 32-bit x86 openbsd supported amd64 since openbsd 3.5 released may 1 2004 complete in-tree implementation amd64 support achieved prior hardware initial release amd loaned several machines project hackathon year openbsd developers taken platform support nx bit allowed easy implementation w^x feature code amd64 port openbsd also runs intel 64 processors contains cloned use amd64 extensions since intel left page table nx bit early intel 64 processors w^x capability intel cpus later intel 64 processors added nx bit name xd bit symmetric multiprocessing smp works openbsd amd64 port starting release 3.6 november 1 2004 possible enter long mode dos without dos extender user must return real mode order call bios dos interrupts may also possible enter long mode dos extender similar dos/4gw complex since x86-64 lacks virtual 8086 mode dos aware benefits expected unless running dos emulation adequate virtualization driver backend example mass storage interface linux first operating system kernel run x86-64 architecture long mode starting 2.4 version 2001 preceding hardware availability linux also provides backward compatibility running 32-bit executables permits programs recompiled long mode retaining use 32-bit programs several linux distributions currently ship x86-64-native kernels userlands arch linux suse mandriva debian allow users install set 32-bit components libraries installing 64-bit dvd thus allowing existing 32-bit applications run alongside 64-bit os distributions fedora slackware ubuntu available one version compiled 32-bit architecture another compiled 64-bit architecture fedora red hat enterprise linux allow concurrent installation userland components 32 64-bit versions 64-bit system x32 abi application binary interface introduced linux 3.4 allows programs compiled x32 abi run 64-bit mode x86-64 using 32-bit pointers data fields though limits program virtual address space 4 gb also decreases memory footprint program cases allow run faster 64-bit linux allows 128 tb virtual address space individual processes address approximately 64 tb physical memory subject processor system limitations mac os x 10.4.7 higher versions mac os x 10.4 run 64-bit command-line tools using posix math libraries 64-bit intel-based machines versions mac os x 10.4 10.5 run 64-bit powerpc machines libraries frameworks work 64-bit applications mac os x 10.4 kernel kernel extensions 32-bit mac os x 10.5 supports 64-bit gui applications using cocoa quartz opengl x11 64-bit intel-based machines well 64-bit powerpc machines non-gui libraries frameworks also support 64-bit applications platforms kernel kernel extensions 32-bit mac os x 10.6 first version macos supports 64-bit kernel however 64-bit computers run 64-bit kernel 64-bit computers run 64-bit kernel default 64-bit kernel like 32-bit kernel supports 32-bit applications kernels also support 64-bit applications 32-bit applications virtual address space limit 4 gb either kernel os x 10.8 includes 64-bit kernel continues support 32-bit applications 64-bit kernel support 32-bit kernel extensions 32-bit kernel support 64-bit kernel extensions macos uses universal binary format package 32- 64-bit versions application library code single file appropriate version automatically selected load time mac os x 10.6 universal binary format also used kernel kernel extensions support 32-bit 64-bit kernels solaris 10 later releases support x86-64 architecture solaris 10 sparc architecture one operating system image contains 32-bit kernel 64-bit kernel labeled x64/x86 dvd-rom image default behavior boot 64-bit kernel allowing 64-bit existing new 32-bit executables run 32-bit kernel also manually selected case 32-bit executables run codice_24 command used determine system running 64-bit kernel solaris 11 64-bit kernel provided however 64-bit kernel supports 32- 64-bit executables libraries system calls x64 editions microsoft windows client server—windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 edition—were released march 2005 internally actually build 5.2.3790.1830 sp1 share source base operating system binaries even system updates released unified packages much manner windows 2000 professional server editions x86 windows vista also many different editions released january 2007 windows 7 released july 2009 windows server 2008 r2 sold x64 itanium editions later versions windows server offer x64 edition versions windows x64 prior windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 offer following windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 user mode kernel mode virtual address spaces extended 128 tb versions windows install processors lack codice_17 instruction following additional characteristics apply x64 versions windows playstation 4 xbox one successors incorporate amd x86-64 processors based jaguar microarchitecture firmware games written x86-64 code legacy x86 code involved since amd64 intel 64 substantially similar many software hardware products use one vendor-neutral term indicate compatibility implementations amd original designation processor architecture x86-64 still sometimes used purpose variant x86_64 companies microsoft sun microsystems/oracle corporation use contraction x64 marketing material term ia-64 refers itanium processor confused x86-64 completely different instruction set many operating systems products especially introduced x86-64 support prior intel entry market use term amd64 amd64 refer amd64 intel 64. x86-64/amd64 solely developed amd amd holds patents techniques used amd64 patents must licensed amd order implement amd64 intel entered cross-licensing agreement amd licensing amd patents existing x86 techniques licensing amd patents techniques used x86-64 2009 amd intel settled several lawsuits cross-licensing disagreements extending cross-licensing agreements Target text information: machine_code.machine code machine code computer program written machine language instructions executed directly computer central processing unit cpu instruction causes cpu perform specific task load store jump alu operation one units data cpu registers memory machine code strictly numerical language intended run fast possible may regarded lowest-level representation compiled assembled computer program primitive hardware-dependent programming language possible write programs directly machine code tedious error prone manage individual bits calculate numerical addresses constants manually reason programs rarely written directly machine code modern contexts may done low level debugging program patching especially assembler source available assembly language disassembly overwhelming majority practical programs today written higher-level languages assembly language source code translated executable machine code utilities compilers assemblers linkers important exception interpreted programs translated machine code however interpreter may seen executor processor performing instructions source code typically consists directly executable machine code generated assembly high-level language source code machine code definition lowest level programming detail visible programmer internally many processors use microcode optimise transform machine code instructions sequences micro-ops generally considered machine code per se every processor processor family instruction set instructions patterns bits physical design correspond different commands machine thus instruction set specific class processors using mostly architecture successor derivative processor designs often include instructions predecessor may add additional instructions occasionally successor design discontinue alter meaning instruction code typically needed new purposes affecting code compatibility extent even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior instructions rarely problem systems may also differ details memory arrangement operating systems peripheral devices program normally relies factors different systems typically run machine code even type processor used processor instruction set may instructions length may variable-length instructions patterns organized varies strongly particular architecture often also type instruction instructions one opcode fields specifies basic instruction type arithmetic logical jump etc actual operation add compare fields may give type operand addressing mode addressing offset index actual value constant operands contained instruction called immediates machines individual instructions explicit operands accumulator machine combined left operand result implicit accumulator arithmetic instructions architectures 8086 x86-family accumulator versions common instructions accumulator regarded one general registers longer instructions stack machine operands implicit stack special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands cpuid x86 architecture writes values four implicit destination registers instance distinction explicit implicit operands important code generators especially register allocation live range tracking parts good code optimizer track implicit well explicit operands may allow frequent constant propagation constant folding registers register assigned result constant expression freed replacing constant code enhancements computer program list instructions executed central processing unit program execution done order cpu executing solve specific problem thus accomplish specific result simple processors able execute instructions one another superscalar processors capable executing variety different instructions program flow may influenced special 'jump instructions transfer execution instruction numerically following one conditional jumps taken execution continues another address execution continues next instruction depending condition much readable rendition machine language called assembly language uses mnemonic codes refer machine code instructions rather using instructions numeric values directly example zilog z80 processor machine code codice_1 causes cpu decrement codice_2 processor register would represented assembly language codice_3 mips architecture provides specific example machine code whose instructions always 32 bits long general type instruction given op operation field highest 6 bits j-type jump i-type immediate instructions fully specified op r-type register instructions include additional field funct determine exact operation fields used types rs rt rd indicate register operands shamt gives shift amount address immediate fields contain operand directly example adding registers 1 2 placing result register 6 encoded load value register 8 taken memory cell 68 cells location listed register 3 jumping address 1024 computer architectures machine code implemented even fundamental underlying layer called microcode providing common machine language interface across line family different models computer widely different underlying dataflows done facilitate porting machine language programs different models example use ibm system/360 family computers successors dataflow path widths 8 bits 64 bits beyond nevertheless present common architecture machine language level across entire line using microcode implement emulator enables computer present architecture entirely different computer system/360 line used allow porting programs earlier ibm machines new family computers e.g ibm 1401/1440/1460 emulator ibm s/360 model 40 machine code generally different bytecode also known p-code either executed interpreter compiled machine code faster direct execution exception processor designed use particular bytecode directly machine code case java processors machine code assembly code sometimes called native code referring platform-dependent parts language features libraries harvard architecture computer architecture physically separate storage signal pathways code instructions data today processors implement separate signal pathways performance reasons implement modified harvard architecture support tasks like loading executable program disk storage data executing harvard architecture contrasted von neumann architecture data code stored memory read processor allowing computer execute commands point view process code space part address space code execution stored multitasking systems comprises program code segment usually shared libraries multi-threading environment different threads one process share code space along data space reduces overhead context switching considerably compared process switching pamela samuelson wrote machine code unreadable united states copyright office identify whether particular encoded program original work authorship however us copyright office allow copyright registration computer programs program machine code sometimes decompiled order make functioning easily understandable humans cognitive science professor douglas hofstadter compared machine code genetic code saying looking program written machine language vaguely comparable looking dna molecule atom atom I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	7,421	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: postscript.postscript postscript ps page description language electronic publishing desktop publishing business dynamically typed concatenative programming language created adobe systems john warnock charles geschke doug brotz ed taft bill paxton 1982 1984 concepts postscript language seeded 1966 john warnock working evans sutherland computer graphics company time warnock developing interpreter large three-dimensional graphics database new york harbor warnock conceived design system language process graphics concurrently researchers xerox parc developed first laser printer recognized need standard means defining page images 1975-76 bob sproull william newman developed press format eventually used xerox star system drive laser printers press data format rather language lacked flexibility parc mounted interpress effort create successor 1978 warnock left evans sutherland joined xerox parc work martin newell rewrote design system create interpretive language j jam john martin used vlsi design investigation type graphics printing work later evolved expanded interpress language warnock left chuck geschke founded adobe systems december 1982 together doug brotz ed taft bill paxton created simpler language similar interpress called postscript went market 1984 time visited steve jobs urged adapt postscript used language driving laser printers march 1985 apple laserwriter first printer ship postscript sparking desktop publishing dtp revolution mid-1980s combination technical merits widespread availability made postscript language choice graphical output printing applications time interpreter sometimes referred rip raster image processor postscript language common component laser printers 1990s however cost implementation high computers output raw ps code would interpreted printer raster image printer natural resolution required high performance microprocessors ample memory laserwriter used 12 mhz motorola 68000 making faster macintosh computers attached laser printer engines cost thousand dollars added cost ps marginal printer mechanisms fell price cost implementing ps became great fraction overall printer cost addition desktop computers becoming powerful longer made sense offload rasterisation work onto resource-constrained printer 2001 lower-end printer models came support postscript largely due growing competition much cheaper non-postscript ink jet printers new software-based methods render postscript images computer making suitable printer pdf descendant postscript provides one method largely replaced postscript de facto standard electronic document distribution high-end printers postscript processors remain common use dramatically reduce cpu work involved printing documents transferring work rendering postscript images computer printer first version postscript language released market 1984 suffix level 1 added level 2 introduced postscript level 2 introduced 1991 included several improvements improved speed reliability support in-rip separations image decompression example jpeg images could rendered postscript program support composite fonts form mechanism caching reusable content postscript 3 adobe dropped level terminology favor simple versioning came end 1997 along many new dictionary-based versions older operators introduced better color handling new filters allow in-program compression/decompression program chunking advanced error-handling postscript 3 significant terms replacing existing proprietary color electronic prepress systems widely used magazine production introduction smooth shading operations 4096 shades grey rather 256 available postscript level 2 well devicen color space allowed addition additional ink colors called spot colors composite color pages prior introduction postscript printers designed print character output given text—typically ascii—as input number technologies task shared property glyphs physically difficult change stamped onto typewriter keys bands metal optical plates changed degree increasing popularity dot matrix printers characters systems drawn series dots defined font table inside printer grew sophistication dot matrix printers started including several built-in fonts user could select models allowed users upload custom glyphs printer dot matrix printers also introduced ability print raster graphics graphics interpreted computer sent series dots printer using series escape sequences printer control languages varied printer printer requiring program authors create numerous drivers vector graphics printing left special-purpose devices called plotters almost plotters shared common command language hpgl limited use anything printing graphics addition tended expensive slow thus rare laser printers combine best features printers plotters like plotters laser printers offer high quality line art like dot-matrix printers able generate pages text raster graphics unlike either printers plotters laser printer makes possible position high-quality graphics text page postscript made possible exploit fully characteristics offering single control language could used brand printer postscript went beyond typical printer control language complete programming language many applications transform document postscript program execution results original document program sent interpreter printer results printed document one inside another application display document on-screen since document-program regardless destination called device-independent postscript noteworthy implementing 'on-the fly rasterization everything even text specified terms straight lines cubic bézier curves previously found cad applications allows arbitrary scaling rotating transformations postscript program interpreted interpreter converts instructions dots needed form output reason postscript interpreters occasionally called postscript raster image processors rips almost complex postscript handling fonts font system uses ps graphics primitives draw glyphs curves rendered resolution number typographic issues considered approach one issue fonts scale linearly small sizes features glyphs become proportionally large small start look displeasing postscript avoided problem inclusion font hinting additional information provided horizontal vertical bands help identify features letter important rasterizer maintain result significantly better-looking fonts even low resolution formerly believed hand-tuned bitmap fonts required task time technology including hints fonts carefully guarded hinted fonts compressed encrypted adobe called type 1 font also known postscript type 1 font ps1 t1 adobe type 1 type 1 effectively simplification ps system store outline information opposed complete language pdf similar regard adobe would sell licenses type 1 technology wanting add hints fonts license technology left type 3 font also known postscript type 3 font ps3 t3 type 3 fonts allowed sophistication postscript language without standardized approach hinting type 2 font format designed used compact font format cff charstrings implemented reduce overall font file size cff/type2 format later became basis handling postscript outlines opentype fonts cid-keyed font format also designed solve problems ocf/type 0 fonts addressing complex asian-language cjk encoding large character set issues cid-keyed font format used type 1 font format standard cid-keyed fonts type 2 cid-keyed opentype fonts compete adobe system apple designed system truetype around 1991 immediately following announcement truetype adobe published specification type 1 font format retail tools altsys fontographer acquired macromedia january 1995 owned fontlab since may 2005 added ability create type 1 fonts since many free type 1 fonts released instance fonts used tex typesetting system available format early 1990s several systems storing outline-based fonts developed bitstream metafont instance none included general-purpose printing solution therefore widely used late 1990s adobe joined microsoft developing opentype essentially functional superset type 1 truetype formats printed postscript output device unneeded parts opentype font omitted sent device driver would truetype type 1 font depending kind outlines present opentype font 1980s adobe drew revenue licensing fees implementation postscript printers known raster image processor rip number new risc-based platforms became available mid-1980s found adobe support new machines lacking issues cost led third-party implementations postscript becoming common particularly low-cost printers licensing fee sticking point high-end typesetting equipment quest speed demanded support new platforms faster adobe could provide one point microsoft licensed apple postscript-compatible interpreter bought called trueimage apple licensed microsoft new font format truetype apple ended reaching accord adobe licensed genuine postscript printers truetype became standard outline font technology windows macintosh today third-party postscript-compatible interpreters widely used printers multifunction peripherals mfps example csr plc ips ps3 interpreter formerly known phoenixpage standard many printers mfps including developed hewlett-packard sold laserjet color laserjet lines third-party postscript solutions used print mfp manufacturers include jaws harlequin rip global graphics free software version several applications ghostscript several compatible interpreters listed undocumented printing wiki basic inexpensive laser printers support postscript instead coming drivers simply rasterize platform native graphics formats rather converting postscript first postscript support needed printer ghostscript used also number commercial postscript interpreters teletype co. t-script postscript became commercially successful due introduction graphical user interface gui allowing designers directly lay pages eventual output laser printers however gui graphics systems generally much less sophisticated postscript apple quickdraw instance supported basic lines arcs complex b-splines advanced region filling options postscript order take full advantage postscript printing applications computers re-implement features using host platform graphics system led numerous issues on-screen layout would exactly match printed output due differences implementation features computer power grew became possible host ps system computer rather printer led natural evolution ps printing system one could also used host graphics language numerous advantages approach help eliminate possibility different output screen printer also provided powerful graphics system computer allowed printers dumb time cost laser engines falling production setting using postscript display system meant host computer could render low-resolution screen higher resolution printer simply send ps code smart printer offboard printing however postscript written printing mind numerous features made unsuitable direct use interactive display system particular ps based idea collecting ps commands codice_1 command seen point commands read point interpreted output interactive system clearly appropriate ps sort interactivity built example supporting hit detection mouse interactivity obviously apply ps used printer steve jobs left apple started next pitched adobe idea using ps display system new workstation computers result display postscript dps dps added basic functionality improve performance changing many string lookups 32 bit integers adding support direct output every command adding functions allow gui inspect diagram additionally set bindings provided allow ps code called directly c programming language next used bindings nextstep system provide object oriented graphics system although dps written conjunction next adobe sold commercially common feature unix workstations 1990s sun microsystems took another approach creating news instead dps concept allowing ps interact c programs news instead extended ps language suitable running entire gui computer sun added number new commands timers mouse control interrupts systems needed interactivity added data structures language elements allow completely object oriented internally complete gui three fact written news provided time workstations however ongoing efforts standardize x11 system led introduction widespread use sun systems news never became widely used postscript turing-complete programming language belonging concatenative group typically postscript programs produced humans programs however possible write computer programs postscript like programming language postscript interpreted stack-based language similar forth strong dynamic typing data structures inspired found lisp scoped memory since language level 2 garbage collection language syntax uses reverse polish notation makes order operations unambiguous reading program requires practice one keep layout stack mind operators languages term functions take arguments stack place results onto stack literals example numbers effect placing copy stack sophisticated data structures built array dictionary types declared type system sees arrays dictionaries typing discipline applied user-defined types left code implements character used introduce comments postscript programs general convention every postscript program start characters ps interpreter directive devices properly interpret postscript hello world program customary way show small example complete program given language might look like postscript level 2 output device console postscript uses point unit length however unlike versions point postscript uses exactly 72 points inch thus example order draw vertical line 4 cm length sufficient type readably idiomatically one might use following equivalent demonstrates simple procedure definition use mathematical operators codice_2 codice_3 implementations postscript use single-precision reals 24-bit mantissa meaningful use 9 decimal digits specify real number performing calculations may produce unacceptable round-off errors list software used render postscript documents 1-hop neighbor's text information: suse_linux.suse linux suse linux computer operating system built top free open source linux kernel distributed system application software open source projects suse linux german origin basically acronym “ software und system-entwicklung ” software systems development mainly developed europe first version appeared early 1994 making suse one oldest existing commercial distributions known yast configuration tool novell bought suse suse brands trademarks 2003 novell one founding members open invention network decided make community important part development process opening widely distribution development outside contributors 2005 creating opensuse distribution opensuse project novell employed 500 developers working suse 2004 27 april 2011 novell suse acquired attachmate group made suse independent business unit later october 2014 entire attachmate group including suse acquired british firm micro focus international suse continues operate independent business unit 2 july 2018 announced micro focus would sell suse blitz 18-679 gmbh subsidiary eqt partners 2.535 billion gesellschaft für software und system entwicklung mbh lit company software system development founded 2 september 1992 nuremberg germany roland dyroff thomas fehr burchard steinbild hubert mantel three founders still mathematics students university fehr already graduated working software engineer original idea company would develop software function advisory unix group according mantel group decided distribute linux offering support name founding s.u.s.e chosen german acronym software und system-entwicklung meaning software systems development full name never used however company known s.u.s.e shortened suse october 1998 2003 capitalized suse official logo current mascot distribution veiled chameleon officially named geeko portmanteau gecko geek following competition company name geeko logo brand evolved time reflect name changes company started service provider among things regularly released software packages included softlanding linux system sls defunct slackware also printed unix/linux manuals offered technical assistance third party products suse initially used characteristics managed suse different fashions building distribution linux s.u.s.e used first slackware 1992 jurix distribution defunct 1996 starting point created florian la roche joined s.u.s.e team began develop yast installer configuration tool would become central point distribution 1996 first distribution name s.u.s.e linux published s.u.s.e linux 4.2 version number caused much discussion version 1.1 using number 4.2 intentional reference answer ultimate question life universe everything hitchhiker guide galaxy science fiction novels english writer douglas adams yast first version number 0.42 similar reference time suse linux incorporated many aspects red hat linux rpm package manager file structure s.u.s.e became largest linux distributor germany 1997 suse llc established direction president managing partner james gray oakland california enabled company develop linux markets americas asia red hat ubiquitous united states suse linux continued grow germany well nordic countries finland sweden october 1998 name changed officially suse without dots linus torvalds creator linux kernel used fairly often suse entered uk 1999 2001 company forced reduce staff significantly order survive 4 november 2003 novell announced would acquire suse linux ag 210 million acquisition finalized january 2004 move reach business audience effectively suse introduced suse linux enterprise server 2001 months novell purchase changed company name suse linux suse name acronym according j. philips novell corporate technology strategist asia pacific region novell would medium term alter way suse developed novell annual brainshare conference 2004 first time computers run suse linux announced proprietary suse administration program yast2 would released gpl license 4 august 2005 novell announced suse professional series would become open launch opensuse project community software always open source opensuse opened development process allowing developers users test develop previously development work accomplished in-house suse version 10.0 first version offered public beta testing suse linux 10.0 included open source proprietary applications retail boxed-set editions part change yast online update server access became free suse linux users also first time gnome desktop upgraded equal status traditional kde november 2005 suse founder hubert mantel announced resignation company stated novell acquisition changed suse beyond expectations believe company founded 13 years earlier resignation apparently stemmed dispute implementation ximian products gnome-based default desktop environment linux distribution re-joined year later 3 november 2006 renewed 25 july 2011 novell signed agreement microsoft covering improvement suse ability interoperate microsoft windows cross-promotion/marketing products patent cross-licensing agreement considered controversial free software community 22 november 2010 novell announced agreed acquisition attachmate group 2.2 billion attachmate group plans operate novell two units suse becoming stand-alone business anticipates change relationship suse business opensuse project result transaction u.s. department justice announced order proceed first phase acquisition certain patents patent applications novell inc. cptn holdings llc owners would alter original agreements address department antitrust concerns department said originally proposed deal would jeopardize ability open source software linux continue innovate compete development distribution server desktop mobile operating systems well middleware virtualization products stipulations regarding licensing patents acquisition completed 27 april 2011 subsequently 23 july 2011 attachmate group launched new website suse business 20 november 2014 attachmate group merged micro focus form micro focus group suse operated separate business unit dedicated product portfolio 2 july 2018 announced micro focus would sell suse business segment eqt partners 2.535 billion suse provides thirteen-year product life cycle suse linux enterprise 11 12 detailed eol eos eoxs end-of-extended-support information see suse linux available two brands opensuse suse linux enterprise opensuse free community distribution driven opensuse project includes latest bleeding edge linux technologies designed home users enthusiasts suse linux enterprise suse tested certified open-source solution major enterprises opensuse freely available community project releases versions comparatively frequent basis generally uses latest versions various open source projects includes suse linux enterprise suse commercial edition suse releases much less frequently enabling offer support effectively enterprise production deployments certified wide variety enterprise applications offers number special enterprise features including high availability point sale extensions suse historically uses heavily-tested subset packages opensuse linux basis suse linux enterprise suse offers suse linux enterprise server suse linux enterprise desktop focuses packages fit specific purpose example suse linux enterprise desktop include apache web server suse linux enterprise server include xgl/compiz contrast opensuse separate distributions server desktop tablets rather repositories contain needed software use installation patterns accomplish opensuse driven opensuse project community sponsored suse develop maintain suse linux components equivalent historic suse linux professional acquisition suse linux novell suse decided make community central development process theoretical development cycle 8 months lifetime duration critical updates 18 months date release fully freely available immediate download opensuse sixth popular linux distribution 2013 fourth popular 2014 according distrowatch suse develops multiple products enterprise business line business products target corporate environments higher life cycle 10 years extendable 13 longer development cycle 6 18 months guarantee stability potential expense development speed technical support certification independent hardware software vendors suse linux enterprise products available sale updates fees suse linux enterprise fewer packages opensuse distribution differences desktop applications suited consumers business enterprise products installed using linux kernel novell open enterprise server oes uses suse linux enterprise server platform product also known oes-linux suse linux enterprise included vmware vsphere licensing june 25 2014 'free noted suse partners website suse suse studio product web interface built using ruby rails opensuse kiwi open build service tools allowed users put together custom linux distribution graphically generate output including large variety virtual machine disk images suse studio merged open build service resulting project renamed suse studio express september 2017 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: graphics_layout_engine.graphics layout engine graphics layout engine gle graphics scripting language designed creating publication quality graphs plots diagrams figures slides gle supports various graph types function plots histograms bar graphs scatter plots contour lines color maps surface plots simple flexible set graphing commands complex output created relying gle scripting language full featured subroutines variables logic control gle relies latex text output supports mathematical formula graphs figures gle output formats include eps ps pdf jpeg png gle software dates back early 90 still active development currently gle development hosted sourceforge gle available major operating systems including microsoft windows mac os x unix included gnu/linux distributions debian fedora suse gle licensed bsd license qgle gle user interface licensed gpl license I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,827	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: shamoon.shamoon shamoon also known w32.distrack modular computer virus discovered 2012 targeting recent 32-bit nt kernel versions microsoft windows virus noted behavior differing malware attacks due destructive nature cost attack recovery known years later biggest hack history virus apparently intended cyber warfare shamoon spread infected machine computers network system infected virus continues compile list files specific locations system upload attacker erase finally virus overwrites master boot record infected computer making unusable virus used cyber warfare national oil companies saudi arabia saudi aramco qatar rasgas discovery announced 16 august 2012 symantec kaspersky lab seculert similarities highlighted kaspersky lab seculert shamoon flame malware malware unique used target saudi government causing destruction state owned national oil company saudi aramco attackers posted pastie pastebin.com hours prior wiper logic bomb occurring citing oppression al-saud regime reason behind attack attack well-staged according chris kubecka former security advisor saudi aramco attack group leader security aramco overseas unnamed saudi aramco employee information technology team opened malicious phishing email allowing initial entry computer network around mid-2012 kubecka also detailed black hat usa talk saudi aramco placed majority security budget ics control network leaving business network risk major incident behalf anti-oppression hacker group fed crimes atrocities taking place various countries around world especially neighboring countries syria bahrain yemen lebanon egypt ... also dual approach world community nations want hit main supporters disasters action one main supporters disasters al-saud corrupt regime sponsors oppressive measures using muslims oil resources al-saud partner committing crimes hands infected blood innocent children people first step action performed aramco company largest financial source al-saud regime step penetrated system aramco company using hacked systems several countries sended malicious virus destroy thirty thousand computers networked company destruction operations began wednesday aug 15 2012 11:08 local time saudi arabia completed within hours shamoon attack designed two things replace data hard drives image burning american flag report addresses infected computers back computer inside company ’ network virus consisted three components dropper wiper reporter dropper main component source infection component drops wiper reporter onto infected computer copies network shares executes creates service start whenever windows starts wiper destructive component component gathers files locations infected computers erases sends information files attacker erased files overwritten corrupted files recovered reporter component sends infected information back attacker 15 august 11:08 local time 30,000 windows based systems began overwritten symantec found affected systems image american flag whilst data deleted overwritten saudi aramco announced attack facebook page went offline company statement issued 25 august 2012 statement falsely reported normal business resumed 25 august 2012 however middle eastern journalist leaked photographs taken 1 september 2012 showing kilometers petrol trucks unable loaded due backed business systems still inoperable saudi aramco restored main internal network services impacted august 15 2012 malicious virus originated external sources affected 30,000 workstations workstations since cleaned restored service precaution remote internet access online resources restricted saudi aramco employees returned work august 25 2012 following eid holidays resuming normal business company confirmed primary enterprise systems hydrocarbon exploration production unaffected operate isolated network systems production plants also fully operational control systems also isolated august 29 2012 attackers behind shamoon posted another pastie pastebin.com taunting saudi aramco proof still retained access company network post contained username password security network equipment new password aramco ceo khalid al-falih attackers also referenced portion shamoon malware proof pastie internet service routers three info follows core router sa-ar-co-1 password telnet c1sc0p ss-ar-cr-tl enable c1sc0p ss-ar-cr-bl backup router sa-ar-co-3 password telnet c1sc0p ss-ar-bk-tl enable c1sc0p ss-ar-bk-bl middle router sa-ar-co-2 password telnet c1sc0p ss-ar-st-tl enable c1sc0p ss-ar-st-bl khalid a. al-falih ceo email info follows khalid.falih aramco.com password kal ram sa1960 security appliances used according kubecka order restore operations saudi aramco used large private fleet aircraft available funds purchase much world hard drives driving price new hard drives required quickly possible oil prices affected speculation september 1 2012 gasoline resources dwindling public saudi arabia 17 days august 15th attack rasgas also affected different variant crippling similar manner unclear attacker may interest actually destroying infected pc kaspersky labs hinted 900 kb malware could related wiper used cyber attack iran april 2-day analysis company erroneously concluded malware likely come scriptkiddies inspired wiper later blog post eugene kaspersky clarified use shamoon categorizing cyber warfare virus hit companies within oil energy sectors group named cutting sword justice claimed responsibility attack 35,000 saudi aramco workstations causing company spend week restoring services group later indicated shamoon virus used attack computer systems rasgas also knocked offline unidentified computer virus security experts attributing damage shamoon shamoon made surprise comeback november 2016 according symantec involved new attack 23 january 2017 malware logic bomb triggered master boot record data wiping payload 11:08am local time wednesday august 15 attack occurred month ramadan 2012 would appear attack timed occur staff gone holiday reducing chance discovery maximum damage could caused hampering recovery shamoon uses number components infect computers first component dropper creates service name ‘ ntssrv ’ remain persistent infected computer spreads across local network copying computers drop additional components infected computers dropper comes 32-bit 64-bit versions 32-bit dropper detects 64-bit architecture drop 64-bit version malware also contains disk wiping component utilizes eldos-produced driver known rawdisk achieve direct user-mode access hard drive without using windows apis component overwrites files portions image 2012 attack used image burning u.s. flag 2016 attack used photo body alan kurdi 1-hop neighbor's text information: vault_7.vault 7 vault 7 series documents wikileaks began publish 7 march 2017 detail activities capabilities united states central intelligence agency perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare files dated 2013–2016 include details agency software capabilities ability compromise cars smart tvs web browsers including google chrome microsoft edge mozilla firefox opera software asa operating systems smartphones including apple ios google android well operating systems microsoft windows macos linux february 2017 wikileaks began teasing release vault 7 series cryptic messages twitter according media reports later february wikileaks released classified documents describing cia monitored 2012 french presidential election press release leak stated published context forthcoming cia vault 7 series march 2017 us intelligence law enforcement officials said international wire agency reuters aware cia security breach led vault 7 since late-2016 two officials said focusing contractors possible source leaks 2017 federal law enforcement identified cia software engineer joshua adam schulte suspected source vault 7 first batch documents named year zero published wikileaks 7 march 2017 consisting 7,818 web pages 943 attachments purportedly center cyber intelligence already contains pages former nsa contractor leaker edward snowden nsa release wikileaks name source said files circulated among former u.s. government hackers contractors unauthorized manner one provided wikileaks portions archive according wikileaks source wishes initiate public debate security creation use proliferation democratic control cyberweapons since tools raise questions urgently need debated public including whether c.i.a hacking capabilities exceed mandated powers problem public oversight agency wikileaks redacted names identifying information documents release attempting allow connections people drawn via unique identifiers generated wikileaks also said would postpone releasing source code cyber weapons reportedly several hundred million lines long consensus emerges technical political nature c.i.a program 'weapons analyzed disarmed published wikileaks founder julian assange claimed part larger series cia released statement saying american public deeply troubled wikileaks disclosure designed damage intelligence community ability protect america terrorists adversaries disclosures jeopardize us personnel operations also equip adversaries tools information us harm assange held press conference 9 march offer share unpublished data vault 7 technology companies enable fix vulnerabilities detailed therein stated 1 total leak released much remainder leak included unpatched vulnerabilities working microsoft apple google get vulnerabilities patched would release information would put public risk fixes released manufacturers would release details vulnerabilities none vulnerabilities currently released zero-day exploits press release assange also read official statement microsoft stated microsoft desire next geneva convention would protect people government cyber weapons way previous geneva conventions protected noncombatants warfare statement issued 19 march 2017 assange said technology companies contacted agreed disagreed questioned termed wikileaks standard industry disclosure plan standard disclosure time vulnerability 90 days company responsible patching software given full details flaw according wikileaks mozilla provided information vulnerabilities google companies confirmed receiving initial notification wikileaks stated lagging companies conflicts interest due classified work us government agencies practice associations limit industry staff us security clearances fixing holes based leaked information cia companies choose secure users cia nsa attacks users may prefer organizations mozilla european companies prioritize users government contracts 23 march 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 2 dark matter publication includes documentation several cia efforts hack apple iphones macs 31 march 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 3 marble contained 676 source code files cia marble framework used obfuscate scramble malware code attempt make anti-virus firms investigators understand code attribute source according wikileaks code also included de-obfuscator reverse obfuscation effects 7 april 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 4 dubbed grasshopper publication contains 27 documents cia grasshopper framework used cia build customized persistent malware payloads microsoft windows operating systems grasshopper focused personal security product psp avoidance psps antivirus software ms security essentials symantec endpoint kaspersky 14 april 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 5 titled hive based cia top-secret virus program created embedded development branch edb six documents published wikileaks related hive multi-platform cia malware suite cia back-end infrastructure public-facing https interface used cia transfer information target desktop computers smartphones cia open devices receive commands cia operators execute specific tasks also called listening post lp command control c2 hiding presence behind unsuspicious-looking public domains masking interface known switchblade 21 april 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 6 code-named weeping angel hacking tool co-developed cia mi5 used exploit series smart tvs purpose covert intelligence gathering installed suitable televisions usb stick hacking tool enables televisions built-in microphones possibly video cameras record surroundings televisions falsely appear turned recorded data either stored locally television memory sent internet cia allegedly cia mi5 agencies collaborated develop malware coordinated work joint development workshops part 6 publication weeping angel second major cia hacking tool notably references british television show dr. alongside sonic screwdriver dark matter 28 april 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 7 scribbles leak includes documentation source code tool intended track documents leaked whistleblowers journalists embedding web beacon tags classified documents trace leaked tool affects microsoft office documents specifically microsoft office 2013 windows 8.1 x64 documents office versions 97-2016 office 95 documents work ocuments locked encrypted password-protected cia watermarked document opened invisible image within document hosted agency server loaded generating http request request logged server giving intelligence agency information opening opened however watermarked document opened alternative word processor image may visible viewer documentation also states document viewed offline protected view watermarked image able contact home server overridden user enables editing 5 may 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 8 archimedes according u.s. sans institute instructor jake williams analyzed published documents archimedes virus previously codenamed fulcrum according cyber security expert enisa member pierluigi paganini cia operators use archimedes redirect local area network lan web browser sessions targeted computer computer controlled cia sessions routed users type attack known man-in-the-middle mitm publication wikileaks included number hashes claim used potentially identify archimedes virus guard future paganini stated potential targeted computers search hashes systems check systems attacked cia 12 may 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 9 aftermidnight assassin aftermidnight malware installed target personal computer disguises dll file executed user computer reboots triggers connection cia command control c2 computer downloads various modules run assassin similar aftermidnight counterpart deceptively runs inside windows service process cia operators reportedly use assassin c2 execute series tasks collect periodically send user data cia listening post lp similar backdoor trojan behavior aftermidnight assassin run windows operating system persistent periodically beacon configured lp either request tasks send private information cia well automatically uninstall set date time 19 may 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 10 athena published user guide demo related documents created september 2015 february 2016 malware allegedly developed cia august 2015 roughly one month microsoft released windows 10 firm statements difficult compromise primary athena malware secondary malware named hera similar theory grasshopper aftermidnight malware significant differences one differences athena hera developed cia new hampshire private corporation called siege technologies bloomberg 2014 interview founder siege technologies confirmed justified development malware athena malware completely hijacks windows remote access services hera hijacks windows dnscache service also athena hera affect current versions windows including limited windows server 2012 windows 10 another difference types encryption used infected computers cia listening posts lp similarities exploit persistent dll files create backdoor communicate cia lp steal private data send cia servers delete private data target computer well command control c2 cia operatives send additional malicious software run specific tasks attacked computer designed deceive computer security software beside published detailed documents wikileaks provided evidence suggesting cia used athena 1 june 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 11 pandemic tool serves persistent implant affecting windows machines shared folders functions file system filter driver infected computer listens server message block traffic detecting download attempts computers local network pandemic answer download request behalf infected computer however replace legitimate file malware order obfuscate activities pandemic modifies replaces legitimate file transit leaving original server unchanged implant allows 20 files modified time maximum individual file size 800mb stated leaked documentation possible newly infected computers could become pandemic file servers allowing implant reach new targets local network 15 june 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 12 cherry blossom 22 june 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 13 brutal kangaroo 28 june 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 14 elsa 29 june 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 15 outlawcountry 6 july 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 16 bothanspy 13 july 2017 wikileaks published vault 7 part 17 highrise ucl raytheon 19 july 2017 imperial 27 july 2017 dumbo 3 august 2017 couchpotato 10 august 2017 wikileaks publishes secret documents expresslane project cia documents show one cyber operations cia conducts liaison services -- includes among many others national security agency nsa department homeland security dhs federal bureau investigation fbi ots office technical services branch within cia biometric collection system provided liaison services around world -- expectation sharing biometric takes collected systems 'voluntary sharing obviously work considered insufficient cia expresslane covert information collection tool used cia secretly exfiltrate data collections systems provided liaison services expresslane installed run cover upgrading biometric software ots agents visit liaison sites liaison officers overseeing procedure remain unsuspicious data exfiltration disguises behind windows installation splash screen core components ots system based products cross match us company specializing biometric software law enforcement intelligence community company hit headlines 2011 reported us military used cross match product identify osama bin laden assassination operation pakistan.- 24 august 2017 angelfire 31 august 2017 protego 7 september 2017 asked authenticity former director central intelligence agency michael hayden replied organization comment authenticity content purported intelligence documents however speaking condition anonymity current former intelligence officials said documents appear genuine edward snowden tweeted shortly documents release looked authentic robert m. chesney law professor university texas director technology public policy program center strategic international studies csis likened vault 7 nsa hacking tools disclosed 2016 group calling shadow brokers 15 march 2017 president donald trump stated interview cia hacked lot things taken following day statement democratic congressman adam schiff ranking member house intelligence committee wrote news release effort blame obama president appeared discussed something true accurate would otherwise considered classified information schiff also said president power declassify whatever wants wikileaks said documents came isolated high-security network situated inside cia center cyber intelligence cci langley virginia documents allowed wikileaks partially determine structure organization cci cci reportedly entire unit devoted compromising apple products cybersecurity firm symantec analyzed vault 7 documents found described software closely matched cyberattacks longhorn monitored since 2014 symantec previously suspected longhorn government-sponsored tracked usage 40 targets 16 countries first portion documents made public 7 march 2017 vault 7 year zero revealed top secret cia unit used german city frankfurt starting point hacking attacks europe china middle east according documents u.s. government uses consulate general office frankfurt hacker base cyber operations wikileaks documents reveal frankfurt hackers part center cyber intelligence europe ccie given cover identities diplomatic passports obfuscate customs officers gain entry germany chief public prosecutor general federal court justice karlsruhe peter frank announced 8 march 2017 government conducting preliminary investigation see launch major probe activities conducted consulate also broadly whether people germany attacked cia germany foreign minister sigmar gabriel social democratic party responded documents vault 7 year zero cia used frankfurt base digital espionage operations saying germany information cyber attacks documents reportedly revealed agency amassed large collection cyberattack techniques malware produced hackers library reportedly maintained cia remote devices branch umbrage group examples using techniques source code contained umbrage component library git repository according wikileaks recycling techniques third-parties umbrage cia increase total number attacks also mislead forensic investigators disguising attacks work groups nations among techniques borrowed umbrage file wiping implementation used shamoon according pc world techniques code snippets used cia internal projects whose end result inferred leaks pc world noted practice planting false flags deter attribution new development cyberattacks russian north korean israeli hacker groups among suspected using false flags according study kim zetter intercept umbrage probably much focused speeding development repurposing existing tools rather planting false flags robert graham ceo errata security told intercept source code referenced umbrage documents extremely public likely used multitude groups state actors graham added conclusively say evidence documents 're creating snippets code use projects 're reusing methods code find internet ... elsewhere talk obscuring attacks ca n't see coming concrete plan false flag operation 're trying say 'we 're going make look like russia day vault 7 documents first released wikileaks described umbrage substantial library attack techniques 'stolen malware produced states including russian federation tweeted cia steals groups virus malware facilitating false flag attacks conspiracy theory soon emerged alleging cia framed russian government interfering 2016 u.s. elections conservative commentators sean hannity ann coulter speculated possibility twitter rush limbaugh discussed radio show russian foreign minister sergey lavrov said vault 7 showed cia could get access 'fingerprints use cybersecurity writers ben buchanan kevin poulsen skeptical theories poulsen wrote leaked catalog n't organized country origin specific malware used russian dnc hackers nowhere list documents describe marble framework string obfuscator used hide text fragments malware visual inspection part program foreign languages used cover source cia hacks according wikileaks reached 1.0 2015 used cia throughout 2016 release wikileaks described primary purpose marble insert foreign language text malware mask viruses trojans hacking attacks making difficult tracked cia cause forensic investigators falsely attribute code wrong nation source code revealed marble examples chinese russian korean arabic persian languages us main cyber-adversaries – china russia north korea iran analysts called wikileaks description marble main purpose inaccurate telling hill main purpose probably avoid detection antivirus programs marble also contained deobfuscator tool cia could reverse text obfuscation security researcher nicholas weaver international computer science institute berkeley told washington post appears one technically damaging leaks ever done wikileaks seems designed directly disrupt ongoing cia operations hammerdrill cd/dvd collection tool collects directory walks files configured directory filename pattern well logging cd/dvd insertion removal events v2.0 adds gap jumping capability trojans 32-bit executables burned disc nero additionally v2.0 adds status termination on-demand collection feature controlled hammerdrillstatus.dll hammerdrillkiller.dll hammerdrillcollector.dll logging also fingerprints discs hashing first two blocks iso image enables unique identification multi-sessions discs even data added removed log also logs anytime hammerdrill trojaned binary seen disc wikileaks released first installment vault 7 year zero apple stated many issues leaked today already patched latest ios company continue work rapidly address identified vulnerabilities 23 march 2017 wikileaks released dark matter second batch documents vault 7 series detailing hacking techniques tools focusing apple products developed embedded development branch edb cia leak also revealed cia targeting iphone since 2008 year device released edb projects attacked apple firmware meaning attack code would persist even device rebooted dark matter archive included documents 2009 2013 apple issued second statement assuring based initial analysis alleged iphone vulnerability affected iphone 3g fixed 2009 iphone 3gs released additionally preliminary assessment showed alleged mac vulnerabilities previously fixed macs launched 2013 wikileaks said 19 march 2017 twitter cia secretly exploiting vulnerability huge range cisco router models discovered thanks vault 7 documents cia learned year ago exploit flaws cisco widely used internet switches direct electronic traffic enable eavesdropping cisco quickly reassigned staff projects turn focus solely analyzing attack figure cia hacking worked could help customers patch systems prevent criminal hackers spies using similar methods 20 march cisco researchers confirmed study vault 7 documents showed cia developed malware could exploit flaw found 318 cisco switch models alter take control network cisco issued warning security risks patches available cisco provided mitigation advice electronic tools reportedly compromise apple ios google android operating systems adding malware android operating system tools could gain access secure communications made device according wikileaks android smartphone penetrated agency collect audio message traffic encryption applied agency software reportedly able gain access messages sent instant messaging services method accessing messages differs obtaining access decrypting already encrypted message encryption messengers offer end-to-end encryption telegram whatsapp signal n't reported cracked encryption bypassed capturing input encryption applied methods keylogging recording touch input user commentators among snowden cryptographer security pundit bruce schneier observed wikileaks incorrectly implied messaging apps underlying encryption compromised implication turn reported period new york times mainstream outlets one document reportedly showed cia researching ways infect vehicle control systems wikileaks stated purpose control specified would permit cia engage nearly undetectable assassinations statement brought renewed attention conspiracy theories surrounding death michael hastings documents refer windows fax dll injection exploit windows xp windows vista windows 7 operating systems would allow user malicious intents hide malware dll another application however computer must already compromised another method injection take place 7 march 2017 edward snowden commented importance release stating reveals united states government developing vulnerabilities us products intentionally keeping holes open considers highly reckless 7 march 2017 nathan white senior legislative manager internet advocacy group access writes 8 march 2017 lee mathews contributor forbes wrote hacking techniques described vault 7 already known many cybersecurity experts 8 march 2017 note revealed techniques tools likely used targeted surveillance revealed edward snowden press conference assange stated leaks content least means engage targeted attacks expensive might trail also stated exposed cia automated implant branch develops uses viruses also automates done may approach level bulk intersection 8 april 2017 ashley gorski american civil liberties union staff attorney called critical understand vulnerabilities exploited government foreign governments cyber criminals around world justin cappos professor computer science engineering department new york university asks government knows problem phone bad guys could use hack phone ability spy weakness use counterterrorism spying capabilities problem fix everyone 8 april 2017 cindy cohn executive director international non-profit digital rights group based san francisco electronic frontier foundation said c.i.a walking past front door saw lock broken least tell maybe even help get fixed worse lost track information kept criminals hostile foreign governments know broken lock furthermore stated cia failed accurately assess risk disclosing vulnerabilities even spy agencies like cia responsibility protect security privacy americans freedom private conversation – free worry hostile government rogue government agent competitor criminal listening – central free society strict privacy laws europe fourth amendment us constitution guarantee right free unreasonable searches seizures 12 may 2017 microsoft president chief legal officer brad smith wrote emerging pattern 2017 seen vulnerabilities stored cia show wikileaks words smith expressed concern fact cia stockpiled computer vulnerabilities turn stolen failed inform microsoft timely fashion security breach result privacy security customers around world potentially negatively affected extended period caused widespread damage 1-hop neighbor's text information: stars_virus.stars virus stars virus computer virus infects computers running microsoft windows named discovered iranian authorities april 2011 iran claimed used tool commit espionage western researchers came believe probably thing duqu virus part stuxnet attack iran stars virus studied laboratory iran – means major vendors antivirus software access samples therefore could assess potential relation duqu stuxnet foreign computer experts say seen evidence virus even doubt actual existence iran claiming stars harmful computer systems said inflict minor damage initial stage might mistaken executable files governmental organizations second attack claimed iran stuxnet computer worm discovered july 2010 targeted industrial software equipment researchers came believe stars virus found iranian computer specialists duqu virus duqu virus keylogger embedded jpeg file since file taken keylogger portion image remained turned image taken hubble telescope showing cluster stars aftermath two galaxies colliding symantec kaspersky crysys researchers came believe duqu stars virus Target text information: rootpipe.rootpipe rootpipe security vulnerability found versions os x allows privilege escalation whereby user administrative rights program executed administrative user obtain superuser root access considered problematic first user account created os x furnished administrator rights default leveraging security vulnerabilities system unpatched web browser rootpipe could used attacker help gain complete control operating system emil kvarnhammar truesec security firm credited discovery says found vulnerability several days binary analysis recommends creating account without administrative privileges used normal everyday work using filevault older exploit issue later published exploit-db suggesting issue dates back june 2010 appears exploit used author presentation trusteer rapport 44con 2011 vulnerability reported apple inc. october 2014 reported present os x versions 10.7.5 10.8.2 10.9.5 10.10.2 os x 10.10.3 officially designated patched apple kvarnhammar crediting patrick wardle blogged vulnerability still present version 1 july 2015 kvarnhammer noted additional restrictions introduced os x 10.10.4 adding comment two days later believed then-current versions os x 10.9 security update 2015-005 10.10 safe exploit november 2017 similar vulnerability revealed allowed logging root password I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,484	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: union_mount.union mount computer operating systems union mounting way combining multiple directories one appears contain combined contents union mounting supported linux bsd several successors plan 9 similar subtly different behavior example application union mounting consider need update information contained cd-rom dvd cd-rom writable one overlay cd mount point writable directory union mount updating files union directory cause end writable directory giving illusion cd-rom contents updated plan 9 operating system bell labs mid-1980s onward union mounting central concept replacing several older unix conventions union directories example several directories containing executables unioned together single directory replace variable command lookup shell plan 9 union semantics greatly simplified compared implementations posix-style operating systems union two directories simply concatenation contents directory listing union may display duplicate names also effort made recursively merge subdirectories leading extremely simple implementation directories unioned controllable order union directory denotes file called first constituent directory contains file unix/posix implementations unions different requirements plan 9 implementation due constraints traditional unix file system behavior greatly complicates implementation often leads compromises problems union mounting unix-like operating systems encounters include early attempts add unioning unix filesystems included 3-d filesystem bell labs translucent file service sunos sun microsystems 1988 implementation union mounting added bsd version unix version 4.4 1994 taking inspiration earlier attempts plan 9 stackable file systems spring sun 1994 4.4bsd implements stack-of-directories approach outlined like plan 9 operations traverse stack top-down resolve names unlike plan 9 bsd union mounts recursive contents subdirectories appear merged union directory also unlike plan 9 version layers except top read-only modifying files union causes contents first copied top layer stack modifications applied deletion files implemented writing special type file called whiteout top directory effect marking file name non-existent hiding files name lower layers stack whiteouts require support underlying file system union mounting implemented linux 0.99 1993 initial implementation called inheriting file system abandoned developer complexity next major implementation unionfs grew fist project stony brook university attempt replace unionfs aufs released 2006 followed 2009 overlayfs 2014 last union mount implementation added standard linux kernel source code similarly glusterfs offers possibility mount different filesystems distributed across network rather located machine 1-hop neighbor's text information: file_descriptor.file descriptor unix related computer operating systems file descriptor fd less frequently fildes abstract indicator handle used access file input/output resource pipe network socket file descriptors form part posix application programming interface file descriptor non-negative integer generally represented c programming language type negative values reserved indicate value error condition unix process except perhaps daemon expect three standard posix file descriptors corresponding three standard streams traditional implementation unix file descriptors index per-process maintained kernel turn indexes system-wide table files opened processes called table records mode file resource opened reading writing appending possibly modes also indexes third table called inode table describes actual underlying files perform input output process passes file descriptor kernel system call kernel access file behalf process process direct access file inode tables linux set file descriptors open process accessed path codice_1 pid process identifier unix-like systems file descriptors refer unix file type named file system well regular files includes directories block character devices also called special files unix domain sockets named pipes file descriptors also refer objects normally exist file system anonymous pipes network sockets file data structure c standard i/o library usually includes low level file descriptor object question unix-like systems overall data structure provides additional abstraction instead known file handle following lists typical operations file descriptors modern unix-like systems functions declared codice_2 header codice_3 header instead function used perform various operations file descriptor depending command argument passed commands get set attributes associated file descriptor including series new operations file descriptors added many modern unix-like systems well numerous c libraries standardized future version posix codice_4 suffix signifies function takes additional first argument supplying file descriptor relative paths resolved forms lacking codice_4 suffix thus becoming equivalent passing file descriptor corresponding current working directory purpose new operations defend certain class tocttou attacks unix file descriptors behave many ways capabilities passed processes across unix domain sockets using codice_6 system call note however actually passed reference open file description mutable state file offset file status access flags complicates secure use file descriptors capabilities since programs share access open file description interfere use changing offset whether blocking non-blocking example operating systems specifically designed capability systems rarely mutable state associated capability unix process file descriptor table example c-list 1-hop neighbor's text information: everything_is_a_file.everything file everything file describes one defining features unix derivatives—that wide range input/output resources documents directories hard-drives modems keyboards printers even inter-process network communications simple streams bytes exposed filesystem name space advantage approach set tools utilities apis used wide range resources number file types file opened file descriptor created file path becoming addressing system file descriptor byte stream i/o interface file descriptors also created things like anonymous pipes network sockets via different methods therefore accurate description feature everything file descriptor additionally range pseudo virtual filesystems exists exposes information processes system information hierarchical file-like structure mounted single file hierarchy example purely virtual filesystem /proc exposes many system properties files files broader sense word standard unix file attributes owner access permissions queried classic unix tools filters however universally considered fast portable approach operating systems even mount /proc default due security speed concerns though used heavily widely installed busybox embedded systems procps used linux systems cases used implementations process-related posix shell commands similarly used android systems operating system toolbox program unix successor plan 9 took concept distributed computing 9p protocol Target text information: unix_file_types.unix file types standard unix file types regular directory symbolic link fifo special block special character special socket defined posix different os-specific implementations allow types posix requires e.g solaris doors file type identified codice_1 command displays type first character file system permissions field regular files unix impose provide internal file structure therefore structure interpretation entirely dependent software using however codice_2 command used determine type data contain take example one line codice_1 output posix specifies format output long format codice_4 option particular first field first space dubbed file mode string first character describes file type rest string indicates file permissions therefore example mode string codice_5 file type codice_6 directory permissions codice_7 internally codice_8 obtains codice_9 structure associated file transforms codice_10 field human-readable format note codice_10 actually bit field two parts file type stored within codice_12 mask tested macros like codice_13 codice_14 value mask codice_12 get file type flags gnu coreutils version codice_8 uses call codice_17 glibc function exposed gnulib library get mode string freebsd uses simpler approach allows smaller number file types regular files show codice_1 hyphen-minus codice_19 mode field common special file directory layout directory file defined filesystem used several filesystems available unix native non-native one directory file layout directory marked codice_6 first letter mode field output codice_21 codice_9 e.g symbolic link reference another file special file stored textual representation referenced file path means destination may relative path may exist symbolic link marked codice_23 lower case codice_24 first letter mode string e.g one strengths unix always inter-process communication among facilities provided os pipes connect output one process input another fine processes exist parent process space started user circumstances communicating processes must use fifos referred named pipes one circumstance occurs processes must executed different user names permissions named pipes special files exist anywhere file system created command codice_25 codice_26 named pipe marked codice_27 first letter mode string e.g socket special file used inter-process communication enables communication two processes addition sending data processes send file descriptors across unix domain socket connection using codice_28 codice_29 system calls unlike named pipes allow unidirectional data flow sockets fully duplex-capable socket marked codice_30 first letter mode string e.g unix almost things handled files location file system even hardware devices like hard drives great exception network devices turn file system handled separately device files used apply access rights devices direct operations files appropriate device drivers unix makes distinction character devices block devices distinction roughly follows although example disk partitions may character devices provide un-buffered random access blocks partition block devices provide buffered random access blocks partition character device marked codice_31 first letter mode string likewise block device marked codice_32 e.g door special file inter-process communication client server currently implemented solaris door marked codice_33 upper case first letter mode string e.g I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	2,479	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: poul-henning_kamp.poul-henning kamp poul-henning kamp born 1966 danish computer software developer known work various projects currently resides slagelse denmark poul-henning kamp committing freebsd project duration responsible widely used md5crypt implementation md5 password hash algorithm vast quantity systems code including freebsd geom storage layer gbde cryptographic storage transform part ufs2 file system implementation freebsd jails malloc library ntp timecounters code lead architect developer open source varnish cache project http accelerator 2006 kamp dispute electronics manufacturer d-link claimed committing ntp vandalism embedding ip address ntp servers routers dispute resolved 27 april 2006 post poul-henning freebsd mailing lists responsible popularization term bike shed discussion derived term bikeshedding describe parkinson law triviality open source projects amount discussion subject receives inversely proportional importance poul-henning kamp known preference beerware license gnu general public license gpl poul-henning kamp made various anti-semitic comments blaming world jews collectively responsible actions israel may 8 2019 tweeted thought anti-semitism unfounded hatred jews hate something awful like implement apartheid anti-semitism perfectly justified critique people particular know better clarifying blog post later wrote readily admit probably skilled use twitter stand point kamp went say detests cowardice appaled sic arms atrocities uns human rights done name religion poul-henning kamp published substantial number articles years publications like communications acm acm queue mostly topics computing time keeping selection publications 1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu_privacy_guard.gnu privacy guard gnu privacy guard gnupg gpg free-software replacement symantec pgp cryptographic software suite compliant rfc 4880 ietf standards-track specification openpgp modern versions pgp interoperable gnupg openpgp-compliant systems gnupg part gnu project received major funding german government gnupg hybrid-encryption software program uses combination conventional symmetric-key cryptography speed public-key cryptography ease secure key exchange typically using recipient public key encrypt session key used mode operation part openpgp standard part pgp first version gnupg 1.x series uses integrated cryptographic library gnupg 2.x series replaces libgcrypt gnupg encrypts messages using asymmetric key pairs individually generated gnupg users resulting public keys may exchanged users variety ways internet key servers must always exchanged carefully prevent identity spoofing corrupting public key ↔ owner identity correspondences also possible add cryptographic digital signature message message integrity sender verified particular correspondence relied upon corrupted gnupg also supports symmetric encryption algorithms default gnupg uses aes symmetrical algorithm since version 2.1 cast5 used earlier versions gnupg use patented otherwise restricted software algorithms instead gnupg uses variety non-patented algorithms long time support idea encryption algorithm used pgp fact possible use idea gnupg downloading plugin however might require license uses countries idea patented starting versions 1.4.13 2.0.20 gnupg supports idea last patent idea expired 2012 support idea intended get rid questions folks either trying decrypt old data migrating keys pgp gnupg hence recommended regular use versions 2.0.26 1.4.18 gnupg supports following algorithms recent releases gnupg 2.x modern deprecated stable series expose cryptographic functions algorithms libgcrypt cryptography library provides including support elliptic curve cryptography ecdsa ecdh eddsa modern series i.e since gnupg 2.1 gnupg initially developed werner koch first production version version 1.0.0 released september 7 1999 almost two years first gnupg release version 0.0.0 german federal ministry economics technology funded documentation port microsoft windows 2000 gnupg system compliant openpgp standard thus history openpgp importance designed interoperate pgp email encryption program initially designed developed phil zimmermann february 7 2014 gnupg crowdfunding effort closed raising €36,732 new web site infrastructure improvements two actively maintained branches gnupg different gnupg 2.x versions e.g 2.2 2.0 branches installed time however possible install classic gnupg version i.e 1.4 branch along gnupg 2.x version release gnupg 2.2 modern deprecated stable branch 2.0 recommended general use initially released november 13 2006 branch reached end-of-life december 31 2017 last version 2.0.31 released december 29 2017 release gnupg 2.0 stable releases originated single branch i.e. november 13 2006 multiple release branches maintained parallel former sequentially succeeding 1.4 release branches although basic gnupg program command-line interface exists various front-ends provide graphical user interface example gnupg encryption support integrated kmail evolution graphical email clients found kde gnome popular linux desktops also graphical gnupg front-ends example seahorse gnome kgpg kde gpg suite project provides number aqua front-ends os integration encryption key management well gnupg installations via installer packages macos furthermore gpg suite installer installs related openpgp applications gpg keychain access plugins gpgmail dependencies macgpg use gnupg based encryption instant messaging applications psi fire automatically secure messages gnupg installed configured web-based software horde also makes use cross-platform extension enigmail provides gnupg support mozilla thunderbird seamonkey similarly enigform provides gnupg support mozilla firefox firegpg discontinued june 7 2010 2005 g10 code gmbh intevation gmbh released gpg4win software suite includes gnupg windows gnu privacy assistant gnupg plug-ins windows explorer outlook tools wrapped standard windows installer making easier gnupg installed used windows systems command-line-based system gnupg 1.x written api may incorporated software overcome gpgme abbreviated gnupg made easy created api wrapper around gnupg parses output gnupg provides stable maintainable api components currently requires out-of-process call gnupg executable many gpgme api calls result possible security problems application propagate actual crypto code due process barrier various graphical front-ends based gpgme created since gnupg 2.0 many gnupg functions available directly c apis libgcrypt openpgp standard specifies several methods digitally signing messages 2003 due error change gnupg intended make one methods efficient security vulnerability introduced affected one method digitally signing messages releases gnupg 1.0.2 1.2.3 fewer 1000 keys listed key servers people use method case discouraged damage caused since none publicly reported would appear minimal support method removed gnupg versions released discovery 1.2.4 later two vulnerabilities discovered early 2006 first scripted uses gnupg signature verification may result false positives second non-mime messages vulnerable injection data covered digital signature would reported part signed message cases updated versions gnupg made available time announcement june 2017 vulnerability cve-2017-7526 discovered within libgcrypt bernstein breitner others library used gnupg enabled full key recovery rsa-1024 1/8th rsa-2048 keys side-channel attack exploits fact libgcrypt used sliding windows method exponentiation leads leakage exponent bits full key recovery updated version gnupg made available time announcement october 2017 roca vulnerability announced affects rsa keys generated yubikey 4 tokens often used pgp/gpg many published pgp keys found susceptible around june 2018 sigspoof attacks announced allowed attacker convincingly spoof digital signatures notable applications front ends browser extensions support gpg include following may 2014 washington post reported 12-minute video guide gpg journalists posted vimeo january 2013 user named anon108 post identified anon108 fugitive nsa whistleblower edward snowden said made tutorial — narrated digitally disguised voice whose speech patterns sound similar snowden — teach journalist glenn greenwald email encryption greenwald said could confirm authorship video Target text information: crypt_(unix).crypt unix unix computing crypt utility program used encryption due ease breaking considered obsolete cryptographer robert morris wrote crypt first appeared version 3 unix encourage codebreaking experiments morris managed break crypt hand dennis ritchie automated decryption method james reeds improved version appeared version 7 reeds peter j. weinberger also broke also unix password hash function name crypt though used encrypting data sense otherwise essentially unrelated distinguish two writers often refer utility program crypt 1 documented section 1 unix manual pages refer password hash function crypt 3 documentation section 3 manual crypt 1 simple command encrypt decrypt data usually used filter traditionally implemented using algorithm based enigma machine considered cryptographically far weak provide security brute-force attacks modern commodity personal computers versions unix shipped even weaker version crypt 1 command order comply contemporaneous laws regulations limited exportation cryptographic software simply implementations caesar cipher effectively secure rot13 implemented caesar cipher well-known key linux distributions generally include unix compatible version crypt command largely due combination three major factors source code several old versions crypt command available unix heritage society unix archive recent crypt source code available opensolaris project enhanced symmetric encryption utilities available linux also portable unix-like system including mcrypt ccrypt provide support much sophisticated modern algorithms used encrypt decrypt files compatible traditional crypt 1 command providing correct command line options programs breaking crypt 1 encryption widely available bob baldwin crypt breaker workbench written 1984-1985 interactive tool provides successive plaintext guesses must corrected user peter selinger unixcrypt-breaker uses simple statistical model guess plausible plaintexts require user interaction I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,617	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: bashlite.bashlite bashlite also known gafgyt lizkebab qbot torlus lizardstresser malware infects linux systems order launch distributed denial-of-service attacks ddos originally also known name bashdoor term refers exploit method used malware used launch attacks 400 gbps original version 2014 exploited flaw bash shell shellshock software bug exploit devices running busybox months later variant detected could also infect vulnerable devices local network 2015 source code leaked causing proliferation different variants 2016 reported one million devices infected identifiable devices participating botnets august 2016 almost 96 percent iot devices 95 percent cameras dvrs roughly 4 percent home routers less 1 percent compromised linux servers bashlite written c designed easily cross-compile various computer architectures exact capabilities differ variants common features generate several different types ddos attacks hold open tcp connections send random string junk characters tcp udp port repeatedly send tcp packets specified flags may also mechanism run arbitrary shell commands infected machine facilities reflected amplification attacks bashlite uses client–server model command control protocol used communication essentially lightweight version internet relay chat irc even though supports multiple command control servers variants single command control ip-address hardcoded propagates via brute forcing using built-in dictionary common usernames passwords malware connects random ip addresses attempts login successful logins reported back command control server 1-hop neighbor's text information: festi_botnet.festi botnet festi botnet also known alias spamnost botnet mostly involved email spam denial service attacks festi botnet first discovered around autumn 2009 time estimated botnet consisted roughly infected machines spam volume capacity roughly 2.5 billion spam emails day recent estimates dated august 2012 display botnet sending spam unique ip addresses quarter total amount 1 million detected ip sending spam mails besides capable sending email spam research festi botnet demonstrated also capable performing denial service attacks 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_virus.computer virus computer virus type malware executed replicates modifying computer programs inserting code replication succeeds affected areas said infected computer virus virus writers use social engineering deceptions exploit detailed knowledge security vulnerabilities initially infect systems spread virus vast majority viruses target systems running microsoft windows employing variety mechanisms infect new hosts often using complex anti-detection/stealth strategies evade antivirus software motives creating viruses include seeking profit e.g. ransomware desire send political message personal amusement demonstrate vulnerability exists software sabotage denial service simply wish explore cybersecurity issues artificial life evolutionary algorithms computer viruses currently cause billions dollars worth economic damage year due causing system failure wasting computer resources corrupting data increasing maintenance costs stealing personal information etc response free open-source antivirus tools developed industry antivirus software cropped selling freely distributing virus protection users various operating systems even though currently existing antivirus software able uncover computer viruses especially new ones computer security researchers actively searching new ways enable antivirus solutions effectively detect emerging viruses already become widely distributed term virus also misused extension refer types malware malware encompasses computer viruses along many forms malicious software computer worms ransomware spyware adware trojan horses keyloggers rootkits bootkits malicious browser helper object bhos malicious software majority active malware threats actually trojan horse programs computer worms rather computer viruses term computer virus coined fred cohen 1985 misnomer viruses often perform type harmful activity infected host computers acquisition hard disk space central processing unit cpu time accessing private information e.g. credit card numbers corrupting data displaying political humorous messages user screen spamming e-mail contacts logging keystrokes even rendering computer useless however viruses carry destructive payload attempt hide themselves—the defining characteristic viruses self-replicating computer programs modify software without user consent first academic work theory self-replicating computer programs done 1949 john von neumann gave lectures university illinois theory organization complicated automata work von neumann later published theory self-reproducing automata essay von neumann described computer program could designed reproduce von neumann design self-reproducing computer program considered world first computer virus considered theoretical father computer virology 1972 veith risak directly building von neumann work self-replication published article selbstreproduzierende automaten mit minimaler informationsübertragung self-reproducing automata minimal information exchange article describes fully functional virus written assembler programming language siemens 4004/35 computer system 1980 jürgen kraus wrote diplom thesis selbstreproduktion bei programmen self-reproduction programs university dortmund work kraus postulated computer programs behave way similar biological viruses first known description self-reproducing program short story occurs 1970 story gregory benford describes computer program called virus installed computer telephone modem dialling capability randomly dials phone numbers hit modem answered another computer attempts program answering computer program second computer also begin dialling random numbers search yet another computer program program rapidly spreads exponentially susceptible computers countered second program called vaccine idea explored two 1972 novels harlie one david gerrold terminal man michael crichton became major theme 1975 novel shockwave rider john brunner 1973 michael crichton sci-fi movie westworld made early mention concept computer virus central plot theme causes androids run amok alan oppenheimer character summarizes problem stating ... clear pattern suggests analogy infectious disease process spreading one ... area next replies stated perhaps superficial similarities disease must confess find difficult believe disease machinery creeper virus first detected arpanet forerunner internet early 1970s creeper experimental self-replicating program written bob thomas bbn technologies 1971 creeper used arpanet infect dec pdp-10 computers running tenex operating system creeper gained access via arpanet copied remote system message 'm creeper catch displayed reaper program created delete creeper 1982 program called elk cloner first personal computer virus appear wild —that outside single computer computer lab created written 1981 richard skrenta ninth grader mount lebanon high school near pittsburgh attached apple dos 3.3 operating system spread via floppy disk 50th use elk cloner virus would activated infecting personal computer displaying short poem beginning elk cloner program personality 1984 fred cohen university southern california wrote paper computer viruses – theory experiments first paper explicitly call self-reproducing program virus term introduced cohen mentor leonard adleman 1987 fred cohen published demonstration algorithm perfectly detect possible viruses fred cohen theoretical compression virus example virus malicious software malware putatively benevolent well-intentioned however antivirus professionals accept concept benevolent viruses desired function implemented without involving virus automatic compression instance available windows operating system choice user virus definition make unauthorised changes computer undesirable even damage done intended page one dr solomon virus encyclopaedia undesirability viruses even nothing reproduce thoroughly explained article describes useful virus functionalities published j b. gunn title use virus functions provide virtual apl interpreter user control 1984 first ibm pc virus wild boot sector virus dubbed c brain created 1986 farooq alvi brothers lahore pakistan reportedly deter unauthorized copying software written first virus specifically target microsoft windows winvir discovered april 1992 two years release windows 3.0 virus contain windows api calls instead relying dos interrupts years later february 1996 australian hackers virus-writing crew vlad created bizatch virus also known boza virus first known virus target windows 95 late 1997 encrypted memory-resident stealth virus win32.cabanas released—the first known virus targeted windows nt also able infect windows 3.0 windows 9x hosts even home computers affected viruses first one appear commodore amiga boot sector virus called sca virus detected november 1987 viable computer virus must contain search routine locates new files new disks worthwhile targets infection secondly every computer virus must contain routine copy program search routine locates three main virus parts infection mechanism also called 'infection vector virus spreads propagates virus typically search routine locates new files new disks infection trigger also known logic bomb compiled version could activated time within executable file virus run determines event condition malicious payload activated delivered particular date particular time particular presence another program capacity disk exceeding limit double-click opens particular file payload actual body data performs actual malicious purpose virus payload activity might noticeable e.g. causes system slow freeze time payload harmful activity times non-destructive distributive called virus hoax virus phases life cycle computer virus described using analogy biology life cycle divided four phases virus program idle stage virus program managed access target user computer software stage virus take action virus eventually activated trigger states event execute virus date presence another program file capacity disk exceeding limit user taking certain action e.g. double-clicking certain icon opening e-mail etc. viruses stage virus starts propagating multiplying replicating virus places copy programs certain system areas disk copy may identical propagating version viruses often morph change evade detection professionals anti-virus software infected program contain clone virus enter propagation phase dormant virus moves phase activated perform function intended triggering phase caused variety system events including count number times copy virus made copies actual work virus payload released destructive deleting files disk crashing system corrupting files relatively harmless popping humorous political messages screen computer viruses infect variety different subsystems host computers software one manner classifying viruses analyze whether reside binary executables .exe .com files data files microsoft word documents pdf files boot sector host hard drive combination memory-resident virus simply resident virus installs part operating system executed remains ram time computer booted shut resident viruses overwrite interrupt handling code functions operating system attempts access target file disk sector virus code intercepts request redirects control flow replication module infecting target contrast non-memory-resident virus non-resident virus executed scans disk targets infects exits i.e remain memory done executing many common applications microsoft outlook microsoft word allow macro programs embedded documents emails programs may run automatically document opened macro virus document virus virus written macro language embedded documents users open file virus code executed infect user computer one reasons dangerous open unexpected suspicious attachments e-mails opening attachments e-mails unknown persons organizations help reduce likelihood contracting virus cases virus designed e-mail appears reputable organization e.g. major bank credit card company boot sector viruses specifically target boot sector and/or master boot record mbr host hard disk drive solid-state drive removable storage media flash drives floppy disks etc. email viruses viruses intentionally rather accidentally uses email system spread virus infected files may accidentally sent email attachments email viruses aware email system functions generally target specific type email system microsoft outlook commonly used harvest email addresses various sources may append copies email sent may generate email messages containing copies attachments order avoid detection users viruses employ different kinds deception old viruses especially dos platform make sure last modified date host file stays file infected virus approach fool antivirus software however especially maintain date cyclic redundancy checks file changes viruses infect files without increasing sizes damaging files accomplish overwriting unused areas executable files called cavity viruses example cih virus chernobyl virus infects portable executable files files many empty gaps virus 1 kb length add size file viruses try avoid detection killing tasks associated antivirus software detect example conficker 2010s computers operating systems grow larger complex old hiding techniques need updated replaced defending computer viruses may demand file system migrate towards detailed explicit permission every kind file access kinds antivirus software employ various techniques counter stealth mechanisms infection occurs recourse clean system unreliable microsoft windows operating systems ntfs file system proprietary leaves antivirus software little alternative send read request windows os files handle requests viruses trick antivirus software intercepting requests operating system os virus hide intercepting request read infected file handling request returning uninfected version file antivirus software interception occur code injection actual operating system files would handle read request thus antivirus software attempting detect virus either given permission read infected file read request served uninfected version file reliable method avoid stealth viruses reboot medium known clear security software used check dormant operating system files security software relies virus signatures employ heuristics security software may also use database file hashes windows os files security software identify altered files request windows installation media replace authentic versions older versions windows file cryptographic hash functions windows os files stored windows—to allow file integrity/authenticity checked—could overwritten system file checker would report altered system files authentic using file hashes scan altered files would always guarantee finding infection modern antivirus programs try find virus-patterns inside ordinary programs scanning so-called virus signatures unfortunately term misleading viruses possess unique signatures way human beings virus signature merely sequence bytes antivirus program looks known part virus better term would search strings different antivirus programs employ different search strings indeed different search methods identifying viruses virus scanner finds pattern file perform checks make sure found virus merely coincidental sequence innocent file notifies user file infected user delete cases clean heal infected file viruses employ techniques make detection means signatures difficult probably impossible viruses modify code infection infected file contains different variant virus one method evading signature detection use simple encryption encipher encode body virus leaving encryption module static cryptographic key cleartext change one infection next case virus consists small decrypting module encrypted copy virus code virus encrypted different key infected file part virus remains constant decrypting module would example appended end case virus scanner directly detect virus using signatures still detect decrypting module still makes indirect detection virus possible since would symmetric keys stored infected host entirely possible decrypt final virus probably required since self-modifying code rarity may reason virus scanners least flag file suspicious old compact way use arithmetic operation like addition subtraction use logical conditions xoring byte virus constant exclusive-or operation repeated decryption suspicious code modify code encryption/decryption may part signature many virus definitions simpler older approach use key encryption consisted operations parameters like incrementing decrementing bitwise rotation arithmetic negation logical viruses called polymorphic viruses employ means encryption inside executable virus encrypted certain events virus scanner disabled updates computer rebooted called cryptovirology said times executable decrypt virus execute hidden runtimes infecting computer sometimes disabling antivirus software polymorphic code first technique posed serious threat virus scanners like regular encrypted viruses polymorphic virus infects files encrypted copy decoded decryption module case polymorphic viruses however decryption module also modified infection well-written polymorphic virus therefore parts remain identical infections making difficult detect directly using signatures antivirus software detect decrypting viruses using emulator statistical pattern analysis encrypted virus body enable polymorphic code virus polymorphic engine also called mutating engine mutation engine somewhere encrypted body see polymorphic code technical detail engines operate viruses employ polymorphic code way constrains mutation rate virus significantly example virus programmed mutate slightly time programmed refrain mutating infects file computer already contains copies virus advantage using slow polymorphic code makes difficult antivirus professionals investigators obtain representative samples virus bait files infected one run typically contain identical similar samples virus make likely detection virus scanner unreliable instances virus may able avoid detection avoid detected emulation viruses rewrite completely time infect new executables viruses utilize technique said metamorphic code enable metamorphism metamorphic engine needed metamorphic virus usually large complex example w32/simile consisted 14,000 lines assembly language code 90 part metamorphic engine software often designed security features prevent unauthorized use system resources many viruses must exploit manipulate security bugs security defects system application software spread infect computers software development strategies produce large numbers bugs generally also produce potential exploitable holes entrances virus order replicate virus must permitted execute code write memory reason many viruses attach executable files may part legitimate programs see code injection user attempts launch infected program virus code may executed simultaneously operating systems use file extensions determine program associations microsoft windows extensions may hidden user default makes possible create file different type appears user example executable may created named picture.png.exe user sees picture.png therefore assumes file digital image likely safe yet opened runs executable client machine vast majority viruses target systems running microsoft windows due microsoft large market share desktop computer users diversity software systems network limits destructive potential viruses malware open-source operating systems linux allow users choose variety desktop environments packaging tools etc. means malicious code targeting systems affect subset users many windows users running set applications enabling viruses rapidly spread among microsoft windows systems targeting exploits large numbers hosts linux unix general always natively prevented normal users making changes operating system environment without permission windows users generally prevented making changes meaning viruses easily gain control entire system windows hosts difference continued partly due widespread use administrator accounts contemporary versions like windows xp 1997 researchers created released virus linux—known bliss bliss however requires user run explicitly infect programs user access modify unlike windows users unix users log administrator root user except install configure software result even user ran virus could harm operating system bliss virus never became widespread remains chiefly research curiosity creator later posted source code usenet allowing researchers see worked many users install antivirus software detect eliminate known viruses computer attempts download run executable file may distributed email attachment usb flash drives example antivirus software blocks known malicious websites attempt install malware antivirus software change underlying capability hosts transmit viruses users must update software regularly patch security vulnerabilities holes antivirus software also needs regularly updated order recognize latest threats malicious hackers individuals always creating new viruses german av-test institute publishes evaluations antivirus software windows android examples microsoft windows anti virus anti-malware software include optional microsoft security essentials windows xp vista windows 7 real-time protection windows malicious software removal tool included windows security updates patch tuesday second tuesday month windows defender optional download case windows xp additionally several capable antivirus software programs available free download internet usually restricted non-commercial use free programs almost good commercial competitors common security vulnerabilities assigned cve ids listed us national vulnerability database secunia psi example software free personal use check pc vulnerable out-of-date software attempt update ransomware phishing scam alerts appear press releases internet crime complaint center noticeboard ransomware virus posts message user screen saying screen system remain locked unusable ransom payment made phishing deception malicious individual pretends friend computer security expert benevolent individual goal convincing targeted individual reveal passwords personal information commonly used preventative measures include timely operating system updates software updates careful internet browsing avoiding shady websites installation trusted software certain browsers flag sites reported google confirmed hosting malware google two common methods antivirus software application uses detect viruses described antivirus software article first far common method virus detection using list virus signature definitions works examining content computer memory random access memory ram boot sectors files stored fixed removable drives hard drives floppy drives usb flash drives comparing files database known virus signatures virus signatures strings code used identify individual viruses virus antivirus designer tries choose unique signature string found legitimate program different antivirus programs use different signatures identify viruses disadvantage detection method users protected viruses detected signatures recent virus definition update protected new viruses see zero-day attack second method find viruses use heuristic algorithm based common virus behaviors method ability detect new viruses antivirus security firms yet define signature also gives rise false positives using signatures false positives disruptive especially commercial environment may lead company instructing staff use company computer system services checked system viruses slow productivity regular workers one may reduce damage done viruses making regular backups data operating systems different media either kept unconnected system time hard drive read-only accessible reasons using different file systems way data lost virus one start using backup hopefully recent backup session optical media like cd dvd closed becomes read-only longer affected virus long virus infected file copied onto cd/dvd likewise operating system bootable cd used start computer installed operating systems become unusable backups removable media must carefully inspected restoration gammima virus example propagates via removable flash drives many websites run antivirus software companies provide free online virus scanning limited cleaning facilities purpose websites sell antivirus products services websites—like google subsidiary virustotal.com—allow users upload one suspicious files scanned checked one antivirus programs one operation additionally several capable antivirus software programs available free download internet usually restricted non-commercial use microsoft offers optional free antivirus utility called microsoft security essentials windows malicious software removal tool updated part regular windows update regime older optional anti-malware malware removal tool windows defender upgraded antivirus product windows 8 viruses disable system restore important windows tools task manager cmd example virus ciadoor many viruses removed rebooting computer entering windows safe mode networking using system tools microsoft safety scanner system restore windows windows xp windows vista windows 7 restore registry critical system files previous checkpoint often virus cause system hang freeze subsequent hard reboot render system restore point day corrupted restore points previous days work provided virus designed corrupt restore files exist previous restore points microsoft system file checker improved windows 7 later used check repair corrupted system files restoring earlier clean virus-free copy entire partition cloned disk disk image backup copy one solution—restoring earlier backup disk image relatively simple usually removes malware may faster disinfecting computer—or reinstalling reconfiguring operating system programs scratch described restoring user preferences reinstalling operating system another approach virus removal may possible recover copies essential user data booting live cd connecting hard drive another computer booting second computer operating system taking great care infect computer executing infected programs original drive original hard drive reformatted os programs installed original media system restored precautions must taken avoid reinfection restored executable files computer networks became widespread viruses spread removable media particularly floppy disks early days personal computer many users regularly exchanged information programs floppies viruses spread infecting programs stored disks others installed disk boot sector ensuring would run user booted computer disk usually inadvertently personal computers era would attempt boot first floppy one left drive floppy disks fell use successful infection strategy boot sector viruses common wild many years traditional computer viruses emerged 1980s driven spread personal computers resultant increase bulletin board system bbs modem use software sharing bulletin board–driven software sharing contributed directly spread trojan horse programs viruses written infect popularly traded software shareware bootleg software equally common vectors viruses bbss viruses increase chances spreading computers infecting files network file system file system accessed computers macro viruses become common since mid-1990s viruses written scripting languages microsoft programs microsoft word microsoft excel spread throughout microsoft office infecting documents spreadsheets since word excel also available mac os could also spread macintosh computers although viruses ability send infected email messages viruses take advantage microsoft outlook component object model com interface old versions microsoft word allow macros replicate additional blank lines two macro viruses simultaneously infect document combination two also self-replicating appear mating two would likely detected virus unique parents virus may also send web address link instant message contacts e.g. friends colleagues e-mail addresses stored infected machine recipient thinking link friend trusted source follows link website virus hosted site may able infect new computer continue propagating viruses spread using cross-site scripting first reported 2002 academically demonstrated 2005 multiple instances cross-site scripting viruses wild exploiting websites myspace samy worm yahoo Target text information: nitol_botnet.nitol botnet nitol botnet mostly involved spreading malware distributed denial-of-service attacks nitol botnet first discovered around december 2012 analysis botnet indicating botnet mostly prevalent china estimate 85 infections detected china botnet found present systems came brand-new factory indicating trojan installed somewhere assembly manufacturing process according microsoft systems risk also contained counterfeit installation microsoft windows 10 september 2012 microsoft took action nitol botnet obtaining court order subsequently sinkholing 3322.org domain 3322.org domain dynamic dns used botnet creators command control infrastructure controlling botnet microsoft later settled 3322.org operator pen yong allowed latter continue operating domain condition subdomains linked malware remain sinkholed I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,457	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: ebcdic.ebcdic extended binary coded decimal interchange code ebcdic eight-bit character encoding used mainly ibm mainframe ibm midrange computer operating systems descended code used punched cards corresponding six-bit binary-coded decimal code used ibm computer peripherals late 1950s early 1960s supported various non-ibm platforms fujitsu-siemens bs2000/osd os-iv msp msp-ex sds sigma series unisys vs/9 burroughs mcp icl vme ebcdic devised 1963 1964 ibm announced release ibm system/360 line mainframe computers eight-bit character encoding developed separately seven-bit ascii encoding scheme created extend existing binary-coded decimal bcd interchange code bcdic devised efficient means encoding two zone number punches punched cards six bits distinct encoding using position 2 instead 1 maintained punched cards desirable hole punches close ensure integrity physical card ibm chief proponent ascii standardization committee company time prepare ascii peripherals card punch machines ship system/360 computers company settled ebcdic system/360 became wildly successful together clones rca spectra 70 icl system 4 fujitsu facom thus ebcdic ibm mainframe midrange peripherals operating systems use ebcdic inherent encoding toleration ascii example ispf z/os browse edit ebcdic ascii encoded files software many hardware peripherals translate encodings modern mainframes ibm zseries include processor instructions hardware level accelerate translation character sets ebcdic-oriented unicode transformation format called utf-ebcdic proposed unicode consortium designed allow easy updating ebcdic software handle unicode intended used open interchange environments even systems extensive ebcdic support popular example z/os supports unicode preferring utf-16 specifically z/os limited support utf-ebcdic ibm aix running rs/6000 descendants including ibm power systems linux running z systems operating systems running ibm pc descendants use ascii aix/370 aix/390 running system/370 system/390 mainframes fact code points different less problem inter-operating ascii fact sorting ebcdic put lowercase letters uppercase letters letters numbers exactly opposite ascii programming languages file formats network protocols designed ascii quickly made use available punctuation marks curly braces exist ebcdic making translation ebcdic ambiguous also prevented various attempts make internationalized versions ascii also replaced punctuation marks letters gaps letters made simple code worked ascii fail ebcdic example codice_1 would set codice_2 26 letters ascii alphabet 41 characters including number unassigned ones ebcdic fixing required complicating code function calls greatly resisted programmers using eight bits ebcdic may encouraged use eight-bit byte ibm ascii likely adopted systems 36 bits five seven-bit ascii characters fit one word eight-bit bytes became widespread ascii systems sometimes used unused bit purposes metacharacters mark borders records words made difficult change code work ebcdic pdp-11 bytes high bit set treated negative numbers behavior copied c causing unexpected problems ebcdic problems also hindered adoption extended ascii character sets table shows invariant subset ebcdic characters assignments ebcdic code pages also shows gray missing ascii ebcdic punctuation located ccsid 037 one code page variants ebcdic unassigned codes typically filled international region-specific characters various ebcdic code page variants characters gray often moved around swapped well table cell first row abbreviation control code printable characters character second row unicode code blank controls n't exist unicode open-source software advocate software developer eric s. raymond writes jargon file ebcdic loathed hackers meant members subculture enthusiastic programmers jargon file 4.4.7 gives following definition ebcdic design also source many jokes one joke went references ebcdic character set made classic infocom adventure game series zork machine room zork ii ebcdic used imply incomprehensible language 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan 1-hop neighbor's text information: amstrad_cp/m_plus_character_set.amstrad cp/m plus character set amstrad cp/m plus character set alternatively known pcw character set zx spectrum +3 character set refers group 8-bit character sets introduced amstrad/locomotive software use conjunction adaptation digital research cp/m plus various amstrad cpc schneider cpc amstrad pcw schneider joyce machines character set also utilized amstrad zx spectrum +3 since 1987 least zx spectrum +3 existed eight language-specific variants based iso/iec 646 depending selected locale system language 0 default us another slight variant character set used locoscript languages 1 7 certain characters range 0..127 swapped characters range 128..255 character set according following table Target text information: msx_character_set.msx character set msx character sets group single- double-byte character sets developed microsoft msx computers based code page 437 since graphic characters corresponding unicode representation portably displayed web browser following table shows msx characters corresponding unicode glyph code point otherwise unicode replacement character u+fffd � hyphen code point control characters non-printing characters represented names character set differences exist depending target market machine variations german din international character sets identical apart style zero 0 character international character set zero slash din character set dotted zero msx terminal compatible vt-52 escape codes plus extra control codes shown brazilian manufacturer gradiente initially included modified msx character set v1.0 machines allow writing correct portuguese differences shown boxed symbol 0x9e 158 currency symbol brazilian cruzado used anymore later brazilian msx models v1.1 higher included standardized character set named brascii solved accentuation incompatibility problems amongst different makers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,151	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: blued_(macos).blued macos blued bluetooth daemon macos previously mac os x started system interacted directly user daemon handles service discovery link key management incoming connection acceptance 1-hop neighbor's text information: backup_(software).backup software backup backup utility made apple mac os x available apple mobileme formerly .mac collection internet services backup used connection either user online mobileme idisk macintosh cd-rw dvd-r drive make safe archival copies critical files folders release icloud backup longer available release macos sierra longer works initial versions backup regarded feature-sparse frequently unstable however november 5 2003 apple released backup 2.0 added new features offered greater reliability predecessors backup 2 allowed creation archive copies important data overall basic feature set backup software apple introduced backup 3 paris expo september 20 2005 along upgrades .mac version offered backup settings ability back mail databases 2006 worldwide developers conference apple announced development time machine new backup application included mac os x v10.5 leopard time machine complete backup solution thus ability completely replace backup general backup solution mac users mobileme released july 11 2008 .mac discontinued backup continued available mobileme users software re-branded mobileme backup version 3.2 release 1-hop neighbor's text information: universal_binary.universal binary universal binary apple parlance executable file application bundle runs natively either powerpc intel-manufactured ia-32 intel 64-based macintosh computers implementation concept generally known fat binary release mac os x snow leopard since move 64-bit architectures general software publishers mozilla used term universal refer fat binary includes tailored builds i386 32-bit intel x86_64 systems mechanism used select powerpc intel builds application also used select 32-bit 64-bit builds either powerpc intel architectures apple however continues require native compatibility powerpc intel order grant third-party software publishers permission use apple trademarks related universal binaries time apple specify whether third-party software publishers must bundle separate builds 32-bit 64-bit variants either architecture universal binaries introduced 2005 apple worldwide developers conference means ease transition existing powerpc architecture systems based intel processors began shipping 2006 universal binaries typically include powerpc x86 versions compiled application operating system detects universal binary header executes appropriate section architecture use allows application run natively supported architecture negative performance impact beyond increase storage space taken larger binary starting mac os x snow leopard intel-based macs supported software specifically depends upon capabilities present mac os x 10.6 newer run intel-based macs therefore require intel/ppc fat binaries additionally starting os x lion 64-bit intel macs supported software specifically depends new features os x 10.7 newer run 64-bit processors therefore require 32-bit/64-bit fat binaries presently fat binaries would necessary software designed backward compatibility older versions mac os x running older hardware two general alternative solutions first simply provide two separate binaries one compiled x86 architecture one powerpc architecture however confusing software users unfamiliar difference two although confusion remedied improved documentation use hybrid cds alternative rely emulation one architecture system running architecture approach results lower performance generally regarded interim solution used universal binaries specifically compiled binaries available see rosetta universal binaries larger single-platform binaries multiple copies compiled code must stored however non-executable resources shared two architectures size resulting universal binary usually smaller binaries combined also require extra ram one two copies loaded execution apple previously used similar technique transition 68k processors powerpc mid-1990s dual-platform executables called fat binaries referring larger file size nextstep another predecessor mac os x supported fat binaries one application bundle could run multiple architectures including motorola m68k intel x86 sun microsystems sparc hewlett-packard pa-risc binary format underlying universal binary mach-o archive format used fat binary nextstep apple xcode 2.1 supports creation files new feature release simple application developed processor-independence mind might require changes compile universal binary complex application designed take advantage architecture-specific features might require substantial modification applications originally built using development tools might require additional modification reasons given delay introduction intel-based macintosh computers availability third-party applications universal binary format apple delivery intel-based computers several months ahead previously announced schedule another factor gap apple xcode 2.4 takes concept universal binaries even allowing four-architecture binaries created 32- 64-bit intel powerpc therefore allowing single executable take full advantage cpu capabilities mac os x machine many software developers provided universal binary updates products since 2005 wwdc december 2008 apple website lists 7,500 universal applications april 16 2007 adobe systems announced release adobe creative suite 3 first version application suite universal binary format march 2008 many applications mac os x ported universal binary including quarkxpress apple final cut studio adobe creative suite microsoft office 2008 shockwave player beginning version 11 non-universal 32-bit powerpc programs run intel macs running mac os x 10.4 10.5 10.6 cases non-optimal performance since must translated on-the-fly rosetta run mac os x 10.7 lion later rosetta longer part os unix file command macos several unix-like systems identify mach-o universal binaries report architecture support snow leopard system profiler provides information applications tab Target text information: preference_pane.preference pane preference pane often abbreviated prefpane special dynamically loaded plugin macos introduced mac os x v10.0 purpose preference pane allow user set preferences specific application system means graphical user interface preference panes macos replacement control panels classic mac os prior mac os x v10.4 collections preference panes featured show button show panes collection customizable toolbar frequently-used preference panes could dragged mac os x v10.3 currently-active pane would also highlighted toolbar selected mac os x v10.4 functionality dropped favor plain show button back/forward history arrows system preferences application whose sole purpose loading various preference panes system configuration application written use prefpanes preference panes carry .prefpane file extension I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,141	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: remote_procedure_call.remote procedure call distributed computing remote procedure call rpc computer program causes procedure subroutine execute different address space commonly another computer shared network coded normal local procedure call without programmer explicitly coding details remote interaction programmer writes essentially code whether subroutine local executing program remote form client–server interaction caller client executor server typically implemented via request–response message-passing system object-oriented programming paradigm rpc calls represented remote method invocation rmi rpc model implies level location transparency namely calling procedures largely whether local remote usually identical local calls distinguished remote calls remote calls usually orders magnitude slower less reliable local calls distinguishing important rpcs form inter-process communication ipc different processes different address spaces host machine distinct virtual address spaces even though physical address space different hosts physical address space different many different often incompatible technologies used implement concept response–request protocols date early distributed computing late 1960s theoretical proposals remote procedure calls model network operations date 1970s practical implementations date early 1980s bruce jay nelson generally credited coining term remote procedure call 1981 remote procedure calls used modern operating systems trace roots back rc 4000 multiprogramming system used request-response communication protocol process synchronization idea treating network operations remote procedure calls goes back least 1970s early arpanet documents 1978 per brinch hansen proposed distributed processes language distributed computing based external requests consisting procedure calls processes one earliest practical implementations 1982 brian randell colleagues newcastle connection unix machines soon followed lupine andrew birrell bruce nelson cedar environment xerox parc lupine automatically generated stubs providing type-safe bindings used efficient protocol communication one first business uses rpc xerox name courier 1981 first popular implementation rpc unix sun rpc called onc rpc used basis network file system nfs 1990s popularity object-oriented programming alternative model remote method invocation rmi widely implemented common object request broker architecture corba 1991 java remote method invocation rmis turn fell popularity rise internet particularly 2000s rpc request–response protocol rpc initiated client sends request message known remote server execute specified procedure supplied parameters remote server sends response client application continues process server processing call client blocked waits server finished processing resuming execution unless client sends asynchronous request server xmlhttprequest many variations subtleties various implementations resulting variety different incompatible rpc protocols important difference remote procedure calls local calls remote calls fail unpredictable network problems also callers generally must deal failures without knowing whether remote procedure actually invoked idempotent procedures additional effects called easily handled enough difficulties remain code call remote procedures often confined carefully written low-level subsystems let different clients access servers number standardized rpc systems created use interface description language idl let various platforms call rpc idl files used generate code interface client servers notable rpc implementations analogues include 1-hop neighbor's text information: client_(computing).client computing client computer program part operation relies sending request another program computer hardware software accesses service made available server may may located another computer example web browsers clients connect web servers retrieve web pages display email clients retrieve email mail servers online chat uses variety clients vary depending chat protocol used multiplayer video games online video games may run client computer term client may also applied computers devices run client software users use client software client part client–server model still used today clients servers may computer programs run machine connect via inter-process communication techniques combined internet sockets programs may connect service operating possibly remote system internet protocol suite servers wait potential clients initiate connections may accept term first applied devices capable running stand-alone programs could interact remote computers via network computer terminals clients time-sharing mainframe computer one classification client computers devices either thick clients thin clients hybrid clients thick client also known rich client fat client client performs bulk data processing operations necessarily rely server personal computer common example fat client relatively large set features capabilities light reliance upon server example computer running art program krita sketchup ultimately shares result work network thick client computer runs almost entirely standalone machine save send receive files via network standard called workstation thin client minimal sort client thin clients use resources host computer thin client generally presents processed data provided application server performs bulk required data processing device using web application office web apps thin client hybrid client mixture two client models similar fat client processes locally relies server storing persistent data approach offers features fat client multimedia support high performance thin client high manageability flexibility device running online version video game diablo iii example hybrid client 1-hop neighbor's text information: address_space.address space computing address space defines range discrete addresses may correspond network host peripheral device disk sector memory cell logical physical entity software programs save retrieve stored data unit data must address individually located else program unable find manipulate data number address spaces available depend underlying address structure usually limited computer architecture used address spaces created combining enough uniquely identified qualifiers make address unambiguous within address space person physical address address space would combination locations neighborhood town city country elements address space may element address different addresses said space reference different entities example could multiple buildings address 32 main street different towns demonstrating different towns different although similarly arranged street address spaces address space usually provides allows partitioning several regions according mathematical structure case total order memory addresses simply chunks nested domain hierarchies appear case directed ordered tree domain name system directory structure similar hierarchical design postal addresses internet example internet assigned numbers authority iana allocates ranges ip addresses various registries order enable manage parts global internet address space uses addresses include limited following another common feature address spaces mappings translations often forming numerous layers usually means higher-level address must translated lower-level ones way example file system logical disk operates linear sector numbers translated absolute lba sector addresses simple cases via addition partition first sector address disk drive connected via parallel ata must converted logical cylinder-head-sector address due interface historical shortcomings converted back lba disk controller finally physical cylinder head sector numbers domain name system maps names network-specific addresses usually ip addresses turn may mapped link layer network addresses via address resolution protocol also network address translation may occur edge different ip spaces local area network internet iconic example virtual-to-physical address translation virtual memory different pages virtual address space map either page file main memory physical address space possible several numerically different virtual addresses refer one physical address hence physical byte ram also possible single virtual address maps zero one one physical address Target text information: stub_(distributed_computing).stub distributed computing stub distributed computing piece code converts parameters passed client server remote procedure call rpc main idea rpc allow local computer client remotely call procedures different computer server client server use different address spaces parameters used function procedure call converted otherwise values parameters could used pointers parameters one computer memory would point different data computer client server may also use different data representations even simple parameters e.g. big-endian versus little-endian integers stubs perform conversion parameters remote procedure call looks like local function call remote computer stub libraries must installed client server side client stub responsible conversion marshalling parameters used function call deconversion results passed server execution function server skeleton stub server side responsible deconversion parameters passed client conversion results execution function stubs generated one two ways server program implements procedure interface said export interface client program calls procedures interface said import interface writing distributed application programmer first writes interface definition using idl programmers write client program imports interface server program exports interface interface definition processed using idl compiler generate components combined client server programs without making changes existing compilers particular interface procedure interface compiler generate appropriate marshalling unmarshalling operations stub procedure header file supports data types interface definition header file included source files client server programs client stub procedures compiled linked client program server stub procedures compiled linked server program idl compiler designed process interface definitions use different languages enabling clients servers written different languages communicate using remote procedure calls achieve goal semantics transparency designers made rpc look like lpc using concept stubs hide actual rpc implementation programs interface underlying rpc system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	5,188	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: ognl.ognl object-graph navigation language ognl open-source expression language el java using simpler expressions full range supported java language allows getting setting properties defined setproperty getproperty methods found javabeans execution methods java classes also allows simpler array manipulation aimed used java ee applications taglibs expression language ognl created luke blanshard drew davidson ognl technology ognl development continued opensymphony closed 2011 ognl developed part apache commons ognl began way map associations front-end components back-end objects using property names associations gathered features drew davidson created key-value coding language kvcl luke blanshard reimplemented kvcl using antlr started using name ognl technology reimplemented using java compiler compiler javacc ognl uses java reflection introspection address object graph runtime application allows program change behavior based state object graph instead relying compile time settings also allows changes object graph due ability create change executable code ognl capable introducing critical security flaws framework uses multiple apache struts 2 versions vulnerable ognl security flaws october 2017 recommended version struts 2 2.5.13 users urged upgrade latest version older revisions documented security vulnerabilities — example struts 2 versions 2.3.5 2.3.31 2.5 2.5.10 allow remote attackers execute arbitrary code 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: apache_freemarker.apache freemarker freemarker free java-based template engine originally focusing dynamic web page generation mvc software architecture however general purpose template engine dependency servlets http html thus often used generating source code configuration files e-mails freemarker somewhat hectic history 2004 caused paradigm shifts significant changes multiple occasions freemarker 1 known freemarker classic separate project originally written benjamin geer mike bayer 2002 new project lead jonathan revusky released freemarker 2 started sequence several substantial changes main goal changes make template language strict i.e. detect many typos typical mistakes possible also automatic object wrapping introduced along gradual advancement type system template language language gained many power-user features powerful macro programming capabilities namespaces language reached quite settled state version 2.3 released 2004 q3 2016 product remained backward compatible significant backward incompatible changes expected freemarker 2 series future late 2015 freemarker granted apache software foundation entered apache incubator 2018-03-21 become fully accepted apache project following template processed freemarker produce something like variables like name messages coming outside template thus template author deal presentation issues template remains regardless variables coming database cookie calculated whatever ways also exact java api hence class values hidden freemarker using technique called object wrapping example messages seems list array javabeans body properties might well something different template affected long proper object wrapper used I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	11,354	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: fdisk.fdisk computer file systems fdisk command-line utility provides disk partitioning functions available dos dr flexos ibm os/2 microsoft windows operating systems certain ports freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd macos compatibility reasons versions windows nt operating system line windows 2000 onwards replaced advanced tool called codice_1 similar utilities exist unix-like systems example bsd disklabel ibm introduced fixed disk setup program version 1.00 march 1983 release ibm pc/xt first pc store data hard disk ibm personal computer dos version 2.0 version 1 could used create one fat12 dos partition delete change active partition display partition data writes master boot record supported four partitions three intended operating systems cp/m-86 xenix expected partitioning utilities support august 1984 pc dos 3.0 added fat16 partitions support larger hard disks efficiently april 1987 pc dos/fdisk 3.30 added support extended partitions could hold 23 logical drives volumes ibm pc dos 7.10 contained utilities command available ms-dos versions 3.2 later support fat16b added compaq ms-dos 3.31 later became available ms-dos/pc dos 4.0 dos programs including program came original windows 95 capable creating fat partitions types fat12 fat16 fat16b derivative ms-dos provided windows 95 windows 98 later windows versions shipping windows 95b later able manipulate fat32 partitions windows 2000 later use logical disk manager feature well unlike programs operating systems programs dos windows 9x/me alter data partition table also overwrite many sectors data partition however create extended partition partition editor must put extended boot records logical drive disk users must sure correct disk/partition chosen using dos/windows partitioning switch undocumented well known repairing master boot record supplied windows 95 report correct size hard disk larger 64 gb updated available microsoft corrects microsoft named replacement 263044usa8 version 4.72.2811.0 signature may 23 2000 original windows 98 program size smaller updated one os/2 shipped two partition table managers version 4.0 text mode fdisk gui-based fdiskpm two identical functionality manipulate fat partitions advanced hpfs partitions os/2 versions 4.5 higher including ecomstation use jfs filesystem well fat hpfs replace logical volume manager lvm dr dos 6.0 flexos include implementation command implementation freedos free software freedos version developed brian e. reifsnyder paragon technology systems pts-dos 2000 pro includes implementation mach operating system written robert baron ported 386bsd julian elischer implementation used freebsd netbsd dragonfly bsd 2019 well early versions openbsd 1995 1997 openbsd 2.2 tobias weingartner re-wrote 1997 openbsd 2.2 subsequently forked apple computer inc 2002 still used basis macos 2019 native partitions bsd systems traditionally use bsd disklabel partitioning supported certain architectures compatibility reasons addition bsd disklabel mandatory linux maximum number partitions fdisk 60 3 primary partitions 1 extended partition 56 logical partitions 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: goback.goback norton goback previously wildfile goback adaptec goback roxio goback disk utility microsoft windows record 8 gb disk changes filesystem idle seconds marks safe points product allows disk drive restored point within available history also allows older versions files restored previous versions whole disk browsed depending disk activity typical history might cover hours days goback replaces master boot record also replaces partition table single partition allows hard drive changed back even event operating system unable boot also protecting filesystem alteration revert information remains correct goback compatible hardware raid drives due changes made partition table cause problems dual booting operating systems hard disk possible retain dual-boot compatibility involve saving partition table enabling goback enabling goback re-writing partition table back disk booting different device live cd may also necessary disable goback prior using certain low level disk utilities formatting software low level utilities first check presence goback combination goback cause data become corrupted another example incompatible program windows version true image windows goback also incompatible products drive vaccine pc restore rollback rx products require access master boot record Target text information: partition_table.partition table partition fixed-size subset disk drive treated unit operating system partition table table maintained disk operating system describing partitions disk terms partition table partition map commonly associated mbr partition table master boot record mbr ibm pc compatibles may used generically refer formats divide disk drive partitions guid partition table gpt apple partition map apm bsd disklabel partitions created resized deleted called disk partitioning usually done installation operating system also possible make changes partitions operating system installed I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	2,744	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n950.nokia n950 nokia n950 developers-only phone aimed toward linux-based meego os nokia n9 developers 5,000 units produced sent developers throughout july 2011 nokia exclusively distributed device developers offered sale public phone exists several variations final device issued developers black 1 gb main memory 16 gb emmc internal storage whilst prototypes known model number n9-00 confused n9-01 silver 512 mb main memory 64 gb emmc although marked sale sold ebay €2,000 device received unofficial android port nitdroid community also port nemomobile firefox os nokia n950 phone uses hardware components nokia n9 phone following exceptions nokia n950 developers use tools nokia including qt sdk harmattan python software development 1-hop neighbor's text information: series_30+.series 30+ series 30+ abbreviated s30+ software platform application user interface used nokia-branded mobile devices platform introduced nokia september 2013 first appearing nokia 108 main nokia feature phone operating system end series 30 series 40 platforms 2014 despite similar name user interface s30+ technically completely different unrelated s30 many s30+ devices support maui runtime environment mre developed mediatek later devices included support j2me applications even models n't support java j2me applications still capable running built-in online applications opera mini browser bing search msn weather skype groupme chat s30+ models also come online shop would allow downloading new apps games platform taken nokia microsoft mobile 2014 hmd global 2016 although devices still selling brand nokia following feature phones use series 30+ platform available single dual sim models maximum accepted video resolution 854×480 1-hop neighbor's text information: carbide.c++.carbide.c++ carbide.c++ software development tool c++ development symbian os used develop phones use os well applications run phones based eclipse ide platform enhanced extra plug-ins support symbian os development product provided symbian foundation open source model april 2009 nokia transferred carbide.c++ many software developer tools symbian foundation members symbian community manage contribute code carbide.c++ product carbide.c++ provided symbian foundation two different tool packages adt pdt basic installers include carbide.c++ several eclipse-based plug-ins several stand-alone tools adt/pdt v1 contains carbide.c++ v2.0.4 br adt/pdt v2 q4 2009 targeted contain carbide.c++ v2.2 carbide.c++ based latest versions eclipse ide eclipse cdt extended symbian os -specific features currently supports winscw x86 c++ compiler found codewarrior production emulator binaries target binaries supports gcc arm rvct compilers sold separately winscw gcc compilers actually provided sdk explicitly included carbide ide carbide.c++ branched parts cdt nearly contained within added plug-ins added top eclipse branches mostly relate different semantics codewarrior debugger engine compared gdb eclipse previously supported carbide.c++ similar standard eclipse installation still used types development java perl provided correct plug-ins installed using eclipse self-update mechanism similarly ought possible produce product similar functionality carbide.c++ moving carbide.c++ plug-ins standard eclipse installation currently facility offered nokia carbide.c++ supports symbian build system v1 v2 aka raptor former perl-based build system latter built using python supports next generation symbian os operating systems main advantage supporting sbsv1 v2 carbide users create command-line builds parallel ide builds manage two different workspaces disadvantage sbsv1 dependency checking automatic every build re-building large projects take carbide.c++ built short cuts starting v1.3 speed rebuilds early versions carbide v1.0 1.1 supported different build method many problems carbide.c++ development tools family created replace codewarrior symbian os primary development environment symbian os adoption tool slow codewarrior usage diminishing since older tool longer supports latest changes symbian os s60 platforms carbide provided three commercial products one free product today product part symbian foundation offering completely free products ranged price 300 8000 euros depending features set licensing model carbide slow reception symbian community developers generally fond moving new tools early versions carbide problems several frequently cited complaints example lack symbian-os-style code indenting lack easy find files facility speed import symbian os build files mmps difficulties using on-device debugging addition much-anticipated managed build system work properly rather offering true incremental build frequently deleted everything started otherwise reception warm development environment preferred codewarrior ide based java speed memory concerns ide often slow pretty big memory foot print trademarks java environment carbide.c++ made steady progress addressing issues brought developer community codewarrior usage dropped significantly due improvements carbide codewarrior lack support newer versions symbian os symbian os c++ development need carbide.c++ ide symbian os-based sdk sdk contains emulator also libraries header files required symbian os development development kits available forum nokia symbian foundation web sites please note kits may different names reflecting additional capabilities cust kits developer kits pdk issk Target text information: series_90_(software_platform).series 90 software platform series 90 formerly hildon platform mobile phones uses symbian os developed nokia collaboration psion released 2003 going platform nokia 7700 cancelled eventually make market nokia 7710 nokia discontinued series 90 platform merged technology s60 although one production series 90 device made form gui continued nokia hildon user interface maemo shipped nokia internet tablets series 90 completely incompatible series 60 s60 uiq popular platforms symbian smartphones however applications nokia series 80 communicator devices – nokia 9300 – function series 90 essentially series 90 development psion eikon gui used series 5 series 5mx revo netpad series 7 netbook machines modified controlled entirely touchscreen supplemented 77x0 seven hardware buttons rocker-dial nokia 7700 never released on-screen keyboard text input 7710 added basic handwriting recognition applications single menu tree accessible title bar top screen exit quit option apps button bar added right hand side screen resembling nokia communicator smartphones I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,253	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: malware.malware malware portmanteau malicious software software intentionally designed cause damage computer server client computer network malware damage implanted introduced way target computer take form directly executable code scripts so-called active content microsoft windows forms data kinds malware largely referred media computer viruses worms trojan horses ransomware spyware adware scareware among terms malware malicious intent acting interest computer user—and include software causes unintentional harm due deficiency typically described software bug programs officially supplied companies considered malware secretly act interests computer user example one point sony music compact discs silently installed rootkit purchasers computers running microsoft windows intention preventing illicit copying also reported users listening habits unintentionally created extra security vulnerabilities one strategy protecting malware prevent harmful software gaining access target computer reason antivirus software firewalls strategies used help protect introduction malware addition checking presence malware malicious activity recovering attacks many early infectious programs including first internet worm written experiments pranks today malware used black hat hackers governments steal personal financial business information malware sometimes used broadly government corporate websites gather guarded information disrupt operation general however malware used individuals gain information personal identification numbers details bank credit card numbers passwords since rise widespread broadband internet access malicious software frequently designed profit since 2003 majority widespread viruses worms designed take control users computers illicit purposes infected zombie computers used send email spam host contraband data child pornography engage distributed denial-of-service attacks form extortion programs designed monitor users web browsing display unsolicited advertisements redirect affiliate marketing revenues called spyware spyware programs spread like viruses instead generally installed exploiting security holes also hidden packaged together unrelated user-installed software sony bmg rootkit intended preventing illicit copying also reported users listening habits unintentionally created extra security vulnerabilities ransomware affects infected computer system way demands payment bring back normal state example programs cryptolocker encrypt files securely decrypt payment substantial sum money malware used generate money click fraud making appear computer user clicked advertising link site generating payment advertiser estimated 2012 60 70 active malware used kind click fraud 22 ad-clicks fraudulent addition criminal money-making malware used sabotage often political motives stuxnet example designed disrupt specific industrial equipment politically motivated attacks spread shut large computer networks including massive deletion files corruption master boot records described computer killing attacks made sony pictures entertainment 25 november 2014 using malware known shamoon w32.disttrack saudi aramco august 2012 best-known types malware viruses worms known manner spread rather specific types behavior computer virus software embeds executable software including operating system target system without user knowledge consent run virus spread executables hand worm stand-alone malware software actively transmits network infect computers definitions lead observation virus requires user run infected software operating system virus spread whereas worm spreads categories mutually exclusive malware may use multiple techniques section applies malware designed operate undetected sabotage ransomware computer virus software usually hidden within another seemingly innocuous program produce copies insert programs files usually performs harmful action destroying data example pe infection technique usually used spread malware inserts extra data executable code pe files 'lock-screens screen lockers type “ cyber police ” ransomware blocks screens windows android devices false accusation harvesting illegal content trying scare victims paying fee jisut slocker impact android devices lock-screens jisut making nearly 60 percent android ransomware detections trojan horse harmful program misrepresents masquerade regular benign program utility order persuade victim install trojan horse usually carries hidden destructive function activated application started term derived ancient greek story trojan horse used invade city troy stealth trojan horses generally spread form social engineering example user duped executing e-mail attachment disguised unsuspicious e.g. routine form filled drive-by download although payload anything many modern forms act backdoor contacting controller unauthorized access affected computer trojan horses backdoors easily detectable computers may appear run slower due heavy processor network usage unlike computer viruses worms trojan horses generally attempt inject files otherwise propagate spring 2017 mac users hit new version proton remote access trojan rat trained extract password data various sources browser auto-fill data mac-os keychain password vaults malicious software installed system essential stays concealed avoid detection software packages known rootkits allow concealment modifying host operating system malware hidden user rootkits prevent harmful process visible system list processes keep files read types harmful software contain routines evade identification and/or removal attempts merely hide early example behavior recorded jargon file tale pair programs infesting xerox cp-v time sharing system backdoor method bypassing normal authentication procedures usually connection network internet system compromised one backdoors may installed order allow access future invisibly user idea often suggested computer manufacturers preinstall backdoors systems provide technical support customers never reliably verified reported 2014 us government agencies diverting computers purchased considered targets secret workshops software hardware permitting remote access agency installed considered among productive operations obtain access networks around world backdoors may installed trojan horses worms implants methods since beginning 2015 sizable portion malware utilizes combination many techniques designed avoid detection analysis common least common increasingly common technique 2015 adware uses stolen certificates disable anti-malware virus protection technical remedies available deal adware nowadays one sophisticated stealthy ways evasion use information hiding techniques namely stegomalware survey stegomalware published cabaj et al 2018 malware exploits security defects security bugs vulnerabilities design operating system applications browsers e.g older versions microsoft internet explorer supported windows xp vulnerable versions browser plugins adobe flash player adobe acrobat reader java se sometimes even installing new versions plugins automatically uninstall old versions security advisories plug-in providers announce security-related updates common vulnerabilities assigned cve ids listed us national vulnerability database secunia psi example software free personal use check pc vulnerable out-of-date software attempt update malware authors target bugs loopholes exploit common method exploitation buffer overrun vulnerability software designed store data specified region memory prevent data buffer accommodate supplied malware may provide data overflows buffer malicious executable code data end payload accessed attacker legitimate software determines early pcs booted floppy disks built-in hard drives became common operating system normally started possible boot another boot device available floppy disk cd-rom dvd-rom usb flash drive network common configure computer boot one devices available normally none would available user would intentionally insert say cd optical drive boot computer special way example install operating system even without booting computers configured execute software media soon become available e.g autorun cd usb device inserted malware distributors would trick user booting running infected device medium example virus could make infected computer add autorunnable code usb stick plugged anyone attached stick another computer set autorun usb would turn become infected also pass infection way generally device plugs usb port even lights fans speakers toys peripherals digital microscope used spread malware devices infected manufacturing supply quality control inadequate form infection largely avoided setting computers default boot internal hard drive available autorun devices intentional booting another device always possible pressing certain keys boot older email software would automatically open html email containing potentially malicious javascript code users may also execute disguised malicious email attachments 2018 data breach investigations report verizon cited cso online states emails primary method malware delivery accounting 92 malware delivery around world computing privilege refers much user program allowed modify system poorly designed computer systems users programs assigned privileges malware take advantage two ways malware overprivileged users overprivileged code systems allow users modify internal structures users today would considered over-privileged users standard operating procedure early microcomputer home computer systems distinction administrator root regular user system systems non-administrator users over-privileged design sense allowed modify internal structures system environments users over-privileged inappropriately granted administrator equivalent status systems allow code executed user access rights user known over-privileged code also standard operating procedure early microcomputer home computer systems malware running over-privileged code use privilege subvert system almost currently popular operating systems also many scripting applications allow code many privileges usually sense user executes code system allows code rights user makes users vulnerable malware form e-mail attachments may may disguised malware attacks become frequent attention begun shift viruses spyware protection malware protection programs specifically developed combat malware preventive recovery measures backup recovery methods mentioned computer virus article specific component anti-virus anti-malware software commonly referred on-access real-time scanner hooks deep operating system core kernel functions manner similar certain malware would attempt operate though user informed permission protecting system time operating system accesses file on-access scanner checks file 'legitimate file file identified malware scanner access operation stopped file dealt scanner pre-defined way anti-virus program configured during/post installation user notified may considerable performance impact operating system though degree impact dependent well scanner programmed goal stop operations malware may attempt system occur including activities might exploit bugs trigger unexpected operating system behavior anti-malware programs combat malware two ways real-time protection malware works identically real-time antivirus protection software scans disk files download time blocks activity components known represent malware cases may also intercept attempts install start-up items modify browser settings many malware components installed result browser exploits user error using security software anti-malware though many sandbox browsers essentially isolate browser computer hence malware induced change also effective helping restrict damage done examples microsoft windows antivirus anti-malware software include optional microsoft security essentials windows xp vista windows 7 real-time protection windows malicious software removal tool included windows security updates patch tuesday second tuesday month windows defender optional download case windows xp incorporating mse functionality case windows 8 later additionally several capable antivirus software programs available free download internet usually restricted non-commercial use tests found free programs competitive commercial ones microsoft system file checker used check repair corrupted system files viruses disable system restore important windows tools task manager command prompt many viruses removed rebooting computer entering windows safe mode networking using system tools microsoft safety scanner hardware implants type general way detect malware also harms compromised websites breaking reputation blacklisting search engines etc websites offer vulnerability scanning scans check website detect malware may note outdated software may report known security issues last resort computers protected malware infected computers prevented disseminating trusted information imposing air gap i.e completely disconnecting networks however malware still cross air gap situations example removable media carry malware across gap december 2013 researchers germany showed one way apparent air gap defeated airhopper bitwhisper gsmem fansmitter four techniques introduced researchers leak data air-gapped computers using electromagnetic thermal acoustic emissions grayware term applied unwanted applications files classified malware worsen performance computers may cause security risks describes applications behave annoying undesirable manner yet less serious troublesome malware grayware encompasses spyware adware fraudulent dialers joke programs remote access tools unwanted programs may harm performance computers cause inconvenience term came use around 2004 another term potentially unwanted program pup potentially unwanted application pua refers applications would considered unwanted despite often downloaded user possibly failing read download agreement pups include spyware adware fraudulent dialers many security products classify unauthorised key generators grayware although frequently carry true malware addition ostensible purpose software maker malwarebytes lists several criteria classifying program pup types adware using stolen certificates turn anti-malware virus protection technical remedies available internet access became widespread viruses spread personal computers infecting executable programs boot sectors floppy disks inserting copy machine code instructions programs boot sectors virus causes run whenever program run disk booted early computer viruses written apple ii macintosh became widespread dominance ibm pc ms-dos system first ibm pc virus wild boot sector virus dubbed c brain created 1986 farooq alvi brothers pakistan executable-infecting viruses dependent users exchanging software boot-able floppies thumb drives spread rapidly computer hobbyist circles first worms network-borne infectious programs originated personal computers multitasking unix systems first well-known worm internet worm 1988 infected sunos vax bsd systems unlike virus worm insert programs instead exploited security holes vulnerabilities network server programs started running separate process behavior used today worms well rise microsoft windows platform 1990s flexible macros applications became possible write infectious code macro language microsoft word similar programs macro viruses infect documents templates rather applications executables rely fact macros word document form executable code notion self-reproducing computer program traced back initial theories operation complex automata john von neumann showed theory program could reproduce constituted plausibility result computability theory fred cohen experimented computer viruses confirmed neumann postulate investigated properties malware detectability self-obfuscation using rudimentary encryption doctoral dissertation subject computer viruses combination cryptographic technology part payload virus exploiting attack purposes initialized investigated mid 1990s includes initial ransomware evasion ideas 1-hop neighbor's text information: kaspersky_lab.kaspersky lab kaspersky lab russian лаборатория касперского laboratoriya kasperskogo multinational cybersecurity anti-virus provider headquartered moscow russia operated holding company united kingdom founded 1997 eugene kaspersky natalya kaspersky alexey de-monderik eugene kaspersky currently ceo kaspersky lab develops sells antivirus internet security password management endpoint security cybersecurity products services kaspersky expanded abroad 2005–2010 grew 698 million annual revenues 2017 8 2016 though annual revenues 8 north america due u.s. government security concerns 2016 software 400 million users largest market-share cybersecurity software vendors europe kaspersky lab ranks fourth global ranking antivirus vendors revenue first russian company included rating world leading software companies called software top 100 79th list 6/29/2012 kaspersky lab ranked 4th endpoint security segment according idc data 2010 according gartner kaspersky lab currently third largest vendor consumer security software worldwide fifth largest vendor enterprise endpoint protection kaspersky lab named leader gartner magic quadrant endpoint protection platforms kaspersky global research analysis team great led discovery sophisticated espionage platforms conducted nations equation group stuxnet worm various covert government-sponsored cyber-espionage efforts uncovered research kaspersky also publishes annual global security risks survey 2014 kaspersky research hubs analyze 350,000 malware samples per day kaspersky faced controversy allegations engaged russian federal security service fsb —ties company actively denied u.s. department homeland security banned kaspersky products government departments 13 september 2017 october 2017 subsequent reports alleged hackers working russian government stole confidential data home computer american national security agency contractor via kaspersky antivirus software kaspersky denied allegations reporting software detected equation group malware samples uploaded servers analysis normal course operation company since announced commitments increased accountability soliciting independent reviews verification software source code announcing would migrate core infrastructure foreign customers russia switzerland first version kaspersky lab antivirus software developed eugene kaspersky 1989 response cascade virus early versions 40 virus definitions mostly distributed friends family members eugene continued developing software kami resulting antiviral toolkit pro avp product released 1992 popularized 1994 competitive analysis hamburg university gave eugene software first place 1997 eugene kaspersky wife natalya kaspersky alexey de-monderik left kami form kaspersky lab continue developing antivirus product called avp product renamed kaspersky anti-virus american company registered avp trademark us 1998 taiwanese student released virus called cih first three weeks outbreak kaspersky lab avp software time able remove increased demand led deals antivirus companies japan finland germany integrate avp software according wired kaspersky software advanced time example first software monitor viruses isolated quarantine company revenue grew 280 percent 1998 2000 60 percent revenue coming foreign sales natalya worked broker deals abroad localize software opened offices uk poland holland china later expanded germany france us japan 2000 company 65 employees sales 40 countries kaspersky opened new offices south east asia middle east 2008 south africa 2009 also expanded india middle east africa 2010 2009 retail sales kaspersky lab antivirus products reached almost 4.5 million copies per year 2011 general atlantic bought 20 percent share kaspersky lab 200 million expectation helping company go public months later decision made keep firm private kaspersky re-purchased shares general atlantic followed numerous executive departures 2011 2014 regarding disputes going public eugene management style january 1 2012 kaspersky lab officially left business software alliance bsa sopa bsa supported controversial anti-piracy bill kaspersky lab support stating believe measures used contrary modern advances technology needs consumers show disapproval announced intent leave december 5 2011 2013 company unaudited 667 million annual revenues 2014 kaspersky lab signed distribution deal ingram micro significantly expanded reseller program august 2015 two former kaspersky employees alleged company introduced modified files virustotal antivirus database trick software kaspersky competitors triggering false positives virus malware scans possible motive eugene allegedly furious competitors perceived unfairly free-riding kaspersky malware discoveries via open-source virustotal database company denied allegations personal blog eugene kaspersky compared accusations unsubstantiated conspiracy theories reuters followed publishing leaked emails allegedly kaspersky alluding falsies rubbing foreign competitors kaspersky lab stated emails may legitimate obtained anonymous sources hidden agenda 2016 kaspersky executive ruslan stoyanov arrested russian authorities charges predating work kaspersky 2019 convicted treason kaspersky lab develops markets antivirus internet security password management endpoint security cybersecurity products services fourth fifth largest endpoint security vendor third largest consumer security software company sixth largest overall security company revenues 15 percent russian companies domestically one-third european organizations one-fourth u.s. organizations software 400 million users kaspersky consumer software include antivirus internet security total security products antivirus software includes malware protection monitors pc suspicious program behavior warns users potentially dangerous websites internet security software adds privacy features parental controls anti-phishing tools total security adds parental controls adult website filters diagnostic tools password manager application features kaspersky software available macs pcs android ios windows mobile blackberry symbian businesses company markets kaspersky endpoint security business suite includes centralized user interface management application called kaspersky security center cybersecurity software called kaspersky security network kaspersky administration kitsecurity center manages configuration installation remote use business suite also quarantine reporting features software product businesses 25 staff less called kaspersky small office security ksos within suite products specifically virtualization security mobile security fraud protection among others kaspersky also develops free tool helps businesses gain access windows devices infected ransomware kaspersky anti-virus engine also powers products solutions security vendors check point bluecoat juniper networks microsoft forefront netintelligence clearswift frontbridge netasq wedge networks others altogether 120 companies licensing technology kaspersky lab kaspersky lab also number partnerships various technology companies international multilateral partnership cyber threats datuk mohd noor amin acts chairman announced appointment harry cheung – managing director kaspersky lab apac – goodwill ambassador greater china kaspersky lab runs several global sponsorships example scuderia ferrari racing team geographical expeditions according pc magazine kaspersky antivirus competitor bitdefender consistently ranked top independent competitive tests pc magazine malware phishing tests similar results praised software bonus security tools cons magazine said took longer-than-expected complete scan magazine said kaspersky total security product impressive feature list praised extra features total security product like password management encryption parental controls pc magazine said product scored highly lab tests antivirus antiphishing features so-so scores antimalware tests n't able catch spam kaspersky 2013 endpoint security windows product top-ranked enterprise antivirus software competitive test dennis technology labs followed symantec endpoint protection av-comparatives awarded kaspersky product year 2015 based number high scores gotten throughout year wide range tests pc magazine praised software features said lacked policy management deployment options kaspersky parental controls software reviewed pc magazine reviewer said well-rounded affordable parental control monitoring praised software content filtering child profiles social media monitoring features criticize features available ios android anti-virus software testing group av-comparatives gave windows xp version kaspersky av advanced+ rating highest february 2008 on-demand detection test fourth highest detection rate among 16 products tested however retrospective/proactive test may 2008 kaspersky received standard rating detecting 21 new malware 1-month old signatures receiving substantial amount false positives firewall included kaspersky internet security 7.0 got good rating matousec firewall challenge result 85 kaspersky anti-virus 7.0 achieved 6.5 result 8 anti malware labs rootkit detection test also achieved 31 33 detection polymorphic viruses 97 result self-protection test 2007 kaspersky internet security 7 received award british magazine pc pro also place list kaspersky passed virus bulletin comparative tests since august 2003 2005 according pc world magazine kaspersky anti-virus software provided fastest updates new virus security threats industry pc world magazine march 2010 comparison consumer security suites kaspersky internet security 2010 scored 4.5/5 stars rated second overall december 2011 version av-comparatives annual reports kaspersky lab software achieved highest overall ranking earned av comparatives product year award 1 february 2012 kaspersky internet security earned av-test award best repair 2011 award field home user products av-test institute 28 january 2013 kaspersky endpoint security earned av-test award best protection 2012 av-test award best repair 2012 awards field corporate products av-test institute later 2013 kaspersky earned product year award av-comparatives highest score among enterprise solutions dennis technology labs report kaspersky also received certification products oesis ok certification program verifies applications interoperable third-party technology solutions like nac ssl vpn products cisco systems juniper networks f5 networks others kaspersky lab global research analysis team great established 2008 investigates cybersecurity threats work malware operations security companies often evaluated ability uncover previously unknown viruses vulnerabilities kaspersky reputation investigating cyber-security threats influential gaining sales prestige beginning around 2010 kaspersky exposed series government-sponsored cyber-espionage sabotage efforts include stuxnet duqu flame gauss regin equation group according wired many seemingly launched us uk israeli allies kaspersky especially well-known work uncovering stuxnet flame 2010 kaspersky lab worked microsoft counter-act stuxnet worm infected 14 industrial locations iran using four zero-day vulnerabilities microsoft windows according ieee spectrum circumstances strongly suggest worm developed united states israel damage centrifuges iran nuclear-enrichment program first discovery major government-sponsored cyber-attack may 2012 kaspersky lab identified malware flame researcher described potentially sophisticated cyber weapon yet unleashed according researchers kaspersky lab malware infected estimated 1,000 5,000 machines worldwide asked united nations international telecommunications union investigate reports virus affecting iranian oil ministry computers kaspersky lab investigated discovered md5 hash filename appeared customer machines middle eastern nations discovering pieces researchers dubbed program flame name one modules flame earlier variant stuxnet kaspersky never verified source software suspected developed national security agency nsa transmit keystrokes skype calls data kaspersky created algorithms find similar malware found gauss july collected transmitted data devices infected bluetooth usb drives january 2013 kaspersky discovered red october malware used widespread cyber-espionage five years targeted political targets like embassies nuclear sites mostly europe switzerland north america malware likely written russian-speaking hackers exploits chinese hackers june kaspersky discovered nettraveler said obtaining data emerging technology government targets oil companies kaspersky identify behind similar cyber-espionage coming beijing china later year kaspersky discovered hacker group called icefog investigating cybersecurity attack japanese television company kaspersky said hacker group possibly china unique targeted specific files seemed know planting malware extract february 2014 kaspersky identified malware mask infected 380 organizations 31 countries many organizations affected morocco files spanish group believed nation-state conducting espionage kaspersky speculate country may developed november 2014 symantec kaspersky authored papers contained first disclosure malicious software named regin according kaspersky regin similar qwerty malware program discovered next year regin used take remote control computer believed originated five eyes alliance month kaspersky reported darkhotel attack targeted users wireless networks hotels asia asked users update software downloaded malware gave passwords 2015 kaspersky identified highly sophisticated threat actor called equation group group incorporated sophisticated spying software firmware hard drives banks government agencies nuclear researchers military facilities countries frequent targets us intelligence efforts suspected developed national security agency nsa included many unique technical achievements better avoid detection day kaspersky announced discovery hacker group called carbanak targeting banks moving millions dollars fake accounts carbanak discovered one bank asked kaspersky investigate suspicious behavior atms similar malware using techniques carbanak discovered 2016 dubbed carbanak 2.0 june 2015 kaspersky reported network infiltrated government-sponsored malware evidence suggested malware created developers duqu stuxnet order get intelligence would help better avoid detection kaspersky future kaspersky called duqu 2.0 malicious software resided memory avoid detection hack believed done group duqu 2011 used exploits microsoft installer files june 2015 kaspersky lab citizen lab independently discovered software developed hacking team used 60 governments around world covertly record data mobile phones citizens software gave police enforcement menu features access emails text messages keystrokes call history data kaspersky also identified 37,000 attacks banking companies used modifications malware called asacub took control android devices asacub targeted mostly banking customers u.s. russia ukraine using sms message baited users installing trojan 2016 kaspersky discovered zero day vulnerability microsoft silverlight kaspersky identified string code often used exploits created suspected author used yara rules network kaspersky software users find string code uncover rest exploit afterwards microsoft issued critical software patch protect software vulnerability 2016 kaspersky uncovered poseidon group would infiltrate corporations malware using phishing emails get hired company security firm correct problem hired poseidon would install additional malware backdoors june 2016 kaspersky helped uncover russian hacking group leading 50 arrests since 2015 kaspersky alleged close ties russian government various western media outlets finally us government 2017 president trump signed legislation ban software kaspersky government computers us government institutions prohibited buying installing kaspersky software computers devices 1-hop neighbor's text information: perl.perl perl family two high-level general-purpose interpreted dynamic programming languages perl usually refers perl 5 may also refer redesigned sister language perl 6 though perl officially acronym various backronyms use including practical extraction reporting language perl originally developed larry wall 1987 general-purpose unix scripting language make report processing easier since undergone many changes revisions perl 6 began redesign perl 5 2000 eventually evolved separate language languages continue developed independently different development teams liberally borrow ideas one another perl languages borrow features programming languages including c shell script sh awk sed wall also alludes basic lisp introduction learning perl schwartz christiansen provide text processing facilities without arbitrary data-length limits many contemporary unix commandline tools facilitating manipulation text files perl 5 gained widespread popularity late 1990s cgi scripting language part due unsurpassed regular expression string parsing abilities addition cgi perl 5 used system administration network programming finance bioinformatics applications guis nicknamed swiss army chainsaw scripting languages flexibility power also ugliness 1998 also referred duct tape holds internet together reference ubiquitous use glue language perceived inelegance larry wall began work perl 1987 working programmer unisys released version 1.0 comp.sources.misc newsgroup december 18 1987 language expanded rapidly next years perl 2 released 1988 featured better regular expression engine perl 3 released 1989 added support binary data streams originally documentation perl single lengthy man page 1991 programming perl known many perl programmers camel book cover published became de facto reference language time perl version number bumped 4 mark major change language identify version well documented book perl 4 went series maintenance releases culminating perl 4.036 1993 whereupon wall abandoned perl 4 begin work perl 5 initial design perl 5 continued 1994 perl5-porters mailing list established may 1994 coordinate work porting perl 5 different platforms remains primary forum development maintenance porting perl 5 perl 5.000 released october 17 1994 nearly complete rewrite interpreter added many new features language including objects references lexical variables modules importantly modules provided mechanism extending language without modifying interpreter allowed core interpreter stabilize even enabled ordinary perl programmers add new language features perl 5 active development since perl 5.001 released march 13 1995 perl 5.002 released february 29 1996 new prototypes feature allowed module authors make subroutines behaved like perl builtins perl 5.003 released june 25 1996 security release one important events perl 5 history took place outside language proper consequence module support october 26 1995 comprehensive perl archive network cpan established repository perl language perl modules may 2017 carries 185,178 modules 35,190 distributions written 13,071 authors mirrored worldwide 245 locations perl 5.004 released may 15 1997 included among things universal package giving perl base object classes automatically derived ability require versions modules another significant development inclusion cgi.pm module contributed perl popularity cgi scripting language perl 5.004 also added support microsoft windows several operating systems perl 5.005 released july 22 1998 release included several enhancements regex engine new hooks backend codice_1 modules codice_2 regex quote operator large selection new core modules added support several operating systems including beos perl 5.6 released march 22 2000 major changes included 64-bit support unicode string representation support files 2 gib keyword developing perl 5.6 decision made switch versioning scheme one similar open source projects 5.005_63 next version became 5.5.640 plans development versions odd numbers stable versions even numbers 2000 wall put forth call suggestions new version perl community process resulted 361 rfc request comments documents used guiding development perl 6 2001 work began apocalypses perl 6 series documents meant summarize change requests present design next generation perl presented digest rfcs rather formal document point perl 6 existed description language perl 5.8 first released july 18 2002 nearly yearly updates since perl 5.8 improved unicode support added new i/o implementation added new thread implementation improved numeric accuracy added several new modules 2013 version still remains popular version perl used red hat 5 suse 10 solaris 10 hp-ux 11.31 aix 5 2004 work began synopses documents originally summarized apocalypses became specification perl 6 language february 2005 audrey tang began work pugs perl 6 interpreter written haskell first concerted effort towards making perl 6 reality effort stalled 2006 december 18 2007 20th anniversary perl 1.0 perl 5.10.0 released perl 5.10.0 included notable new features brought closer perl 6 included switch statement called given regular expressions updates smart match operator ~~ around time development began earnest another implementation perl 6 known rakudo perl developed tandem parrot virtual machine november 2009 rakudo perl regular monthly releases complete implementation perl 6 major change development process perl 5 occurred perl 5.11 development community switched monthly release cycle development releases yearly schedule stable releases plan bugfix point releases follow stable releases every three months april 12 2010 perl 5.12.0 released notable core enhancements include new codice_3 syntax yada yada operator intended mark placeholder code yet implemented implicit strictures full y2038 compliance regex conversion overloading dtrace support unicode 5.2 january 21 2011 perl 5.12.3 released contains updated modules documentation changes version 5.12.4 released june 20 2011 latest version branch 5.12.5 released november 10 2012 may 14 2011 perl 5.14 released json support built-in 5.14.0 latest version branch 5.14.4 released march 10 2013 may 20 2012 perl 5.16 released notable new features include ability specify given version perl one wishes emulate allowing users upgrade version perl still run old scripts would normally incompatible perl 5.16 also updates core support unicode 6.1 may 18 2013 perl 5.18 released notable new features include new dtrace hooks lexical subs core subs overhaul hash security reasons support unicode 6.2 may 27 2014 perl 5.20 released notable new features include subroutine signatures hash slices/new slice syntax postfix dereferencing experimental unicode 6.3 rand using consistent random number generator observers credit release perl 5.10 start modern perl movement particular phrase describes style development embraces use cpan takes advantage recent developments language rigorous creating high quality code book modern perl may visible standard-bearer idea groups enlightened perl organization taken cause late 2012 2013 several projects alternative implementations perl 5 started perl5 perl6 rakudo perl team moe stevan little friends p2 perl11 team reini urban gperl goccy rperl kickstarter project led braswell affiliated perll11 project ponie acronym perl new internal engine ponie project existed 2003 2006 bridge perl 5 perl 6 effort rewrite perl 5 interpreter run parrot perl 6 virtual machine goal ensure future millions lines perl 5 code thousands companies around world ponie project ended 2006 longer actively developed improvements made perl 5 interpreter part ponie folded project perl originally named pearl wall wanted give language short name positive connotations claims considered every three- four-letter word dictionary also considered naming wife gloria wall discovered existing pearl programming language perl official release changed spelling name referring language name normally capitalized perl proper noun referring interpreter program name often uncapitalized perl unix-like file systems case-sensitive release first edition programming perl common refer language perl randal l. schwartz however capitalized language name book make stand better typeset case distinction subsequently documented canonical name occasionally expanded practical extraction report language backronym expansions suggested equally canonical including wall pathologically eclectic rubbish lister manual page perl indeed wall claims name intended inspire many different expansions programming perl published o'reilly media features picture dromedary camel cover commonly called camel book image camel become unofficial symbol perl well general hacker emblem appearing t-shirts clothing items o'reilly owns image trademark licenses non-commercial use requiring acknowledgement link www.perl.com licensing commercial use decided case case basis o'reilly also provides programming republic perl logos non-commercial sites powered perl buttons site uses perl perl foundation owns alternative symbol onion licenses subsidiaries perl mongers perlmonks perl.org others symbol visual pun pearl onion sebastian riedel creator mojolicious created logo depicting raptor dinosaur available cc-sa license version 4.0 logo remixed used different places symbolising perl 5 analogue raptor comes series talks given matt trout beginning 2010 talks aimed perl 5 community-centric period perl 6 hot topic according wall perl two slogans first one way commonly known tmtowtdi second slogan easy things easy hard things possible overall structure perl derives broadly c. perl procedural nature variables expressions assignment statements brace-delimited blocks control structures subroutines perl also takes features shell programming variables marked leading sigils allow variables interpolated directly strings however unlike shell perl uses sigils accesses variables unlike programming languages use sigils sigil n't denote type variable type expression example access list values hash sigil array used sigil hash perl also many built-in functions provide tools often used shell programming although many tools implemented programs external shell sorting calling operating system facilities perl takes lists lisp hashes associative arrays awk regular expressions sed simplify facilitate many parsing text-handling data-management tasks also shared lisp implicit return last value block fact statements value thus also expressions used larger expressions perl 5 added features support complex data structures first-class functions closures values object-oriented programming model include references packages class-based method dispatch lexically scoped variables along compiler directives example codice_4 pragma major additional feature introduced perl 5 ability package code reusable modules wall later stated whole intent perl 5 module system encourage growth perl culture rather perl core versions perl automatic data-typing automatic memory management interpreter knows type storage requirements every data object program allocates frees storage necessary using reference counting deallocate circular data structures without manual intervention legal type conversions — example conversions number string — done automatically run time illegal type conversions fatal errors design perl understood response three broad trends computer industry falling hardware costs rising labor costs improvements compiler technology many earlier computer languages fortran c aimed make efficient use expensive computer hardware contrast perl designed computer programmers could write programs quickly easily perl many features ease task programmer expense greater cpu memory requirements include automatic memory management dynamic typing strings lists hashes regular expressions introspection codice_5 function perl follows theory built-in limits idea similar zero one infinity rule wall trained linguist design perl much informed linguistic principles examples include huffman coding common constructions short good end-weighting important information come first large collection language primitives perl favors language constructs concise natural humans write even complicate perl interpreter perl syntax reflects idea things different look different example scalars arrays hashes different leading sigils array indices hash keys use different kinds braces strings regular expressions different standard delimiters approach contrasted language lisp basic syntax composed simple universal symbolic expressions used purposes perl enforce particular programming paradigm procedural object-oriented functional others even require programmer choose among broad practical bent perl language community culture surround preface programming perl begins perl language getting job done one consequence perl tidy language includes many features tolerates exceptions rules employs heuristics resolve syntactical ambiguities forgiving nature compiler bugs sometimes hard find perl function documentation remarks variant behavior built-in functions list scalar contexts saying general want unless want consistency written specification standard perl language exists perl versions perl 5 plans create one current version perl one implementation interpreter language evolved along interpreter together functional tests stands de facto specification language perl 6 however started specification several projects aim implement specification perl many varied applications compounded availability many standard third-party modules perl chiefly used write cgi scripts large projects written perl include cpanel slash bugzilla rt twiki movable type high-traffic websites use perl extensively include priceline.com craigslist imdb livejournal duckduckgo slashdot ticketmaster also optional component popular lamp technology stack web development lieu php python perl used extensively system programming language debian gnu/linux distribution perl often used glue language tying together systems interfaces specifically designed interoperate data munging converting processing large amounts data tasks creating reports fact strengths intimately linked combination makes perl popular all-purpose language system administrators particularly short programs often called one-liner programs entered run single command line perl code made portable across windows unix code often used suppliers software cots bespoke simplify packaging maintenance software build- deployment-scripts graphical user interfaces guis may developed using perl example perl/tk wxperl commonly used enable user interaction perl scripts interaction may synchronous asynchronous using callbacks update gui perl implemented core interpreter written c together large collection modules written perl c. interpreter 150,000 lines c code compiles 1 mb executable typical machine architectures alternatively interpreter compiled link library embedded programs nearly 500 modules distribution comprising 200,000 lines perl additional 350,000 lines c code much c code modules consists character encoding tables interpreter object-oriented architecture elements perl language—scalars arrays hashes coderefs file handles—are represented interpreter c structs operations structs defined large collection macros typedefs functions constitute perl c api perl api bewildering uninitiated entry points follow consistent naming scheme provides guidance use life perl interpreter divides broadly compile phase run phase perl phases major stages interpreter life-cycle interpreter goes phase phases follow fixed sequence happens perl compile phase compilation happens perl run phase execution significant exceptions perl makes important use capability execute perl code compile phase perl also delay compilation run phase terms indicate kind processing actually occurring moment compile time run time perl compile time points compile phase compile time may also entered run phase compile time code string argument passed codice_6 built-in occurs run phase perl often run time compile phase spends run phase run time code codice_7 blocks executes run time compile phase compile time interpreter parses perl code syntax tree run time executes program walking tree text parsed syntax tree subject optimization executed execution relatively efficient compile-time optimizations syntax tree include constant folding context propagation peephole optimization also performed perl turing-complete grammar parsing affected run-time code executed compile phase therefore perl parsed straight lex/yacc lexer/parser combination instead interpreter implements lexer coordinates modified gnu bison parser resolve ambiguities language often said perl parse perl meaning perl interpreter codice_8 parse perl language perl even general true perl interpreter simulate turing machine compile phase would need decide halting problem order complete parsing every case long-standing result halting problem undecidable therefore even perl always parse perl perl makes unusual choice giving user access full programming power compile phase cost terms theoretical purity high practical inconvenience seems rare programs undertake parse perl source-code analyzers auto-indenters contend ambiguous syntactic constructs also undecidability perl parsing general case adam kennedy ppi project focused parsing perl code document retaining integrity document instead parsing perl executable code even perl always kennedy first conjectured parsing perl suffers 'halting problem later proved perl distributed 250,000 functional tests core perl language 250,000 functional tests core modules run part normal build process extensively exercise interpreter core modules perl developers rely functional tests ensure changes interpreter introduce software bugs additionally perl users see interpreter passes functional tests system high degree confidence working properly perl dual licensed artistic license 1.0 gnu general public license distributions available operating systems particularly prevalent unix unix-like systems ported modern many obsolete platforms six reported exceptions perl compiled source code posix-compliant otherwise-unix-compatible platforms unusual changes required classic mac os environment special port called macperl shipped independently comprehensive perl archive network carries complete list supported platforms links distributions available cpan also source publicly available perl modules part core perl distribution users microsoft windows typically install one native binary distributions perl win32 commonly strawberry perl activeperl compiling perl source code windows possible installations lack requisite c compiler build tools also makes difficult install modules cpan particularly partially written c. activeperl closed source distribution activestate regular releases track core perl releases distribution also includes perl package manager ppm popular tool installing removing upgrading managing use common perl modules included also perlscript windows script host wsh engine implementing perl language visual perl activestate tool adds perl visual studio .net development suite vbscript perl converter well perl compiler windows converters awk sed perl also produced company included activestate cd windows includes distributions plus komodo ide first unix/linux/posix variant thereof 2002 subsequently strawberry perl open source distribution windows regular quarterly releases since january 2008 including new modules feedback requests come strawberry perl aims able install modules like standard perl distributions platforms including compiling xs modules cygwin emulation layer another way running perl windows cygwin provides unix-like environment windows perl cpan available standard pre-compiled packages cygwin setup program since cygwin also includes gcc compiling perl source also possible perl executable included several windows resource kits directory scripting tools implementations perl come mks toolkit interix base earlier implementations windows services unix uwin perl text-handling capabilities used generating sql queries arrays hashes automatic memory management make easy collect process returned data example tim bunce perl dbi application programming interface api arguments api text sql queries thus possible program multiple languages time e.g. generating web page using html javascript sql document use perl variable interpolation programmatically customize sql queries specification perl arrays hashes structures programmatically hold resulting data sets sql query allows high-level mechanism handling large amounts data post-processing perl subprogram early versions perl database interfaces created relinking interpreter client-side database library sufficiently difficult done most-important widely used databases restricted resulting codice_8 executable using one database interface time perl 5 database interfaces implemented perl dbi modules dbi database interface module presents single database-independent interface perl applications dbd database driver modules handle details accessing 50 different databases dbd drivers ansi sql databases dbi provides caching database handles queries greatly improve performance long-lived execution environments mod perl helping high-volume systems avert load spikes slashdot effect modern perl applications especially written using web frameworks catalyst dbi module often used indirectly via object-relational mappers generate sql queries handle data transparently application author computer language benchmarks game compares performance implementations typical programming problems several programming languages submitted perl implementations typically perform toward high end memory-usage spectrum give varied speed results perl performance benchmarks game typical interpreted languages large perl programs start slowly similar programs compiled languages perl compile source every time runs talk yapc :europe 2005 conference subsequent article timely start jean-louis leroy found perl programs took much longer run expected perl interpreter spent significant time finding modules within over-large include path unlike java python ruby perl experimental support pre-compiling therefore perl programs pay overhead penalty every execution run phase typical programs long enough amortized startup time substantial benchmarks measure short execution times likely skewed due overhead number tools introduced improve situation first tool apache mod perl sought address one most-common reasons small perl programs invoked rapidly cgi web development activeperl via microsoft isapi provides similar performance improvements perl code compiled additional overhead execution phase typically n't present programs written compiled languages c c++ examples overhead include bytecode interpretation reference-counting memory management dynamic type-checking perl interpreted language give problems efficiency critical situations critical routines written languages c connected perl via simple inline modules complex flexible xs mechanism perl 5 language usually referred perl continues actively developed perl 5.12.0 released april 2010 new features influenced design perl 6 followed perl 5.14.1 released june 17 2011 perl 5.16.1 released august 9 2012 perl 5.18.0 released may 18 2013 perl 5 development versions released monthly basis major releases coming per year relative proportion internet searches perl programming compared similar searches programming languages steadily declined 10 2005 2 2011 1 2019 2000 perl conference jon orwant made case major new language-initiative led decision begin work redesign language called perl 6 proposals new language features solicited perl community large submitted 300 rfcs wall spent next years digesting rfcs synthesizing coherent framework perl 6 presented design perl 6 series documents called apocalypses numbered correspond chapters programming perl developing specification perl 6 encapsulated design documents called synopsesnumbered correspond apocalypses thesis work bradley m. kuhn overseen wall considered possible use java virtual machine runtime perl kuhn thesis showed approach problematic 2001 decided perl 6 would run cross-language virtual machine called parrot mean languages targeting parrot gain native access cpan allowing level cross-language development 2005 audrey tang created pugs project implementation perl 6 haskell acted continues act test platform perl 6 language separate development actual implementation allowing language designers explore pugs project spawned active perl/haskell cross-language community centered around freenode perl6 irc channel many functional programming influences absorbed perl 6 design team 2012 perl 6 development centered primarily around two compilers 2013 moarvm “ metamodel runtime ” c language-based virtual machine designed primarily rakudo announced rakudo perl implementation moarvm support virtual machines java virtual machine javascript active development perl culture community developed alongside language usenet first public venue perl introduced course evolution perl community shaped growth broadening internet-based services including introduction world wide web community surrounds perl fact topic wall first state onion talk state onion name wall yearly keynote-style summaries progress perl community characterized hallmark humor employing references perl culture wider hacker culture wall linguistic background sometimes family life occasionally even christian background talk first given various perl conferences eventually also published online number irc channels offer support language modules also many examples code written purely entertainment cpan codice_10 example allows writing programs latin upon execution program module translates source code regular perl runs perl community set aside acme namespace modules fun nature scope widened include exploratory experimental code module meant ever used production acme modules deliberately implemented amusing ways includes codice_11 one first modules codice_12 namespace allows program source code whitened i.e. characters replaced whitespace yet still work older versions perl one would write hello world program complex perl program counts seconds given threshold perl interpreter also used one-off scripts command line following example invoked sh-compatible shell bash translates string bob files ending .txt current directory robert perl referred line noise programmers claim syntax makes write-only language earliest mention first edition book learning perl perl 4 tutorial book written randal l. schwartz first chapter states yes sometimes perl looks like line noise uninitiated seasoned perl programmer looks like checksummed line noise mission life also stated accusation perl write-only language could avoided coding proper care perl overview document perlintro states names built-in magic scalar variables look like punctuation line noise however english module provides long short english alternatives perlstyle document states line noise regular expressions could mitigated using codice_13 modifier add whitespace according perl 6 faq perl 6 designed mitigate usual suspects elicit line noise claim perl 5 critics including removal majority punctuation variables sanitization regex syntax perl 6 faq also states sometimes referred perl line noise actual syntax language gerunds prepositions part english language december 2012 blog posting despite claiming rakudo perl 6 failed continue fail unless gets adult supervision chromatic stated design perl 6 well-defined grammar well improved type system unified object system intelligent metamodel metaoperators clearer system context provides niceties pervasive laziness also stated perl 6 coherence consistency perl 5 lacks Target text information: yara.yara yara name tool primarily used malware research detection provides rule-based approach create descriptions malware families based textual binary patterns description essentially yara rule name rules consist sets strings boolean expression language used traits perl compatible regular expressions yara originally developed victor alvarez virustotal name either abbreviation yara yet another recursive acronym yet another ridiculous acronym yara default comes modules process pe elf analysis well support open-source cuckoo sandbox I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,506	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: memory_management_controller.memory management controller multi-memory controllers memory management controllers mmc different kinds special chips designed various video game developers use nintendo entertainment system nes cartridges chips extend capabilities original console make possible create nes games features original console offer alone basic nes hardware supports 40k rom total 32k prg 8k chr thus single tile sprite table possible limit rapidly reached within famicom first two years market game developers began requesting way expand console capabilities chips also known mappers cnrom earliest banking hardware introduced famicom appearing early 1986 consists single 7400 series discrete logic chip cnrom supports single fixed prg bank eight chr banks 96k total rom third party variations supported additional capabilities many cnrom games store game level data chr rom blank screen reading early nes mappers composed 7400 series discrete logic chips unrom appeared late 1986 supports single fixed 16k prg bank rest prg switchable instead dedicated rom chip hold graphics data called chr nintendo games using unrom store graphics data program rom copy ram cartridge run time mmc1 nintendo first custom mmc integrated circuit incorporate support saved games multi-directional scrolling configurations chip comes least five different versions mmc1a mmc1b1 mmc1b2 mmc1b3 mmc1c differences different versions slight mostly owing savegame memory protection behavior mmc1 chip allows switching different memory banks program rom selected 16kb 32kb chunks character rom selected 4kb 8kb chunks unusual feature memory controller input serial rather parallel 5 sequential writes bit shifting needed send command circuit mmc2 used mike tyson punch-out later rerelease replaced mike tyson single 8kb bank program rom selected remaining 24kb locked character rom selected two pairs 4kb banks would automatically switched video hardware attempts load particular graphic tiles memory thus allowing larger amount graphics used screen without need game manually switch mmc3 introduced 1988 adds irq timer allow split screen scrolling without sacrifice sprite 0 along two selectable 8kb program rom banks two 2kb+four 1kb selectable character rom banks allows easy instant swapping sprite tile data 8k save game ram supported chip used three games released famicom japan developed intelligent systems functionally nearly identical mmc2 difference mmc4 switches program rom 16kb banks instead 8kb banks support battery-backed sram save game data mmc5 nintendo advanced mmc originally also expensive koei used chip regularly similar konami vrc6 interrupt handling works differently chip 1kb extra ram two extra square wave sound channels one extra pcm sound channel support vertical split screen scrolling improved graphics capabilities making 16,384 different tiles available per screen rather 256 allowing individual 8x8-pixel background tile color assignment instead restricted one color set per 2x2 tile group highly configurable program rom character rom bank switching scanline-based irq counter mmc5 supports 2mb total rom however commercially released game exceeded 1mb mmc6 similar mmc3 additional 1 kb ram saved battery backup famicom disk system asic extended audio chip supports one channel single-cycle 6-bit × 64 step wavetable-lookup synthesis built phase modulator pm sound generation similar frequency modulation synthesis a*rom mmc named amrom anrom aorom cartridge boards use developed chris stamper rare manufactured nintendo found games developed rare nintendo tradewest gametek acclaim milton bradley allows prg rom switched single 32k piece uses chr ram 256k total rom unlike chips uses one screen mirroring nintendo maintained tight control internationally-released cartridge hardware allow third parties use pcbs mappers remained case late nes commercial lifespan restrictions eased thus third party mappers found famicom unlicensed cartridges vrc2 chip konami allows program rom switched 8kb banks character rom switched 1kb banks mmc two known revisions vrc2a vrc2b exclusively used japanese version salamander vrc6 virtual rom controller advanced mmc chip konami supporting bank switching program code graphics well cpu cycle–based irq counter also act scanline counter chip also contains support three extra sound channels two square waves eight duty cycles one sawtooth wave used akumajō densetsu japanese version western version uses mmc5 nintendo since nintendo entertainment system allow cartridges add additional sound channels famicom version soundtrack reworked follow specifications thus soundtrack western version implemented five sound channels built stock nes vrc7 advanced mmc chip konami supporting bank switching irq counting equivalent vrc6 also containing ym2413 derivative providing 6 channels fm synthesis audio advanced audio used famicom game lagrange point japanese version tiny toon adventures 2 also used vrc7 make use extended audio 163 used games exclusive japan capabilities little better nintendo mmc3 variant contained extra sound hardware plays 4-bit wave samples supports 1 8 extra sound channels audible aliasing appears sufficiently large number channels enabled fme-7 memory mapping circuit developed sunsoft use nes famicom cartridges switches program rom 8kb banks switches character rom 1kb banks also contains hardware generate irq signals specified number cpu clock cycles thus achieving split-screen effects minimal use processing power special version mmc labeled sunsoft 5b rather fme-7 contains version widely used yamaha ym2149 sound generation hardware used one famicom title gimmick individual homebrew unlicensed developers made custom mmcs nes simply expand available memory 228 simple bank switching mmc developed use games action 52 cheetahmen ii nametable control bit action 52 multicart also contains small 16-bit register area contains old menu selection exiting game 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan 1-hop neighbor's text information: tandy_1000.tandy 1000 tandy 1000 first line ibm pc compatible home computer systems produced tandy corporation sale radio shack radio shack computer center chains stores december 1983 executive tandy corporation maker trs-80 computers said new ibm pcjr 'm sure lot people coming pcjr look-alikes market big preparing tandy 2000—the company first ms-dos computer—for release november 1983 tandy began designing tandy 1000 code named august unlike 2000 would pc compatible ibm pc support pcjr graphics standard released november 1984 1,200 tandy 1000 offered functionality pcjr improved keyboard better expandability compatibility could ibm made mistake pcjr amazed tandy executive said regarding chiclet keyboard another claimed 1000 pcjr tandy 2000—not completely pc compatible—quickly failed although press saw 1000 former personal-computer leader tandy admitting could longer focus proprietary products market ibm pc dominated 1000 sold units first month tandy product early 1985 best-selling computer 1000 joystick ports like pcjr 16-color graphics 3-voice sound pcjr rom cartridge ports since ibm discontinued pcjr soon release 1000 tandy quickly removed mentions pcjr advertising emphasizing product pc compatibility although tandy initially marketed 1000 business computer like ibm pc infoworld stated 1985 company produced real home computer company claimed 1000 first fully ibm pc-compatible computer available less 1000 1000 helped company obtain 9.5 share us home-computer market 1986 year tandy stated half compatibles purchased home 1988 ceo john roach disagreed apple counterpart john sculley rejection home market let deny person well-represented home market wants abandon right tandy also regained significant share apple-dominated educational market two companies equally shared 1000 many successors successful unlike pcjr partly sold ubiquitous radio shack stores partly computer less costly easier expand almost entirely compatible ibm pc pcjr enhanced graphics sound standards became known tandy-compatible graphics sound built-in joystick ports 1000 best computer pc games vga graphics became popular 1990s software companies era advertised support tandy platform 28 66 games computer gaming world tested 1989 supported tandy graphics tandy 1000 computers first ibm pc clones incorporate complete set basic peripherals motherboard using proprietary asics forerunner chipset although original tandy 1000 came ibm pc-like desktop case models notably 1000 ex 1000 hx used home-computer-style cases keyboard motherboard disk drives one enclosure high level integration made machines cost-effective alternative larger complex ibm pc/xt pc/at-type systems required multiple add-in cards often purchased separately implement comparable feature-set tandy 1000 derived ibm pcjr architecture tandy 1000 offered several important features ibm pc-compatibles time lacked pcjr sound generator extended cga-compatible graphics controller also offered multiple built-in i/o ports including joystick port frequently separate add-on card non-tandy machines original line equipped intel 8088 cpu later extended faster clock speeds also 8086 80286 toward end line rsx 80386sx processors successors 1000 appended two three letters name space e.g tandy 1000 ex tandy 1000 hx instances letters slash appended followed either number additional letters e.g tandy 1000 tl/2 tandy 1000 rl/hd 1993 changes market made increasingly difficult tandy corporation make profit computer line tandy corporation sold computer manufacturing business ast computers tandy computer lines terminated radio shack stores began selling computers made manufacturers ibm compaq article subtitled junior meets match john j. anderson creative computing called original tandy 1000 machine ibm inept incapable afraid manufacture sure put whopping dent pcjr sales sales pc 'senior well favorably mentioned low price good pc-software compatibility bundled deskmate might never need another software package computer 80 micro approved 1000s pc compatibility stated exterior design gives feeling quality confidence magazine concluded tandy machine closely emulates basic functions ibm pc affordable price ... along security tandy substantial support network wondered people would buy 1000 ibm lowered price pc infoworld noted 1000s low price fully one-third less comparably equipped ibm pc predicted computer really intended elusive home computer market speculated retrospect might pcjr final straw magazine called 1000 almost fully ibm pc compatible computer get gave deskmate mixed review advised customers computer inability use full-length pc expansion cards concluded making 1000 inexpensive adaptable including deskmate tandy produced real home computer byte called 1000 good reasonably priced ibm pc clone best features ibm pc pcjr ... current prices good alternative noted high level software compatibility good keyboard stated deskmate fairly good ... little extra programming work could turned much better program noting that—for example—the word processor move command magazine also mentioned computer short slots pc magazine also noted slots criticized tandy 1000 fit finish acknowledged computer low price bundled hardware features tandy 1000 computers featured built-in video hardware enhanced sound hardware based one several variants texas instruments sn76496 sound generator numerous peripheral interfaces including game ports compatible trs-80 color computer ibm-standard floppy-disk controller supporting two drives parallel printer port integrated motherboard addition hardware standard ibm pc/xt later tandy 1000 models pc/at motherboards original tandy 1000 designers omitted dma controller pcjr one believed needed would add additional memory computer omitted rs-232 port tandy printers use parallel port believed customers would use internal modems earlier models tandy 1000 composite video output could used color monochrome composite monitor tv rf modulator original 1000 sx light-pen port unlike pc clones several tandy 1000 computers ms-dos built rom could boot seconds tandy bundled deskmate graphical suite consumer-oriented applications various tandy 1000 models early tandy 1000 models used phoenix bios common models machine included tandy 1000 1000 ex 1000 hx 1000 sx 1000 tx 1000 sl 1000 rl 1000 tl exception rlx rsx tandy 1000 machines xt-class machines support extended memory despite models using 80286 processors rlx oddity xt-class machine supports 384 kb extended memory rsx fully at-class machine support 9 mb extended memory exception 1000 ex hx tandy used industry standard 8-bit xt isa slots desktop models including sx tx sl tl series actual length limited 10.5 inches shorter rather industry standard xt length 13 inches 8-bit xt isa cards shorter 10.5 fit 1000 slots many 8-bit cards met length requirement cards hard cards ems memory cards multifunction cards required standard 13 length fit 1000 case ex hx utilized plus-style connector electronically identical 8-bit xt isa slot 62-pin berg connector instead card edge rendering incompatible isa cards without adapter plus connector designed compactness models built-in keyboards 1000 rsx featured two 16-bit isa slots hard disk drives time tandy 1000 introduction expensive tandy 1000 systems usually equipped hard drives however possible add hard drive tandy 1000 computers desktop-type tandy 1000 units could accept regular 8-bit isa bus mfm rll scsi controllers like typical xt-class machines however care taken configuring cards cause conflicts on-board tandy-designed peripherals tandy 1000 models compact ex hx come already equipped hard drive tandy offered hard disk options form hardcards installed one computer expansion slots consisted controller drive typically 3.5-inch mfm rll unit western digital controller mounted together metal bracket 20 mb hard card offered 799 though compatible third-party units available although arrangement provided neat physical coupling controller disk single-sector internal transfers dependence speed host machine transfer data memory meant trial-and-error approach still needed set disk interleave correctly ensure optimum transfer rates furthermore tandy 1000 slots 10.5 long 8-bit units would fit and/or operate correctly unless certified tandy-compatible starting tandy 1000 tl/2 xt ide controllers integrated onto motherboard however incompatible common ide hard drives tl/2 tl/3 rl rlx used xt ide interface later significantly upgraded rsx first tandy 1000 model computer use standard ide interface one option contemporary users systems would install use xt isa compactflash adapters also practical way install hard drive tandy 1000 ex hx using adapter cable adapts male plus-style connector 8-bit isa card-edge slot tandy 1000 sx tx used proprietary 8-pin round din connector keyboard port compatible older trs computers compatible ibm pc/at ps/2 standard scan codes differed tandy 1000 ibm pc/xt resulting software compatibility issues sl/tl later used directly pc/xt-compatible keyboard protocol 1000 rsx used pc/at ps/2-compatible protocol tandy 1000 used proprietary 6-pin female round connector joystick port sx/tx adjacent keyboard port front computer keyboard compatible older trs-80 tandy color computer models compatible ibm standard 15-pin male game port dos games work joystick ports support tandy 1000 graphics sound work early tandy 1000 models used non-standard card-edge parallel printer port rather industry standard db-25 printer port required tandy-1000 compatible printer cable connect standard printer parallel port later changed standard db-25 connector 1000 rl tandy 1000tx beyond used proprietary floppy drive cable port also powered floppy drive required tandy 1000 compatible floppy drive though may possible modify floppy drive cable make standard floppy drive work tandy shipped pcs customized version ms-dos compatible tandy graphics keyboard current version ms-dos tandy 1000 dos 3.22 tandy 1000s came shipped one several varieties deskmate gui productivity software suite may compatibility issues later versions dos dos 5 dos 6 1000 rlx tandy 1000s typically limited 640 kb main memory non-tandy versions dos often reduce memory available applications games addition hardware detection routine installer microsoft ms-dos 6 could corrupt serial eeprom tandy 1000 hx machines tandy 1000s could work windows 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 exception rlx could run windows 3.1 standard mode rsx fully supported running windows 3.1 386 enhanced mode tandy offered 2 color monitors specific tandy 1000 computers cm-5 0.64 millimeter dot pitch tandy cm-11 dot pitch 0.42 mm 13 inch displays power cable 9 pin rgb cable attach tandy cga port expensive cm-11 also supported special proprietary tandy enhanced 225 scan line text display mode tandy also offered monochrome monitors support mda hercules standard also work tandy 1000 uses cga-compatible interface non-tandy monitors support cga work original tandy 1000 sx ex tx hx used proprietary keyboard keyboard layout compatible pc/xt/at standard use layout keyboard prefigured ibm model keyboard introduced ibm ps/2 series function keys arranged row top instead left pc pc xt/at later models tandy 1000 series 1000 sl tl rl series used keyboard similar compatible ibm ps/2 series keyboard connector layout tandy 1000 used game ports tandy color computer series 26-3025 color mouse 26-3125 deluxe mouse compatible tandy 1000 though dos software drivers written recognize tandy digi-mouse also available required separate controller available either isa plus format systems rs-232c serial ports could use standard serial mice later systems 1000 rl featured ps/2 mouse connector radio shack offered one button joystick worked proprietary 6-pin din joystick connector compatible older trs-80 color computer standard 15-pin ibm pc game ports often found sound cards i/o multifunction isa cards worked many games written take advantage tandy graphics sound radio shack offered tandy 1000 plus 300-baud pc modem compatible 1000ex/hx used plus slots radio shack also offered 2400-baud internal modem third party modems speeds 14k baud work provided 8 bit isa fit radio shack sold tandy dmp-130a dot matrix printers go along tandy 1000 line along compatible card-edged printer cable printer sold home budget prices radio shack often offered package bundle tandy 1000 computer cm-5 budget monitor dmp-130a printer using specially-designed aftermarket cables possible connect non-tandy printers system tandy radio shack wanted compete education school home market dominated apple iie time partnered diamond radio shack sold diamond trackstar 128 series apple iie compatibility board 399 1987 offered free installation tandy 1000 series peripheral similar apple iie card sold later macintosh lc fully functional apple iie clone 128k ram 6502 cpu double high resolution graphics allowed tandy 1000 computers run software written apple iie iic platform especially important consideration education market time also sold retail home users businesses interested ms dos apple ii compatibility board pass rgb cable floppy drive cable required open 10 inch 8-bit isa slot used boot disk boot apple mode boot disk dos apple software could copied compatibility fairly good allowed tandy 1000 owners run apple ii software tandy 1000 machine less cost owning 2 separate machines ibm pc computer apple iie monitor many tandy 1000 sold schools came diamond trackstar 128 installed many home owners also purchased compatibility dos apple ii software original tandy 1000 large computer almost size though plastic case aluminium lower chassis reduce weight came standard one internal 5.25 double-density floppy disk drive additional exposed internal bay usable installation second 5.25 disk drive available kit radio shack floppy drives used jumpers select drive number instead ibm cable twist memory standard computer accepting total memory addition expansion cards ms-dos 2.11 deskmate 1.0 keyboard layout tandy 2000 included computer like pcjr tandy 1000 motherboard supply dma unlike system could dma added memory expansion board tandy 1000 three xt-compatible expansion slots early tandy memory upgrade boards took two slots get slots inches length instead pc 13 inches full-length cards fit reviewers noted many built-in hardware features reduced need cards later revision original tandy 1000 model tandy 1000a revision fixed bugs scanned expansion cards bootable roms added socket math coprocessor original tandy 1000 many models like home computers sold time hard disk drive tandy 1000 hd essentially original tandy 1000 hard disk option factory installed factory hard disk capacity order 10 20 mb tandy 1000 sx tx upgraded versions original tandy 1000 utilizing similar chassis two major upgrades original tandy 1000 inclusion dma controller improved speed diskette operations ibm pc-compatibility systems addition two additional isa expansion slots offer total five 8-bit isa slots tandy 1000 sx used 7.16 mhz 8088-2 processor 384k memory upgradeable 640 kb motherboard came either one two 5.25 internal floppy disk drives light pen port serial port like original tandy 1000 adjustable potentiometer inside system controlled volume internal speaker tandy ax sx rebadged sale walmart stores 1000 sx came ms-dos 3.2 deskmate ii 5.25 360kb diskettes sx first tandy 1000 built-in video circuitry could disabled via dip switch permit installation upgraded graphics card typically ega vga card expansion slot tandy 1000 tx similar 1000 sx detached keyboard unique parallel port edge connector xt-style architecture slightly modified case major difference 80286 cpu clocked 8 mhz similar ibm xt 286 featured 16-bit-wide memory bus although on-board peripherals isa slots 8 bits wide tx 3.5 internal floppy disk drive mounted 5.25 bay room optional second internal 3.5 5.25 floppy disk drive rear panel ports 1000 sx except rs-232c serial port replaced light-pen port memory size 640 kb sockets additional 128 kb devoted onboard video logic extra 128 kb could used on-board video controller impractical expand on-board memory beyond 640 kb vga graphics card installed computer came bundled personal deskmate 2 tandy 1000 ex hx designed entry-level ibm-compatible personal computers marketed starter systems people new computing offered compact all-in-one chassis featured 7.16 mhz 8088 capable clocking 4.77 mhz 256 kb memory expandable 640 kb plus memory expansion board pcjr- cga-compatible tandy video graphics controller keyboard depending model either single 5.25 360 kb floppy drive one two 3.5 720 kb floppy drives external floppy drive could connected port back machine supplied power external drive tandy unit usable ex hx external drive standard 360 kb 5.25 inch format 1988 compatible 720 kb 3.5 inch model offered ex hx upgradable via tandy plus cards systems bays three cards plus card connector electrically identical isa slot connector uses berg-style 62-pin connector instead 62-contact isa card-edge connector plus cards could installed add serial ports 1200-baud modem clock/calendar bus mouse board proprietary tandy network interface radio shack later sold adapter card allowing installation plus card standard isa slot larger tandy 1000 models like original tandy 1000 ex hx built-in dma controller though one added using plus memory expansion board tandy 1000 ex featured 5.25 floppy drive built right-hand side computer casing ex sold us 1,000.00 radio shack december 1986 ex later hx would among popular tandy 1000 line relatively low price useful feature ex later systems ability boot either drive drives could logically swapped system booted drive normally drive b became drive vice versa drives remained swapped system powered reset sx tx capability well 1000 ex came ms-dos 2.11 personal deskmate 5.25 360kb diskettes ms-dos version specialized bootable tandy 1000 included version basica microsoft advanced gw-basic support enhanced cga graphics modes a.k.a tandy graphics tga three-voice sound hardware tandy 1000 tandy 1000 hx updated version ex utilized architecture plus cards ex however one obvious difference offered two 3.5 bays front panel occupied one two 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives opposed single side-mounted 5.25 bay floppy drive ex also tandy ms-dos 2.11r rom could accessed starting computer bootable disk present another improvement ex addition serial eeprom store configuration information enabling similar functionality today cmos nvrams comparison earlier tandy 1000 models like ibm pc pc/xt systems used dip switches jumpers startup configuration settings putting basic elements dos deskmate rom eliminating memory test startup hx booted quickly compared contemporary ms-dos machines despite immediate provisions hard disk drive addition tandy ms-dos 2.11r hx shipped personal deskmate 2 versions ms-dos worked 1000 hx including dos 3.x later versions however quirk dos 4.0 environment prevented version dos working tandy 1000 hx computers additionally installer ms-dos 6 could corrupt contents serial eeprom tandy sl tl series computers updates sx tx respectively addition offering redesigned cases machines offered integrated motherboard improved graphics sound capabilities dropping composite video output graphics controller supported resolution well hercules graphics card-compatible mode monochrome monitors sound capabilities included 8-bit monaural dac/adc similar function parallel port sound devices covox speech thing disney sound source extended support dma transfers microphone input capability sampling rates 48 khz sl/tl lines allowed on-board floppy controller parallel port serial ports disabled earlier models sl tl also shipped ms-dos 3.3 deskmate 3 rom featured serial eeprom memory chip store bios settings machines could also run 'normal ms-dos 3.x 5.x 6.x windows 2.x 3.0 operating systems although windows limited real-mode operations common many pc clones era ms-dos 4 problematic generally avoided tandy 1000 sl sl/2 feature intel 8086 processor running 8 mhz socketed thus upgradeable nec v30 sl came ram preinstalled whereas sl/2 offered machines could expanded although graphics controller reserved portion memory yielding available operating system even systems using add-in isa graphic cards sl line mic/earphone ports volume knob reset button small satellite board jumper board allowed user change microphone input line-level output sl series offered five 8-bit xt-compatible isa slots come pre-installed real-time clock chips making optional upgrades form plug-in dallas ds1216e smartwatch sl machine line offers upper 5.25 bay therefore model offer two 5.25 bays models including sl/2 entire tl range feature two upper 3.5 bays one lower 5.25 bay result fitting hard drive sl already upper lower 5.25 bays populated may require either removal one devices bays installation hard disk card-style bracket seats one isa slots tandy 1000 tl tl/2 used 8 mhz intel 80286 processors whereas tl/3 used 10 mhz 80286 socketed thus upgradable 386sx 486sx replacements though functionality far true 386/486 cores due lack extended memory boards xt-type expansion slots tls 640 kb memory preinstalled option extra 128 kb video frame buffering 1000 tx unlike sl series machines tl machines came smartwatch real-time clock logic built-in powered removable 3-volt cr2032 button-cell battery motherboard tl offered five 8-bit xt-compatible isa slots tl/2 tl/3 offered four slots on-board 8-bit xt ide-compatible hard disk interface compatible standard ide hard drives tl series offered two upper 3.5 bays one lower 5.25 bay tl/3 also offered high-density floppy drive controller 1.44 mb drives though shipped double-density 3.5 720 kb drive tandy 1000 rl/rlx/rsx series slim-line desktop home computers featured much compact case least 512 kb memory pre-installed smaller ps/2-style keyboard mouse ports least one isa expansion slot rl-series rsx include provisions internal hard disk drive depending model rl-series featured built-in xt-ide hard drive interface rsx featured at-compatible ide interface keyboard connectors rl-series similar mechanically compatible ps/2-style connectors fully compatible typical ps/2 keyboards keyboard uses xt keyboard protocol rsx however incorporated keyboard protocol making first 1000-series system offer complete compatibility typical ps/2 keyboards keyboards using adapter rl rl/hd featured surface-mounted 8086 processor 512 kb ram expandable 768 kb provide 128 kb video 640 kb conventional memory db-25 unidirectional parallel port instead edge-connector ports sl enhanced graphics sound single half-size 8-bit expansion slot available rl/hd battery-backed real-time clock chip store date time information rl lacked models also ms-dos portion deskmate rom could therefore boot much faster many computers market rl/hd came 20mb drive preinstalled rlx 'mid-range offering rl line 10 mhz 286 surface-mounted 512 kb ram unlike 286-based tandy 1000 models supported 384 kb extended memory ram expanded maximum 1 mb however full at-class machine still 8-bit isa bus rl one half-size expansion slot 8 irqs 4 dma channels three-voice sound chip dac still present tandy video dropped favor acumos vga controller offering 256 kb video memory maximum 640x480x16 320x480x256 graphics resolution parallel port bidirectional first tandy 1000 series rlx one 1.44 mb 3.5 floppy drive empty drive bay could host second drive hard disk rlx/hd came 20 mb hard disk 1 mb ram preinstalled hard disk occupied empty drive bay version supported single floppy drive upscale offering rsx offered 25 mhz 80386sx processor 1 mb ram two 16-bit isa slots acumos svga video bidirectional parallel port standard ps/2 keyboard mouse ports full 386-class pc could run microsoft windows 3.x two sockets simm memory cards provided 1 mb 4 mb simms 9-chip type supported two installed like capacity two 4 mb simms installed 1000 rsx could expanded 9 mb ram without using isa slot rsx/hd variant came 52 mb hard drive using at-compatible ide interface replacement hard drives 504 mb could substituted slimline case one hard drive could installed alongside 1.44 mb 3.5 floppy drive motherboard socket 80387sx math coprocessor rsx still retained tandy 1000 3-voice sound hardware dac though i/o address 3-voice sound chip moved rendering many games previously compatible unable play music unless modified dac could used emulate covox speech thing via ms-dos device drivers limited sound support worked game chuck yeager air combat windows 3.xx sound device drivers available worked windows 95 full 9mb ram tandy 1000 rsx acumos vga graphics could software-updated cirrus logic bios via ms-dos driver allow vesa/svga function windows 95 windows 3.xx tandy vga drivers insufficient windows 95 major software publishers makers game educational software sierra broderbund offered software titles specifically supported tandy unique proprietary 16-color graphics 3-voice sound tandy specific hardware features enhancements offer superior graphics sound experience tandy 1000 owners standard dos titles software supported tandy graphics typically labelled package tandy 1000/pcjr compatible many tandy 1000 enhanced games featured youtube although tandy 1000 run dos software programs known specifically support tandy 1000 enhanced features programs require dos run tandy shipped version dos tandy used main memory graphics result programs require 640k 768k run enhanced graphics sound often tax processor 80286 processor faster recommended best results also games educational software supports second generation tandy 1000 graphics sound offers 640 200 16 colors 8-bit dacs found 1000 sl/tl series examples software includes mario typing tutor star trek freddy pharkas frontier pharmacist sargon chess Target text information: teenage_mutant_ninja_turtles_(nes_video_game).teenage mutant ninja turtles nes video game teenage mutant ninja turtles 1989 side-scrolling platform game nintendo entertainment system released konami north america published ultra games imprint usa equivalent palcom brand europe/australia alongside arcade game also developed konami one first video games based 1987 teenage mutant ninja turtles animated series released show second season ninja turtles leonardo raphael michelangelo donatello mission retrieve life transformer gun shredder device could restore sensei splinter back human form turtles first objective rescue reporter friend april o'neil held captive bebop rocksteady somewhere city rescuing april turtles must swim underwater disarm series bombs set destroy dam rescue splinter mecha turtle destroy giant mouser find technodrome eventually defeat shredder teenage mutant ninja turtles single-player action game player starts game leonardo switch turtles time pressing start button access information screen information screen shows turtle health whatever special weapon obtained map grid current area messages either splinter april turtle unique primary weapon different speed power reach player current character runs health falls fatal trap run roller car captured enemy forcing player change one remaining turtles player loses game four turtles captured opportunity rescue captured turtle stage beginning stage 3 total six stages game player navigates mission map overhead view travel doors manholes entrances side-scrolling interior levels represent primary gameplay overhead view player move four cardinal directions use primary weapon single type attack game progresses obstacles enemies appear overhead maps side-scrolling levels turtles jump crouch attack either primary weapons jumping walking crouching use one alternate weapons picked along way special weapons include single shurikens throwing stars triple shurikens launches three stars simultaneously spreading pattern boomerangs kiai scroll expands crescent-shaped beam inflicts devastating damage even boss characters items occasionally dropped enemies special weapons obtained limited quantities although boomerangs reused player catches return primary weapon aimed upwards downwards levels specific objective obtaining item defeating boss etc. however levels goal reach exit return overhead map previously inaccessible location player encounters enemy characters acquires weapons special items collects pizza restore health second half stage 2 turtles dive hudson river using underwater version side-scrolling gameplay level turtles must navigate number traps time limit two minutes twenty seconds find disarm eight time bombs game released family computer famicom japan months earlier american nes version title first t.m.n.t product released country predating japanese dub first film animated series subsequent t.m.n.t video games released japan kept franchise original title graphics gameplay virtually identical nes counterpart japanese localization changed plot bit turning april o'neil acquaintance turtles splinter daughter game released teenage mutant hero turtles european territories australian version released series original title australia always used ninja title different box game ported various home computer platforms 1990 including commodore 64 zx spectrum atari st amiga game uk number 1 selling spectrum game 6 months march august 1991 dos amiga versions infamous contain gap impossible cross without cheating glitch also released 2007 wii virtual console released wii europe australia 500 points later raised 600 wii points north america released wii april 2 2007 price 600 points—100 points average nes game—due licensing issue first licensed game appear north american european virtual console due licensing issues later removed wii shop channel japan january 24 2012 north america europe january 26 2012 game mixed reviews gamespot frank provo gave teenage mutant ninja turtles 2.7 10 citing game hard difficulty game unpolished unfun nature reasons rating provo also stated game music upbeat music game general lacks recognizable traits teenage mutant ninja turtles franchise mark birnbaum ign gave teenage mutant ninja turtles 5.5 10 pointing game dated nostalgic hardcore fans birnbaum stated controls poor enemies bland level design characters negatives game sinclair gave game 90 rating praising game colorful cartoonish graphics move sets also criticizing game swimming level game got 3 sequels 1990 1991 1992 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,679	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: managed_voip_service.managed voip service computing managed voip services mvs simply put voip services outsourced company providing service managed voip service provider managed voip services provide enterprises necessary skills expertise assure voice quality meets expectations managed voip services equipment software included along network operations centers technical resources usage-based pricing replaced fixed flat-rate billing based number users number network elements managed criteria relevant given business making ongoing costs predictable manageable I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,249	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: kaos.kaos kaos linux distribution built scratch specific focus qt kde although kaos currently based linux kernel developers constantly evaluating illumos kernel say future switch wish first version kaos released kdeos 2013 prevent confusion distribution name desktop environment kde name changed kaos september 2013 kaos distributed via iso image exclusively supports 64-bit processors idea behind kaos create tightly integrated rolling transparent distribution modern desktop build scratch specific focus focus one de kde plasma one toolkit qt one architecture x86_64 plus focus evaluating selecting suitable tools applications phoronix wrote 2016 overall quite pleased niche distribution kaos easy install quickly running bleeding-edge kde plasma 5 stack overall fun pleasant hours spent kaos fossmint stated 2017 kaos modern open-source beautifully designed qt kde-focused linux distro rolling release ships kde plasma default desktop environment uses pacman package manager 3-group structure repository github fact rolling release means never need worry future updates moment version installed like case ubuntu like would need consider whether perform clean installation another “ major version ” hectic geek reviewed kaos 2014 wrote distribution fast included necessary applications jesse smith distrowatch weekly wrote review kaos 2014.04 smith said features kaos worked well robert rijkhoff reviewed kaos 2017.09 distrowatch weekly said kaos seems trying little bit hard different zdnet wrote hands-on review kaos 2014.06 dedoimedo reviewed kaos 2014.12 jack wallen linux.com stated opinion kaos 2016 said distribution beautiful 1-hop neighbor's text information: gnewsense.gnewsense gnewsense linux distribution based debian developed sponsorship free software foundation goal user-friendliness proprietary e.g binary blobs non-free software removed free software foundation considers gnewsense composed entirely free software gnewsense takes relatively strict stance proprietary software example documentation gives instructions installing proprietary software excluded project launched brian brazil paul o'malley 2006. gnewsense originally based ubuntu since 1.0 release free software foundation assists gnewsense releases two years 8 august 2011 distrowatch classified gnewsense dormant september 2012 distrowatch changed status active 6 august 2013 first version directly based debian gnewsense 3 parkes released discussions trisquel forums gnewsense said inactive gnewsense activities 2017 default gnewsense uses gnome graphical user interface customized user choice x display manager window managers desktop environments available install hosted repositories ubiquity installer allows installing hard disk within live cd environment without need restarting computer prior installation besides standard system tools small applications gnewsense comes installed following software libreoffice productivity suite gnome web internet browser empathy instant messenger gimp editing photos raster graphics common software development tools including gcc installed default live cd used run operating system install onto disk cd images available download gnewsense made four major releases 2016 gnewsense announced next version gnewsense would 5.0 non-free software repositories provided gnewsense project non-free documentation artwork removed based ubuntu universe package repository enabled default order avoid trademark problems stem modification mozilla firefox gnewsense 1.1 rebranded burningdog burningdog likewise offer install non-free plugins various web media adobe flash gnewsense 2.0 abandoned burningdog adopted epiphany web browser later renamed simply web component gnome default browser application came recommendations instructions optionally compile run gnu icecat gnewsense 3.0 retains web default browser also comes modified version debian iceweasel offer access proprietary add-ons debian another linux distribution known strict licensing requirements adherence free software principles debian gnewsense rigorously exclude non-free software binary blobs official releases debian maintains hosts unofficial repositories non-free software firmware binaries debian free software sometimes depends upon suggests optional installation proprietary software theory users informed discretion use software paramount expressed clause 5 debian social contract though debian democratic project management seen stance become source recurrent controversy gnewsense contrast provide packages depend suggest use non-free software firmware extensions plugins gnewsense project provide convenience-access proprietary software reason seeing abrogation commitment development free software solutions similar debian gnewsense policies allow including documentation licensed gnu free documentation license invariant sections includes many manuals documentation released gnu project gnewsense initially forked ubuntu originally fork debian result founding developer paul o'malley prior work ubuntu gnewsense 3.0 distribution tracked debian base software distribution part debian project carefully disaggregate free software official distribution proprietary software provides courtesy access indeed many packages including debian-particular packages iceweasel icedove ported gnewsense simply modified way longer provide courtesy access non-free software options since gnewsense repositories contain free software support hardware requires firmware free firmware exists wireless network cards available may 1 2008 3d graphics application support also removed licensing issues mesa 3d january 13 2009 issues resolved 3d support became standard starting 2.2 release reviewing gnewsense 3.0 august 2013 jesse smith distrowatch noted many applications provided including openoffice.org 3 debian de-blobbed 2.6.32 linux kernel based linux-libre tools iceweasel 3.5 gnome 2.30 quite date smith concluded review following words generally speaking happy gnewsense 3.0 based debian distribution counted provide stability amazing performance distribution lean fast uncluttered flip side gnewsense system installer default package management tools geared toward experienced users probably provide steep learning curve novice linux users much automated minimum hand holding main feature gnewsense lack proprietary software also double-edged blade one hand means entire operating system audited modified redistributed great perspective software freedom fact distribution play multimedia formats handled flash content fairly well testament power free open source software one problem ran gnewsense software policy regards wireless network card distributions ship non-free intel firmware gnewsense n't include means distribution n't good fit laptop hand great match desktop system richard stallman founder president free software foundation said used gnewsense january 2010 still using april 2014 since stallman switched trisquel serdar yegulalp reviewed gnewsense infoworld said post network world gnewsense 3.1 february 2014 bryan lunduke reviewed linux distribution following words 1-hop neighbor's text information: solydxk.solydxk solydxk dutch linux distribution based debian aims simple use providing environment stable secure ideal small businesses non-profit organizations home users solydxk includes proprietary software adobe flash steam optional closed-source drivers provide initial multimedia usage gaming linux solydxk originated 2012 unofficial version linux mint debian edition lmde using kde plasma 4 workspaces november 2012 linux mint ceased maintaining kde xfce versions lmde solydxk started support two desktop environments solydx refers xfce version solydk refers kde version project name amalgam two names two core editions solydxk solydx solydk officially available 64-bit live cds installers distribution installs common software firefox libreoffice xchat/quassel pidgin/kopete gimp variety common tasks editions also provide steam playonlinux installed gaming driver manager easily enable best gaming performance solydxk originally based debian testing since january 2015 built debian stable also community editions officially tested supported solydxk team examples solydxk enthusiast ’ edition versions solydx solydk follow debian testing 32-bit community editions version raspberry pi 3 Target text information: granular_linux.granular linux granular granular linux linux distribution targeted common desktop users granular based pclinuxos comes installable live cd cd version granular features two desktop environments kde development version enlightenment kde full-featured desktop environment enlightenment lightweight desktop shell markedly faster kde granular roots india granular linux project kicked october 2006 first demonstration given college students first release made available download 30 december 2006 main idea behind birth project redefine application set included pclinuxos extent introduce idea one major desktop environment single livecd latter idea implemented beginning second version release granular version 0.25 two desktop environments kde xfce included kde highly customizable feature-rich resource heavy xfce light-weight yet feature-full desktop environment v0.25 came v0.90 finally v1.0 granular 1.0 code name esto vox last esto series first 0.90 esto vello october 2007 special dvd edition granular 0.90 released name funworks featured lg3d desktop environment along three others host many software games granular utilizes pclinuxos repository well software/package management granular repository opened march 2008 since source granular-specific rpm packages available pclinuxos repository granular comes livecd means n't install try standard cd version granular includes two desktop environments kde enlightenment 17 like pclinuxos granular uses synaptic package manager gui frontend apt package management installing updating removing packages granular comes perl-based script mklivecd makes possible remaster granular create backup cd/dvd installed system also included granular startpoint html-based acts primer various major software included granular beginning news website launched 5 december domain http //www.granular-linux.com/main/ later main website shifted another server new domain name present website address http //www.granularlinux.com/ later main website migrated http //linux.granularproject.org/ I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,147	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cyberattack.cyberattack computers computer networks attack attempt expose alter disable destroy steal gain unauthorized access make unauthorized use asset cyberattack type offensive maneuver targets computer information systems infrastructures computer networks personal computer devices attacker person process attempts access data functions restricted areas system without authorization potentially malicious intent depending context cyberattacks part cyberwarfare cyberterrorism cyberattack employed nation-states individuals groups society organizations may originate anonymous source cyberattack may steal alter destroy specified target hacking susceptible system cyberattacks range installing spyware personal computer attempting destroy infrastructure entire nations legal experts seeking limit use term incidents causing physical damage distinguishing routine data breaches broader hacking activities cyberattacks become increasingly sophisticated dangerous user behavior analytics siem used help prevent attacks since late 1980s cyberattacks evolved several times use innovations information technology vectors committing cybercrimes recent years scale robustness cyberattacks increased rapidly observed world economic forum 2018 report offensive cyber capabilities developing rapidly ability deal hostile incidents may 2000 internet engineering task force defined attack rfc 2828 cnss instruction 4009 dated 26 april 2010 committee national security systems united states america defines attack increasing dependencies modern society information computers networks private public sectors including military led new terms like cyber attack cyberwarfare cnss instruction 4009 define cyber attack first six months 2017 two billion data records stolen impacted cyberattacks ransomware payments reached double 2016 cyberwarfare utilizes techniques defending attacking information computer networks inhabit cyberspace often prolonged cyber campaign series related campaigns denies opponent ability employing technological instruments war attack opponent critical computer systems cyberterrorism hand use computer network tools shut critical national infrastructures energy transportation government operations coerce intimidate government civilian population means end result cyberwarfare cyberterrorism damage critical infrastructures computer systems linked together within confines cyberspace three factors contribute cyber-attacks launched state individual fear factor spectacularity factor vulnerability factor spectacularity factor measure actual damage achieved attack meaning attack creates direct losses usually loss availability loss income garners negative publicity 8 february 2000 denial service attack severely reduced traffic many major sites including amazon buy.com cnn ebay attack continued affect still sites next day amazon reportedly estimated loss business 600,000 vulnerability factor exploits vulnerable organization government establishment cyber-attacks organizations without maintenance systems might running old servers vulnerable updated systems organization vulnerable denial service attack government establishment defaced web page computer network attack disrupts integrity authenticity data usually malicious code alters program logic controls data leading errors output professional hackers either working employed government military service find computer systems vulnerabilities lacking appropriate security software vulnerabilities found infect systems malicious code remotely control system computer sending commands view content disrupt computers needs pre-existing system flaw within computer antivirus protection faulty system configuration viral code work many professional hackers promote cyberterrorists new set rules govern actions cyberterrorists premeditated plans attacks born rage need develop plans step-by-step acquire appropriate software carry attack usually political agendas targeting political structures cyber terrorists hackers political motivation attacks impact political structure corruption destruction also target civilians civilian interests civilian installations previously stated cyberterrorists attack persons property cause enough harm generate fear attack active passive attack perpetrated insider outside organization term attack relates basic security terms shown following diagram resource physical logical called asset one vulnerabilities exploited threat agent threat action result confidentiality integrity availability resources may compromised potentially damage may extend resources addition one initially identified vulnerable including resources organization resources involved parties customers suppliers so-called cia triad basis information security attack active attempts alter system resources affect operation compromises integrity availability passive attack attempts learn make use information system affect system resources compromises confidentiality threat potential violation security exists circumstance capability action event could breach security cause harm threat possible danger might exploit vulnerability threat either intentional i.e. intelligent e.g. individual cracker criminal organization accidental e.g. possibility computer malfunctioning possibility act god earthquake fire tornado set policies concerned information security management information security management systems isms developed manage according risk management principles countermeasures order accomplish security strategy set following rules regulations applicable country attack led security incident i.e security event involves security violation words security-relevant system event system security policy disobeyed otherwise breached overall picture represents risk factors risk scenario organization make steps detect classify manage security incidents first logical step set incident response plan eventually computer emergency response team order detect attacks number countermeasures set organizational procedural technical levels computer emergency response team information technology security audit intrusion detection system example attack usually perpetrated someone bad intentions black hatted attacks falls category perform penetration testing organization information system find foreseen controls place attacks classified according origin i.e conducted using one computers last case called distributed attack botnets used conduct distributed attacks classifications according procedures used type vulnerabilities exploited attacks concentrated network mechanisms host features attacks physical i.e theft damage computers equipment others attempts force changes logic used computers network protocols order achieve unforeseen original designer result useful attacker software used logical attacks computers called malware following partial short list attacks detail number techniques utilize cyber-attacks variety ways administer individuals establishments broader scale attacks broken two categories syntactic attacks semantic attacks syntactic attacks straightforward considered malicious software includes viruses worms trojan horses virus self-replicating program attach another program file order reproduce virus hide unlikely locations memory computer system attach whatever file sees fit execute code also change digital footprint time replicates making harder track computer worm need another file program copy self-sustaining running program worms replicate network using protocols latest incarnation worms make use known vulnerabilities systems penetrate execute code replicate systems code red ii worm infected 259 000 systems less 14 hours much larger scale worms designed industrial espionage monitor collect server traffic activities transmit back creator trojan horse designed perform legitimate tasks also performs unknown unwanted activity basis many viruses worms installing onto computer keyboard loggers backdoor software commercial sense trojans imbedded trial versions software gather additional intelligence target without person even knowing happening three likely attack individual establishment emails web browsers chat clients remote software updates semantic attack modification dissemination correct incorrect information information modified could done without use computers even though new opportunities found using set someone wrong direction cover tracks dissemination incorrect information utilized two instances india pakistan involved cyberspace conflicts started 1990s earlier cyber attacks came known early 1999 since india pakistan engaged long-term dispute kashmir moved cyberspace historical accounts indicated country hackers repeatedly involved attacking computing database system number attacks grown yearly 45 1999 133 2000 275 end august 2001 2010 indian hackers laid cyber attack least 36 government database websites going name indian cyber army 2013 indian hackers hacked official website election commission pakistan attempt retrieve sensitive database information retaliation pakistani hackers calling true cyber army hacked defaced ~1,059 websites indian election bodies according media pakistan working effective cyber security system program called cyber secure pakistan csp program launched april 2013 pakistan information security association program expanded country universities within cyberwarfare individual must recognize state actors involved committing cyber-attacks one another two predominant players discussed age-old comparison east versus west china cyber capabilities compared united states capabilities many state non-state actors involved cyberwarfare russia iran iraq al qaeda since china u.s. leading foreground cyberwarfare capabilities two state actors discussed q2 2013 akamai technologies reported indonesia toppled china portion 38 percent cyber attack high increase 21 percent portion previous quarter china set 33 percent us set 6.9 percent 79 percent attack came asia pacific region indonesia dominated attacking ports 80 443 90 percent china people liberation army pla developed strategy called integrated network electronic warfare guides computer network operations cyberwarfare tools strategy helps link together network warfare tools electronic warfare weapons opponent information systems conflict believe fundamentals achieving success seizing control opponent information flow establishing information dominance science military science campaigns identify enemy logistics systems networks highest priority cyber-attacks states cyberwarfare must mark start campaign used properly enable overall operational success focusing attacking opponent infrastructure disrupt transmissions processes information dictate decision-making operations pla would secure cyber dominance adversary predominant techniques would utilized conflict gain upper hand follows pla would strike electronic jammers electronic deception suppression techniques interrupt transfer processes information would launch virus attacks hacking techniques sabotage information processes hopes destroying enemy information platforms facilities pla science campaigns noted one role cyberwarfare create windows opportunity forces operate without detection lowered risk counterattack exploiting enemy periods blindness deafness paralysis created cyber-attacks one main focal points cyberwarefare able weaken enemy full extent possible physical offensive higher percentage success pla conduct regular training exercises variety environments emphasizing use cyberwarfare tactics techniques countering tactics employed faculty research focusing designs rootkit usage detection kylin operating system helps train individuals cyberwarfare techniques china perceives cyberwarfare deterrent nuclear weapons possessing ability greater precision leaving fewer casualties allowing long ranged attacks west united states provides different tone voice cyberwarfare tip everyone tongue united states provides security plans strictly response cyberwarfare basically going defensive attacked devious cyber methods u.s. responsibility cybersecurity divided department homeland security federal bureau investigation department defense recent years new department created specifically tend cyber threats department known cyber command cyber command military subcommand us strategic command responsible dealing threats military cyber infrastructure cyber command service elements include army forces cyber command twenty-fourth air force fleet cyber command marine forces cyber command ensures president navigate control information systems also military options available defense nation needs enacted cyberspace individuals cyber command must pay attention state non-state actors developing cyberwarfare capabilities conducting cyber espionage cyber-attacks nation allies cyber command seeks deterrence factor dissuade potential adversaries attacking u.s. multi-faceted department conducting cyber operations three prominent events took place may catalysts creation idea cyber command failure critical infrastructure reported cia malicious activities information technology systems disrupted electrical power capabilities overseas resulted multi-city power outages across multiple regions second event exploitation global financial services november 2008 international bank compromised payment processor allowed fraudulent transactions made 130 automated teller machines 49 cities within 30-minute period last event systemic loss u.s. economic value industry 2008 estimated 1 trillion losses intellectual property data theft even though events internal catastrophes real nature meaning nothing stop state non-state actors thing even grander scale initiatives like cyber training advisory council created improve quality efficiency sufficiency training computer network defense attack exploitation enemy cyber operations ends spectrum east west nations show sword shield contrast ideals chinese offensive minded idea cyberwarfare trying get pre-emptive strike early stages conflict gain upper-hand u.s. reactionary measures taken creating systems impenetrable barriers protect nation civilians cyber-attacks according homeland preparedness news many mid-sized u.s. companies difficult time defending systems cyber attacks around 80 percent assets vulnerable cyber attack owned private companies organizations former new york state deputy secretary public safety michael balboni said private entities type capability bandwidth interest experience develop proactive cyber analysis response cyber-attacks 1 april 2015 president obama issued executive order establishing first-ever economic sanctions executive order impact individuals entities designees responsible cyber-attacks threaten national security foreign policy economic health financial stability us specifically executive order authorizes treasury department freeze designees assets according ted koppel book 2008 united states collaboration israel ran cyberattack iran nuclear program becoming first use digital weapon instrument policy series powerful cyber attacks began 27 june 2017 swamped websites ukrainian organizations including banks ministries newspapers electricity firms fifa world cup 2018 russia countered stopped around 25 million cyber attacks infrastructure june 2019 russia conceded possible electrical grid cyberattack united states new york times reported american hackers united states cyber command planted malware potentially capable disrupting russian electrical grid 2007 cyberattacks estonia series cyberattacks began 27 april 2007 targeted websites estonian organizations including estonian parliament banks ministries newspapers broadcasters amid country disagreement russia relocation bronze soldier tallinn elaborate soviet-era grave marker well war graves tallinn attacks triggered number military organizations around world reconsider importance network security modern military doctrine direct result cyberattacks creation nato cooperative cyber defence centre excellence tallinn 2019 reuters reported united arab emirates launched series cyberattacks political opponents journalists human rights activists project raven espionage platform namely karma team included ex-us intelligence agents project raven commenced 2009 planned continued coming ten years whole industry working trying minimize likelihood consequence information attack partial list see offer different products services aimed many organizations trying classify vulnerability consequence famous vulnerability database common vulnerabilities exposures computer emergency response teams set government large organization handle computer security incidents cyber-attack initiated certain targets need attacked cripple opponent certain infrastructures targets highlighted critical infrastructures time conflict severely cripple nation control systems energy resources finance telecommunications transportation water facilities seen critical infrastructure targets conflict new report industrial cybersecurity problems produced british columbia institute technology pa consulting group using data far back 1981 reportedly found 10-fold increase number successful cyber-attacks infrastructure supervisory control data acquisition scada systems since 2000 cyberattacks adverse physical effect known cyber-physical attacks control systems responsible activating monitoring industrial mechanical controls many devices integrated computer platforms control valves gates certain physical infrastructures control systems usually designed remote telemetry devices link physical devices internet access modems little security offered dealing devices enabling many hackers cyberterrorists seek systematic vulnerabilities paul blomgren manager sales engineering cybersecurity firm explained people drove remote substation saw wireless network antenna immediately plugged wireless lan cards took laptops connected system n't using passwords within 10 minutes mapped every piece equipment facility blomgren said within 15 minutes mapped every piece equipment operational control network within 20 minutes talking business network pulled several business reports never even left vehicle energy seen second infrastructure could attacked broken two categories electricity natural gas electricity also known electric grids power cities regions households powers machines mechanisms used day-to-day life using u.s. example conflict cyberterrorists access data daily report system status shows power flows throughout system pinpoint busiest sections grid shutting grids cause mass hysteria backlog confusion also able locate critical areas operation attacks direct method cyberterrorists access instructions connect bonneville power administration helps direct fault system process major advantage utilized cyber-attacks made foreign attackers prior knowledge system attack highest accuracy without drawbacks cyberattacks natural gas installations go much way would attacks electrical grids cyberterrorists shutdown installations stopping flow even reroute gas flows another section occupied one allies case russia gas supplier known gazprom lost control central switchboard routes gas flow inside operator trojan horse program bypassed security financial infrastructures could hit hard cyber-attacks financial system linked computer systems constant money exchanged institutions cyberterrorists attack transactions rerouted large amounts money stolen financial industries would collapse civilians would without jobs security operations would stall region region causing nationwide economical degradation u.s. alone average daily volume transactions hit 3 trillion 99 non-cash flow able disrupt amount money one day period days cause lasting damage making investors pull funding erode public confidence cyberattack financial institution transactions may referred cyberheist attacks may start phishing targets employees using social engineering coax information may allow attackers hack network put keyloggers accounting systems time cybercriminals able obtain password keys information organization bank accounts accessed via information stolen using keyloggers may 2013 gang carried us 40 million cyberheist bank muscat cyberattacking telecommunication infrastructures straightforward results telecommunication integration becoming common practice systems voice ip networks merging everything run internet speeds storage capabilities endless denial-of-service attacks administered previously mentioned complex attacks made bgp routing protocols dns infrastructures less likely attack would target compromise traditional telephony network ss7 switches attempted attack physical devices microwave stations satellite facilities ability would still shut physical facilities disrupt telephony networks whole idea cyber-attacks cut people one another disrupt communication impede critical information sent received cyberwarfare critical way gaining upper-hand conflict controlling flow information communication nation plan accurate strikes enact better counter-attack measures enemies transportation infrastructure mirrors telecommunication facilities impeding transportation individuals city region economy slightly degrade time successful cyber-attacks impact scheduling accessibility creating disruption economic chain carrying methods impacted making hard cargo sent one place another january 2003 slammer virus continental airlines forced shut flights due computer problems cyberterrorists target railroads disrupting switches target flight software impede airplanes target road usage impede conventional transportation methods may 2015 man chris roberts cyberconsultant revealed fbi repeatedly 2011 2014 managed hack boeing airbus flights controls via onboard entertainment system allegedly least ordered flight climb fbi detaining april 2015 syracuse interviewed allegations water infrastructure could one critical infrastructures attacked seen one greatest security hazards among computer-controlled systems potential massive amounts water unleashed area could unprotected causing loss life property damage even water supplies could attacked sewer systems compromised calculation given cost damages estimated cost replace critical water systems could hundreds billions dollars water infrastructures well developed making hard cyber-attacks cause significant damage equipment failure occur causing power outlets disrupted short time 1-hop neighbor's text information: authenticated_received_chain.authenticated received chain authenticated received chain arc email authentication system designed allow intermediate mail server like mailing list forwarding service sign email original authentication results allows receiving service validate email email spf dkim records rendered invalid intermediate server processing arc defined rfc 8617 published july 2019 experimental dmarc allows sender domain indicate emails protected spf and/or dkim tells receiving service neither authentication methods passes reject message however strict dmarc policy may block legitimate emails sent mailing list forwarder spf check fail due unapproved sender dkim signature invalidated message modified adding subject tag footer arc helps solve problem giving intermediate servers way sign original message validation results even spf dkim validation fail receiving service choose validate arc arc indicates original message passed spf dkim checks modifications made intermediaries trusted receiving service receiving service may choose accept email arc defines three new mail headers sign modification intermediate server performs following steps validate arc recipient performs following steps 1-hop neighbor's text information: symantec.symantec symantec corporation commonly known symantec american software company headquartered mountain view california united states company provides cybersecurity software services symantec fortune 500 company member p 500 stock-market index company also development centers pune chennai bengaluru india october 9 2014 symantec declared would split two independent publicly traded companies end 2015 one company would focus security information management january 29 2016 symantec sold information-management subsidiary named veritas technologies symantec acquired 2004 carlyle group name symantec portmanteau words syntax semantics technology august 9 2019 broadcom announced would acquiring enterprise security software division symantec 10.7 billion dollars usd attempted purchase whole company founded 1982 gary hendrix national science foundation grant symantec originally focused artificial intelligence-related projects including database program hendrix hired several stanford university natural language processing researchers company first employees among barry greenstein professional poker player developer word processor component within q hendrix also hired jerry kaplan entrepreneur author consultant build in-ram database q 1984 became clear advanced natural language database system symantec developed could ported dec minicomputers pc left symantec without product expertise natural language database query systems technology result later 1984 symantec acquired another smaller software startup company c e software founded denis coleman gordon eubanks headed eubanks c e software developed combined file management word processing program called q question answer merged company retained name symantec eubanks became chairman vern raburn former president original symantec remained president combined company new symantec combined file management word processing functionality c e planned added advanced natural language query system designed gary hendrix engineered dan gordon set new standards ease database query report generation natural language system named intelligent assistant turner chose name q symantec flagship product large part name lent use short easily merchandised logo brett walter designed user interface q brett walter director product management q released november 1985 1986 vern raburn gordon eubanks swapped roles eubanks became ceo president symantec raburn became chairman subsequent change raburn little involvement symantec years time eubanks added chairmanship roles slow start sales q fall 1985 spring 1986 turner signed new advertising agency called elliott/dickens embarked aggressive new advertising campaign came six pack program symantec employees regardless role went road training selling dealer sales staff nationwide united states turner named six pack employees work six days week see six dealerships per day train six sales representatives per store stay friends free motel 6 simultaneously promotion run jointly sofsell symantec exclusive wholesale distributor united states first year q market promotion successful encouraging dealers try q time symantec advised jim lally john doerr — board members symantec stage — kleiner perkins caufield byers symantec would cut expenses grow revenues enough achieve cash flow break-even kpcb would back company raising venture capital accomplish management team worked salary reduction schedule chairman ceo would take zero pay vice presidents would take 50 pay cut employees pay cut 15 two employees laid eubanks also negotiated sizable rent reduction office space company leased days original symantec expense reductions combined strong international sales q enabled company attain break-even significantly increased traction q re-launch grew symantec revenues substantially along early success q international markets uniquely german version shipped three weeks united states version first software world supported german natural language following turner placed emphasis establishing international sales distribution multiple language versions q initial shipment 1985 rod turner negotiated publishing agreement david whitney symantec second product turner named noteit annotation utility lotus 1-2-3 evident turner noteit would confuse dealer channel launched symantec name symantec built interest stage q yet shipped low price utility would initially attractive dealer channel demand built turner felt product marketed unique brand name turner gordon e. eubanks jr. chairman symantec corporation agreed form new division symantec eubanks delegated choice name turner turner chose name turner hall publishing new division symantec devoted publishing third-party software hardware objective division diversify revenues accelerate growth symantec turner chose name turner hall publishing using last name dottie hall director marketing communications order convey sense stable long established company turner hall publishing first offering note-it notation utility add-in lotus 1-2-3 developed david whitney licensed symantec second product turner hall card 256k ram half slot memory card initially made inexpensively increase available memory symantec flagship product q turner hall division also marketed card standalone product turner hall third product also 1-2-3 add-in sqz lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet compression utility developed chris graham synex systems summer 1986 eubanks turner recruited tom byers digital research expand turner hall publishing product family lead turner hall effort winter 1986–87 turner hall publishing division achieved success noteit turner hall card sqz popularity products contributing relatively small portion revenues symantec conveyed impression symantec already diversified company indeed many industry participants impression symantec acquired turner hall publishing 1987 byers recruited ted schlein turner hall product group assist building product family marketing revenues q symantec early launch international marketplace combined turner hall publishing generated market presence scale enabled symantec make first merger/acquisition february 1987 breakthrough software maker timeline project management software dos first time symantec acquired business revenues inventory customers eubanks chose change nothing breakthrough software six months actual merger logistics started summer 1987 turner appointed eubanks general manager timeline business unit turner made responsible successful integration company symantec ongoing growth business p l heavy emphasis placed making minimum disruption eubanks turner soon acquisition timeline/breakthrough software eubanks reorganized symantec structuring company around product-centric groups development quality assurance technical support product marketing functions general manager profit loss responsibility sales finance operations centralized functions shared structure lent well symantec growth mergers acquisitions eubanks made turner general manager new timeline product group simultaneously q product group made tom byers general manager turner hall product group turner continued build lead company international business marketing whole company timeline product group turner drove strong marketing promotion sales programs order accelerate momentum 1989 merger successful—product group morale high timeline development continued apace increased sales marketing efforts applied built timeline clear market lead pc project management software dos q timeline product groups healthily profitable profit stream merger success set stage subsequent merger acquisition activity company indeed funded losses product groups subsequently acquired 1989 eubanks hired john laing vp worldwide sales turner transferred international division laing eubanks also recruited bob dykes executive vice president operations finance anticipation upcoming ipo july 1989 symantec ipo may 1990 symantec announced intent merge acquire peter norton computing developer various utilities dos turner appointed product group manager norton business made responsible merger p l responsibility ted schlein made product group manager q business peter norton group merger logistical effort began immediately companies sought approval merger august 1990 symantec concluded purchase—by time combination companies already complete symantec consumer antivirus data management utilities still marketed norton name time merger symantec built upon turner hall publishing presence utility market introducing symantec antivirus macintosh sam symantec utilities macintosh sum two products already market leaders mac success made norton merger strategic symantec already begun development dos-based antivirus program one year merger norton management team decided enter antivirus market part felt antivirus market entailed great deal ongoing work stay ahead new viruses team felt microsoft would unlikely find effort attractive would lengthen viability market symantec turner decided use norton name obvious reasons became norton antivirus turner norton team launched 1991 time merger norton revenues approximately 20 25 combined entity 1993 led turner norton product group revenues grown approximately 82 symantec total one time symantec also known development tools particularly think pascal think c symantec c++ enterprise developer visual cafe packages popular macintosh ibm pc compatible platforms product lines resulted acquisitions made company late 1980s early 1990s businesses living videotext acquisition consistently unprofitable symantec losses diverted expenditures away q windows timeline windows development efforts critical period 1988 1992 symantec exited business late-1990s competitors metrowerks microsoft borland gained significant market share 1996 symantec corporation alleged misleading financial statements violation gaap 1999 april 2009 symantec led ceo john w. thompson former vp ibm time thompson african-american leading major us technology company succeeded april 2009 company long-time symantec executive enrique salem salem symantec completed acquisition verisign certificate authority business dramatically increasing share market salem abruptly fired 2012 disappointing earnings performance replaced steve bennett former ceo intuit ge executive january 2013 bennett announced major corporate reorganization goal reducing costs improving symantec product line said sales marketing high costs provide quality outcomes concluded system broken robert enderle cio.com reviewed reorganization noted bennett following general electric model product-focused instead customer-focused concluded eliminating middle management removes large number highly paid employees tactically improve symantec bottom line reduce skills needed ensure high-quality products long term march 2014 symantec fired steve bennett ceo position named michael brown interim president chief executive including interim ceo symantec 3 ceos less two years september 25 2014 symantec announced appointment michael brown president chief executive officer brown served company interim president chief executive officer since march 20 2014 mr. brown served member company board directors since july 2005 following acquisition veritas software corporation mr. brown served veritas board directors since 2003 july 2016 symantec introduced solution help carmarkers protect connected vehicles zero-day attacks symantec anomaly detection automotive iot solution manufacturers uses machine learning provide in-vehicle security analytics greg clark assumed position ceo august 2016 november 2016 symantec announced intent acquire identity theft protection company lifelock 2.3 billion august 2017 symantec announced agreed sell business unit verifies identity websites thoma bravo acquisition thoma bravo plans merge symantec business unit web certification company digicert january 4 2018 symantec bt formerly british telecom announced partnership provides new endpoint security protection may 2018 symantec initiated internal audit address concerns raised former employee causing delay annual earnings report august 2018 symantec announced hedge fund starboard value put forward five nominees stand election symantec board directors symantec 2018 annual meeting stockholders followed schedule 13d filing starboard showing accumulated 5.8 stake symantec september 2018 symantec announced three nominees starboard joining symantec board two immediate effect including starboard managing member peter feld one following 2018 annual meeting stockholders may 9 2019 symantec announced ceo greg clark businessman stepping immediate effect board member rick hill previously put forward starboard appointed interim president ceo vincent pilette also joined symantec new cfo august 9 2019 broadcom announced would acquiring enterprise software division symantec 10.7 billion dollars usd attempted purchase whole company norton family products remain symantec portfolio october 9 2014 symantec declared company would separate two independent publicly traded companies end 2015 symantec continue focus security new company established focusing information management symantec confirmed january 28 2015 information management business would called veritas technologies corporation marking return veritas name august 2015 symantec agreed sell veritas private equity group led carlyle group 8 billion sale completed february 2016 turned veritas privately owned company 2015 symantec norton product line includes norton security norton small business norton family norton mobile security norton online backup norton360 norton utilities norton computer tune 2012 pctools iantivirus rebranded norton product name iantivirus released mac app store also 2012 norton partner portal relaunched support sales consumers throughout emea technologies 1993 symantec acquired act contact software international symantec sold act saleslogix 1999 time world popular crm application windows macintosh december 16 2004 veritas software symantec announced plans merger veritas valued 13.5 billion largest software industry merger date symantec shareholders voted approve merger june 24 2005 deal closed successfully july 2 2005 july 5 2005 first day business u.s. offices new combined software company result merger symantec includes storage- availability-related products portfolio namely veritas file system vxfs veritas volume manager vxvm veritas volume replicator vvr veritas cluster server vcs netbackup nbu backup exec enterprise vault ev january 29 2016 symantec sold veritas technologies carlyle group august 16 2005 symantec acquired sygate security software firm based fremont california 200 staff november 30 2005 sygate personal firewall products discontinued january 29 2007 symantec announced plans acquire altiris april 6 2007 acquisition completed altiris specializes service-oriented management software allows organizations manage assets also provides software web services security systems management products established 1998 altiris headquartered lindon utah november 5 2007 symantec announced acquisition vontu leader data loss prevention dlp solutions 350 million january 17 2008 symantec announced spinning application performance management apm business i3 product line vector capital precise software solutions took development product management marketing sales apm business launching independent company september 17 2008 august 18 2008 symantec announced signing agreement acquire pc tools agreement pc tools would maintain separate operations financial terms acquisition disclosed may 2013 symantec announced discontinuing pc tools line internet security software december 2013 symantec announced discontinuing retiring entire pc tools brand offering non expiring license pc tools performance toolkit pc tools registry mechanic pc tools file recover pc tools privacy guardian users active subscription december 4 2013 april 18 2008 symantec completed acquisition appstream inc. “ appstream ” nonpublic palo alto california-based provider endpoint virtualization software appstream acquired complement symantec endpoint management virtualization portfolio strategy october 9 2008 symantec announced intent acquire gloucester-based messagelabs spun star internet 2007 boost software-as-a-service saas business symantec purchased online messaging web security provider 695 million cash acquisition closed november 17 2008 april 29 2010 symantec announced intent acquire pgp corporation guardianedge acquisitions closed june 4 2010 provided access established encryption key management technologies symantec customers may 19 2010 symantec signed definitive agreement acquire verisign authentication business unit included secure sockets layer ssl certificate public key infrastructure pki verisign trust verisign identity protection vip authentication services acquisition closed august 9 2010 august 2012 symantec completed rebranding verisign ssl certificate service renaming verisign trust seal norton secured seal acquired october 10 2010 rulespace web categorisation product first developed 1996 categorisation automated using symantec refers automated categorization system acs used base content filtering many uk isp may 19 2011 symantec announced acquisition clearwell systems approximately 390 million january 17 2012 symantec announced acquisition cloud email-archiving company liveoffice acquisition price 115 million last year symantec joined cloud storage backup sector enterprise vault.cloud cloud storage enterprise vault solutions addition cloud messaging solution symantec instant messaging security cloud ims.cloud symantec stated acquisition would add information governance products allowing customers store information on-premises symantec data centers march 2 2012 symantec completed acquisition odyssey software odyssey software main product athena device management software extended microsoft system center solutions adding ability manage support control mobile embedded devices smartphones ruggedized handhelds symantec completed acquisition nukona provider mobile application management mam april 2 2012 acquisition agreement symantec nukona announced march 20 2012 may 2014 symantec acquired nitrodesk provider touchdown market-leading third-party eas mobile application june 13 2016 announced symantec acquired blue coat 4.65 billion august 9 2004 company announced discovered error calculation deferred revenue represented accumulated adjustment 20 million arrival year 2010 triggered bug symantec endpoint symantec reported malware intrusion protection updates date greater december 31 2009 11:59pm considered 'out date company created distributed workaround issue march 2010 reported symantec antivirus symantec client security prone vulnerability might allow attacker bypass on-demand virus scanning permit malicious files escape detection january 2011 multiple vulnerabilities symantec products could exploited denial-of-service attack thereby compromise system reported products involved symantec antivirus corporate edition server symantec system center november 12 2012 vulnerability bulletin united states computer emergency readiness team us-cert reported following vulnerability older versions symantec antivirus system decomposer engine symantec endpoint protection sep 11.0 symantec endpoint protection small business edition 12.0 symantec antivirus corporate edition savce 10.x symantec scan engine sse 5.2.8 properly perform bounds checks contents cab archives allows remote attackers cause denial service application crash possibly execute arbitrary code via crafted file problem relates older versions systems patch available us-cert rated seriousness vulnerability 9.7 10-point scale decomposer engine component scanning system opens containers compressed files scanner evaluate files within january 2012 james gross filed lawsuit symantec distributing fake scareware scanners purportedly alerted users issues computers gross claimed scan errors problems corrected prompted scanner purchase symantec app remove rest gross claimed bought app speed computer remove detected viruses hired digital forensics expert back claim symantec denied allegations said would contest case symantec settled 11 million fund 9 1 million eligible customers representing overpaid amount app case dismissed court january 17 2012 symantec disclosed network hacked hacker known yama tough obtained source code symantec software hacking indian government server yama tough released parts code threatened release according chris paden symantec spokesman source code taken enterprise products five six years old september 25 2012 affiliate hacker group anonymous published source code norton utilities symantec confirmed part code stolen earlier leak included code 2006 versions norton utilities pcanywhere norton antivirus february 2012 reported verisign network data hacked repeatedly 2010 breaches disclosed publicly noted sec filing october 2011 verisign provide information whether breach included certificate authority business acquired symantec late 2010 oliver lavery director security research ncircle asked rhetorically trust site using verisign ssl certificates without clarity logical answer february 17 2012 details exploit pcanywhere posted exploit would allow attackers crash pcanywhere computers running windows symantec released hotfix issue twelve days later according mandiant symantec security products used new york times detected one 45 pieces malware installed chinese hackers newspaper network three-month period late 2012 symantec responded advanced attacks like ones new york times described following article http //nyti.ms/tztr5z underscore important companies countries consumers make sure using full capability security solutions advanced capabilities e ndpoint offerings including unique reputation-based technology behavior-based blocking specifically target sophisticated attacks turning signature-based anti-virus components e ndpoint solutions alone enough world changing daily attacks threats encourage customers aggressive deploying solutions offer combined approach security anti-virus software alone enough february 2015 symantec found guilty two counts patent infringement suit intellectual ventures inc ordered pay 17 million compensation damages september 2016 decision reversed appeal federal circuit september 18 2015 google notified symantec latter issued 23 test certificates five organizations including google opera without domain owners knowledge symantec performed another audit announced additional 164 test certificates mis-issued 76 domains 2,458 test certificates mis-issued domains never registered google requested symantec update public incident report proven analysis explaining details failures company asked report certificates issued certificate transparency log henceforth symantec since reported implementing certificate transparency ssl certificates google insisted symantec execute security audit third party maintain tamper-proof security audit logs march 24 2017 google stated lost confidence symantec latest incident improper certificate issuance google says millions existing symantec certificates become untrusted google chrome next 12 months according google symantec partners issued least 30,000 certificates questionable validity several years symantec disputes number google said symantec failed comply industry standards could provide audits showing necessary documentation google ryan sleevi said symantec partnered cas crosscert korea electronic certificate authority certisign certificatadora digital certsuperior s. de r. l. de c.v. certisur s.a. follow proper verification procedures leading misissuance certificates following discussions google required symantec migrate symantec-branded certificate issuance operations non-symantec-operated “ managed partner infrastructure ” deal announced whereby digicert acquired symantec website security business september 2017 google announced starting chrome 66 chrome remove trust symantec-issued certificates issued prior june 1 2016 google stated december 1 2017 symantec transition issuance operation publicly-trusted certificates digicert infrastructure certificates issued old symantec infrastructure date trusted chrome google predicted toward end october 2018 release chrome 70 browser would omit trust symantec old infrastructure certificates issued affecting certificates chaining symantec roots mozilla firefox planned distrust symantec-issued certificates firefox 63 released october 23 2018 delivered change firefox 64 released december 11 2018 apple also plan distrust symantec root certificates Target text information: dmarc.dmarc dmarc domain-based message authentication reporting conformance email authentication protocol designed give email domain owners ability protect domain unauthorized use commonly known email spoofing purpose primary outcome implementing dmarc protect domain used business email compromise attacks phishing emails email scams cyber threat activities dmarc dns entry published receiving email server authenticate incoming email based instructions published domain owner within dns entry email passes authentication delivered trusted email fails check depending instructions held within dmarc record email could delivered quarantined rejected dmarc extends two existing mechanisms sender policy framework spf domainkeys identified mail dkim allows administrative owner domain publish policy dns records specify mechanism dkim spf employed sending email domain check codice_1 field presented end users receiver deal failures reporting mechanism actions performed policies dmarc defined rfc 7489 dated march 2015 informational dmarc policy allows sender domain indicate emails protected spf and/or dkim tells receiver neither authentication methods passes – reject message quarantine policy also specify email receiver report back sender domain messages pass and/or fail policies published public domain name system dns text txt records dmarc n't directly address whether email spam otherwise fraudulent instead dmarc require message pass dkim spf validation also pass alignment dmarc message fail even passes spf dkim fails alignment setting dmarc may positive impact deliverability legitimate senders dmarc operates checking domain message codice_1 field also called 5322.from aligned authenticated domain names either spf dkim alignment checks pass dmarc alignment test passes alignment may specified strict relaxed strict alignment domain names must identical relaxed alignment top-level organizational domain must match organizational domain found checking list public dns suffixes adding next dns label example a.b.c.d.example.com.au example.com.au organizational domain registrar offers names .com.au customers albeit time dmarc spec ietf working group domain boundaries nowadays organizational domain derived public suffix list like spf dkim dmarc uses concept domain owner entity entities authorized make changes given dns domain spf checks ip address sending server authorized owner domain appears smtp codice_3 command email address mail also called envelope-from 5321.mailfrom addition requiring spf check pass dmarc additionally checks 5321.mailfrom aligns 5322.from dkim allows parts email message cryptographically signed signature must cover field within dkim-signature mail header codice_4 domain codice_5 selector tags specify dns retrieve public key signature valid signature proves signer domain owner field n't modified since signature applied may several dkim signatures email message dmarc requires one valid signature domain codice_4 tag aligns sender domain stated codice_1 header field dmarc records published dns subdomain label codice_8 example codice_9 compare spf codice_10 dkim codice_11 content txt resource record consists codice_12 tags separated semicolons similar spf dkim example codice_13 version codice_14 policy codice_15 subdomain policy codice_16 percent bad emails apply policy codice_17 uri send aggregate reports example entity controlling example.com dns domain intends monitor spf and/or dkim failure rates n't expect emails sent subdomains example.com note subdomain publish dmarc record receivers must check falling back organizational domain record dmarc capable producing two separate types reports aggregate reports sent address specified following codice_17 forensic reports emailed address following codice_19 tag mail addresses must specified uri mailto format e.g nowiki mailto worker example.net /nowiki multiple reporting addresses valid must full uri format separated comma target email addresses belong external domains case target domain set dmarc record say agrees receive otherwise would possible exploit reporting spam amplification example say codice_20 receives mail message codice_21 wishes report finds codice_22 looks confirming dns record namespace administered target like aggregate reports sent xml files typically per day subject mentions report domain policy-publishing sender mail messages reported submitter entity issuing report payload attachment long filename consisting bang-separated elements report-issuing receiver begin end epochs reported period unix-style time stamps optional unique identifier extension depends possible compression used codice_23 example codice_24 xml content consists header containing policy report based report metadata followed number records records put database relation viewed tabular form xml schema defined appendix c specifications raw record exemplified dmarc.org stick relational example better conveys nature data dmarc records also directly transformed html applying xsl stylesheet rows grouped source ip authentication results passing count group leftmost result columns labelled spf dkim show dmarc-wise results either pass fail taking alignment account rightmost ones similar labels show name domain claims participate sending message parentheses authentication status claim according original protocol spf dkim regardless identifier alignment right side spf appear twice codice_25 test codice_26 test dkim appear signature present message example first row represents main mail flow example.org second row dkim glitch signature breakage due minor alteration transit third fourth rows show typical failures modes forwarder mailing list respectively dmarc authentication failed last row could affected message disposition example.org specified strict policy disposition reflects policy published actually applied messages none quarantine reject along shown table dmarc provides policy override reasons receiver apply policy different one requested already provided specification forensic reports also known failure reports generated real time consist redacted copies individual emails failed spf dkim based upon value specified codice_27 tag format extension abuse reporting format resembles regular bounces contain either message/rfc822 text/rfc822-headers several different types email forwarding may break spf mailing lists frequent cause legitimate breakage original author domain dkim signature routinely change spf-authenticated domain therefore break dmarc alignment number workarounds possible mailing list software packages working solutions one popular least intrusive workarounds consists rewriting codice_1 header field original author address added codice_30 field rewriting range appending codice_31 domain name allocating temporary user id forward replies list opaque id used keeps user real email address private list addition display name changed show author list list operator examples would result respectively one last line codice_30 designed order accommodate reply-to-author functionality case reply-to-list function covered preceding change codice_1 header field way original meaning fields reversed altering author fair general break expected relationship meaning appearance datum also breaks automated use communities use mailing lists coordinate work deploy tools use codice_1 field attribute authorship attachments wrapping message works nicely use email client understands wrapped messages change perhaps obvious solution except seem legally due countries routinely losing spf authentication may render overall authentication fragile making changes codice_1 header field pass dkim alignment may bring message compliance rfc 5322 section 3.6.2 'from field specifies author message mailbox es person system responsible writing message mailbox refers author email address codice_36 header available indicate email sent behalf another party dmarc checks policy domain ignores sender domain adsp dmarc reject using sender field non-technical basis many user agents n't display recipient draft dmarc specification maintained since 30 january 2012 october 2013 gnu mailman 2.1.16 released options handle posters domain dmarc policy codice_37 change tried anticipate interoperability issues expected case restrictive policies applied domains human users opposed purely transactional mail domains april 2014 yahoo changed dmarc policy codice_37 thereby causing misbehavior several mailing lists days later aol also changed dmarc policy codice_37 moves resulted significant amount disruption mailbox providers accused forcing costs security failures onto third parties ietf working group formed august 2014 order address dmarc issues starting interoperability concerns possibly continuing revised standard specification documentation meanwhile existing dmarc specification reached editorial state agreed upon implemented many published march 2015 independent submission stream informational non-standard category rfc 7489 march 2017 federal trade commission published study dmarc usage businesses study found 10 569 businesses significant online presence publish strict dmarc policies contributors dmarc specification include I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,130	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: java_servlet.java servlet java servlet java software component extends capabilities server although servlets respond many types requests commonly implement web containers hosting web applications web servers thus qualify server-side servlet web api web servlets java counterpart dynamic web content technologies php asp.net java servlet processes stores java class java ee conforms java servlet api standard implementing java classes respond requests servlets could principle communicate client–server protocol often used http thus servlet often used shorthand http servlet thus software developer may use servlet add dynamic content web server using java platform generated content commonly html may data xml commonly json servlets maintain state session variables across many server transactions using http cookies url mapping java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services deploy run servlet web container must used web container also known servlet container essentially component web server interacts servlets web container responsible managing lifecycle servlets mapping url particular servlet ensuring url requester correct access rights servlet api contained java package hierarchy defines expected interactions web container servlet object receives request generates response based request basic servlet package defines java objects represent servlet requests responses well objects reflect servlet configuration parameters execution environment package defines http-specific subclasses generic servlet elements including session management objects track multiple requests responses web server client servlets may packaged war file web application servlets generated automatically javaserver pages jsp javaserver pages compiler difference servlets jsp servlets typically embed html inside java code jsps embed java code html direct usage servlets generate html shown example become rare higher level mvc web framework java ee jsf still explicitly uses servlet technology low level request/response handling via somewhat older usage use servlets conjunction jsps pattern called model 2 flavor model–view–controller current version servlet 4.0 java servlets api first publicly announced inaugural javaone conference may 1996 two months announcements conference first public implementation made available javasoft website first alpha java web server jws known codename jeeves would eventually shipped product june 5 1997 blog java.net sun veteran glassfish lead jim driscoll details history servlet technology james gosling first thought servlets early days java concept become product december 1996 sun shipped jws java platform enterprise edition made specification servlet1 specification created pavni diwanji worked sun microsystems version 1.0 finalized june 1997 starting version 2.2 specification developed java community process three methods central life cycle servlet codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 implemented every servlet invoked specific times server following typical user scenario methods following example servlet prints many times codice_2 method called note codice_16 subclass codice_17 implementation codice_18 interface codice_2 method codice_16 class dispatches requests methods codice_21 codice_22 codice_23 codice_24 according http request example codice_2 overridden distinguish http request method serves import java.io.ioexception import javax.servlet.servletconfig import javax.servlet.servletexception import javax.servlet.http.httpservlet import javax.servlet.http.httpservletrequest import javax.servlet.http.httpservletresponse public class servletlifecycleexample extends httpservlet specification servlet technology implemented many products see list implementations web container page 1-hop neighbor's text information: p3p.p3p platform privacy preferences project p3p obsolete protocol allowing websites declare intended use information collect web browser users designed give users control personal information browsing p3p developed world wide web consortium w3c officially recommended april 16 2002 development ceased shortly thereafter implementations p3p microsoft internet explorer edge major browsers support p3p microsoft ended support windows 10 onwards microsoft internet explorer edge windows 10 longer support p3p president truste stated p3p implemented widely due difficulty lack value world wide web became genuine medium sell products services electronic commerce websites tried collect information people purchased merchandise companies used controversial practices tracker cookies ascertain users demographic information buying habits using information provide specifically targeted advertisements users saw invasion privacy would sometimes turn http cookies use proxy servers keep personal information secure p3p designed give users precise control kind information allow release according w3c main goal p3p “ increase user trust confidence web technical empowerment. ” p3p machine-readable language helps express website ’ data management practices p3p manages information privacy policies website uses p3p set set policies allows state intended uses personal information may gathered site visitors user decides use p3p set set policies state personal information allow seen sites visit user visits site p3p compare personal information user willing release information server wants get – two match p3p inform user ask he/she willing proceed site risk giving personal information example user may store browser preferences information browsing habits collected policy website states cookie used purpose browser automatically rejects cookie main content privacy policy following privacy policy retrieved xml file included compact form http header location xml policy file applies given document p3p allows specify codice_1 caching dummy /w3c/p3p.xml file could use feature microsoft internet explorer edge mainstream web browsers supported p3p browsers implemented due perceived lack value provides ie provides ability display p3p privacy policies compare p3p policy browser settings decide whether allow cookies particular site however p3p functionality internet explorer extends cookie blocking alert user entire web site violates active privacy preferences microsoft considers feature deprecated browsers totally removed p3p support windows 10 mozilla supported p3p features years p3p related source code removed 2007 privacy finder service also created carnegie mellon usable privacy security laboratory publicly available p3p-enabled search engine user enter search term along stated privacy preferences presented list search results ordered based whether sites comply preferences works crawling web maintaining p3p cache every site ever appears search query cache updated every 24 hours every policy guaranteed relatively date service also allows users quickly determine site comply preferences well allowing view dynamically generated natural language privacy policy based p3p data advantageous simply reading original natural language privacy policy web site many privacy policies written legalese extremely convoluted additionally case user visit web site read privacy policy p3p allows browsers understand privacy policies simplified organized manner rather searching throughout entire website setting privacy settings certain level user enables p3p automatically block cookies user might want computer additionally w3c explains p3p allow browsers transfer user data services ultimately promoting online sharing community additionally p3p toolbox developed internet education foundation recommends anyone concerned increasing users ’ trust privacy consider implementing p3p p3p toolbox site explains companies taken individuals data order promote new products services furthermore recent years companies taken individuals information created profiles market without individual consent moreover data misused consumers pay price become worrisome issues junk mail identity theft forms discrimination therefore implementing p3p protocol good beneficial internet browsers moreover since increase browsers users risk running privacy problems internet education foundation points “ p3p developed help steer force technology step toward automatic communication data management practices individual privacy preferences. ” electronic privacy information center epic critical p3p believes p3p makes difficult users protect privacy 2002 assessed p3p referred technology “ pretty poor policy ” according epic p3p software complex difficult average person understand many internet users unfamiliar use default p3p software computers install additional p3p software another concern websites obligated use p3p neither internet users moreover epic website claims p3ps protocol would become burdensome browser beneficial efficient intended key problem occurs use p3p lack enforcement thus promises made users p3p go unfulfilled though using p3p company/website makes promise privacy use gathered data site ’ users real legal ramifications company decides use information functions currently actual laws passed united states data protection though ideally companies honest use customers personal information binding reason company must actually adhere rules says comply though using p3p technically qualifies contract lack federal regulation downplays need companies abide agreement use p3p puts place unenforceable promises also prolongs adoption federal laws would actually inhibit access ability use private information government step attempt protect internet users federal laws information accessed specific regulations user information used companies ’ maintain leeway use information please despite may actually tell users 2002 epic employee chris hoofnagle argued p3p displacing chances government regulation privacy critics p3p also argue non-compliant sites excluded according study done cylab privacy interest group carnegie mellon university 15 top 5,000 websites incorporate p3p therefore many sites ’ include code practice high privacy standards accessible users use p3p online privacy guide epic also talks development implementation p3p cause monopoly private information since tends major companies implement p3p websites major companies tending gather information seeing privacy policies compare privacy preferences users epic website says incredible complexity p3p combined way popular browsers likely implement protocol would seem preclude privacy-protective technology epic continues state rather p3p may actually strengthen monopoly position personal information u.s. data marketers enjoy failure immediate adoption related idea notice choice approach ’ comply fair information practices according chairman ftc privacy laws key today ’ society order protect consumer providing much personal information others ’ benefit believe limit collection use consumer ’ personal data online currently sites required united states laws comply privacy policies publish therefore p3p causes controversy consumers concerned release personal information able rely p3p ’ protocol protect privacy michael kaply ibm reported saying following mozilla foundation considering removal p3p support browser-line 2004 ah memories ibm wrote original p3p implementation netscape proceeded write companies wasted immense amounts time everyone thought crappy proposal begin remove live leer pr manager opera software explained 2001 deliberate lack p3p support browser moment n't sure whether p3p best solution p3p among specifications considering support future issues well p3p protect privacy reason decided wait resolved p3p user agents option available internet users want ensure privacy several main alternatives p3p include using web browsers privacy mode anonymous e-mailers anonymous proxy servers main alternative p3p may technologies instead stronger laws regulate kind information internet users collected retained websites example europe data protection directive provides individuals certain set principles personal information collected person rights protecting personal data act allows individuals control type information collected various principles included within act rule individual right retrieve data collected time certain conditions moreover individual personal information kept longer necessary personal information released others unless individual gives consent currently united states federal law protecting privacy personal information shared online however sectoral laws federal state level offer protection certain types information collected individuals example fair credit reporting act fcra 1970 makes legal consumer reporting agencies disclose personal information three specified circumstances credit employment insurance evaluation government grant license “ legitimate business need ” involves consumer list sectoral privacy laws united states viewed consumer privacy guide website many groups working future p3p make easier people use groups transparent accountable datamining initiative tami group mit ’ computer science artificial intelligence laboratory goal tami create technical legal policy foundations transparency accountability large-scale aggregation tami hopes help people manage privacy risks world technology constantly changing policy aware web paw scalable mechanism exchange rules proofs unlimited access control web “ creates system policy aware infrastructure using systematic web rules language theorem prover ” 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_portlet_specification.java portlet specification java portlet specification defines contract portlet container portlets provides convenient programming model java portlet developers portlets pluggable user interface software components managed displayed web portal example enterprise portal web cms portlet aggregate integrate personalize content different sources within web page portlet responds requests web client generates dynamic content portlets produce fragments markup html xhtml wml aggregated portal typically following desktop metaphor portal page displayed collection non-overlapping portlet windows portlet window displays portlet hence portlet collection portlets resembles web-based application hosted portal examples portlet applications e-mail weather reports discussion forums news portlet managed portlet container portlet standards platform independent application programming interfaces intended enable software developers create portlets plugged portal supporting standards example java portlet specification java portlet resembles java servlet produces fragments rather complete documents bound url portlet container runs portlets provides required runtime environment portlet container contains portlets manages life cycles also provides persistent storage mechanisms portlet preferences portlet container receives requests portal execute requests portlets hosted portlet container responsible aggregating content produced portlets portal handles aggregation portal portlet container built together single component application suite two separate components portal application java portlet specification v1.0 developed java community process java specification request jsr 168 released final form october 2003 java portlet specification v1.0 introduces basic portlet programming model initially java portal vendors portlet development framework thus portlets confined specific portal servers could n't deployed rest java portals jsr 168 inception java portlets may deployed java portal servers adhering jsr 168 specifications portlets catalog set portlets ready-to-use components enterprise portals want adopt portals certainly need many variety portlets deploy run portlets catalog use jsr 168 portlets catalog makes sure portlets catalog may run standards–compliant java portal server types portlet solution vertical domains technology like collaboration social networking community content management utility calendaring hrm available catalogs many open source commercial portlets catalog available jsr 168 based solutions rare jsr 168 specifications offer suitability developers reuse code maintain set jsr 168 compliant portlets deployers easy keep single set solution deploy many jsr-286 java portlet specification v2.0 developed jcp created alignment updated version 2.0 wsrp released june 2008 developed improve short-comings version 1.0 specification jsr-168 major features include jsr-362 java portlet specification v3.0 released april 2017 major features include Target text information: soap.soap soap abbreviation simple object access protocol messaging protocol specification exchanging structured information implementation web services computer networks purpose provide extensibility neutrality independence uses xml information set message format relies application layer protocols often hypertext transfer protocol http simple mail transfer protocol smtp message negotiation transmission soap allows processes running disparate operating systems windows linux communicate using extensible markup language xml since web protocols like http installed running operating systems soap allows clients invoke web services receive responses independent language platforms soap provides messaging protocol layer web services protocol stack web services xml-based protocol consisting three parts soap three major characteristics example soap procedures application send soap request server web services enabled—such real-estate price database—with parameters search server returns soap response xml-formatted document resulting data e.g. prices location features since generated data comes standardized machine-parsable format requesting application integrate directly soap architecture consists several layers specifications soap evolved successor xml-rpc though borrows transport interaction neutrality web service addressing envelope/header/body elsewhere probably wddx soap designed object-access protocol 1998 dave winer box bob atkinson mohsen al-ghosein microsoft atkinson al-ghosein working specification made available submitted ietf 13 september 1999 according box due politics within microsoft microsoft hesitation dave winer shipped xml-rpc 1998 submitted internet draft reach rfc status therefore considered standard version 1.1 specification published w3c note 8 may 2000 since version 1.1 reach w3c recommendation status considered standard either version 1.2 specification however became w3c recommendation june 24 2003 soap specification maintained xml protocol working group world wide web consortium group closed 10 july 2009 soap originally stood simple object access protocol version 1.2 standard dropped acronym soap first introduced became underlying layer complex set web services based web services description language wsdl xml schema universal description discovery integration uddi different services especially uddi proved far less interest appreciation gives complete understanding expected role soap compared web services actually evolved soap specification broadly defined consisting following 3 conceptual components protocol concepts encapsulation concepts network concepts soap specification defines messaging framework consists soap message ordinary xml document containing following elements smtp http valid application layer protocols used transport soap http gained wider acceptance works well today internet infrastructure specifically http works well network firewalls soap may also used https protocol http application level uses encrypted transport protocol underneath either simple mutual authentication advocated ws-i method provide web service security stated ws-i basic profile 1.1 major advantage distributed protocols like giop/iiop dcom normally filtered firewalls soap amqp yet another possibility implementations support soap also advantage dcom unaffected security rights configured machines require knowledge transmitting receiving nodes lets soap loosely coupled way possible dcom also soap-over-udp oasis standard xml information set chosen standard message format widespread use major corporations open source development efforts typically xml information set serialized xml wide variety freely available tools significantly eases transition soap-based implementation somewhat lengthy syntax xml benefit drawback promotes readability humans facilitates error detection avoids interoperability problems byte-order endianness slow processing speed cumbersome example corba giop ice dcom use much shorter binary message formats hand hardware appliances available accelerate processing xml messages binary xml also explored means streamlining throughput requirements xml xml messages self-documenting nature usually 'overhead headers footers nested tags delimiters actual data contrast earlier protocols overhead usually relatively small percentage overall message financial messaging soap found result 2–4 times larger message previous protocols fix financial information exchange cdr common data representation xml information set serialized xml instance csv json xml-infoset representations exist also need specify generic transformation framework concept soap bindings allows specific bindings specific application drawback senders receivers support newly defined binding post /instock http/1.1 host www.example.org content-type application/soap+xml charset=utf-8 content-length 299 soapaction http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xml version= 1.0 soap envelope xmlns soap= http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xmlns m= http //www.example.org /soap envelope I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	10,486	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: fault_tolerance.fault tolerance fault tolerance property enables system continue operating properly event failure one faults within components operating quality decreases decrease proportional severity failure compared naively designed system even small failure cause total breakdown fault tolerance particularly sought high-availability life-critical systems ability maintaining functionality portions system break referred graceful degradation fault-tolerant design enables system continue intended operation possibly reduced level rather failing completely part system fails term commonly used describe computer systems designed continue less fully operational perhaps reduction throughput increase response time event partial failure system whole stopped due problems either hardware software example another field motor vehicle designed continue drivable one tires punctured structure able retain integrity presence damage due causes fatigue corrosion manufacturing flaws impact within scope individual system fault tolerance achieved anticipating exceptional conditions building system cope general aiming self-stabilization system converges towards error-free state however consequences system failure catastrophic cost making sufficiently reliable high better solution may use form duplication case consequence system failure catastrophic system must able use reversion fall back safe mode similar roll-back recovery human action humans present loop highly fault-tolerant system might continue level performance even though one components failed example building backup electrical generator provide voltage wall outlets even grid power fails system designed fail safe fail-secure fail gracefully whether functions reduced level fails completely way protects people property data injury damage intrusion disclosure computers program might fail-safe executing graceful exit opposed uncontrolled crash order prevent data corruption experiencing error similar distinction made failing well failing badly fail-deadly opposite strategy used weapon systems designed kill injure targets even part system damaged destroyed system designed experience graceful degradation fail soft used computing similar fail safe operates reduced level performance component failures example building may operate lighting reduced levels elevators reduced speeds grid power fails rather either trapping people dark completely continuing operate full power computing example graceful degradation insufficient network bandwidth available stream online video lower-resolution version might streamed place high-resolution version progressive enhancement example computing web pages available basic functional format older small-screen limited-capability web browsers enhanced version browsers capable handling additional technologies larger display available fault-tolerant computer systems programs considered robust designed continue operation despite error exception invalid input instead crashing completely software brittleness opposite robustness resilient networks continue transmit data despite failure links nodes resilient buildings infrastructure likewise expected prevent complete failure situations like earthquakes floods collisions system high failure transparency alert users component failure occurred even continues operate full performance failure repaired imminent complete failure anticipated likewise fail-fast component designed report first point failure rather allow downstream components fail generate reports allows easier diagnosis underlying problem may prevent improper operation broken state single fault condition situation one means protection hazard defective single fault condition results unavoidably another single fault condition two failures considered one single fault condition source offers following example redundancy provision functional capabilities would unnecessary fault-free environment consist backup components automatically kick one component fails example large cargo trucks lose tire without major consequences many tires one tire critical exception front tires used steer generally carry less load total four 16 less likely fail idea incorporating redundancy order improve reliability system pioneered john von neumann 1950s two kinds redundancy possible space redundancy time redundancy space redundancy provides additional components functions data items unnecessary fault-free operation space redundancy classified hardware software information redundancy depending type redundant resources added system time redundancy computation data transmission repeated result compared stored copy previous result current terminology kind testing referred 'in service fault tolerance testing isftt short providing fault-tolerant design every component normally option associated redundancy brings number penalties increase weight size power consumption cost well time design verify test therefore number choices examined determine components fault tolerant example component passes tests car occupant restraint system normally think primary occupant restraint system gravity vehicle rolls undergoes severe g-forces primary method occupant restraint may fail restraining occupants accident absolutely critical safety pass first test accidents causing occupant ejection quite common seat belts pass second test cost redundant restraint method like seat belts quite low economically terms weight space pass third test therefore adding seat belts vehicles excellent idea supplemental restraint systems airbags expensive pass test smaller margin another excellent long-term example principle put practice braking system whilst actual brake mechanisms critical particularly prone sudden rather progressive failure case necessarily duplicated allow even balanced application brake force wheels would also prohibitively costly double-up main components would add considerable weight however similarly critical systems actuating brakes driver control inherently less robust generally using cable rust stretch jam snap hydraulic fluid leak boil develop bubbles absorb water thus lose effectiveness thus modern cars footbrake hydraulic brake circuit diagonally divided give two smaller points failure loss either reducing brake power 50 causing much dangerous brakeforce imbalance straight front-back left-right split hydraulic circuit fail completely relatively rare occurrence failsafe form cable-actuated parking brake operates otherwise relatively weak rear brakes still bring vehicle safe halt conjunction transmission/engine braking long demands line normal traffic flow cumulatively unlikely combination total foot brake failure need harsh braking emergency likely result collision still one lower speed would otherwise case comparison foot pedal activated service brake parking brake less critical item unless used one-time backup footbrake cause immediate danger found nonfunctional moment application therefore redundancy built per se typically uses cheaper lighter less hardwearing cable actuation system suffice happens hill use footbrake momentarily hold vehicle still driving find flat piece road stop alternatively shallow gradients transmission shifted park reverse first gear transmission lock engine compression used hold stationary need include sophistication first bring halt motorcycles similar level fail-safety provided simpler methods firstly front rear brake systems entirely separate regardless method activation cable rod hydraulic allowing one fail entirely whilst leaving unaffected secondly rear brake relatively strong compared automotive cousin even powerful disc sports models even though usual intent front system provide vast majority braking force overall vehicle weight central rear tyre generally larger grippier rider lean back put weight therefore allowing brake force applied wheel locks cheaper slower utility-class machines even front wheel use hydraulic disc extra brake force easier packaging rear usually primitive somewhat inefficient exceptionally robust rod-actuated drum thanks ease connecting footpedal wheel way importantly near impossibility catastrophic failure even rest machine like lot low-priced bikes first years use point collapse neglected maintenance basic characteristics fault tolerance require addition fault-tolerant systems characterized terms planned service outages unplanned service outages usually measured application level hardware level figure merit called availability expressed percentage example five nines system would statistically provide 99.999 availability fault-tolerant systems typically based concept redundancy spare components address first fundamental characteristic fault tolerance three ways implementations raid redundant array independent disks except raid 0 examples fault-tolerant storage device uses data redundancy lockstep fault-tolerant machine uses replicated elements operating parallel time replications element state inputs provided replication outputs expected outputs replications compared using voting circuit machine two replications element termed dual modular redundant dmr voting circuit detect mismatch recovery relies methods machine three replications element termed triple modular redundant tmr voting circuit determine replication error two-to-one vote observed case voting circuit output correct result discard erroneous version internal state erroneous replication assumed different two voting circuit switch dmr mode model applied larger number replications lockstep fault-tolerant machines easily made fully synchronous gate replication making state transition edge clock clocks replications exactly phase however possible build lockstep systems without requirement bringing replications synchrony requires making internal stored states started fixed initial state reset state alternatively internal state one replica copied another replica one variant dmr pair-and-spare two replicated elements operate lockstep pair voting circuit detects mismatch operations outputs signal indicating error another pair operates exactly way final circuit selects output pair proclaim error pair-and-spare requires four replicas rather three tmr used commercially fault-tolerant design advantages obvious many disadvantages hardware fault tolerance sometimes requires broken parts taken replaced new parts system still operational computing known hot swapping system implemented single backup known single point tolerant represents vast majority fault-tolerant systems systems mean time failures long enough operators time fix broken devices mean time repair backup also fails helps time failures long possible specifically required fault-tolerant system fault tolerance notably successful computer applications tandem computers built entire business machines used single-point tolerance create nonstop systems uptimes measured years fail-safe architectures may encompass also computer software example process replication data formats may also designed degrade gracefully html example designed forward compatible allowing new html entities ignored web browsers understand without causing document unusable difference fault tolerance systems rarely problems instance western electric crossbar systems failure rates two hours per forty years therefore highly fault resistant fault occur still stopped operating completely therefore fault tolerant Target text information: elegant_degradation.elegant degradation elegant degradation term used engineering describe occurs machines subject constant repetitive stress externally machine maintains appearance user appearing function properly internally machine slowly weakens time eventually unable withstand stress eventually breaks compared graceful degradation operational quality decrease breakdown may sudden term meaning varies depending context field may strictly considered exclusive engineering instance used mechanism food industry applied degradation lignin cellulose pentosan polymers among others concept also used extract chemicals elegant degradation paederus fuscipes obtain pederin hemiacetal pseuodopederin process degradation induced heat play name also used metaphor current state world I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,004	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: postgresql.postgresql postgresql also known postgres free open-source relational database management system rdbms emphasizing extensibility technical standards compliance designed handle range workloads single machines data warehouses web services many concurrent users default database macos server also available linux freebsd openbsd windows postgresql features transactions atomicity consistency isolation durability acid properties automatically updatable views materialized views triggers foreign keys stored procedures postgresql developed postgresql global development group diverse group many companies individual contributors postgresql developers pronounce postgresql abbreviated postgres ubiquitous support sql standard among relational databases originally named postgres name post ingres refers project origins rdbms originated university california berkeley review postgresql core team announced 2007 product would continue use name postgresql postgresql evolved ingres project university california berkeley 1982 leader ingres team michael stonebraker left berkeley make proprietary version ingres returned berkeley 1985 began post-ingres project address problems contemporary database systems become increasingly clear early 1980s turing award 2014 projects techniques pioneered new project postgres aimed add fewest features needed completely support data types features included ability define types fully describe relationships – something used widely maintained entirely user postgres database understood relationships could retrieve information related tables natural way using rules postgres used many ideas ingres code starting 1986 published papers described basis system prototype version shown 1988 acm sigmod conference team released version 1 small number users june 1989 followed version 2 re-written rules system june 1990 version 3 released 1991 re-wrote rules system added support multiple storage managers improved query engine 1993 number users began overwhelm project requests support features releasing version 4.2 june 30 1994 – primarily cleanup – project ended berkeley released postgres mit license variant enabled developers use code use time postgres used ingres-influenced postquel query language interpreter could interactively used console application named monitor 1994 berkeley graduate students andrew yu jolly chen replaced postquel query language interpreter one sql query language creating postgres95 monitor also replaced psql yu chen announced first version 0.01 beta testers may 5 1995 version 1.0 postgres95 announced september 5 1995 liberal license enabled software freely modifiable july 8 1996 marc fournier hub.org networking services provided first non-university development server open-source development effort participation bruce momjian vadim b. mikheev work began stabilize code inherited berkeley 1996 project renamed postgresql reflect support sql online presence website postgresql.org began october 22 1996 first postgresql release formed version 6.0 january 29 1997 since developers volunteers around world maintained software postgresql global development group project continues make releases available free open-source software postgresql license code comes contributions proprietary vendors support companies open-source programmers postgresql manages concurrency multiversion concurrency control mvcc gives transaction snapshot database allowing changes made without affecting transactions largely eliminates need read locks ensures database maintains acid principles postgresql offers three levels transaction isolation read committed repeatable read serializable postgresql immune dirty reads requesting read uncommitted transaction isolation level provides read committed instead postgresql supports full serializability via serializable snapshot isolation ssi method postgresql includes built-in binary replication based shipping changes write-ahead logs wal replica nodes asynchronously ability run read-only queries replicated nodes allows splitting read traffic among multiple nodes efficiently earlier replication software allowed similar read scaling normally relied adding replication triggers master increasing load postgresql includes built-in synchronous replication ensures write transaction master waits least one replica node written data transaction log unlike database systems durability transaction whether asynchronous synchronous specified per-database per-user per-session even per-transaction useful workloads require guarantees may wanted data slow performance due requirement confirmation transaction reaching synchronous standby standby servers synchronous asynchronous synchronous standby servers specified configuration determines servers candidates synchronous replication first list actively streaming used current synchronous server fails system fails next line synchronous multi-master replication included postgresql core postgres-xc based postgresql provides scalable synchronous multi-master replication licensed license postgresql related project called postgres-xl postgres-r yet another fork bidirectional replication bdr asynchronous multi-master replication system postgresql tools repmgr make managing replication clusters easier several asynchronous trigger-based replication packages available remain useful even introduction expanded core abilities situations binary replication full database cluster inappropriate postgresql includes built-in support regular b-tree hash table indexes four index access methods generalized search trees gist generalized inverted indexes gin space-partitioned gist sp-gist block range indexes brin addition user-defined index methods created although quite involved process indexes postgresql also support following features postgresql schema holds objects except roles tablespaces schemas effectively act like namespaces allowing objects name co-exist database default newly created databases schema called public schemas added public schema n't mandatory setting determines order postgresql checks schemas unqualified objects without prefixed schema default set refers currently connected database user default set database role level session parameter freely changed even multiple times client session affecting session non-existent schemas listed search_path silently skipped objects lookup new objects created whichever valid schema one presently exists appears first search_path.schema outline database wide variety native data types supported including addition users create data types usually made fully indexable via postgresql indexing infrastructures – gist gin sp-gist examples include geographic information system gis data types postgis project postgresql also data type called domain data type optional constraints defined creator domain means data entered column using domain conform whichever constraints defined part domain data type represents range data used called range types discrete ranges e.g integer values 1 10 continuous ranges e.g. time 10:00 11:00 built-in range types available include ranges integers big integers decimal numbers time stamps without time zone dates custom range types created make new types ranges available ip address ranges using inet type base float ranges using float data type base range types support inclusive exclusive range boundaries using characters respectively e.g. represents integers starting including 4 including 9 range types also compatible existing operators used check overlap containment right etc new types almost objects inside database created including tables set inherit characteristics parent table data child tables appear exist parent tables unless data selected parent table using keyword i.e adding column parent table cause column appear child table inheritance used implement table partitioning using either triggers rules direct inserts parent table proper child tables feature fully supported yet – particular table constraints currently inheritable check constraints not-null constraints parent table automatically inherited children types constraints unique primary key foreign key constraints inherited inheritance provides way map features generalization hierarchies depicted entity relationship diagrams erds directly postgresql database postgresql link systems retrieve data via foreign data wrappers fdws take form data source file system another relational database management system rdbms web service means regular database queries use data sources like regular tables even join multiple data-sources together postgresql several interfaces available also widely supported among programming language libraries built-in interfaces include libpq postgresql official c application interface ecpg embedded c system external interfaces include procedural languages allow developers extend database custom subroutines functions often called stored procedures functions used build database triggers functions invoked modification certain data custom data types aggregate functions procedural languages also invoked without defining function using command sql level languages divided two groups procedures written safe languages sandboxed safely created used user procedures written unsafe languages created superusers allow bypassing database security restrictions also access sources external database languages like perl provide safe unsafe versions postgresql built-in support three procedural languages addition postgresql allows procedural languages loaded database extensions three language extensions included postgresql support perl python tcl external projects add support many languages including java javascript pl/v8 r ruby others triggers events triggered action sql data manipulation language dml statements example insert statement might activate trigger checks values statement valid triggers activated either insert update statements triggers fully supported attached tables triggers per-column conditional update triggers target specific columns table triggers told execute set conditions specified trigger clause triggers attached views using instead condition multiple triggers fired alphabetical order addition calling functions written native pl/pgsql triggers also invoke functions written languages like pl/python pl/perl postgresql provides asynchronous messaging system accessed notify listen unlisten commands session issue notify command along user-specified channel optional payload mark particular event occurring sessions able detect events issuing listen command listen particular channel functionality used wide variety purposes letting sessions know table updated separate applications detect particular action performed system prevents need continuous polling applications see anything yet changed reducing unnecessary overhead notifications fully transactional messages sent transaction sent committed eliminates problem messages sent action performed rolled back many connectors postgresql provide support notification system including libpq jdbc npgsql psycopg node.js used external applications rules allow query tree incoming query rewritten query re-write rules attached table/class re-write incoming dml select insert update and/or delete one queries either replace original dml statement execute addition query re-write occurs dml statement parsing query planning postgresql server process-based threaded uses one operating system process per database session multiple sessions automatically spread across available cpus operating system starting postgresql 9.6 many types queries also parallelized across multiple background worker processes taking advantage multiple cpus cores client applications use threads create multiple database connections thread postgresql manages internal security per-role basis role generally regarded user role log group role roles members permissions granted revoked object column level also allow/prevent creation new objects database schema table levels postgresql security label feature extension sql standards allows additional security bundled loadable module supports label-based mandatory access control mac based security-enhanced linux selinux security policy postgresql natively supports broad number external authentication mechanisms including gssapi sspi kerberos peer ident certificate methods also use specified map file lists users matched authentication system allowed connect specific database user methods specified cluster host-based authentication configuration file pg_hba.conf determines connections allowed allows control user connect database connect ip address ip address range domain socket authentication system enforced whether connection must use transport layer security tls postgresql claims high complete conformance sql standard one exception handling unquoted identifiers like table column names postgresql folded – internal – lower case characters whereas standard says unquoted identifiers folded upper case thus equivalent according standard many informal performance studies postgresql done performance improvements aimed improving scalability began heavily version 8.1 simple benchmarks version 8.0 version 8.4 showed latter 10 times faster read-only workloads least 7.5 times faster read write workloads first industry-standard peer-validated benchmark completed june 2007 using sun java system application server proprietary version glassfish 9.0 platform edition ultrasparc t1-based sun fire server postgresql 8.2 result 778.14 specjappserver2004 jops standard compares favourably 874 jops standard oracle 10 itanium-based hp-ux system august 2007 sun submitted improved benchmark score 813.73 specjappserver2004 jops standard system test reduced price price/performance improved 84.98/jops 70.57/jops default configuration postgresql uses small amount dedicated memory performance-critical purposes caching database blocks sorting limitation primarily older operating systems required kernel changes allow allocating large blocks shared memory postgresql.org provides advice basic recommended performance practice wiki april 2012 robert haas enterprisedb demonstrated postgresql 9.2 linear cpu scalability using server 64 cores matloob khushi performed benchmarking postgresql 9.0 mysql 5.6.15 ability process genomic data performance analysis found postgresql extracts overlapping genomic regions eight times faster mysql using two datasets 80,000 forming random human dna regions insertion data uploads postgresql also better although general searching ability databases almost equivalent postgresql available following operating systems linux recent distributions windows windows 2000 sp4 later compilable e.g visual studio recent 2017 version freebsd openbsd netbsd macos os x aix hp-ux solaris unixware officially tested dragonfly bsd bsd/os irix openindiana opensolaris openserver tru64 unix unix-like systems could also work modern support postgresql works following instruction set architectures x86 x86-64 windows operating systems supported windows ia-64 itanium external support hp-ux powerpc powerpc 64 s/390 s/390x sparc sparc 64 armv8-a 64-bit older arm 32-bit including older armv6 raspberry pi mips mipsel pa-risc also known work alpha dropped 9.5 m68k m32r ns32k vax beyond possible build postgresql unsupported cpu disabling spinlocks open source front-ends tools administering postgresql include number companies offer proprietary tools postgresql often consist universal core adapted various specific database products tools mostly share administration features open source tools offer improvements data modeling importing exporting reporting notable organizations products use postgresql primary database include notable vendors offer postgresql software service 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include Target text information: postgis.postgis postgis open source software program adds support geographic objects postgresql object-relational database postgis follows simple features sql specification open geospatial consortium ogc technically postgis implemented postgresql external extension refractions research released first version postgis 2001 gnu general public license six release candidates stable 1.0 version followed april 19 2005 2006 ogc registered postgis implement ing specified standard simple features sql postgis implementation based light-weight geometries indexes optimized reduce disk memory footprint using light-weight geometries helps servers increase amount data migrated physical disk storage ram improving query performance substantially postgis registered implements specified standard simple features sql ogc postgis certified compliant ogc many software products use postgis database backend including I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	580	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan 1-hop neighbor's text information: ms-dos.ms-dos ms-dos acronym microsoft disk operating system operating system x86-based personal computers mostly developed microsoft collectively ms-dos rebranding ibm pc dos operating systems attempting compatible ms-dos sometimes referred dos also generic acronym disk operating system ms-dos main operating system ibm pc compatible personal computers 1980s early 1990s gradually superseded operating systems offering graphical user interface gui various generations graphical microsoft windows operating system ibm licensed re-released august 12 1981 pc dos 1.0 use pcs although ms-dos pc dos initially developed parallel microsoft ibm two products diverged twelve years 1993 recognizable differences compatibility syntax capabilities lifetime several competing products released x86 platform ms-dos went eight versions development ceased 2000 initially ms-dos targeted intel 8086 processors running computer hardware using floppy disks store access operating system application software user data well progressive version releases delivered support mass storage media ever greater sizes formats along added feature support newer processors rapidly evolving computer architectures ultimately key product microsoft growth programming language company diverse software development firm providing company essential revenue marketing resources also underlying basic operating system early versions windows ran gui flexible operating system consumes negligible installation space ms-dos renamed form 86-dos owned seattle computer products written tim paterson development 86-dos took six weeks basically clone digital research cp/m 8080/z80 processors ported run 8086 processors two notable differences compared cp/m improved disk sector buffering logic introduction fat12 instead cp/m filesystem first version shipped august 1980 microsoft needed operating system ibm personal computer hired tim paterson may 1981 bought 86-dos 1.10 75,000 july year microsoft kept version number renamed ms-dos also licensed ms-dos 1.10/1.14 ibm august 1981 offered pc dos 1.0 one three operating systems ibm 5150 ibm pc within year microsoft licensed ms-dos 70 companies designed os could run 8086-family computer computer would distinct hardware version ms-dos similar situation existed cp/m ms-dos emulating solution cp/m adapt different hardware platforms end ms-dos designed modular structure internal device drivers minimally primary disk drives console integrated kernel loaded boot loader installable device drivers devices loaded integrated boot time oem would use development kit provided microsoft build version ms-dos basic i/o drivers standard microsoft kernel would typically supply disk end users along hardware thus many different versions ms-dos different hardware major distinction ibm-compatible isa machine ms-dos compatible machine machines like tandy 2000 ms-dos compatible ibm-compatible could run software written exclusively ms-dos without dependence peripheral hardware ibm pc architecture design would worked well compatibility application programs used ms-dos services perform device i/o indeed design philosophy embodied windows nt see hardware abstraction layer however ms-dos early days greater speed attainable programs direct control hardware particular importance especially games often pushed limits contemporary hardware soon ibm-compatible architecture became goal long 8086-family computers closely emulated ibm hardware single version ms-dos fixed hardware platform needed market version version ms-dos discussed dozens oem versions ms-dos relevant systems designed case similar function capability standard version ibm pc—often same-numbered version always since oems used proprietary version numbering schemes e.g labeling later releases ms-dos 1.x 2.0 vice versa —with notable exceptions microsoft omitted multi-user support ms-dos microsoft unix-based operating system xenix fully multi-user company planned time improve ms-dos would almost indistinguishable single-user xenix xedos would also run motorola 68000 zilog z8000 lsi-11 would upwardly compatible xenix byte 1983 described multi-user ms-dos future microsoft advertised ms-dos xenix together listing shared features single-user os multi-user multi-tasking unix-derived operating system promising easy porting breakup bell system however computer systems started selling unix system v. believing could compete unix market microsoft abandoned xenix 1987 transferred ownership xenix santa cruz operation sco march 25 2014 microsoft made code scp ms-dos 1.25 mixture altos ms-dos 2.11 televideo pc dos 2.11 available public microsoft research license agreement makes code source-available open source defined open source initiative free software foundation standards microsoft would later re-license code mit license september 28 2018 making versions free software april fool day joke 2015 microsoft mobile launched windows phone application called ms-dos mobile presented new mobile operating system worked similar ms-dos microsoft licensed released versions ms-dos different names like lifeboat associates software bus 86 a.k.a sb-dos compaq-dos ncr-dos z-dos eventually enforced ms-dos name versions ibm one originally called ibm personal computer dos later shortened ibm pc dos competitors released compatible dos systems dr dos pts-dos could also run dos applications former eastern bloc ms-dos derivatives named dcp 3.20 3.30 existed late 1980s produced east german electronics manufacturer veb robotron following versions ms-dos released public microsoft dos released oem channel digital research released dr dos 5.0 retail upgrade pc dos 5.00.1 ibm-microsoft agreement started end ibm entered retail dos market ibm dos 5.00.1 5.02 6.00 pc dos 6.1 6.3 7 2000 7.1 localized versions ms-dos existed different markets western issues ms-dos evolved around set tools drivers localized message languages differing sets supported codepages keyboard layouts language versions considerably different western issues adapted run localized pc hardware additional bios services available western pcs support multiple hardware codepages displays printers support dbcs alternative input methods graphics output affected issues include japanese dos/v korean arabic ados 3.3/5.0 hebrew hdos 3.3/5.0 russian rdos 4.01/5.0 well eastern european versions dos microcomputers based intel 8086 8088 processors including ibm pc clones initial competition pc dos/ms-dos line came digital research whose cp/m operating system inspired ms-dos fact remains controversy whether qdos less plagiarised early versions cp/m code digital research released cp/m-86 months ms-dos offered alternative ms-dos microsoft licensing requirements higher price executable programs cp/m-86 ms-dos interchangeable many applications sold ms-dos cp/m-86 versions ms-dos became preponderant later digital research operating systems could run ms-dos cp/m-86 software ms-dos originally supported simple .com modelled similar binary incompatible format known cp/m-80 cp/m-86 instead supported relocatable format using file extension .cmd avoid name conflicts cp/m-80 ms-dos .com files ms-dos version 1.0 added advanced relocatable .exe executable file format machines early days ms-dos differing system architectures certain degree incompatibility subsequently vendor lock-in users began using ms-dos machines compelled continue using version customized hardware face trying get proprietary hardware software work new system business world 808x-based machines ms-dos tied faced competition unix operating system ran many different hardware architectures microsoft sold version unix pc called xenix emerging world home users variety computers based various processors serious competition ibm pc apple ii early apple macintosh commodore 64 others use 808x processor many 808x machines different architectures used custom versions ms-dos first machines competition time ibm pc hardware configuration became dominant 808x market software written communicate directly pc hardware without using standard operating system calls ran much faster true pc-compatibles non-pc-compatible 808x machines small market fast software written alone market remained open ibm pcs machines closely imitated architecture running either single version ms-dos compatible pcs equivalent ibm pc dos clones cost much less ibm-branded machines similar performance became widely used home users ibm pcs large share business computer market microsoft ibm together began intended follow-on ms-dos/pc dos called os/2 os/2 released 1987 microsoft began advertising campaign announcing dos dead stating version 4 last full release os/2 designed efficient multi-tasking standard operating systems since 1963 offered number advanced features designed together similar look feel seen legitimate heir kludgy dos platform ms-dos grown spurts many significant features taken duplicated microsoft products operating systems ms-dos also grew incorporating direct licensing feature duplicating functionality tools utilities developed independent companies norton utilities pc tools microsoft anti-virus qemm expanded memory manager stacker disk compression others period digital research competing operating system market computers like amstrad pc1512 sold floppy disks two operating systems one could used time ms-dos cp/m-86 derivative digital research produced dos plus compatible ms-dos 2.11 supported cp/m-86 programs additional features including multi-tasking could read write disks cp/m ms-dos format os/2 protracted development digital research released ms-dos compatible dr dos 5.0 included features available third-party add-ons ms-dos unwilling lose portion market microsoft responded announcing pending release ms-dos 5.0 may 1990 effectively killed dr dos sales actual release ms-dos 5.0 june 1991 digital research brought dr dos 6.0 sold well pre-announcement ms-dos 6.0 stifled sales dr dos microsoft accused carefully orchestrating leaks future versions ms-dos attempt create industry called fud fear uncertainty doubt regarding dr dos example october 1990 shortly release dr dos 5.0 long eventual june 1991 release ms-dos 5.0 stories feature enhancements ms-dos started appear infoworld pc week brad silverberg vice president systems software microsoft general manager windows ms-dos business unit wrote forceful letter pc week november 5 1990 denying microsoft engaged fud tactics serve customers better decided forthcoming version 5.0 denying microsoft copied features dr dos feature enhancements ms-dos version 5.0 decided development begun long heard dr dos 5.0 similar features 50 million ms-dos users n't surprising dri heard requests customers – schulman et al 1994 pact microsoft ibm promote os/2 began fall apart 1990 windows 3.0 became marketplace success much microsoft contributions os/2 also went creating third gui replacement dos windows nt ibm already developing next version os/2 carried development platform without microsoft sold alternative dos windows response digital research dr dos 6.0 bundled superstor disk compression microsoft opened negotiations stac electronics vendor popular dos disk compression tool stacker due diligence process stac engineers shown microsoft part stacker source code stac unwilling meet microsoft terms licensing stacker withdrew negotiations microsoft chose license vertisoft doubledisk using core doublespace disk compression ms-dos 6.0 6.20 released 1993 including microsoft doublespace disk compression utility program stac successfully sued microsoft patent infringement regarding compression algorithm used doublespace resulted 1994 release ms-dos 6.21 disk compression removed shortly afterwards came version 6.22 new version disk compression system drivespace different compression algorithm avoid infringing code prior 1995 microsoft licensed ms-dos windows computer manufacturers three types agreement per-processor fee system company sold per-system fee system particular model per-copy fee copy ms-dos installed largest manufacturers used per-processor arrangement lowest fee arrangement made expensive large manufacturers migrate operating system dr dos 1991 u.s. government federal trade commission began investigating microsoft licensing procedures resulting 1994 settlement agreement limiting microsoft per-copy licensing digital research gain settlement years later successor interest caldera sued microsoft damages caldera v. microsoft lawsuit believed settlement ran order 150 million revealed november 2009 release settlement agreement 280 million microsoft also used variety tactics ms-dos several applications development tools operating perfectly running genuine ms-dos pc dos would break run another vendor implementation dos notable examples practice included introduction windows 3.0 1990 easy usability graphical user interface severely diminished usage ms-dos based command line release windows 95 continuing windows 9x product line windows integrated version ms-dos used bootstrapping troubleshooting backwards-compatibility old dos software particularly games longer released standalone product windows 95 dos called ms-dos 7 booted separately without windows gui capability retained windows 98 second edition windows removed capability boot underlying ms-dos 8.0 alone hard disk retained ability make dos boot floppy disk called emergency boot disk hacked restore full access underlying dos contrast windows 9x series windows nt-derived 32-bit operating systems developed alongside 9x series windows nt 2000 xp newer contain ms-dos part operating system nt built subsystem running dos entirely different independent operating system provide subset dos emulation run dos applications provide dos-like command prompt windows 64-bit versions windows nt line provide dos emulation run dos applications natively windows xp contains copy windows boot disk stripped bootstrap accessible formatting floppy ms-dos startup disk files like driver cd-rom support deleted windows bootdisk startup files autoexec.bat config.sys longer content modified disk base creating ms-dos image windows xp deleted files recovered undelete tool booting ms-dos startup disk made windows xp format tool version reports windows millenium ms-dos 8.0 used base windows 98 never released stand alone product windows vista files startup disk dated april 18 2005 otherwise unchanged including string ms-dos version 8 copyright 1981–1999 microsoft corp inside codice_1 starting windows 10 ability create dos startup disk removed either virtual machine running ms-dos older version virtual machine dual boot must used format floppy disk image must obtained external source solutions include using dos compatible alternatives freedos even copying required files boot sector ms-dos 6.22 last standalone version produced microsoft intel 8088 intel 8086 intel 80286 processors remain available download via msdn volume license oem license partner websites customers valid login credentials ms-dos still used embedded x86 systems due simple architecture minimal memory processor requirements though current products switched still-maintained open-source alternative freedos 2018 microsoft released source code ms-dos 1.25 2.0 github purpose according microsoft mainly education experimentation historic operating systems new programmers gain understanding low-level software works historic current due historical nature software microsoft accept pull requests code pull requests modified translated documentation accepted users however allowed fully encouraged fork repository containing ms-dos source code make modifications whatever like versions ms-dos obtained operation modification abandonware sites winworldpc versions microsoft windows ms-dos-like command-line interface cli called command prompt could run many dos variously win32 os/2 1.x posix command line utilities command-line session allowing piping commands user interface icon windows 2000 followed native ms-dos interface 16-bit versions windows 3.11 ran graphical user interface gui top ms-dos windows 95 98 98 se ms-dos part superficially integrated treating operating systems complete package though dos component could actually stand alone command line accessed dos command line usually codice_1 windows module winoldap.mod new line windows windows nt boot kernel whose sole purpose load windows one run win32 applications loader system manner os/2 unix consumer windows launch character-mode sessions command session permits running various supported command line utilities win32 ms-dos os/2 1.x posix emulators ms-dos os/2 posix use host window way win16 applications use win32 explorer using host window allows one pipe output emulations ms-dos emulation done ntvdm nt virtual dos machine modified softpc former product similar virtualpc running modified ms-dos 5 ntio.sys ntdos.sys output handled console dlls program prompt codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 see output 64-bit windows either dos emulation dos commands come 32-bit windows dos version returns 5.00 5.50 depending api function used determine utilities ms-dos 5.00 run emulation without modification early beta programs nt show ms-dos 30.00 programs running ms-dos 30.00 would assume os/2 control os/2 emulation handled os2ss.exe os2.exe doscalls.dll os2.exe version os/2 shell cmd.exe passes commands os2ss.exe input-output windows nt shell windows 2000 last version nt support os/2 emulation os/2 1.30 posix emulated posix shell emulated shell commands handled directly cmd.exe command prompt often called ms-dos prompt part official name windows 9x early versions windows nt nt 3.5 earlier part softpc emulation dos redirects output actually codice_1 16-bit commands run ntvdm codice_7 codice_8 initialisation determined codice_9 optionally permitting use win32 console applications internal commands codice_10 directive win32 console applications use codice_3 command prompt shell confusion exist os/2 separate dos os/2 prompts running dos program os/2 launch separate dos window run application versions windows itanium longer sold microsoft x86-64 architectures longer include ntvdm therefore longer natively run ms-dos 16-bit windows applications alternatives form virtual machine emulators microsoft virtual pc well vmware dosbox others 1983 onwards various companies worked graphical user interfaces guis capable running pc hardware however required duplicated effort provide much consistency interface design even products company later 1985 microsoft windows 1.0 released microsoft first attempt providing consistent user interface applications early versions windows ran top ms-dos first windows met little success also true companies efforts well example gem version 3.0 windows gained market acceptance windows 9x used dos boot process launch protected mode basic features related file system long file names available dos running subsystem windows windows nt runs independently dos includes ntvdm component simulating dos environment legacy applications ms-dos compatible systems include microsoft manufactured ibm pc dos ibm ms-dos identical products eventually diverged starting ms-dos version 6.0 digital research follow microsoft version numbering scheme example ms-dos 4 released july 1988 followed dr dos 5.0 may 1990 ms-dos 5.0 came april 1991 dr dos 6.0 released following june products collectively referred dos even though disk operating system generic term used systems unrelated x86 ibm pc ms-dos also generic reference dos ibm pc compatible computers microsoft control windows platform programming practices intentionally made windows appear ran poorly competing versions dos crippled ability dos makers continue compete ms-dos digital research release interim releases circumvent windows limitations inserted artificially designed specifically provide microsoft competitive advantage Target text information: oil's_well.oil well oil well computer game published sierra on-line 1983 game written atari 8-bit family thomas j. mitchell oil well similar 1982 arcade game anteater re-themed drilling oil instead hungry insectivore ports released 1983 apple ii commodore 64 1984 colecovision ibm pc booter 1985 msx sharp x1 version improved visuals without mitchell involvement released ms-dos 1990 player attempts manage oil drilling operation collect oil done moving drill head maze using four directional control buttons head trailed pipeline connecting base subterranean creatures populate maze head destroy creatures pipeline vulnerable player traverses maze pipe grows longer pressing button quickly retracts head player advance eight different levels ahoy stated commodore version graphics sounds serviceable gameplay experience unique ... recommended infoworld called ibm pcjr version clever basic game early 1980s u.s. gaming magazine computer games awarded oil well 1984 golden floppy award excellence category maze game year despite already clone anteater several additional clones borrowed theme oil well pipeline run commodore 64 1990 oilmania atari st 1991 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	9,662	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: statistical_semantics.statistical semantics linguistics statistical semantics applies methods statistics problem determining meaning words phrases ideally unsupervised learning degree precision least sufficient purpose information retrieval term statistical semantics first used warren weaver well-known paper machine translation argued word sense disambiguation machine translation based co-occurrence frequency context words near given target word underlying assumption word characterized company keeps advocated j.r. firth assumption known linguistics distributional hypothesis emile delavenay defined statistical semantics statistical study meanings words frequency order recurrence furnas et al 1983 frequently cited foundational contribution statistical semantics early success field latent semantic analysis research statistical semantics resulted wide variety algorithms use distributional hypothesis discover many aspects semantics applying statistical techniques large corpora statistical semantics focuses meanings common words relations common words unlike text mining tends focus whole documents document collections named entities names people places organizations statistical semantics subfield computational semantics turn subfield computational linguistics natural language processing many applications statistical semantics listed also addressed lexicon-based algorithms instead corpus-based algorithms statistical semantics one advantage corpus-based algorithms typically labour-intensive lexicon-based algorithms another advantage usually easier adapt new languages lexicon-based algorithms however best performance application often achieved combining two approaches 1-hop neighbor's text information: treebank.treebank linguistics treebank parsed text corpus annotates syntactic semantic sentence structure construction parsed corpora early 1990s revolutionized computational linguistics benefitted large-scale empirical data exploitation treebank data important ever since first large-scale treebank penn treebank published however although originating computational linguistics value treebanks becoming widely appreciated linguistics research whole example annotated treebank data crucial syntactic research test linguistic theories sentence structure large quantities naturally occurring examples term treebank coined linguist geoffrey leech 1980s analogy repositories seedbank bloodbank syntactic semantic structure commonly represented compositionally tree structure term parsed corpus often used interchangeably term treebank emphasis primacy sentences rather trees treebanks often created top corpus already annotated part-of-speech tags turn treebanks sometimes enhanced semantic linguistic information treebanks created completely manually linguists annotate sentence syntactic structure semi-automatically parser assigns syntactic structure linguists check necessary correct practice fully checking completing parsing natural language corpora labour-intensive project take teams graduate linguists several years level annotation detail breadth linguistic sample determine difficulty task length time required build treebank treebanks follow specific linguistic theory syntactic annotation e.g bultreebank follows hpsg try less theory-specific however two main groups distinguished treebanks annotate phrase structure example penn treebank ice-gb annotate dependency structure example prague dependency treebank quranic arabic dependency treebank important clarify distinction formal representation file format used store annotated data treebanks necessarily constructed according particular grammar grammar may implemented different file formats example syntactic analysis john loves mary shown figure right may represented simple labelled brackets text file like following penn treebank notation type representation popular light resources tree structure relatively easy read without software tools however corpora become increasingly complex file formats may preferred alternatives include treebank-specific xml schemes numbered indentation various types standoff notation computational perspective treebanks used engineer state-of-the-art natural language processing systems part-of-speech taggers parsers semantic analyzers machine translation systems computational systems utilize gold-standard treebank data however automatically parsed corpus corrected human linguists still useful provide evidence rule frequency parser parser may improved applying large amounts text gathering rule frequencies however obvious process correcting completing corpus hand possible identify rules absent parser knowledge base addition frequencies likely accurate corpus linguistics treebanks used study syntactic phenomena example diachronic corpora used study time course syntactic change parsed corpus contain frequency evidence showing common different grammatical structures use treebanks also provide evidence coverage support discovery new unanticipated grammatical phenomena another use treebanks theoretical linguistics psycholinguistics interaction evidence completed treebank help linguists carry experiments decision use one grammatical construction tends influence decision form others try understand speakers writers make decisions form sentences interaction research particularly fruitful layers annotation e.g semantic pragmatic added corpus possible evaluate impact non-syntactic phenomena grammatical choices semantic treebank collection natural language sentences annotated meaning representation resources use formal representation sentence semantic structure semantic treebanks vary depth semantic representation notable example deep semantic annotation groningen meaning bank developed university groningen annotated using discourse representation theory example shallow semantic treebank propbank provides annotation verbal propositions arguments without attempting represent every word corpus logical form deep syntax treebank treebank lying interface syntax semantics representation structure interpreted graph representing subject infinitival phrases extraction it-clef construction shared subject ellipsis extend many syntactic treebanks developed wide variety languages facilitate researches multilingual tasks researchers discussed universal annotation scheme cross-languages way people try utilize merge advantages different treebanks corpora instance universal annotation approach dependency treebanks universal annotation approach phrase structure treebanks one key ways extract evidence treebank search tools search tools parsed corpora typically depend annotation scheme applied corpus user interfaces range sophistication expression-based query systems aimed computer programmers full exploration environments aimed general linguists wallis 2008 discusses principles searching treebanks detail reviews state art 1-hop neighbor's text information: link_grammar.link grammar link grammar lg theory syntax davy temperley daniel sleator builds relations pairs words rather constructing constituents phrase structure hierarchy link grammar similar dependency grammar dependency grammar includes head-dependent relationship whereas link grammar makes head-dependent relationship optional links need indicate direction colored multiplanar link grammar cmlg extension lg allowing crossing relations pairs words relationship words indicated link types thus making link grammar closely related certain categorial grammars example subject–verb–object language like english verb would look left form subject link right form object link nouns would look right complete subject link left complete object link subject–object–verb language like persian verb would look left form object link distant left form subject link nouns would look right subject object links link grammar connects words sentence links similar form catena unlike catena traditional dependency grammar marking head-dependent relationship optional languages becoming mandatory free-word-order languages turkish finnish hungarian lithuanian english subject-verb relationship obvious subject almost always left verb thus specific indication dependency needs made case subject-verb inversion distinct link type employed free word-order languages longer hold link subject verb must contain explicit directional arrow indicate two words link grammar also differs traditional dependency grammars allowing cyclic relations words thus example links indicating head verb sentence head subject sentence well link subject verb three links thus form cycle triangle case cycles useful constraining might otherwise ambiguous parses cycles help tighten set allowable parses sentence example parse left-wall indicates start sentence root node directional wv link arrows points head verb sentence wall-verb link wd link drawn without arrows indicates head noun subject sentence link type wd indicates connects wall w sentence declarative sentence lower-case subtype ss link indicates subject-verb relationship lower-case indicating subject singular note wv wd ss links cycle pa link connects verb complement lower-case indicating predicative adjective case parsing performed analogy assembling jigsaw puzzle representing parsed sentence puzzle pieces representing individual words language represented means dictionary lexis consists words set allowed jigsaw puzzle shapes word shape indicated connector link-type direction indicator indicating right left thus example transitive verb may connectors s- o+ indicating verb may form subject connection left object connection right similarly common noun may connectors d- s+ indicating may connect determiner left d- act subject connecting verb right s+ act parsing identify s+ connector attach s- connector forming link two words parsing completes connectors connected given word may dozens even hundreds allowed puzzle-shapes termed disjuncts example many verbs may optionally transitive thus making o+ connector optional verbs might also take adverbial modifiers e connectors inherently optional complex verbs may additional connectors indirect objects particles prepositions thus part parsing also involves picking one single unique disjunct word final parse must satisfy connect connectors disjunct connectors may also include head-dependent indicators h d. case connector containing head indicator allowed connect connector containing dependent indicator connector without h-d indicators indicators used link decorated arrows indicate link direction recent extension simplifies specification connectors languages little restrictions word-order lithuanian also extensions make easier support languages concatenative morphologies parsing algorithm also requires final graph planar graph i.e links cross constraint based empirical psycho-linguistic evidence indeed languages nearly situations dependency links really cross rare exceptions e.g finnish even english parsed link-grammar introducing complex selective connector types capture situations connectors optional floating-point cost markup cheaper use others thus giving preference certain parses others total cost parse sum individual costs connectors used cheapest parse indicates likely parse used parse-ranking multiple ambiguous parses fact costs local connectors global property algorithm makes essentially markovian nature assignment log-likelihood linkages allows link grammar implement semantic selection predicate-argument relationships certain constructions although syntactically valid extremely unlikely way link grammar embodies ideas present operator grammar costs additive behave like logarithm probability since log-likelihoods additive equivalently somewhat like entropy since entropies additive makes link grammar compatible machine learning techniques hidden markov models viterbi algorithm link costs correspond link weights markov networks bayesian networks link grammar link types understood types sense type theory effect link grammar used model internal language certain non-symmetric compact closed categories pregroup grammars sense link grammar appears isomorphic homomorphic categorial grammars thus example categorial grammar noun phrase bad boy may written whereas corresponding disjuncts link grammar would contraction rules inference rules lambek calculus mapped connecting connectors link grammar directional indicators correspond forward backward-slashes categorical grammar finally single-letter names understood labels easy-to-read mnemonic names rather verbose types np/n etc primary distinction categorical grammars two type constructors forward backward slashes used create new types np/n base types np n link-grammar omits use type constructors opting instead define much larger set base types compact easy-to-remember mnemonics basic rule file svo language might look like thus english sentence boy painted picture would appear similar parses apply chinese conversely rule file null subject sov language might consist following links simple persian sentence man nan xordam من نان خوردم ate bread would look like vso order likewise accommodated arabic many languages concatenative morphology stem plays grammatical role grammar determined suffixes thus russian sentence 'вверху плыли редкие облачка might parse subscripts '.vnndpp used indicate grammatical category primary links wd ei sip api connect together suffixes principle stems could appear without altering structure sentence api link indicates adjective sip denotes subject-verb inversion ei modifier wd link used indicate head noun head verb indicated sentence llxxx links serve attach stems suffixes link-grammar also indicate phonological agreement neighboring words example connector 'ph used constrain determiners appear word 'abstract effectively blocks makes costly use determiner sentence link 'an becomes cheap links roughly previous examples denoting subject denoting object denoting determiner 'wv link indicates head verb w link indicates head noun lower-case letters following upper-case link types serve refine type example ds connect singular noun ss singular subject os singular object lower-case v phv denotes 'vowel lower-case wd denotes declarative sentence vietnamese language sentence bữa tiệc hôm qua là một thành công lớn party yesterday great success may parsed follows link grammar syntax parser library natural language processing written c. available lgpl license parser ongoing project recent versions include improved sentence coverage russian persian arabic language support prototypes german hebrew lithuanian vietnamese turkish programming api python java common lisp autoit ocaml 3rd-party bindings perl ruby javascript node.js current major undertaking project learn grammar morphology new languages using unsupervised learning algorithms link-parser program along rules word lists english may found standard linux distributions e.g. debian package although many years date abiword free word processor uses link grammar on-the-fly grammar checking words linked anywhere underlined green semantic relationship extractor relex layered top link grammar library generates dependency grammar output making explicit semantic relationships words sentence output classified level ssyntr dsyntr meaning-text theory also provides framing/grounding anaphora resolution head-word identification lexical chunking part-of-speech identification tagging including entity date money gender etc tagging includes compatibility mode generate dependency output compatible stanford parser penn treebank-compatible pos tagging link grammar also employed information extraction biomedical texts events described news articles well experimental machine translation systems english german turkish indonesian farsi link grammar link dictionary used generate verify syntactic correctness three different natural language generation systems nlgen nlgen2 microplanner/surreal also used part nlp pipeline opencog ai project Target text information: dependency_grammar.dependency grammar dependency grammar dg class modern grammatical theories based dependency relation opposed relation phrase structure traced back primarily work lucien tesnière dependency notion linguistic units e.g words connected directed links finite verb taken structural center clause structure syntactic units words either directly indirectly connected verb terms directed links called dependencies dgs distinct phrase structure grammars since dgs lack phrasal nodes although acknowledge phrases structure determined relation word head dependents dependency structures flatter phrase structures part lack finite verb phrase constituent thus well suited analysis languages free word order czech slovak warlpiri notion dependencies grammatical units existed since earliest recorded grammars e.g pāṇini dependency concept therefore arguably predates phrase structure many centuries ibn maḍāʾ 12th-century linguist córdoba andalusia may first grammarian use term dependency grammatical sense use today early modern times dependency concept seems coexisted side side phrase structure latter entered latin french english grammars widespread study term logic antiquity dependency also concretely present works sámuel brassai 1800–1897 hungarian linguist 1830-1894 german philologist heimann hariton tiktin 1850–1936 romanian linguist modern dependency grammars however begin primarily work lucien tesnière tesnière frenchman polyglot professor linguistics universities strasbourg montpellier major work éléments de syntaxe structurale published posthumously 1959 – died 1954 basic approach syntax developed seems seized upon independently others 1960s number dependency-based grammars gained prominence since early works dg generated lot interest germany theoretical syntax language pedagogy recent years great development surrounding dependency-based theories come computational linguistics due part influential work david hays machine translation rand corporation 1950s 1960s dependency-based systems increasingly used parse natural language generate tree banks interest dependency grammar growing present international conferences dependency linguistics relatively recent development depling 2011 depling 2013 depling 2015 depling 2017 depling 2019 dependency one-to-one correspondence every element e.g word morph sentence exactly one node structure sentence corresponds element result one-to-one correspondence dependency grammars word morph grammars exist elements dependencies connect elements structure situation compared phrase structure phrase structure one-to-one-or-more correspondence means every element sentence one nodes structure correspond element result difference dependency structures minimal compared phrase structure counterparts since tend contain many fewer nodes trees illustrate two possible ways render dependency phrase structure relations see dependency tree ordered tree i.e reflects actual word order many dependency trees abstract away linear order focus hierarchical order means show actual word order constituency phrase structure tree follows conventions bare phrase structure bps whereby words employed node labels distinction dependency phrase structure grammars derives large part initial division clause phrase structure relation derives initial binary division whereby clause split subject noun phrase np predicate verb phrase vp division certainly present basic analysis clause find works instance leonard bloomfield noam chomsky tesnière however argued vehemently binary division preferring instead position verb root clause structure tesnière stance subject-predicate division stems term logic place linguistics importance distinction one acknowledges initial subject-predicate division syntax real one likely go path phrase structure grammar one rejects division one must consider verb root structure go path dependency grammar following frameworks dependency-based link grammar similar dependency grammar link grammar include directionality linked words thus describe head-dependent relationships hybrid dependency/phrase structure grammar uses dependencies words also includes dependencies phrasal nodes – see example quranic arabic dependency treebank derivation trees tree-adjoining grammar dependency structures although full trees tag rendered terms phrase structure regard clear whether tag viewed dependency phrase structure grammar major differences grammars listed regard dependency relation compatible major tenets theories grammar thus like phrase structure grammars dependency grammars mono- multistratal representational derivational construction- rule-based various conventions dgs employ represent dependencies following schemata addition tree trees illustrate conventions representations a–d trees whereby specific conventions employed tree vary solid lines dependency edges lightly dotted lines projection lines difference tree tree b tree employs category class label nodes whereas tree b employs words node labels tree c reduced tree insofar string words projection lines deemed unnecessary hence omitted tree abstracts away linear order reflects hierarchical order arrow arcs e alternative convention used show dependencies favored word grammar brackets f seldom used nevertheless quite capable reflecting dependency hierarchy dependents appear enclosed brackets heads finally indentations like g another convention sometimes employed indicate hierarchy words dependents placed underneath heads indented like tree indentations g abstract away linear order point conventions namely conventions influence basic commitment dependency relation grouping syntactic units dependency representations show syntactic dependencies indeed work dependency grammar focuses syntactic dependencies syntactic dependencies however one three four types dependencies meaning–text theory instance emphasizes role semantic morphological dependencies addition syntactic dependencies fourth type prosodic dependencies also acknowledged distinguishing types dependencies important part one fails likelihood semantic morphological and/or prosodic dependencies mistaken syntactic dependencies great following four subsections briefly sketch dependency types discussion existence syntactic dependencies taken granted used orientation point establishing nature three dependency types semantic dependencies understood terms predicates arguments arguments predicate semantically dependent predicate often semantic dependencies overlap point direction syntactic dependencies times however semantic dependencies point opposite direction syntactic dependencies entirely independent syntactic dependencies hierarchy words following examples show standard syntactic dependencies whereas arrows indicate semantic dependencies two arguments sam sally tree dependent predicate likes whereby arguments also syntactically dependent likes means semantic syntactic dependencies overlap point direction tree attributive adjectives however predicates take head noun argument hence big predicate tree b takes bones one argument semantic dependency points tree therefore runs counter syntactic dependency similar situation obtains c preposition predicate takes two arguments picture wall one semantic dependencies points syntactic hierarchy whereas points finally predicate help takes one argument jim directly connected jim syntactic hierarchy means semantic dependency entirely independent syntactic dependencies morphological dependencies obtain words parts words given word part word influences form another word latter morphologically dependent former agreement concord therefore manifestations morphological dependencies like semantic dependencies morphological dependencies overlap point direction syntactic dependencies overlap point opposite direction syntactic dependencies entirely independent syntactic dependencies arrows used indicate morphological dependencies plural houses demands plural demonstrative determiner hence appears means morphological dependency points hierarchy houses situation reversed b singular subject sam demands appearance agreement suffix -s finite verb works means morphological dependency pointing hierarchy sam works type determiner german examples c influences inflectional suffix appears adjective alt indefinite article ein used strong masculine ending -er appears adjective definite article der used contrast weak ending -e appears adjective thus since choice determiner impacts morphological form adjective morphological dependency pointing determiner adjective whereby morphological dependency entirely independent syntactic dependencies consider following french sentences masculine subject le chien demands masculine form predicative adjective blanc whereas feminine subject la maison demands feminine form adjective morphological dependency entirely independent syntactic dependencies therefore points across syntactic hierarchy morphological dependencies play important role typological studies languages classified mostly head-marking sam work-s mostly dependent-marking houses whereby languages contain least minor measure head dependent marking prosodic dependencies acknowledged order accommodate behavior clitics clitic syntactically autonomous element prosodically dependent host clitic therefore integrated prosody host meaning forms single word host prosodic dependencies exist entirely linear dimension horizontal dimension whereas standard syntactic dependencies exist hierarchical dimension vertical dimension classic examples clitics english reduced auxiliaries e.g -ll -s -ve possessive marker -s prosodic dependencies following examples indicated hyphen lack vertical projection line hyphens lack projection lines indicate prosodic dependencies hyphen appears left clitic indicates clitic prosodically dependent word immediately left 'll whereas hyphen appears right side clitic shown indicates clitic prosodically dependent word appears immediately right given clitic often prosodically dependent syntactic dependent 'll head would 've times depend prosodically word neither head immediate dependent florida syntactic dependencies focus work dg stated presence direction syntactic dependencies determined course often open debate regard must acknowledged validity syntactic dependencies trees throughout article taken granted however hierarchies many dgs largely support although certainly points disagreement basic question syntactic dependencies discerned proven difficult answer definitively one acknowledge area however basic task identifying discerning presence direction syntactic dependencies dgs easier harder determining constituent groupings phrase structure grammars variety heuristics employed end basic tests constituents useful tools syntactic dependencies assumed trees article grouping words together manner closely matches results standard permutation substitution ellipsis tests constituents etymological considerations also provide helpful clues direction dependencies promising principle upon base existence syntactic dependencies distribution one striving identify root given phrase word responsible determining distribution phrase whole root traditionally dgs different approach linear order word order phrase structure grammars dependency structures minimal compared phrase structure counterparts minimal structures allow one focus intently two ordering dimensions separating vertical dimension hierarchical order horizontal dimension linear order easily accomplished aspect dependency structures allowed dgs starting tesnière 1959 focus hierarchical order manner hardly possible phrase structure grammars tesnière linear order secondary hierarchical order insofar hierarchical order preceded linear order mind speaker stemmas trees tesnière produced reflected view abstracted away linear order focus almost entirely hierarchical order many dgs followed tesnière adopted practice produced tree structures reflect hierarchical order alone e.g traditional focus hierarchical order generated impression dgs little say linear order contributed view dgs particularly well-suited examine languages free word order negative result focus hierarchical order however dearth dg explorations particular word order phenomena standard discontinuities comprehensive dependency grammar accounts topicalization wh -fronting scrambling extraposition mostly absent many established dg frameworks situation contrasted phrase structure grammars devoted tremendous effort exploring phenomena nature dependency relation however prevent one focusing linear order dependency structures capable exploring word order phenomena phrase structures following trees illustrate point represent one way exploring discontinuities using dependency structures trees suggest manner common discontinuities addressed example german used illustrate scrambling discontinuity a-trees left show projectivity violations crossing lines b-trees right demonstrate one means addressing violations displaced constituent takes word head governor words red mark catena =chain words extends root displaced constituent governor constituent discontinuities explored terms catenae limitations topicalization wh -fronting scrambling extraposition explored identified examining nature catenae involved traditionally dgs treated syntactic functions grammatical functions grammatical relations primitive posit inventory functions e.g subject object oblique determiner attribute predicative etc. functions appear labels dependencies tree structures e.g syntactic functions tree shown green attr attribute comp-p complement preposition comp-to complement det determiner p-attr prepositional attribute pred predicative subj subject to-comp complement functions chosen abbreviations used tree merely representative general stance dgs toward syntactic functions actual inventory functions designations employed vary dg dg primitive theory status functions much different phrase structure grammars traditionally phrase structure grammars derive syntactic functions constellation instance object identified np appearing inside finite vp subject np appearing outside finite vp since dgs reject existence finite vp constituent never presented option view syntactic functions manner issue question comes first traditionally dgs take syntactic functions primitive derive constellation functions whereas phrase structure grammars traditionally take constellation primitive derive syntactic functions constellation question comes first functions constellation inflexible matter stances grammar types dependency phrase structure narrowly limited traditional views dependency phrase structure fully compatible approaches syntactic functions indeed monostratal systems based dependency phrase structure likely reject notion functions derived constellation constellation derived functions take primitive means neither derived I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	4,070	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: login.login computer security logging logging signing signing process individual gains access computer system identifying authenticating user credentials typically form username matching password credentials sometimes referred login logon sign-in sign-on practice modern secure systems also often require second factor extra security access longer needed user log log sign sign logging usually used enter specific page trespassers see user logged login token may used track actions user taken connected site logging may performed explicitly user taking actions entering appropriate command clicking website link labeled also done implicitly user powering workstation closing web browser window leaving website refreshing webpage within defined period case websites use cookies track sessions user logs session-only cookies site usually deleted user computer addition server invalidates associations session making session-handle user cookie store useless feature comes handy user using public computer computer using public wireless connection security precaution one rely implicit means logging system especially public computer instead one explicitly log wait confirmation request taken place logging computer leaving common security practice preventing unauthorized users tampering also people choose password-protected screensaver set activate period inactivity requiring user re-enter login credentials unlock screensaver gain access system different methods logging may via image fingerprints eye scan password oral textual input etc terms became common time sharing systems 1960s bulletin board systems bbs 1970s early home computers personal computers generally require windows nt os/2 linux 1990s noun login comes verb log analogy verb clock computer systems keep log users access system term log comes chip log historically used record distance travelled sea recorded ship log log book sign connotes idea based analogy manually signing log visitors book agreed difference meaning three terms login logon sign different technical communities tend prefer one another – unix novell linux apple typically using login apple style guide saying users log file server log ... contrast microsoft style guides traditionally suggested opposite prescribed log logon past microsoft reserved sign accessing internet windows 8 onwards moved sign terminology local authentication 1-hop neighbor's text information: common_gateway_interface.common gateway interface computing common gateway interface cgi offers standard protocol web servers execute programs execute like console applications also called command-line interface programs running server generates web pages dynamically programs known cgi scripts simply cgis specifics script executed server determined server common case cgi script executes time request made generates html brief http post request client send html form data cgi program via standard input data url paths http header data presented process environment variables 1993 national center supercomputing applications ncsa team wrote specification calling command line executables www-talk mailing list web server developers adopted standard web servers ever since work group chaired ken coar started november 1997 get ncsa definition cgi formally defined work resulted rfc 3875 specified cgi version 1.1 specifically mentioned rfc following contributors historically cgi scripts often written using c language rfc 3875 common gateway interface cgi partially defines cgi using c saying environment variables accessed c library routine getenv variable environ name cgi comes early days web users wanted connect databases web servers cgi program executed server provided common gateway web server database web server runs http server software responds requests web browsers generally http server directory folder designated document collection — files sent web browsers connected server example web server domain name codice_1 document collection stored codice_2 local file system web server respond request codice_3 sending browser pre-written file codice_4 pages constructed fly server software may defer requests separate programs relay results requesting client usually web browser displays page end user early days web programs usually small written scripting language hence known scripts programs usually require additional information specified request instance wikipedia implemented script one thing script would need know whether user logged logged name content top wikipedia page depends information http provides ways browsers pass information web server e.g part url server software must pass information script somehow conversely upon returning script must provide information required http response request http status request document content available document type e.g html pdf plain text et cetera initially different server software would use different ways exchange information scripts result n't possible write scripts would work unmodified different server software even though information exchanged therefore decided establish standard way exchanging information cgi common gateway interface defines common way server software interface scripts webpage generating programs invoked server software operate according cgi standard known cgi scripts standard quickly adopted still supported well-known server software apache iis extension node.js-based servers early use cgi scripts process forms beginning html html forms typically action attribute button designated submit button submit button pushed uri specified action attribute would sent server data form sent query string action specifies cgi script cgi script would executed produces html page web server allows owner configure urls shall handled cgi scripts usually done marking new directory within document collection containing cgi scripts — name often codice_5 example codice_6 could designated cgi directory web server web browser requests url points file within cgi directory e.g. codice_7 instead simply sending file codice_8 web browser http server runs specified script passes output script web browser anything script sends standard output passed web client instead shown on-screen terminal window remarked cgi standard defines additional information passed request passed script instance slash additional directory name appended url immediately name script example codice_9 path stored codice_10 environment variable script called parameters sent script via http get request question mark appended url followed param=value pairs example codice_11 parameters stored codice_12 environment variable script called parameters sent script via http post request passed script standard input script read environment variables data standard input adapt web browser request following perl program shows environment variables passed web server web browser issues request environment variables codice_13 64-bit windows 7 web server running cygwin returns following information variables defined cgi standard codice_10 codice_12 ones starting codice_16 pass information along http request environment seen web browser firefox running windows 7 pc web server apache running system emulates unix cgi script named codice_17 program could generate content write standard output web server transmit browser following environment variables passed cgi programs program returns result web server form standard output beginning header blank line header encoded way http header must include mime type document returned headers supplemented web server generally forwarded response back user simple cgi program written python 3 along html handles simple addition problem doctype html html /html import cgi import cgitb cgitb.enable input_data cgi.fieldstorage print 'content-type text/html html following print leave blank line print h1 addition results /h1 try except print p 0 1 2 /p '.format num1 num2 num1 num2 python 3 cgi gets inputs html adds two numbers together web server supports cgi configured interpret url serves reference cgi script common convention codice_42 directory base directory tree treat executable files within directory security cgi scripts another popular convention use filename extensions instance cgi scripts consistently given extension codice_43 web server configured interpret files cgi scripts convenient required many prepackaged scripts opens server attack remote user upload executable code proper extension case http put posts user-submitted data provided program via standard input web server creates subset environment variables passed adds details pertinent http environment cgi often used process inputs information user produce appropriate output example cgi program one implementing wiki user agent requests name entry web server executes cgi cgi program retrieves source entry page one exists transforms html prints result web server receives input cgi transmits user agent edit page link clicked cgi populates html codice_44 editing control page contents saves back server user submits form calling command generally means invocation newly created process server starting process consume much time memory actual work generating output especially program still needs interpreted compiled command called often resulting workload quickly overwhelm server overhead involved process creation reduced techniques fastcgi prefork interpreter processes running application code entirely within web server using extension modules mod_perl mod_php another way reduce overhead use precompiled cgi programs e.g writing languages c c++ rather interpreted compiled-on-the-fly languages perl php implementing page generating software custom webserver module alternative approaches include optimal configuration web application depends application-specific details amount traffic complexity transaction tradeoffs need analyzed determine best implementation given task time budget web frameworks offer alternative using cgi scripts interact user agents 1-hop neighbor's text information: nec.nec nec world fourth largest pc manufacturer 1990 nec semiconductors business unit worldwide semiconductor sales leader 1985 1990 second largest 1995 one top three 2000 one top 10 2006 remained one top 20 semiconductor sales leaders merging renesas electronics nec member sumitomo group nec 463 2017 fortune 500 list kunihiko iwadare takeshiro maeda established nippon electric limited partnership august 31 1898 using facilities bought miyoshi electrical manufacturing company iwadare acted representative partner maeda handled company sales western electric interest japanese phone market represented walter tenney carleton carleton also responsible renovation miyoshi facilities agreed partnership would reorganized joint-stock company treaty would allow july 17 1899 revised treaty japan united states went effect nippon electric company limited organized day western electric company become first japanese joint-venture foreign capital iwadare named managing director ernest clement carleton named directors maeda mototeru fujii assigned auditors iwadare maeda carleton handled overall management company started production sales maintenance telephones switches nec modernized production facilities construction mita plant 1901 mita shikokumachi completed december 1902 japanese ministry communications adopted new technology 1903 common battery switchboard supplied nec common battery switchboards powered subscriber phone eliminating need permanent magnet generator subscriber phone switchboards initially imported manufactured locally 1909 nec started exporting telephone sets china 1904 1905 iwadare visited western electric u.s. see management production control return japan discontinued oyakata system sub-contracting replaced new system managers employees direct employees company inefficiency also removed production process company paid higher salaries incentives efficiency new accounting cost controls put place time clocks installed 1899 1907 number telephone subscribers japan rose 35,000 95,000 nec entered china market 1908 implementation telegraph treaty japan china also entered korean market setting office seoul january 1908 period 1907 1912 sales rose 1.6 million yen 2 million yen expansion japanese phone service key part nec success period expansion take pause ministry communications delayed third expansion plan phone service march 1913 despite 120,000 potential telephone-subscribers waiting phone installations nec sales fell sixty percent 1912 1915 interim iwadare started importing appliances including electric fans kitchen appliances washing machines vacuum cleaners electric fans never seen japan imports intended prop company sales 1916 government resumed delayed telephone-expansion plan adding 75,000 subscribers 326,000 kilometers new toll lines thanks third expansion plan nec expanded time much rest japanese industry contracted 1919 nec started first association sumitomo engaging sumitomo densen seizosho manufacture cables part venture nec provided cable manufacturing equipment sumitomo densen rights western electrics duplex cable patents also transferred sumitomo densen great kantō earthquake struck japan 1923 140,000 people killed 3.4 million left homeless four nec factories destroyed killing 105 nec engineers workers thirteen tokyo telephone offices destroyed fire telephone telegraph service interrupted damage telephone cables response ministry communications accelerated major programs install automatic telephone switching systems enter radio broadcasting first automatic switching systems strowger-type model made automatic telephone manufacturing co. atm united kingdom nec participated installation automatic switching systems ultimately becoming general sales agent atm nec developed strowger-type automatic switching system 1924 first japan one plants almost leveled kanto earthquake mita plant chosen support expanding production new three-story steel-reinforced concrete building built starting 1925 modeled western electric hawthorne works nec started radio communications business 1924 japan first radio broadcaster radio tokyo founded 1924 started broadcasting 1925 nec imported broadcasting equipment western electric expansion radio broadcasting osaka nagoya marked emergence radio industry nec established radio research unit 1924 nec started developing electron tubes 1925 1930 manufacturing first 500 w radio transmitter provided chinese xinjing station 100 kw radio broadcasting system 1934 photo-telegraphic equipment developed nec transmitted photos accession ceremony emperor hirohito ceremony held kyoto 1928 newspapers asahi shimbun mainichi shimbun competing cover ceremony asahi shimbun using siemens device mainichi planning use french photo-telegraphic equipment end papers acquired used nec product due faster transmission rate higher picture quality 1929 nippon electric provided japan ministry communications a-type switching system first systems developed japan nippon supplied japan ministry communications nonloaded line carrier equipment long distance telephone channels 1937 world war ii described company blackest days history 1938 mita tamagawa plants placed military control direct supervision military officers 1939 nippon electric established research laboratory tamagawa plant became first japanese company successfully test microwave multiplex communications december 22 1941 enemy property control law passed nec shares owned international standard electric corporation ise itt subsidiary western electric affiliate seized capital technical relations abruptly severed munitions company law passed october 1943 placing overall control nec plants military jurisdiction ueno plant leveled military attack march 1945 fire bombings april may heavily damaged tamagawa plant reducing capacity forty percent okayama plant totally destroyed bombing attack june year end war nec production substantially reduced damage facilities material personnel shortages war production slowly returned civilian use nec re-opened major plants end january 1946 nec began transistor research development 1950 started exporting radio-broadcast equipment korea first major postwar contract 1951 nec received deming prize excellence quality control 1952 computer research development began 1954 nec produced first crossbar switching system japan installed nippon telegraph telephone public corporation currently nippon telegraph telephone corporation ntt 1956 nec began joint research development ntt electronic switching systems year nec established taiwan telecommunication company first postwar overseas joint venture 1958 completed neac-1101 neac-1102 computers year 1959 nec demonstrated first transistorized computer neac-2201 demonstrated unesco automath show paris company began integrated circuit research development 1960 1963 nec started trading american depositary receipts ten million shares sold united states nippon electric new york nec america inc. incorporated year nec supplied kdd submarine cable systems laying pacific ocean 1964 supplied short-haul 24 channel pcm carrier transmission equipment ntt 1965 nec de mexico s. a. de c. v. nec brasil s. a. nec australia pty ltd. established 1968 1969 nec supplied comsat corporation spade satellite communications system 1971 1972 switzerland ordered nec satellite communications earth station year small transportable satellite communications earth station set china shares nec common stock listed amsterdam stock exchange 1973 nec also designed automated broadcasting system japan broadcasting corporation year nec electronics europe gmbh also established 1974 acos series computer introduced new central research laboratories completed 1975 1977 japan national space development agency launched nec geostationary meteorological satellite named himawari period nec introduced concept c c integration computers communications nec america inc. opened plant dallas texas manufacture pabx telephone systems 1978 also acquired electronic arrays inc. california year start semiconductor chip production united states 1980 nec created first digital signal processor nec µpd7710 nec semiconductors uk ltd. established 1981 producing vlsis lsis nec introduced 8-bit pc-8800 series personal computer 1981 followed 16-bit pc-9800 series 1982 1983 nec stock listed basel geneva zurich switzerland exchanges nec quickly became dominant leader japanese pc industry holding 80 market share nec changed english company name nec corporation year nec information systems inc. started manufacturing computers related products united states 1984 nec also released v-series processor year 1986 nec delivered sx-2 super computer houston advanced research center woodlands texas year neax61 digital switching system went service 1987 nec technologies uk ltd. established united kingdom manufacture vcrs printers computer monitors mobile telephones europe also year nec licensed technology hudson soft video game manufacturer create video game console called pc-engine later released 1989 turbografx-16 north american market successor pc-fx released japan 1994 pc-engine achieved considerable following said nec held much stronger influence video game industry role leading semiconductor manufacturer direct video game products nec usa inc. established 1989 holding company north american operations 1983 nec brasil brazilian subsidiary nec forced nationalise corporate stock orders brazilian military government whereby shareholder control nec brasil ceded private equity group brasilinvest brazilian investment banker mário garnero since nec brasil foundation 1968 become major supplier telecommunications equipment brazilian government 1986 minister communications antônio carlos magalhães put nec brasil financial difficulties suspending government contract payments company whose main client federal government subsidiary crisis nec corporation japan sold nec brasil organizações globo onemillion us dollars us 1,000,000 shortly thereafter magalhães resumed government contracts corresponding payments nec brazil became valued 350million us dollars us 350,000,000 suspicions regarding nec-globo deal included among things unilateral breach contract globo founder roberto marinho regarding management regional television station brazilian state bahia took national stage 1992 first corruption charges impeached brazilian president fernando collor de mello organizações globo subsequently sold shares nec brazil hit all-time high state monopoly years back nec corporation 1999 following break-up privatisation brazilian state-owned telephone monopoly telebrás 1990 new head office building known super tower completed shiba tokyo additionally joint-venture agreements established manufacture market digital electronic switching systems lsis china 1993 nec asynchronous transfer mode atm switching system neax61 nippon electronic automatic exchange atm service node went service united states nec europe ltd. established holding company european operations year nec c c research laboratories nec europe ltd. opened germany 1994 nec china co ltd. established holding company chinese operations 1996 1997 nec developed 4gbit dram semiconductor group honored one first japan quality awards 1998 nec opened world advanced semiconductor r facility nec 1 personal computer vendor japan 1980s faced increasing competition fujitsu seiko epson ibm japan nevertheless early 1990s nec still largest well 50 market share japanese market competition heated later rival fujitsu started aggressively market computers industry standard x86 instead nec 1997 nec share reduced 35 nec celebrated 100th anniversary 1999 nec electronics corporation separated nec 2002 new semiconductor company nec laboratories america inc. nec labs started november 2002 merger nec research institute neci nec usa computer communications research laboratory ccrl nec built earth simulator computer esc fastest supercomputer world 2002 2004 since produced nec n343i 2006 2003 nec 20.8 market share personal computer market japan slightly ahead fujitsu 2007 nec nissan co. corp. started evaluating joint venture produce lithium ion batteries hybrid electric cars april 23 2009 renesas technology corp nec electronics corp struck basic agreement merge around april 2010 april 1 2010 nec electronics renesas technology merged forming renesas electronics set fourth largest semiconductor company according isuppli published data q3 2010 nec held 19.8 market share pc market japan january 27 2011 nec formed pc joint venture chinese pc maker lenovo fourth largest pc maker world part deal companies said statement establish new company called lenovo nec holdings b.v. registered netherlands nec receive us 175 million lenovo issuance lenovo shares lenovo unit 51 stake joint venture nec hold 49 stake february 2011 bloomberg news said joint venture would allow lenovo expand field servers nec masato yamamoto said nec would able grow china january 26 2012 nec corporation announced would cut 10,000 jobs globally due big loss nec consolidated financial statement line economic crisis europe lagged development smartphones domestic market compare apple samsung previously january 2009 nec cut 20,000 jobs mainly sluggish semiconductor liquid crystal display related businesses 2013 nec biggest pc server manufacturer japan 23.6 share august 2014 nec corporation commissioned build super-fast undersea data transmission cable linking united states japan consortium international companies consisting china mobile international china telecom global global transit google kddi singtel pipeline went online june 30 2016 april 2017 kemet corporation purchase 61 controlling interest nec tokin nec making nec tokin wholly owned subsidiary purchase complete company change name tokin corporation nec structured organization around three principal segments solutions network solutions electronic devices solutions business delivers computing solutions business enterprises government individual customers—in form software hardware related services network solutions business designs provides broadband network systems mobile wireless communications network systems mobile handsets broadcast systems nec electronic devices business includes semiconductors displays electronic components nec produces versa notebooks international market lavie series japanese markets principal subsidiaries nec include defense products include achievements nec include nec ranked consistently top four companies previous five years number u.s. patents issued averaging 1764 year nec main title sponsor davis cup competition 2002 bnp paribas took sponsorship nec 1982 2012 sponsored nec cup go tournament japan nec 1986 2003 sponsored nec shun-ei go tournament young players japan nec sponsored english football club everton 1985 1995 1995 fa cup final triumph everton final game decade-long nec sponsorship danka took sponsors nec signed deal sponsor sauber f1 team 2011 season 2014 season nec signed new deal sponsor sahara force india f1 team 2015 season april 2013 nec became umbrella sponsor pga tour latinoamérica third-tier men professional golf tour nec one sponsored v.league volleyball started works teams years came include professional players nec also used montedio yamagata football soccer j league sponsors along local companies Target text information: icewall_sso.icewall sso icewall sso web federated single sign-on software developed marketed hewlett packard enterprise globe released 1997 icewall sso evolved last 18 years.originally developed hp japan marketed global markets provides highly convenient comfortable yet highly secure environment since first release 1997 icewall sso seen adoption intranet b-to-c b-to-b many services globally 40 million user licenses sold far world latest version icewall sso 10.0 provides support new leading-edge technologies cloud virtualization icewall sso product line extended include windows support addition existing hp-ux linux versions furthermore support services icewall sso planned continue 2024 making product long stable service life latest version available 10.0 august 2010 supported platforms red hat enterprise linux hp-ux windows server icewall sso mainly reverse proxy type implementation configured work agent type well depending requirements icewall sso mainly consists two modules cgi process works reverse proxy accepts http/https requests web browser forwards backend applications.forwarder also handles loginprocess authorizations communicating authentication module mentioned daemon program accepts requests forwarder performs authentication getting user information certification db directory services rdb icp icewall cert protocol used forwarder authentication module I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	3,343	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: apparmor_mobile.apparmor mobile apparmor mobile division cutcom software inc. builds custom mobile safety apps emergency notification systems university college institutions canada united states australia company founded 2002 based toronto ontario canada apparmor partner institutions include university guelph university nevada reno queen university dalhousie university jacksonville university wilfrid laurier university apparmor safety apps include features push notifications location tracking click-to-call capability I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,404	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: app_store_(ios).app store ios app store digital distribution platform developed maintained apple inc. mobile apps ios operating system store allows users browse download apps developed apple ios software development kit apps downloaded iphone smartphone ipod touch handheld computer ipad tablet computer transferred apple watch smartwatch 4th-generation newer apple tvs extensions iphone apps app store opened july 10 2008 initial 500 applications available store features 2.1 million apps developers multiple options monetizing applications ranging free free in-app purchases paid however app store criticized lackluster development environment prompting company june 2016 announce renewed focus energy store major changes introduced following months include ads search results new app subscription model ability developers respond customer reviews additionally apple began process remove old apps function intended n't follow current app guidelines app research firms noticing significant numbers app removals store furthermore release ios 11 september 2017 app store received complete design overhaul bringing greater focus editorial content daily highlights well design similar style several apple built-in ios apps iphone app store opened july 10 2008 july 11 iphone 3g released came pre-loaded support app store success apple app store launch similar services competitors term app store adopted refer similar service mobile devices however apple applied u.s. trademark term app store 2008 tentatively approved early 2011 june 2011 u.s. district judge phyllis hamilton presiding apple case amazon said would probably deny apple motion stop amazon using app store name july apple denied preliminary injunction amazon appstore federal judge term app become popular buzzword january 2011 app awarded honor 2010 word year american dialect society app used shorthand application since least mid-1990s product names since least 2006 example then-named google apps apple announced mac app store similar app distribution platform macos personal computer operating system october 2010 official launch taking place january 2011 release 10.6.6 snow leopard update february 2013 apple informed developers could begin using appstore.com links apps june developer conference apple announced upcoming kids section app store new section featuring apps categorized age range section launched alongside release ios 7 september 2013 november 2014 due pressure european commission apple updated app store apps charge download labeled get instead previous free due many free apps inclusions paid in-app purchases january 2017 reports surfaced documentation new beta then-upcoming release ios 10.3 detailed apple would let developers respond customer reviews app store marking significant change previous limitation prevented developers communicating users functionality officially enabled march 27 2017 ios 10.3 released users details also released reviews users including able rate review apps apps rather redirected app store mark users reviews helpful helpful apple published document describing proper ways respond developers including timely clear concise prioritize certain forms reviews low-star ratings certain countries recent reviews filtering itunes connect developer responses go approval process published developers also forbidden manipulating incenting feedback developer responses listed app store line underneath respective user review users receive notification/email upon response respective developer option update review march 2017 app store submissions containing pricing details free name started getting rejected developers previously advised developer guides itunes connect app store overview pages refrain practice though apps still approved starting march though apps free titles rejected october 2016 effort improve app discoverability apple rolled ability developers purchase advertising spots app store users united states ads shown top search results based strictly relevant keywords used create profiles users apple expanded search ads united kingdom australia new zealand april 2017 along configurable advertising settings developers search ads expanded canada mexico switzerland october 2017 december 2017 apple revamped search ads program offer two distinctive versions search ads basic pay-per-install program aimed smaller developers pay users actually install app search ads basic also features easier setup process restricted monthly budget search ads advanced new name given older method developers pay whenever users tap apps search results along unlimited monthly budgets launch basic program available u.s. international rollout expected sometime next year apple also offers itunes affiliate program lets people refer others apps itunes content along in-app purchases percentage sales commission rate in-app purchases reduced 7 2.5 may 2017 affiliate rates paid apps music movies books tv shows remained 7 app store received major design overhaul release ios 11 new design features greater focus editorial content daily highlights introduces cleaner consistent colorful look similar several apple built-in ios apps prior september 2017 apple offered way users manage ios app purchases itunes computer software september version 12.7 itunes released removing app store section process however following month itunes 12.6.3 also released retaining app store 9to5mac noting secondary release positioned apple necessary businesses performing internal app deployments december 2017 apple announced developers could offer applications pre-order letting make apps visible store 2–90 days ahead release january 4 2018 apple announced app store record-breaking holiday season according new press release week starting christmas eve record number customers made app store purchases spending 890 million seven-day period new year day 2018 alone customers made 300 million purchases ios sdk software development kit allows development mobile apps ios originally developing iphone prior unveiling 2007 apple then-ceo steve jobs intend let third-party developers build native apps ios instead directing make web applications safari web browser however backlash developers prompted company reconsider jobs announcing october 2007 apple would software development kit available developers february 2008 sdk released march 6 2008 sdk free download users mac personal computers available microsoft windows pcs sdk contains sets giving developers access various functions services ios devices hardware software attributes also contains iphone simulator mimic look feel device computer developing new versions sdk accompany new versions ios order test applications get technical support distribute apps app store developers required subscribe apple developer program combined xcode ios sdk helps developers write ios apps using officially supported programming languages including swift objective-c. companies also created tools allow development native ios apps using respective programming languages publish apps app store developers must pay 99 yearly fee access apple developer program apple announced united states 2018 waive fee nonprofit organizations governments developers options monetizing applications free model enables free apps increasing likelihood engagement freemium model makes app download free users offered optional additional features in-app require payments subscription model enables ongoing monetization renewable transactions paid model makes app paid download offers additional features paymium model enables paid app downloads paid in-app content in-app subscriptions originally introduced magazines newspapers music apps february 2011 giving developers 70 revenue earned apple 30 publishers could also sell digital subscriptions website bypassing apple fees allowed advertise website alternative apps 2016 multiple media outlets reported apps decreased significantly popularity recode wrote app boom editorial techcrunch stated air hopelessness surrounds mobile app ecosystem obvious demoralizing verge wrote original app store model selling apps buck two looks antiquated issues included consumer boredom lack app discoverability stated report 2014 lack new app downloads among smartphone users interview verge june 2016 phil schiller apple senior vice president worldwide marketing said apple renewed focus energy app store announced multiple significant changes including advertisements search results new app subscription model subscription model saw firmly established 70/30 revenue split developers apple change new 85/15 revenue split user stays subscribed developer app year opens possibility subscriptions apps select categories app data insights analyst company app annie released report october 2016 announcing china overtaken united states apple biggest market app store revenue third quarter 2016 chinese users spent 1.7 billion vs. approximately 1.5 billion american users june 2017 apple announced app store generated 70 billion revenue developers since 2008 launch july 10 2008 apple then-ceo steve jobs told usa today app store contained 500 third-party applications iphone ipod touch 25 percent free ten million applications downloaded first weekend september number available apps increased 3,000 100 million downloads years store surpassed multiple major milestones including 50,000 100,000 250,000 500,000 1 million 2 million apps billionth application downloaded april 24 2009 ipad released april 2010 approximately 3,000 apps available july 2011 16 months release 100,000 apps available designed specifically device apple publishes list yearly basis giving credit apps highest number downloads past year most-downloaded ios applications highest revenue generating ios applications time 2010-2018 apple rates applications worldwide based content determines age group appropriate according iphone os 3.0 launch event iphone allow blocking objectionable apps iphone settings following ratings apple detailed applications subject approval apple outlined sdk agreement basic reliability testing analysis applications may still distributed ad-hoc rejected author manually submitting request apple license application individual iphones although apple may withdraw ability authors later date apple employed mostly static analysis app review process means dynamic code reassembly techniques could defeat review process june 2017 apple updated app store review guidelines specify app developers longer ability use custom prompts encouraging users leave reviews apps release ios 11 late 2017 apple also let developers choose whether keep current app reviews updating apps reset additionally another update app store policies allows users optionally tip content creators voluntarily sending money november 2012 boyfriend maker dating sim game removed due reports references violent sexual acts paedophilia deemed inappropriate boyfriend maker age rating 4+ revised version called boyfriend plus approved apple april 2013 march 2013 hiddenapps approved appeared app store app provided access developer diagnostic menus allowed stock apps hidden enabled opt-out feature iads apple developer-driven advertisement system app removed shortly afterwards violating guidelines april 2013 apple removed appgratis then-successful app store market promoted paid apps offering one free day apple told things digital app violated two developer agreement clauses including apps display apps purchase promotion manner similar confusing app store rejected apps use push notifications send advertising promotions direct marketing kind apple however tell developers welcome resubmit changing app though much hope could survive anything like current incarnation november 2014 apple removed marijuana social networking app massroots reason given encourage excessive consumption alcohol illegal substances. ” february 2015 massroots reintroduced store apple changed enforcement guidelines allow cannabis social apps 23 states legal september 2015 discovered hundreds apps submitted approved app store using xcodeghost malicious version xcode development software issues prompted apple remove infected apps store issue statement working developers make sure ’ using proper version xcode security firm later published lists infected apps including china-only version angry birds 2 camcard lifesmart tinydeal.com wechat aftermath apple stated would make xcode faster download certain regions outside united states contacted developers ensure download code mac app store apple website provided code signature developers test running tampered version xcode june 2017 scamming trend discovered store developers make apps built non-existent services attach in-app purchase subscriptions opening dialogue buy app store search advertising space get app higher rankings one instance app name mobile protection clean security vpn would require payments 99.99 seven-day subscription short trial apple yet responded issues addition apple removed software licensed gnu general public license gpl app store due text apple terms service agreement imposing digital rights management proprietary legal terms incompatible terms gpl september 1 2016 apple announced starting september 7 would removing old apps function intended n't follow current review guidelines developers warned given 30 days update apps apps crash startup removed immediately additionally app names registered developers exceed 50 characters attempt stop developers inserting long descriptions irrelevant terms app names improve app ranking app store search results app intelligence firm sensor tower revealed november 2016 apple promised september announcement removing old apps removed 47,300 apps app store october 2016 238 percent increase prior number average monthly app removals june 2017 techcrunch reported apple turned app removal focus apps copying functionality popular apps example cited included popular game like flappy bird red ball hits charts hundreds thousands clones within weeks attempt capitalize initial wave popularity report also noted removals music apps serving pirated tracks publication wrote since initial september app removals began apple removed multiple hundreds thousands apps december 2017 new report techcrunch stated apple begun enforcing new restrictions use commercialized template app generation services originally introduced part apple 2017 developer conference new app store guidelines allow company ban apps making use templates commercial app services affected many small businesses techcrunch report citing local retailers restaurants small fitness studios nonprofits churches organizations benefit using templates app services due minimal costs developers received notice apple january 1 2018 deadline change respective apps news caught attention congress congressman ted lieu writing letter apple beginning december asking reconsider writing understanding many small businesses research organizations religious institutions rely template apps possess resources develop apps in-house new rules cast wide net specifically invalidating apps longstanding legitimate developers pose threat app store ’ integrity additionally news stricter enforcement caused significant criticism app development firms one company told techcrunch chose close business following news saying 4.2.6 rule enforcement final drop made us move bit faster decision close another company told publication way june guidelines changed would said ‘ ’ going target apps ... apple told us ’ targeted quality standpoint hit umbrella spam shocking every quality developer good actors furthermore latter company stated ’ much apps perform utility – ordering food third company said rule 4.2.6 concrete illustration danger apple ’ dominant position fourth said ’ wiped pretty much entire industry diy tools like appmakr also development suites like titanium towards end year apple updated guideline clarify companies organizations allowed use template apps long directly publish app remained violation rule commercial app services publish apps respective clients january 2017 apple complied request chinese government remove chinese version new york times app followed government efforts 2012 block times website stories hidden wealth among family members then-leader china wen jiabao published statement apple spokesperson told media informed app violation local regulations though would specify regulations added result app must taken china app store situation changes app store offer new york times app download china following july reported apple begun remove listings china apps circumvent government internet censorship policies new laws restricting virtual private network vpn services apple issued statement explaining app removals result developers complying new laws china requiring government license businesses offering vpns apps remain available markets business earnings call following month cook elaborated recent news explainining would obviously rather remove apps like countries follow law wherever business besides vpn services number internet calling apps including microsoft skype also removed chinese app store 2017 apple telling new york times similar vpn apps new apps also violated local law microsoft explained bbc news skype app temporarily removed working reinstate app soon possible though many news outlets reported chinese government increased efforts pressure crack internet freedom following apple ceo tim cook appearance china world internet conference december 2017 cook stated apple china share vision developing digital economy openness shared benefits free speech human rights activists criticized cook company maya wang human rights watch told washington post cook ’ appearance lends credibility state aggressively censors internet throws people jail critical social ills building artificial intelligence systems monitors everyone targets dissent ... version cyberspace chinese government building decidedly dystopian one ’ think anyone would want share ‘ common future. ’ apple spoken endorsed u.s senator patrick leahy told cnbc american tech companies become leading champions free expression commitment end borders ... global leaders innovation like apple opportunity moral obligation promote free expression basic human rights countries routinely deny rights cook told reuters hope time things couple things ’ pulled come back great hope great optimism however techcrunch jon russell criticized line thinking writing firstly apple ’ remove couple things reach china-based users rather couple hundred apps acknowledging even counting furthermore russell listed censorship efforts chinese government including vpn bans restrictions live video messaging apps wrote apple little choice follow beijing ’ line order continue business lucrative chinese market statements like cook ’ today dangerous massively underplay severity situation florida senator marco rubio also criticized cook appearance world internet conference describing situation ’ example company view desperate access chinese market place willing follow laws country even laws run counter companies ’ standards supposed august 2018 result chinese regulations 25,000 illegal apps pulled apple app store china 1-hop neighbor's text information: ipad_mini_(1st_generation).ipad mini 1st generation first-generation ipad mini stylized marketed ipad mini mini tablet computer designed developed marketed apple inc announced october 23 2012 fourth major product ipad line first ipad mini line features reduced screen size contrast standard features similar internal specifications ipad 2 including display resolution first generation ipad mini received positive reviews reviewers praising device size design availability applications criticizing use proprietary power connector lack expandable storage lack retina display october 16 2012 apple announced media event scheduled october 23 california theatre san jose california company predisclose subject event widely expected ipad mini day event apple ceo tim cook introduced new version macbook family new generations macbook pro mac mini imac ipad mini higher end fourth-generation ipad released november 2 2012 nearly apple markets 32 gb 64 gb models discontinued release successor ipad mini 2 october 22 2013 almost 3 years june 19 2015 remaining 16 gb model discontinued well well discontinued stores ipad mini longer receives software updates supported apple ipad mini shipped ios 6.0 act hotspot carriers sharing internet connection wi-fi bluetooth usb also access app store digital application distribution platform ios developed maintained apple service allows users browse download applications itunes store developed xcode ios sdk published apple app store garageband imovie iphoto iwork apps pages keynote numbers available latest version currently ios 9.3.6 ipad mini comes several pre-installed applications including siri safari mail photos video music itunes app store maps notes calendar game center photo booth contacts like ios devices ipad sync content data mac pc using itunes although ios 5 later managed backed icloud although tablet designed make telephone calls cellular network users use headset built-in speaker microphone place phone calls wi-fi cellular using voip application skype device dictation using voice recognition technology iphone 4s user speaks ipad types say screen provided ipad connected wi-fi cellular network device optional ibooks application displays books epub-format content downloaded ibookstore several major book publishers including penguin books harpercollins simon schuster macmillan committed publishing books device despite direct competitor amazon kindle barnes noble nook amazon.com barnes noble offer e-reader apps ipad september 17 2014 ios 8 released first generation ipad mini apple devices however newer features software supported due relatively aged hardware shared ipad 2 september 16 2015 ipad mini received ios 9 update n't new multitasking features featured ipads june 13 2016 apple announced ios 10 update major updates mobile operating system however ipad mini receive update along devices using a5 processor including iphone 4s ipad 2 ipad 3rd generation ipod touch 5th generation due hardware limitations apple stopping latest ios updates ipad mini expected many industry however led criticism device sale june 2015 june 2016 versions operating system beyond ios 9 made available tablet four buttons one switch ipad mini including home button near display returns user home screen three aluminum buttons right side top wake/sleep volume volume plus software-controlled switch whose function varies software updates tablet manufactured either without capability communicate cellular network models connect wireless lan via wi-fi ipad mini available 16 32 64 gb internal flash memory expansion option apple sells camera connection kit sd card reader used transfer photos videos ipad mini features partially hardware ipad 2 screens resolutions 1024 x 768 ipad mini smaller screen thus higher pixel density ipad 2 163 ppi vs 132 ppi unlike ipad 2 5 mp 1.2 mp cameras lightning connector system-on-chip a5 one found later revision ipad 2 32 nm audio processor found iphone 5 ipad 4th generation allows ipad mini siri voice dictation unlike ipad 2 graphics processor gpu ipad mini one found ipad 2 powervr sgx543mp2 ipad mini initially featured slate silver colors however release mini 2 slate color changed space gray silver color remained smart cover introduced ipad 2 screen protector magnetically attaches face ipad smaller version available ipad mini 1 later models including ipad mini 4 also use smart cover cover three folds allow convert stand held together magnets smart covers microfiber bottom cleans front ipad wakes unit cover removed comes six colors polyurethane apple offers accessories including bluetooth keyboard several types earbuds headphones many adapters lightning connector applecare free engraving also available ipad mini reviews first generation ipad mini positive reviewers praising device size design availability applications criticizing use proprietary power connector lack expandable storage retina display device competes tablets amazon kindle fire hd google nexus 7 barnes noble nook hd joshua topolsky verge praised industrial design ipad mini however panned lack retina display price 1-hop neighbor's text information: iphone_4s.iphone 4s iphone 4s retroactively stylized lowercase iphone 4s september 2013 smartphone designed marketed apple inc fifth generation iphone succeeding iphone 4 preceding iphone 5 announced october 4 2011 apple cupertino campus media coverage accompanied news death former apple ceo co-founder steve jobs following day orders could placed october 7 2011 mainstream availability retail stores began october 14 2011 united states australia canada united kingdom france germany japan sales peaked predecessor million sales first twenty-four hours order availability four million sales first four days retail availability worldwide rollout including 22 additional countries october 28 came next several months iphone named 4s stood siri iphone 4s-exclusive intelligent personal assistant later included future generations mobile apple products retaining external design iphone 4 4s hosted major internal upgrades including upgrade apple a5 chipset 8-megapixel camera 1080p video recording debuted ios 5 fifth major version ios apple mobile operating system introduced features including icloud imessage notification center reminders twitter integration reception generally favorable reviewers noted siri new camera processing speeds significant advantages prior model succeeded iphone 5 apple flagship phone september 12 2012 iphone 4s remained sale albeit sold reduced storage 16/32/64 gb 8 gb 4s officially discontinued september 9 2014 following announcement iphone 6 although production continue developing markets february 17 2016 course lifetime iphone 4s best-selling iphone ever produced first iphone support five major versions ios ios 5 ios 6 ios 7 ios 8 ios 9 ipad 2 supported ios 4 ios 9 4s also last iphone original 30 pin connector succeeding iphone 5 replaced digital lightning connector early may 2011 leaks fairly accurate description iphone 4s including name apple a5 chip hsdpa new camera sprint carrying unveiled apple let talk iphone event october 4 2011 apple campus cupertino california keynote first tim cook gave since verizon keynote earlier year also cook first launch without apple co-founder steve jobs whose health deteriorating died day announcement tim carmody wired praised cook focusing company achievements calling global business thinker taskmaster let talk iphone event held apple october 4 2011 mike capps demonstrated epic games infinity blade ii sequel infinity blade capps boasted game uses epic games unreal engine 3 features graphic techniques used xbox 360 game gears war 3 speculation apple next generation phone including various specifications predicted name iphone 5 widespread time preceding debut announced considered media disappointment due expected release iphone 5 external differences iphone 4 cdma model exception sim card slot changes internal slight external differences iphone 4 gsm model exist said differences existed cdma gsm models iphone 4 september 10 2013 iphone 4s name re-stylised iphone 4s using lower case reflect names newly announced iphone 5s iphone 5c unusual apple upper case used since introduction iphone 3gs 2009 september 9 2014 iphone 4s officially discontinued following reveal iphone 6 iphone 6 plus however 4s production continue developing markets february 17 2016 june 13 2016 following release ios 10 apple dropped support iphone 4s making ios 9 last major ios version available device runs ios apple mobile operating system user interface ios based concept direct manipulation using multi-touch gestures interface control elements consist sliders switches buttons response user input immediate provides fluid interface interaction os includes gestures swipe tap pinch reverse pinch specific definitions within context ios operating system multi-touch interface internal accelerometers used applications respond shaking device one common result undo command rotating three dimensions one common result switching portrait landscape mode iphone 4s first shipped ios 5 released october 12 2011 2 days release device 4s uses ios 5.1.1 released may 7 2012 september 2015 device updated ios 9 act hotspot sharing internet connection wifi bluetooth usb also accesses app store digital application distribution platform ios developed maintained apple service allows users browse download applications itunes store developed xcode ios sdk published apple iphone 4s play music movies television shows ebooks audiobooks podcasts sort media library songs artists albums videos playlists genres composers podcasts audiobooks compilations options always presented alphabetically except playlists retain order itunes iphone 4s uses large font allows users plenty room touch selection users rotate device horizontally landscape mode access cover flow like itunes feature shows different album covers scroll-through photo library scrolling achieved swiping finger across screen alternatively headset controls used pause play skip repeat tracks 4s volume changed included apple earphones voice control feature used identify track play songs playlist specific artist create genius playlist introduced new automated voice control system called siri allows user give iphone commands execute respond example iphone commands weather going like generate response weather cloudy rainy drop 54 degrees today commands vary greatly control almost every application phone commands given specific used natural language siri accessed holding home button short amount time compared using regular function impact siri shown apple video messages much easier people use device functions driving exercising hands full also means people trouble reading seeing typing access phone easily texting aided voice assistant allows speech-to-text addition regular texting messaging supported imessage specialized instant messaging program service allows unlimited texting apple ios 5 products supports inclusion media text messages integration device voice controlled software assistant read receipts sent messages input computer comes keyboard displayed multi-touch screen voice-to text speaking microphone entered text supported predictive suggestion software well spell-checker includes many regional dialects like swiss spoken french announcement plans place support many languages different features different language requirements keyboards compared word predictor spell-checker needs large dictionary words language support related ios 5 operating system device launched although always siri digital assistant supported french english german launch since uses software based keyboard supported multi-touch display support many different keyboard layouts without change physically display different languages scripts time september 19 2012 ios 6 released iphone 4s among compatible ios device air ota upgrade package according apple update contains 200 new features tweaks includes new maps app dubbed apple maps facebook integration passbook application allows users store coupons boarding passes tickets digitally september 18 2013 apple released ios 7 iphone 4s among compatible ios devices also receive update without lagging issues compared iphone 4 although device improved performance ios 7 newer features released newer models airdrop carplay supported iphone 4s also run ios 8 released september 17 2014 given device supported 3 years newer features software apple pay supported also unable work apple watch due relatively aged hardware fact users often reported performance 4s slow similar ios 7 ran iphone 4 suggesting upgrade due battery draining issues hanging calls meanwhile apple released ios 8.1.1 brought slight improvements phone ipad 2 still run fast newer models june 8 2015 apple announced wwdc iphone 4s would support ios 9 makes first iphone support 5 major versions ios second ios device support 5 major versions ios 9 support ipad 2 well bringing total six major versions ios supported although iphone 4s begun limitations ios 8 ios 9 said bring performance enhancements may help aging device run smoothly december 22 2015 apple faced class action lawsuit crippling iphone 4s ios 9 update slow buggy software pay hundreds dollars new iphone june 13 2016 apple announced iphone 4s support ios 10 due hardware limitations january 2018 apple suddenly started firmware signing ios 6.1.3 ipad 2 iphone 4s allowing users downgrade devices ios 6.1.3. ios 8 available over-the-air update ios 6 allowing users update devices ios 8.4.1 july 2019 still supported july 22 2019 apple released ios 9.3.6 iphone 4s makes longest supported iphone time number version least uses apple a5 system-on-chip soc incorporates imagination technologies powervr sgx543 graphics processing unit gpu gpu features pixel vertex geometry shader hardware supporting opengl es 2.0 sgx543 improved version gpu used predecessor iphone 4 uses dual-core model integrated apple a5 soc way ipad 2 apple claims seven times faster graphics iphone 4 corroborated epic games president mike capps 512 mb ddr2 ram maximum available storage size increased 64 gb 32 gb 16 gb model options retained september 2013 apple released iphone 4s free two year contract 8 gb storage screen prior generation iphones 640×960 resolution apple retina design improvement interactive multimedia applications compared predecessor improved cellular gsm antenna design iphone 4 new antenna divided two pieces within stainless steel band wraps around sides phone therefore gripped way attenuate one piece cellular antenna radio switch piece n't gripped support maximum theoretical download speed 14.4 mbps hsdpa+ result upgraded radio chip inside phone addition world phone gsm cdma customers roam internationally gsm networks also supports bluetooth 4.0 camera also known isight camera take 8-megapixel photos 3,264 2,448 pixels record 1080p videos 30 frames per second upgraded quality 30 better clarity 26 better white balance color accuracy due additional lens ir filter wider f/2.4 aperture image signal processor built-in a5 built-in gyroscope allows image stabilization camera recording video although still room improvement since state-of-the-art image stabilization algorithms need use gyroscope use image processing features camera macro close pictures faster capture including able take first picture 1.1 seconds next half second later features 960 640 pixel multitouch retina display two volume buttons ring/silent switch left side top left 3.5 mm headphone jack microphone used noise cancellation calls speakerphone/facetime video calling mode lock/power button situated top right edge device right side device micro-sim card slot bottom device features speaker output right microphone input left apple proprietary 30-pin dock connector center supports video via airplay various apple a/v cables supported video formats include h.264 1080p 30 frames per second maximum mpeg-4 video motion jpeg m-jpeg addition user inputs device also several sensors give phone information orientation external conditions include three-axis gyroscope accelerometer proximity sensor ambient light sensor stated 200 hours standby time 8 hours talk time 3g 14 hours talk time 2g 6 hours 3g browsing 9 hours wi-fi browsing additionally sustain 10 hours video playback 40 hours audio playback stainless steel dual cellular antenna design identical iphone 4 cdma apple redesigned antenna cdma original iphone 4 users reported cellular signal attenuation problems result holding phone certain positions improved cellular radio phone switch two antennas depending sending/receiving best signal two antennas incorporated distinctive stainless steel band wraps around sides bands iphone 4s divided two antennas cellular global positioning system gps bluetooth wi-fi reliant internal antenna iphone 4 4s designed jonathan ive 4 generation iphones differ earlier apple designs bulges back panel well band front back gone replaced flattened surfaces redesign reflects utilitarianism uniformity existing apple products ipad imac overall dimensions lower 3gs high wide deep compared iphone 3gs high wide deep making iphone 4 4s 21.5 thinner 3gs internal components situated two panels aluminosilicate glass described apple chemically strengthened 20 times stiffer 30 times harder plastic theoretically allowing scratch-resistant durable prior models reception generally favorable reviewers noted siri new camera processing speeds significant advantages prior model tim stevens engadget said everything better iphone 4 simply n't anything substantially different joshua topolsky verge stated car would mercedes siri probably one novel applications apple ever produced reviewers thought siri important feature brian chen wired said fifth-generation iphone superb camera speedy dual-core processor classy additions siri reason people buy phone retrevo surveyed 1,300 u.s. consumers reported 71 percent smartphone owners disappointed new 47 percent almost half current iphone 4 owners 12 percent hoping bigger display 21 percent wanted refreshed design 29 percent desired 4g echoing technology pundits reuters suggested lack radical departure iphone 4 could open new market opportunities rivals analyst c. k. lu gartner believed apple longer leading edge 4s would sell due brand loyalty fans expecting iphone 5 thinner profile edge-to-edge screen stronger features fans also wanted cheaper stripped-down iphone 4 gaming likened playstation vita features sgx gpu quad-core configuration nintendo 3ds handheld game consoles ability process 80 million polygons per second compared playstation 3 xbox 360 home video game consoles process 275 million 500 million polygons per second respectively computer video games cvg deputy editor andy robinson told techradar 4s certainly laying serious credibility iphone core gaming device pushing games simply eclipse 3ds visually features like cloud saving tv streaming support really exciting gamers senior gaming analyst jon peddie research ted pollak believes biggest improvement gaming voice control features noting one features nintendogs players loved ability talk reason game like could n't done much sophisticated given voice control shown 2012 iphone 4s t3 work gadget year award beating rim blackberry bold 9900 rival samsung galaxy note amongst others since introduction iphone 4s several issues reported users internet forums noted media organizations cnn boy genius report guardian pc world unlike prior iphone models number sales iphone 4 yet climaxed introduction 4s previous iphone models released declining sales figures addition iphone 4 users high marks satisfied phone upon announcement shares samsung electronics htc nokia gained wednesday 4s announced apple stock fell however later day apple shares rebounded ending 1 gain launch orders said demand extraordinary 200,000 orders placed within 12 hours release german phone company deutsche telekom said satisfied consumer interest addition verizon sprint sold-out initial stock october 8 2011 october 9 1–2 week estimate new orders filled october 20 2011 surpassed one million activations october 10 apple announced one million orders received within first 24 hours sale beating 600,000 device record set iphone 4 16-month wait iphone 4 4s may contributed overwhelming sales well october 17 2011 apple announced four million units sold first three days release 25 million ios users upgraded latest version ios ios 5 released upon introduction phone phil schiller apple senior vice president worldwide product marketing stated great start four million sold first weekend—the ever phone double iphone 4 launch first three days used phone market saw unprecedented rates trade-ins weeks leading 4s announcement drop prices offered previous generation iphones recirculated markets various methods third-party buyers may purchase older generation iphones apple also buys back previous generation iphones special program april 24 2012 announced 7.6 million iphone units activated q4 2011 4.3 million q1 2012 total sold 5.5 million smartphones first quarter 2012 78 iphones Target text information: files_(apple).files apple files file management app developed apple inc. devices run ios 11 later releases ios discovered placeholder title app store prior company 2017 worldwide developers conference app officially announced conference shortly thereafter files allows users browse local files stored within apps well files stored cloud storage services including icloud dropbox google drive onedrive allows saving opening organization files including placement structured folders sub-folders ipads able drag-and-drop files files apps iphone users limited drag-and-drop inside files organization done use color-coded custom-named tags persistent search bar allows finding files inside folders though inside apps list view enables different sorting options app offers exclusive playback high-quality flac audio files also offers support viewing text files images music memos zip archives well limited support video hours apple 2017 worldwide developers conference developer steve troughton-smith discovered placeholder title app store files app requiring ios 11 apple officially announced app conference shortly thereafter files allows users browse local files stored within apps well files stored cloud storage services including icloud box dropbox google drive onedrive users able save open organize files including placing files structured folders sub-folders ipad users drag-and-drop files files app apps iphone functionality limited inside respective app users add colored custom-named tags files adding dedicated tags section persistent search bar top enables finding files inside sub-folders though n't search within apps list view enables optional sorting according size date upon long-pressing file app offers several options including copy rename move share tags info delete files stored third-party services copied device offline access icloud sharing brought apple dedicated iwork apps become standardized feature across operating system enabling sharing file files dedicated icloud drive app removed replaced files icloud available one cloud storage providers users connect app to.. built-in player inside files app allows playback high-quality flac audio files app also supports viewing zip archives though extraction opportunities available compatible app installed files allows viewing text files experiments watching videos avi mov formats shown limited partially successful results images music memo files also previewed played I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,672	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: dillo.dillo dillo minimalistic web browser particularly intended older slower computers embedded systems supports plain html/xhtml css rendering images http scripting ignored entirely current versions dillo run linux bsd os x irix cygwin due small size browser choice several space-conscious linux distributions released gnu general public license dillo free software chilean software engineer jorge arellano cid conceived dillo project late 1999 publishing first version dillo december year primary goal creating dillo democratize access information arellano cid believed one buy new computer pay broadband order enjoy world wide web end designed dillo small fast efficient capable performing well even intel 80486 cpu dial-up internet access dillo originally written c programming language gtk+ gui toolkit first versions based earlier browser called armadillo hence name dillo 2 written c c++ components fast light toolkit fltk released october 14 2008 text antialiasing support character sets latin-1 http compression capability improved page rendering added move fltk gtk+ also removed many project dependencies reduced dillo memory footprint 50 2011 dillo-3.x released using fltk-1.3 according changelog change prompted part lack official release fltk-2 stopped dillo-2 inclusion lightweight distributions would otherwise suitable jorge arellano cid still dillo lead developer today dillo funded private donations efforts obtain public grants corporate sponsors unsuccessful lack funding led slowdown development 2006 complete stop 2007 project restarted 2008 two months later received €115 donation distrowatch features dillo include bookmarks tabbed browsing support jpeg png including alpha transparency gif images partial support css introduced release 2.1 settings default fonts background color downloads folder home page customizable configuration files cookies supported disabled default due privacy concerns web browsers retain web cache history program closed dillo automatically clears improve privacy performance developer tool called bug meter provided lower-right corner clicked displays information validation problems unclosed tags dillo found web page unlike browsers dillo quirks mode improve compatibility web pages use invalid html instead dillo processes web pages according published web standards 2003 two linux enthusiasts successfully ran dillo intel 486 processor demonstrated even meager hardware dillo could render http //news.bbc.co.uk/ 10–15 seconds furthermore dillo run variety software platforms including linux bsd solaris mac os x dos handheld devices however dillo developers made little effort make browser work microsoft windows arellano cid stated windows goes dillo goal democratization artificially increasing hardware requirements software costs nevertheless dillo reported work windows via cygwin additionally dillo-win32 project port dillo windows defunct d+ browser dplus continues dillo-win32 left forked final dillo-win32 release 3.0p9 attempt maintain upstream compatibility dillo last version 0.5b oct 15 2013 dillo support javascript java flash right-to-left text complex text layout support frames also limited dillo presents link frame allow user view one time plug-in add https support likewise development reviews dillo praised extraordinary speed noted speed comes price visible cost dillo inability display complex web pages meant 2008 review linux.com commented dillo user interface may intimidating new users pointed scarcity plug-ins dillo dillo global usage share less one hundredth one percent many deficiencies attributed simple lack manpower behind development dillo however browser choice several space-conscious linux distributions damn small linux feather linux vectorlinux antix mustang linux 1-hop neighbor's text information: firefox_4.firefox 4 mozilla firefox 4 version firefox web browser released march 22 2011 first beta made available july 6 2010 release candidate 2 base final version released march 18 2011 codenamed tumucumaque firefox last large release cycle mozilla team planned smaller quicker releases following browser vendors primary goals version included improvements performance standards support user interface one security update april 2011 4.0.1 version 4 browser made obsolete release firefox 5 june 2011 marked transition giving much less weight major version numbers 5 major version numbers used december year 5 6 7 8 9 compared 4 nearly decade firefox development 1 2 3 4 october 13 2006 brendan eich mozilla chief technology officer wrote plans mozilla 2 referring comprehensive iteration since creation overall platform firefox mozilla products run objectives incorporated versions 3.0 3.5 3.6 largest changes however deferred firefox 4.0 early may 2010 mozilla plans firefox 4.0 officially detailed blog post mike beltzner firefox director may 25 2011 firefox release manager wrote email firefox 5 security update firefox 4 confirming firefox 4 entered end life phase mozilla longer issue updates mozilla continued issue updates firefox 3.6 4 eol declaration one update 4.0.1 issued firefox 4 lifetime many looking copy version 4 directed version 6 run powerpc macintoshes mozilla firefox 4 includes many new features since version 3.6 firefox 4 brings new user interface new look designed make faster early mockups new interface windows mac os x linux first made available july 2009 new features include improved doorhanger notifications firefox panorama feature lets user visually group tabs application tabs redesigned extension manager jetpack extensions support integration firefox sync support multitouch displays many changes made user interface default tabs top window location bar area formerly occupied window title bar stop reload go buttons combined single button placed right side address bar button changes dynamically based upon current state page windows vista windows 7 menu bar hidden default common actions moved new firefox menu upper left hand corner browser users create persistent app tabs customize tab bar well bookmark navigation bars many features similar ones introduced google chrome firefox 4 based gecko 2.0 engine adds improves support html5 css3 webm webgl also includes new javascript engine jägermonkey better xpcom apis jägermonkey new javascript engine designed work alongside tracemonkey engine introduced firefox 3.5 improves performance compiling non-traceable javascript machine language faster execution firefox 4 first version firefox drop native support gopher protocol however continued support available add-on firefox 4 introduces audio api provides way programmatically access create audio data associated html5 audio element allows example visualize raw sound data use filters show audio spectrum firefox 4 longer relies underlying os text layout/shaping instead uses harfbuzz allows smart opentype layout/shaping consistent across different operating systems firefox 4 marked major change performance comparison former versions 3.6 3.5 browser made significant progress sunspider javascript tests well improvements supporting html5 since firefox 4.0 beta 5 hardware acceleration content enabled default windows vista windows 7 machines using direct2d os x using quartz basically cpu-only linux using xrender hardware acceleration compositing enabled default windows xp windows vista windows 7 machines using direct3d os x linux using opengl using hardware acceleration allows browser tap computer graphics processing unit lifting burden cpu speeding display web pages acceleration enabled certain graphics hardware drivers one performance optimizations moving application data single file omni.jar using new file format based java archive format previous versions used multiple files java archive format later versions file renamed omni.ja firefox 4 contains support track header emerging standard web privacy header signals user request web service web visitor tracking service disabled future privacy request may become legal requirement also introduced ability delete flash cookies subjecting deletion rules ordinary http cookies nightly builds marked 4.0a1pre february june 2008 renamed 3.1a1pre afterwards 22 march 2011 24-hour launch period firefox 4 received 7.1 million downloads counted verified mozilla foundation date 3 million people downloaded second release candidate browser later became final version result new version browser received 10 million downloads first day notwithstanding fell behind previous record established launch firefox 3 2008 8 million second-day downloads browser reported 8.75 million lack official representative guinness monitor numbers made record attained firefox 3 unofficially broken official launch date usage share firefox 4 1.95 0.34 higher previous day according analytics website statcounter comparison usage share internet explorer 9 march 22 0.87 released prior week march 14 potential factor firefox 4 ’ higher usage share latter supports windows 2000 xp two operating systems internet explorer 9 support also launch mozilla prompted existing customers upgrade browsers newer version something microsoft ’ applied users older versions internet explorer instead microsoft prompted users upgrade via windows update several weeks launch march 26 2011 firefox 4 ’ usage share exceeded 10-year-old discontinued internet explorer 6 first time also date browser ’ usage share higher versions safari opera older versions firefox exception firefox 3.6 reference internet explorer 9 ’ usage share first exceeded internet explorer 6 may 1 2011 48 days release internet explorer 9 became second used version internet explorer first time may 22 2011 69 days release according statcounter firefox 4 reached usage share peak 16.7 june 19 2011 date started decline due weekly trends release firefox 5 firefox 4 represents departure user interface layout behaviour previous versions users face issues negotiating changes documented release notes firefox button groups menus firefox 4 displayed default windows 7 windows vista operating systems displayed operating systems selecting toolbars view menu unchecking menu bar menu bar restored selecting options firefox button menu checking menu bar certain menu items page info import importing bookmarks browser data available firefox button menu remain available menu bar menu bar displayed temporarily pressing releasing alt key selecting menu bar command pressing alt key dismisses menu bar prompt save session tabs windows presented default firefox 3 session restored next start user selected save quit option firefox 4 sessions saved next start session available history menu new feature called on-demand session restore overwrites previous session exit without prompting user check whether saved session time viewing history menu item restore previous session available greyed restorable session available 1-hop neighbor's text information: pwn2own.pwn2own pwn2own computer hacking contest held annually cansecwest security conference beginning 2007 contestants challenged exploit widely used software mobile devices previously unknown vulnerabilities winners contest receive device exploited cash prize masters jacket celebrating year win name pwn2own derived fact contestants must pwn hack device order win pwn2own contest serves demonstrate vulnerability devices software widespread use also providing checkpoint progress made security since previous year first contest conceived developed dragos ruiu response frustration apple lack response month apple bugs month kernel bugs well apple television commercials trivialized security built competing windows operating system time widespread belief despite public displays vulnerabilities apple products os x significantly secure competitors march 20 roughly three weeks cansecwest year ruiu announced pwn2own contest security researchers dailydave mailing list contest include two macbook pros would leave conference floor hooked wireless access point conference attendee could connect wireless access point exploit one devices would able leave conference laptop monetary reward ruiu outlined would progressively loosened restrictions hacks acceptable three days conference first day conference ruiu asked terri forslof zero day initiative zdi participate contest zdi programme purchases zero-day attacks reports affected vendor turns signatures network intrusion detection system increasing effectiveness vulnerabilities sold zdi made public affected vendor issued patch forslof agreed zdi offer purchase vulnerabilities used contest flat price 10,000 first contest intended highlight insecurity apple mac os x operating system since time widespread belief os x far secure competitors contest took place thursday april 18 saturday april 20 2007 two macbook pro laptops one 13 one 15 left conference floor cansecwest joined separate wireless network certain attacks allowed restrictions progressively loosened three days conference order win 15 macbook pro contestants would required escalate privileges root gaining access initial exploit 10,000 prize announced zdi laptops hacked first day shane macaulay called former co-worker dino dai zovi new york urged compete second day starting thursday night dai zovi found exploited previously unknown vulnerability quicktime library loaded safari 3am night following morning dai zovi packaged exploit code sent macaulay conference vancouver macaulay placed dai zovi exploit code website e-mailed contest organizers link clicked contest laptop dai zovi exploit code allowed shane take control laptop winning contest proxy dai zovi thank helping win contest dai zovi let macaulay keep 15 macbook pro dai zovi separately sold vulnerability zdi 10,000 prize successful 2007 contest scope pwn2own contest expanded include wider array operating systems browsers contest would demonstrate widespread insecurity software widespread use consumers dragos refined contest help wide panel industry experts contest administered zdi would offer purchase vulnerabilities demonstration vulnerabilities zdi purchases details vulnerabilities used pwn2own would provided affected vendors public details would withheld patch made available contestants successfully demonstrated exploits contest could sell vulnerabilities zdi prizes 20,000 first day 10,000 second day 5,000 third day pwn2own 2008 took place thursday march 26 saturday march 28 2008 2008 contest three different target laptops running default installation either windows vista ultimate sp1 os x 10.5.2 ubuntu linux 7.10 previous year contest pwn2own took place course three days certain attacks allowed day laptop running os x exploited second day contest exploit safari browser co-written charlie miller jake honoroff mark daniel independent security evaluators exploit targeted open-source subcomponent safari browser laptop running windows vista sp1 exploited third day contest exploit adobe flash co-written shane macaulay alexander sotirov derek callaway contest adobe disclosed co-discovered vulnerability internally working patch time pwn2own laptop running ubuntu exploited considerably success targeting web browsers category software third pwn2own focused popular browsers used consumer desktop operating systems added another category mobile devices contestants challenged hack via many remote attack vectors including email sms messages website browsing pwn2own 2009 took place three days cansecwest thursday march 18 saturday march 20 2009 contestants demonstrated successful exploits contest offered rewards underlying vulnerabilities zdi 5,000 browser exploits 10,000 mobile exploits browser targets internet explorer 8 firefox chrome installed sony vaio running windows 7 beta safari firefox installed macbook running mac os x browsers fully patched default configurations first day contest previous years attack surface contest expanded three days multiple winners per target allowed first contestant exploit laptop would get mobile device targets included blackberry android iphone symbian windows mobile phones default configurations specific devices included browser contest attack surface available contestants expanded three days order prove able successfully compromise device contestants demonstrate could collect sensitive data mobile device incur type financial loss mobile device owner multiple winners per device allowed first contestant exploit mobile device would get along one-year phone contract based increased interest competing year zdi arranged random selection determine team went first target first contestant selected charlie miller exploited safari os x without aid browser plugins interviews winning contest miller stressed took minutes run exploit safari took many days research develop exploit used researcher identified nils selected go miller nils successfully ran exploit internet explorer 8 windows 7 beta writing exploit nils bypass anti-exploitation mitigations microsoft implemented internet explorer 8 windows 7 including data execution protection dep address space layout randomization aslr nils continued trying browsers although miller already exploited safari os x nils exploited platform moved exploit firefox successfully near end first day julien tinnes sami koivu remote successfully exploited firefox safari os x vulnerability java time os x java enabled default allowed reliable exploitation platform however due reported vulnerabilities vendor already tinnes participation fell outside rules contest unable rewarded next days contest attract additional contestants chrome well mobile devices went unexploited pwn2own 2009 competition started march 24 2010 total cash prize pool us 100,000 march 15—nine days contest begin—apple released sixteen patches webkit safari 40,000 100,000 reserved web browsers target worth 10,000 60,000 total 100,000 cash prize pool allotted mobile phone portion contest target worth 15,000 opera web browser left contests target zdi team argued opera low market share chrome safari included due default presence various mobile platforms however opera rendering engine presto present millions mobile platforms 2011 contest took place march 9 11th cansecwest conference vancouver canada web browser targets 2011 contest included microsoft internet explorer apple safari mozilla firefox google chrome new pwn2own contest fact new attack surface allowed penetrating mobile phones specifically cellphone basebands mobile phone targets dell venue pro running windows phone 7 iphone 4 running ios blackberry torch 9800 running blackberry os 6.0 nexus running android 2.3 following teams registered desktop browser contest mobile browser category following teams registered first day competition safari internet explorer defeated researchers safari version 5.0.3 installed fully patched mac os x 10.6.6 french security firm vupen first attack browser five seconds browser visited specially crafted malicious web page launched standard harmless payload demonstrate arbitrary code executed written file hard disk demonstrate sandbox bypassed internet explorer 32-bit version 8 installed 64-bit windows 7 service pack 1 security researcher stephen fewer harmony security successful exploiting ie demonstrated safari day 2 iphone 4 blackberry touch 9800 exploited iphone running ios 4.2.1 however flaw exists version 4.3 ios security researchers charlie miller dion blazakis able gain access iphone address book vulnerability mobile safari visiting exploit ridden webpage blackberry torch 9800 phone running blackberry os 6.0.0.246 team vincenzo iozzo willem pinckaers ralf philipp weinmann took advantage vulnerability blackberry webkit based web browser visiting previously prepared webpage firefox android windows phone 7 scheduled tested day 2 security researchers chosen platforms attempt exploits sam thomas selected test firefox withdrew stating exploit stable researchers chosen test android windows phone 7 show teams showed day three chrome firefox hacked 2012 rules changed capture-the-flag style competition point system new format caused charlie miller successful event past years decide attend pwn2own chrome successfully exploited first time vupen declined reveal escaped sandbox saying would sell information internet explorer 9 windows 7 successfully exploited next firefox third browser hacked using zero day exploit safari mac os x lion browser left standing conclusion zero day portion pwn2own versions safari fully patched running mac os x snow leopard compromised cve portion pwn2own noted significant improvements security mitigations within mac os x introduced lion google withdrew sponsorship event 2012 rules require full disclosure exploits winners specifically exploits break sandboxed environment demonstrated exploits win pwn2own defended decision saying believed hackers would attempt exploit chrome methods disclosed google offered separate pwnium contest offered 60,000 chrome-specific exploits non-chrome vulnerabilities used guaranteed immediately reported appropriate vendor sergey glazunov teenager identified pinkiepie earned 60,000 exploits bypassed security sandbox google issued fix chrome users less 24 hours pwnium exploits demonstrated google returned sponsor rules changed require full disclosure exploits techniques used web browsers google chrome internet explorer firefox along windows 8 java exploited french security firm vupen successfully exploited fully updated internet explorer 10 microsoft surface pro running 64-bit version windows 8 fully bypassed protected mode sandbox without crashing freezing browser vupen team exploited mozilla firefox adobe flash oracle java nils jon mwrlabs successful exploiting google chrome using webkit windows kernel flaws bypass chrome sandbox 100,000 george hotz exploited adobe acrobat reader escaped sandbox win 70,000 james forshaw joshua drake ben murphy independently exploited oracle java win 20,000 apple safari mountain lion targeted teams showed mobile pwn2own 2013 contest held november 13–14 2013 pacsec 2013 conference tokyo japan pinkie pie 50,000 google released chrome updates 14 nov address vulnerabilities exploited pwn2own 2014 vupen successfully exploited fully updated internet explorer 11 adobe reader xi google chrome adobe flash mozilla firefox 64-bit version windows 8.1 win total 400,000—the highest payout single competitor date company used total 11 distinct zero-day vulnerabilities nico joly vupen team—was sole competitor take windows phone lumia 1520 year entering exploit aimed ie 11 mobile successfully able exfiltrate cookie database however sandbox held unable gain full control system apple safari mac os x mavericks adobe flash windows 8.1 successfully exploited liang chen keen team zeguang zhao team509 collected 140,000 prize money internet explorer 11 windows 8.1 successfully exploited sebastian apelt andreas schmidt prize 100,000 mozilla firefox exploited jüri aedla mariusz młyński george hotz independently winning 50,000 anonymous participant exploited google chrome however upon review contest judges declared partial win due one portion presentation ’ collision vulnerability exploited earlier week pwnium competition 2015 every single prize available claimed 2016 chrome microsoft edge safari hacked according brian gorenc manager vulnerability research hpe chosen include firefox year wanted focus browsers made serious security improvements last year 2017 chrome successful hacks although one team attempted target chrome subsequent browsers best fared order firefox safari edge 2018 conference much smaller sponsored primarily microsoft shortly conference microsoft patched several vulnerabilities edge causing many teams withdraw nevertheless certain openings found edge safari firefox hack attempts made chrome although reward offered edge many microsoft products large rewards available anyone able gain access edge successfully exploited Target text information: sleipnir_(web_browser).sleipnir web browser sleipnir tabbed web browser developed fenrir inc browser main features customization tab functions supports html5 different layout engines names sleipnir fenrir animals norse mythology sleipnir originally created japanese released english chinese translations translations performed volunteer translators available ios macos microsoft windows android windows phone sleipnir originally developed yasuyuki kashiwagi november 2004 computer containing sleipnir source code stolen 2005 kashiwagi established fenrir co. start development new version sleipnir starting version 2 new versions compatible original 2006 sleipnir 6 market share japan sleipnir one twelve browsers originally offered browser ballot screen eu edition windows 7 xp vista update users could choose internet explorer browsers installation process stable version 5.0 released december 24 2013 latest blink engine latest stable version 6.0 windows version browser layout engine changed internet explorer trident mozilla gecko supported version 3.5.0.4000 support webkit rendering engine implemented gecko rendering engine support terminated features include tab grouping mouse gestures page zooming search bar greasemonkey-like user script support plugin support bookmarks sleipnir synced different platform using function called fenrir pass sleipnir version 5 onward introduce proprietary text rendering visually resembling mac os text rendering feature mentioned mac feature set sleipnir 2 windows sleipnir 2 features customizable functions add-ons created users sleipnir 2 one browsers still support windows 98 sleipnir 3 windows includes tab options tab groups touchpaging flick tabs using mouse mouse gestures sleipnir 3 mac switch tabs swiping tabs left right-click operate tabs using gestures tiledtab pinch-in trackpad view list tabs hold go hold link open background ad block tab groups managing tabs sync bookmarks devices using fenrir pass standard full-screen mac os x lion sleipnir 4 windows sleipnir 4 windows introduced minor interface improvements smart tabs adding positioning deletion tabs determined based relationship previous next tabs 150 mouse gesture functions added google chrome extensions support sleipnir 4 mac thumbnail tab navigation open tabs shrunk anymore instead presented scrollable list tab titles appearing mouse hover portal field bar double functionality navigation bar search tiledtab view mode gives overview opened tabs allows sorting tabs six groups improved gesture controls sleipnir 5 windows sleipnir 5 windows integrated features introduced sleipnir 4 mac smooth osx-like font rendering engine introduced site updates feature shows personalized recommendations articles often visited sites added touch screen support sleipnir 6 windows sleipnir 6 windows adds favtab quick navigation favorite sites smartsearch searching via highlighting resizable portal field sleipnir mobile following mobile versions sleipnir smartphones released android ios windows phone early gecko-based versions sleipnir windows scored positive reviews cnet design functionality noticeably inclusion gestures “ action smooth natural lot like scrolling pages phone thumb. ” osx version review makeuseof followed generally line additionally bringing attention convenient tab management macworld reviewing sleipnir 4 mac praised url bar changed “ opera pioneered idea sleipnir ’ tabs remain constantly visible strike nice balance large enough identify small enough intrude main browser window. ” despite version 4 criticized poor performance compared browsers using webkit later versions sleipnir received positive reviews softpedia due browsers customizability features availability mobile versions “ sleipnir proves stable fast web browser comes innovative functions various customization possibilities extra security features together smartphone web apps linking features make viable alternative popular competitors. ” 2012 multiple performance tests tom hardware android version sleipnir placed third spot best browser android outrun dolphin maxthon I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	559	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: playstation_2.playstation 2 playstation 2 officially abbreviated ps2 home video game console developed marketed sony computer entertainment first released japan march 4 2000 north america october 26 2000 europe australia november 2000 successor playstation well second video game console playstation brand sixth-generation console ps2 competed sega dreamcast nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox announced 1999 ps2 offered backwards compatibility predecessor dualshock controller well games ps2 best-selling video game console time sold 159 million units estimated ign 150 million confirmed sony 2011 3,800 game titles released ps2 since launch 1.5 billion copies sold sony later manufactured several smaller lighter revisions console known slimline models 2004 2006 sony announced launched successor playstation 3 even release successor ps2 remained popular well seventh generation continued produced january 4 2013 sony finally announced discontinued twelve years production – one longest lifespans video game console despite announcement new games console continued produced end 2013 including final fantasy xi seekers adoulin japan fifa 13 north america pro evolution soccer 2014 europe repair services system japan ended september 7 2018 though sony kept details playstation 2 development secret work console began around time original playstation released late 1994 insiders stated developed u.s. west coast former members argonaut software 1997 word leaked press console would backwards compatibility original playstation built-in dvd player internet connectivity sony announced playstation 2 ps2 march 1 1999 video game console positioned competitor sega dreamcast first sixth-generation console released although ultimately main rivals ps2 nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox dreamcast launched successfully north america later year selling 500,000 units within two weeks soon dreamcast north american launch sony unveiled playstation 2 tokyo game show september 20 1999 sony showed fully playable demos upcoming playstation 2 games including gran turismo 2000 later released tekken tag tournament showed console graphic abilities power ps2 launched march 2000 japan october north america november europe sales console games accessories pulled 250 million first day beating 97 million made first day dreamcast directly release difficult find ps2 units retailer shelves due manufacturing delays another option purchasing console online auction websites ebay people paid thousand dollars console ps2 initially sold well partly basis strength playstation brand console backward compatibility selling 980,000 units japan march 5 2000 one day launch allowed ps2 tap large install base established playstation another major selling point competition later sony added new development kits game developers ps2 units consumers ps2 built-in functionality also expanded audience beyond gamer debut pricing less standalone dvd player made console low cost entry home theater market success ps2 end 2000 caused sega problems financially competitively sega announced discontinuation dreamcast march 2001 18 months successful western launch despite dreamcast still received support 2001 ps2 remained sixth generation console eye future 6 months would face competition new rivals form nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox many analysts predicted close three-way matchup among three consoles xbox powerful hardware gamecube least expensive console nintendo changed policy encourage third-party developers playstation 2 theoretically weakest specification three head start due installed base plus strong developer commitment well built-in dvd player xbox required adapter gamecube lacked support entirely playstation 2 initial games lineup considered mediocre changed 2001 holiday season release several blockbuster games maintained ps2 sales momentum held newer rivals sony also countered xbox temporarily securing playstation 2 exclusives highly anticipated games grand theft auto series sony cut price console may 2002 us 299 199 north america making price gamecube 100 less xbox also planned cut price japan around time cut price twice japan 2003 2006 sony cut cost console anticipation release playstation 3 sony unlike sega dreamcast originally placed little emphasis online gaming first years although changed upon launch online-capable xbox coinciding release xbox live sony released playstation network adapter late 2002 several online first–party titles released alongside demonstrate active support internet play sony also advertised heavily online model support electronic arts ea ea offer online xbox titles 2004 although sony nintendo started late although followed decentralized model online gaming responsibility developer provide servers sony moves made online gaming major selling point ps2 september 2004 time launch sony revealed newer slimmer ps2 preparation launch new models scph-700xx-9000x sony stopped making older models scph-3000x-500xx let distribution channel empty stock units apparent manufacturing issue sony reportedly underestimated demand caused initial slowdown producing new unit caused part shortages time old units cleared new units ready issue compounded britain russian oil tanker became stuck suez canal blocking ship china carrying ps2s bound uk one week november british sales totalled 6,000 units compared 70,000 units weeks prior shortages 1,700 stores north america day christmas playstation 2 software distributed cd-rom dvd-rom addition console play audio cds dvd movies backwards compatible playstation games ps2 also supports playstation memory cards controllers although original playstation memory cards work original playstation games controllers may support functions analog buttons ps2 games standard playstation 2 memory card 8 mb capacity variety non-sony manufactured memory cards available playstation 2 allowing memory capacity larger standard 8 mb console also features 2 usb ports 1 ieee 1394 firewire port scph-10000 3900x hard disk drive installed expansion bay back console required play certain games notably popular final fantasy xi available certain models hardware uses emotion engine cpu custom-designed processor based mips architecture floating point performance 6.2 gflops custom-designed graphics synthesizer gpu fillrate 2.4 gigapixels/second capable rendering 75 million polygons per second accounting features lighting texture mapping artificial intelligence game physics real-world performance 3 million 16 million polygons per second playstation 2 may natively output video resolutions sdtv hdtv 480i 480p games gran turismo 4 tourist trophy known support up-scaled 1080i resolution using following standards composite video 480i s-video 480i rgb 480i/p vga progressive scan games ps2 linux component video display original playstation games native 240p mode hdtv sets support d-terminal cables available signal types cables also output analog stereo audio additionally rf modulator available system connect older tvs digital s/pdif audio may also output console via toslink connector outputs 2.0 pcm 5.1 channel sound dolby digital dts formats ps2 undergone many revisions internal construction others involving substantial external changes ps2 primarily differentiated models featuring original fat case design slimline models introduced end 2004 2010 sony bravia kdl-22px300 made available consumers 22 hd-ready television incorporated built-in playstation 2 ps2 standard color matte black several variations color produced different quantities regions including ceramic white light yellow metallic blue aqua metallic silver navy star blue opaque blue astral blue opaque black midnight black pearl white sakura purple satin gold satin silver snow white super red transparent blue ocean blue also limited edition color pink distributed regions oceania parts asia september 2004 sony unveiled third major hardware revision available late october 2004 smaller thinner quieter original versions included built-in ethernet port markets also integrated modem due thinner profile contain 3.5 expansion bay therefore support internal hard disk drive also lacked internal power supply later revision excluding japan version similar gamecube modified multitap expansion removal expansion bay criticized limitation due existence titles final fantasy xi required use hdd sony also manufactured consumer device called psx used digital video recorder dvd burner addition playing ps2 games device released japan december 13 2003 first sony product include xrossmediabar interface sell well japanese market released anywhere else class action lawsuit filed sony computer entertainment america inc. july 16 2002 superior court california county san mateo lawsuit addresses consumer reports inappropriate disc error disc read error messages problems associated playing dvds cds playstation 2 sony settled disc read error lawsuit compensating affected customers us 25 free game specified list reduced cost repair replacement scea discretion damaged system settlement subject courts approval hearings began us canada april 28 2006 may 11 2006 respectively playstation 2 software distributed cd-rom dvd-rom two formats differentiated color discs bottoms cd-roms blue dvd-roms silver playstation 2 offered particularly high-profile exclusive games main entries grand theft auto final fantasy metal gear solid series released exclusively console several prolific series got start playstation 2 including god war ratchet clank jak daxter devil may cry kingdom hearts sly cooper best-selling game console game releases peaked 2004 declined release playstation 3 2006 last new games console final fantasy xi seekers adoulin asia fifa 13 north america pro evolution soccer 2014 europe june 30 2007 total 10,035 software titles released worldwide counting games released multiple regions separate titles playstation 2 users option play select games internet using broadband internet connection playstation 2 network adaptor instead unified subscription-based online service like xbox live competitor microsoft later chose xbox console online multiplayer functionality playstation 2 responsibility game publisher ran third-party servers recent playstation 2 online games developed exclusively support broadband internet access xbox live similarly requires broadband internet connection playstation 2 sold 155 million units worldwide march 31 2013 europe sold 48 million units may 6 2008 according sony computer entertainment europe north america sold 50 million units december 2008 japan ps2 sold 21,454,325 units october 1 2008 according famitsu /enterbrain 2005 playstation 2 became fastest game console reach 100 million units shipped accomplishing feat within 5 years 9 months launch since surpassed playstation 4 playstation 2 dualshock 2 controller largely identical playstation dualshock basic functionality however includes analog pressure sensitivity face shoulder d-pad buttons replacing digital buttons original buttons would later become digital release dualshock 4 like predecessor dualshock 2 controller force feedback vibration functionality lighter includes two levels vibration optional hardware includes additional dualshock dualshock 2 controllers ps2 dvd remote control internal external hard disk drive hdd network adapter horizontal vertical stands playstation ps2 memory cards multitap playstation ps2 usb motion camera eyetoy usb keyboard mouse headset original ps2 multitap scph-10090 plugged newer slim models multitap connects memory card slot well controller slot memory card slot slimline shallower new slim-design multitaps scph-70120 manufactured models however third-party adapters also exist permit original multitaps used early versions ps2 could networked via i.link port though little game support dropped third party manufacturers created devices allow disabled people access ps2 ordinary switches etc third-party companies joytech produced lcd monitor speaker attachments ps2 attach back console allow users play games without access television long access mains electricity similar power source screens fold onto ps2 similar fashion laptop screens many accessories musical games dance pads dance dance revolution groove pump titles konami microphones use karaoke revolution games dual microphones sold used exclusively singstar games various guitar controllers guitar freaks series guitar hero series drum set controller sold box set guitar controller usb microphone use rock band guitar hero series world tour newer taiko drum controller specialized controllers include light guns guncon fishing rod reel controllers slime controller final fantasy x-2 tiny bee dual pistol controller katana controller resident evil 4 chainsaw controller unlike playstation requires use official sony playstation mouse play mouse-compatible games ps2 games mouse support work standard usb mouse well usb trackball addition games also support usage usb keyboard text input game control lieu dualshock dualshock 2 gamepad tandem usb mouse using homebrew programs possible play various audio video file formats ps2 homebrew programs also used play patched backups original ps2 dvd games unmodified consoles install retail discs installed hard drive older models homebrew emulators older computer gaming systems developed ps2 sony released linux-based operating system linux playstation 2 ps2 package also includes keyboard mouse ethernet adapter hdd europe australia ps2 comes free yabasic interpreter bundled demo disc allows users create simple programs ps2 port netbsd project blackrhino gnu/linux alternative debian-based distribution also available ps2 1-hop neighbor's text information: tegra.tegra tegra system chip soc series developed nvidia mobile devices smartphones personal digital assistants mobile internet devices tegra integrates arm architecture central processing unit cpu graphics processing unit gpu northbridge southbridge memory controller onto one package early tegra socs designed efficient multimedia processors recent models emphasize performance gaming machine learning applications without sacrificing power efficiency tegra apx 2500 announced february 12 2008 tegra 6xx product line revealed june 2 2008 apx 2600 announced february 2009 apx chips designed smartphones tegra 600 650 chips intended smartbooks mobile internet devices mid first product use tegra microsoft zune hd media player september 2009 followed samsung m1 microsoft kin first cellular phone use tegra however phone app store tegra power provide much advantage september 2008 nvidia opera software announced would produce version opera 9.5 browser optimised tegra windows mobile windows ce mobile world congress 2009 nvidia introduced port google android tegra january 7 2010 nvidia officially announced demonstrated next generation tegra system-on-a-chip nvidia tegra 250 consumer electronics show 2010 nvidia primarily supports android tegra 2 booting arm-supporting operating systems possible devices bootloader accessible tegra 2 support ubuntu gnu/linux distribution also announced nvidia developer forum nvidia announced first quad-core soc february 2011 mobile world congress event barcelona though chip codenamed kal-el branded tegra 3 early benchmark results show impressive gains tegra 2 chip used many tablets released second half 2011 january 2012 nvidia announced audi selected tegra 3 processor in-vehicle infotainment systems digital instruments display processor integrated audi entire line vehicles worldwide beginning 2013 process iso 26262-certified summer 2012 tesla motors began shipping model electric high performance sedan contains two nvidia tegra 3d visual computing modules vcm one vcm powers 17-inch touchscreen infotainment system one drives 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster march 2015 nvidia announced tegra x1 first soc graphics performance 1 teraflop announcement event nvidia showed epic games unreal engine 4 elemental demo running tegra x1 october 20 2016 nvidia announced nintendo upcoming switch hybrid home/portable game console powered tegra hardware march 15 2017 techinsights revealed nintendo switch powered tegra x1 model t210 second generation tegra soc dual-core arm cortex-a9 cpu ultra low power ulp geforce gpu 32-bit memory controller either lpddr2-600 ddr2-667 memory 32kb/32kb l1 cache per core shared 1mb l2 cache tegra 2 cortex a9 implementation include arm simd extension neon version tegra 2 soc supporting 3d displays soc uses higher clocked cpu gpu tegra 2 video decoder largely unchanged original tegra limited support hd formats lack support high-profile h.264 particularly troublesome using online video streaming services common features tegra 3 codenamed kal-el functionally soc quad-core arm cortex-a9 mpcore cpu includes fifth companion core nvidia refers variable smp architecture cores cortex-a9s companion core manufactured low-power silicon process core operates transparently applications used reduce power consumption processing load minimal main quad-core portion cpu powers situations tegra 3 first tegra release support arm simd extension neon gpu tegra 3 evolution tegra 2 gpu 4 additional pixel shader units higher clock frequency also output video 2560×1600 resolution supports 1080p mpeg-4 avc/h.264 40 mbit/s high-profile vc1-ap simpler forms mpeg-4 divx xvid tegra 3 released november 9 2011 common features tegra 4 codenamed wayne announced january 6 2013 soc quad-core cpu includes fifth low-power cortex a15 companion core invisible os performs background tasks save power power-saving configuration referred variable smp architecture operates like similar configuration tegra 3 geforce gpu tegra 4 evolution predecessors however numerous feature additions efficiency improvements implemented number processing resources dramatically increased clock rate increased well 3d tests tegra 4 gpu typically several times faster tegra 3 additionally tegra 4 video processor full support hardware decoding encoding webm video 1080p 60mbit/s 60fps along tegra 4 nvidia also introduced i500 optional software modem based nvidia acquisition icera reprogrammed support new network standards supports category 3 100mbit/s lte later updated category 4 150mbit/s common features pixel shaders vertex shaders pixel pipelines tegra 4i codenamed grey announced february 19 2013 hardware support audio video formats using cortex-a9 cores instead cortex-a15 tegra 4i low-power variant tegra 4 designed phones tablets unlike tegra 4 counterpart tegra 4i also integrates icera i500 lte/hspa+ baseband processor onto die common features pixel shaders vertex shaders pixel pipelines nvidia ’ tegra k1 codenamed logan features arm cortex-a15 cores 4+1 configuration similar tegra 4 nvidia 64-bit project denver dual-core processor well kepler graphics processing unit support direct3d 12 opengl es 3.1 cuda 6.5 opengl 4.4/opengl 4.5 vulkan nvidia claims outperforms xbox 360 ps3 whilst consuming significantly less power support adaptive scalable texture compression late april 2014 nvidia shipped jetson tk1 development board containing tegra k1 soc running ubuntu linux unified shaders texture mapping units render output units december 2015 web page wccftech.com published article stating tesla going use tegra k1 based design derived template nvidia visual computing module vcm driving infotainment systems providing visual driving aid respective vehicle models time news found similar successor clear confirmation later place combination multimedia auto pilot system vehicle models nvidia tegra x1 codenamed erista features four arm cortex-a57 cores four arm cortex-a53 cores well maxwell-based graphics processing unit supports adaptive scalable texture compression contrary initial belief nvidia use eight cores arm big.little configuration instead devices utilizing tegra x1 always show four arm cortex-a57 cores available four arm cortex-a53 cores accessed operating system used automatically low power scenarios determined cpu nvidia tegra x2 codenamed parker features nvidia custom general-purpose armv8-compatible core denver 2 well code-named pascal graphics processing core gpgpu support chips made using finfet process technology using tsmc 16 nm finfet+ manufacturing process recent tegra soc xavier named comic book character professor x announced 28 september 2016 march 2019 released contains 7 billion transistors 8 custom armv8 cores volta gpu 512 cuda cores open sourced tpu tensor processing unit called dla deep learning accelerator able encode decode 8k ultra hd 7680×4320 users configure operating modes 10w 15w 30w tdp needed die size 350 mm nvidia confirmed fabrication process 12 nm finfet ces 2018 linux kernel mailing list tegra194 based development board type id p2972-0000 got reported board consists p2888 compute module p2822 baseboard nvidia announced next-gen soc codename orin resembling name aquaman comic hero march 27 2018 gpu technology conference 2018 presentations already indicate design two orin chips planned par performance pegasus board four chips supposed formed two xavier chips two gpu chips factor five performance xavier orin seems indicated nowiki /nowiki pixel shaders vertex shaders since kepler unified shaders used nvidia distributes proprietary device drivers tegra oems part linux tegra formerly l4t development kit newer powerful devices tegra family supported nvidia vibrante linux distribution vibrante comes larger set gnu/linux tools plus several nvidia provided libraries acceleration area data processing especially image processing driving safety automated driving level deep learning neuronal networks make e.g heavy use cuda capable accelerator blocks via opencv make use neon vector extensions arm cores due different business needs geforce line graphics cards nvidia one embedded partners avionic design gmbh germany also working submitting open-source drivers tegra upstream mainline linux kernel nvidia co-founder ceo laid tegra processor roadmap using ubuntu unity gpu technology conference 2013 end 2018 evident nvidia employees contributed substantial code parts make t186 t194 models run hdmi display audio upcoming official linux kernel 4.21 q1 2019 thus positively affected software modules open source nouveau closed source nvidia graphics drivers along nvidia proprietary cuda interface drive px2 board announced qnx rtos support april 2016 gpu technology conference socs platforms comparable specifications e.g audio/video input output processing capability connectivity programmability entertainment/embedded/automotive capabilities certifications power consumption 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_mips_architecture_processors.list mips architecture processors list processors implement mips instruction set architecture sorted year process size frequency die area processors designed imagination technologies mips technologies others displays overview mips processors performance functionality versus capabilities recent mips aptiv families mips technologies acquired 17 december 2012 imagination technologies since following processors introduced imagination technologies warrior p-class cpu announced cpu ip cores comprising mips series5 ‘ warrior ’ family based mips32 release 5 mips64 release 6 come three classes performance features number companies licensed mips architecture developed processors Target text information: r4200.r4200 r4200 microprocessor designed mips technologies inc. mti implemented mips iii instruction set architecture isa also known vrx development microprocessor licensed nec company fabricated marketed vr4200 first vr4200 80 mhz part introduced 1993 faster 100 mhz part became available 1994 r4200 developed specifically low-power windows nt computers personal computers laptops mti claimed microprocessor integer performance greater high-end intel i486 80 p5-variant pentium microprocessor r4200 ultimately see use personal computers repositioned embedded microprocessor competed r4600 r4300i variant used widely popular nintendo 64 video game console r4200 scalar design five-stage classic risc pipeline notable feature use integer datapath performing arithmetic operations mantissa portion floating point number separate datapath used exponent scheme reduced cost reducing number transistors size chip power consumption also impacted floating point performance negatively r4200 intended applications require high floating point performance r4200 16 kb instruction cache 8 kb data cache caches direct-mapped instruction cache 32-byte line size whereas data cache 16-byte line size data cache uses write-back write protocol r4200 32-entry translation lookaside buffer tlb data 4-entry tlb instructions 33-bit physical address supported system bus 64 bits wide operates half internal clock frequency r4200 contained 1.3 million transistors area 81 mm nec fabricated r4200 600 nm cmos process three levels interconnect packaged 179-pin ceramic pin grid array compatible r4x00pc r4600 208-pin plastic quad flat pack pqfp used 3.3 v power supply dissipating 1.8 w typically maximum 2 w 80 mhz r4300i derivative r4200 designed mti embedded applications announced 17 april 1995 differs r4200 featuring improved integer multiplier lower latency cut-down 32-bit system bus reduced cost chip area 45 mm fabricated 350 nm process packaged 120-pin pqfp uses 3.3 v power supply dissipates 1.8 w 100 mhz 2.2 w 133 mhz r4300i licensed nec toshiba marketed companies vr4300 tx4300 respectively companies offered 100 133 mhz versions derivative vr4300 developed nec nintendo 64 game console clocked 93.75 mhz labeled nus-cpu although development boards nintendo 64 used stock nec vr4300 cpus final cpu found pin-compatible singular use mips implementation produced significant royalties mti sales nec made mips highest volume mixed 32/64-bit risc isa 1997 nec produced two derivatives r4300 general embedded market vr4305 vr4310 announced 20 january 1998 vr4310 available 100 133 167 mhz manufactured 250 nm process packaged 120-pin pqfp I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,237	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_lisp-family_programming_languages.list lisp-family programming languages functional programming language lisp second-oldest high-level programming language direct descendants closely related dialects still widespread use today language fortran older one year lisp like fortran changed lot since early days many dialects existed history today widely known general-purpose lisp dialects common lisp scheme 1-hop neighbor's text information: syntax_(programming_languages).syntax programming languages computer science syntax computer language set rules defines combinations symbols considered correctly structured document fragment language applies programming languages document represents source code markup languages document represents data syntax language defines surface form text-based computer languages based sequences characters visual programming languages based spatial layout connections symbols may textual graphical documents syntactically invalid said syntax error.when designing syntax language designer starts writing examples legal illegal strings trying figure general rules examples syntax therefore refers form contrasted semantics – meaning processing computer languages semantic processing generally comes syntactic processing however cases semantic processing necessary complete syntactic analysis done together concurrently compiler syntactic analysis comprises frontend semantic analysis comprises backend middle end phase distinguished computer language syntax generally distinguished three levels distinguishing way yields modularity allowing level described processed separately often independently first lexer turns linear sequence characters linear sequence tokens known lexical analysis lexing second parser turns linear sequence tokens hierarchical syntax tree known parsing narrowly speaking thirdly contextual analysis resolves names checks types modularity sometimes possible many real-world languages earlier step depends later step – example lexer hack c tokenization depends context even cases syntactical analysis often seen approximating ideal model parsing stage divided two parts parse tree concrete syntax tree determined grammar generally far detailed practical use abstract syntax tree ast simplifies usable form ast contextual analysis steps considered form semantic analysis adding meaning interpretation syntax alternatively informal manual implementations syntactical rules would difficult awkward describe implement formally levels generally correspond levels chomsky hierarchy words regular language specified lexical grammar type-3 grammar generally given regular expressions phrases context-free language cfl generally deterministic context-free language dcfl specified phrase structure grammar type-2 grammar generally given production rules backus–naur form bnf phrase grammars often specified much constrained grammars full context-free grammars order make easier parse lr parser parse dcfl linear time simple lalr parser even simpler parser efficient parse grammars whose production rules constrained principle contextual structure described context-sensitive grammar automatically analyzed means attribute grammars though general step done manually via name resolution rules type checking implemented via symbol table stores names types scope tools written automatically generate lexer lexical specification written regular expressions parser phrase grammar written bnf allows one use declarative programming rather need procedural functional programming notable example lex-yacc pair automatically produce concrete syntax tree parser writer must manually write code describing converted abstract syntax tree contextual analysis also generally implemented manually despite existence automatic tools parsing often implemented manually various reasons – perhaps phrase structure context-free alternative implementation improves performance error-reporting allows grammar changed easily parsers often written functional languages haskell scripting languages python perl c c++ example codice_1 syntactically valid lisp program assuming 'add function exists else name resolution fails adding 1 1 however following invalid note lexer unable identify first error – knows producing token left_paren remainder program invalid since word rule begins second error detected parsing stage parser identified list production rule due token match thus give error message general may ambiguous type errors undeclared variable errors sometimes considered syntax errors detected compile-time usually case compiling strongly-typed languages though common classify kinds error semantic errors instead example python code contains type error adds string literal integer literal type errors kind detected compile-time detected parsing phrase analysis compiler uses separate rules allow integerliteral integerliteral stringliteral integerliteral though likely compiler use parsing rule allows expressions form literaloridentifier literaloridentifier error detected contextual analysis type checking occurs cases validation done compiler errors detected runtime dynamically typed language type determined runtime many type errors detected runtime example python code syntactically valid phrase level correctness types b determined runtime variables types python values whereas disagreement whether type error detected compiler called syntax error rather static semantic error type errors detected program execution time always regarded semantic rather syntax errors syntax textual programming languages usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus–naur form grammatical structure inductively specify syntactic categories nonterminals terminal symbols syntactic categories defined rules called productions specify values belong particular syntactic category terminal symbols concrete characters strings characters example keywords define let void syntactically valid programs constructed language different equivalent grammars equivalent regular expressions lexical levels different phrase rules generate language using broader category grammars lr grammars allow shorter simpler grammars compared restricted categories grammar may require longer grammars rules different equivalent phrase grammars yield different parse trees though underlying language set valid documents simple grammar defined using notation regular expressions extended backus–naur form describes syntax s-expressions data syntax programming language lisp defines productions syntactic categories expression atom number symbol list grammar specifies following decimal digits upper- lower-case characters parentheses terminal symbols following examples well-formed token sequences grammar 'codice_2 'codice_3 'codice_4' grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy phrase grammar programming languages specified using type-2 grammar i.e. context-free grammars though overall syntax context-sensitive due variable declarations nested scopes hence type-1 however exceptions languages phrase grammar type-0 turing-complete languages like perl lisp specification implementation language allows constructs execute parsing phase furthermore languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser combination effectively blurs distinction parsing execution makes syntax analysis undecidable problem languages meaning parsing phase may finish example perl possible execute code parsing using codice_5 statement perl function prototypes may alter syntactic interpretation possibly even syntactic validity remaining code colloquially referred perl parse perl code must executed parsing modify grammar strongly even perl parse perl undecidable similarly lisp macros introduced codice_6 syntax also execute parsing meaning lisp compiler must entire lisp run-time system present contrast c macros merely string replacements require code execution syntax language describes form valid program provide information meaning program results executing program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard-coded reference implementation syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill-formed per language rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well-defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence may false following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operation semantically defined p null pointer operations p- real p- im meaning simpler example syntactically valid semantically defined uses uninitialized variable even though compilers programming languages e.g. java c would detect uninitialized variable errors kind regarded semantic errors rather syntax errors quickly compare syntax various programming languages take look list hello world program examples 1-hop neighbor's text information: rebol.rebol rebol historically rebol cross-platform data exchange language multi-paradigm dynamic programming language designed carl sassenrath network communications distributed computing introduces concept dialecting small optimized domain-specific languages code data also notable property language according designer carl sassenrath douglas crockford known involvement development javascript described rebol modern language similar ideas lisp built upon representation data executable programs one json influences originally language official implementation proprietary closed source developed rebol technologies following discussion lawrence rosen rebol version 3 interpreter released apache 2.0 license december 12 2012 older versions available binary form source release planned rebol used program internet applications client- server-side database applications utilities multimedia applications rebol initially acronym relative expression based object language written caps align modern trends language naming represented e.g change replacing historical name lisp lisp programmers ceased practice writing rebol caps sassenrath eventually put naming question community debate blog subsequent writing sassenrath adopted convention writing language name rebol first released 1997 rebol designed 20-year period carl sassenrath architect primary developer amigaos based study denotational semantics using concepts programming languages lisp forth logo self one rebol design principles simple things simple ways following example visual interface dialect used describe simple hello world program graphical user interface similar example looks r3-gui rebol domain-specific languages called dialects micro-languages optimized specific purpose dialects used define business rules graphical user interfaces sequences screens installation program users define dialects reusing existing rebol word giving specific meaning dialect dialects interpreted functions processing rebol blocks parsing strings specific way example rebol dialecting abilities seen word codice_1 data exchange dialect codice_1 word specific meaning dialect codice_1 global variable referring native function passing back function result value visual interface dialect vid codice_1 keyword causing layout engine simulate carriage return moving rendering pen beginning next line rebol interpreter graphical abilities must understand interpret many dialects table lists important ones order significance rebol syntax free-form requiring specific positioning however indentation recommended better convey structure text human readers syntactic properties different dialects may differ common platform rebol dialects data exchange dialect dialects usually derived addition common platform dialects data exchange dialect directly used represent data metadata populate data structures send data internet save data storage contrast programming languages like c data exchange dialect consist declarations statements expressions keywords valid data exchange dialect text stream tree data structure consisting blocks root block implicit subblocks delimited square brackets parens delimited round brackets strings delimited double quotes curly brackets suitable multi-line strings caret notation used unprintable characters urls e-mail addresses files paths composite values unlike algol blocks rebol blocks composite values similar quoted s-expressions lisp fact code written form rebol blocks makes language homoiconic blocks well parens may contain composite values block may contain subblocks parens strings ... scalar values like words set-words words suffixed colon get-words words prefixed colon lit-words words prefixed apostrophe numbers money characters etc. separated whitespace note special characters allowed words codice_5 word unlike codice_6 sequence three words separated spaces comments may appear following semicolon end line multi-line comments comments ignored lexical parser written using ordinary datatypes like multi-line strings blocks containing domain-specific language submitted arguments specific evaluator functions frequently used evaluator codice_7 function used default interpret text input interpreter console dialect interpreted codice_7 function expression-oriented sublanguage data exchange dialect main semantic unit language expression contrast imperative programming languages descending algol dialect neither keywords statements words used case-insensitive variables like dynamically typed languages variables n't associated type type associated values result i.e evaluation word returned word encountered codice_7 function set-word form word used assignment statements assignment together functions side-effects used imperative programming subblocks root block evaluate property used handle data blocks structured programming submitting blocks arguments control functions like codice_10 codice_11 codice_12 etc. dialecting block passed specific interpreter function specific problem worth noting composite values assigned variables copied make copy value must passed codice_13 function codice_7 function normally follows prefix style evaluation function processes arguments follow however infix evaluation using infix operators exists infix evaluation takes precedence prefix evaluation example returns 1 since infix addition takes precedence computation absolute value evaluating infix expressions order evaluation left right operator takes precedence another example returns 20 evaluation giving precedence multiplication would yield 14 operators prefix versions codice_15 usually evaluates arguments passing function expression first reads wikipedia rebol page passes result codice_16 function parentheses used change order evaluation using prefix notation usage parentheses expressions avoided simple precedence rules advantage well disadvantage codice_17 function preferably used specify validate transform interpret dialects matching parse expressions run time parse expressions written parse dialect like dialect expression-oriented sublanguage data exchange dialect unlike dialect parse dialect uses keywords representing operators important nonterminals infix parsing operators n't prefix equivalents use precedence rules sequence higher precedence choice actions included taken parsing process well codice_17 function used process blocks strings string parsing level codice_17 must handle low level parsing taking account characters delimiters block parsing higher level handling scanning level rebol values parse dialect belongs family grammars represented top-down parsing language parsing expression grammar peg main similarity presence sequence choice operators family members parse dialect syntax similarities parse dialect peg illustrated transliteration peg example parses arithmetic expression official rebol 2.7.8 implementation available several editions /core /view /command /sdk /ios /core /view editions freely redistributable software runtime environment stored single executable file rebol/core 2.7.8 console edition 300 kb rebol/view 2.7.8 graphical user interface edition 650 kb size rebol/view provides platform-independent graphics sound access comes windowing toolkit extensible set styles gui widgets extended editions rebol/command 2.7.8 rebol/sdk 2.7.8 require paid license add features like odbc data access option create standalone executable files Target text information: s-expression.s-expression computing s-expressions sexprs sexps symbolic expression notation nested list tree-structured data invented popularized programming language lisp uses source code well data usual parenthesized syntax lisp s-expression classically defined second recursive part definition represents ordered pair means s-expressions binary trees definition atom varies per context original definition john mccarthy assumed existed infinite set distinguishable atomic symbols represented strings capital latin letters digits single embedded blanks i.e. character string numeric literals modern sexpr notations addition use abbreviated notation represent lists s-expressions stands codice_4 special end-of-list object alternatively written codice_5 representation scheme lisp family programming languages s-expressions used represent source code data uses s-expressions lisp-derived languages dsssl mark-up communications protocols like imap john mccarthy cbcl details syntax supported data types vary different languages common feature among languages use s-expressions prefix notation many variants s-expression format supporting variety different syntaxes different datatypes widely supported character codice_15 often used prefix extensions syntax e.g codice_16 hexadecimal integers codice_17 characters representing source code lisp first element s-expression commonly operator function name remaining elements treated arguments called prefix notation polish notation example boolean expression written codice_18 c represented codice_19 lisp s-expr-based prefix notation noted precise definition atom varies across lisp-like languages quoted string typically contain anything quote unquoted identifier atom typically contain anything quote whitespace characters parenthesis brackets braces backslash semicolon either case prohibited character typically included escaping preceding backslash unicode support varies recursive case s-expr definition traditionally implemented using cons cells s-expressions originally intended data manipulated m-expressions first implementation lisp interpreter s-expression encodings m-expressions lisp programmers soon became accustomed using s-expressions code data means lisp homoiconic primary representation programs also data structure primitive type language nested lists written s-expressions codice_20 two-element s-expression whose elements also two-element s-expressions whitespace-separated notation used lisp article typical line breaks newline characters usually qualify separators simple context-free grammar tiny subset english written s-expression gazdar/melish natural language processing lisp s=sentence np=noun phrase vp=verb phrase v=verb program code written s-expressions usually using prefix notation example common lisp s-expressions read lisp using function read read reads textual representation s-expression returns lisp data function print used output s-expression output read function read printed data objects readable representation lisp readable representations numbers strings symbols lists many data types program code formatted pretty printed s-expressions using function pprint note two ps short pretty -print lisp programs valid s-expressions s-expressions valid lisp programs codice_21 valid s-expression valid lisp program since lisp uses prefix notation floating point number 1.0 valid operation first element expression s-expression preceded single quotation mark codice_22 syntactic sugar quoted s-expression case codice_23 s-expressions often compared xml key difference s-expressions far simpler syntax therefore much easier parse standards lisp-derived programming languages include specification s-expression syntax include common lisp ansi standard document ansi incits 226-1994 r2004 scheme r5rs r6rs islisp may 1997 ron rivest submitted internet-draft considered publication rfc draft defined syntax based lisp s-expressions intended general-purpose data storage exchange similar xml rather specifically programming never approved rfc since cited used rfcs e.g rfc 2693 several publications originally intended use spki rivest format defines s-expression either octet-string series bytes finite list s-expressions describes three interchange formats expressing structure one advanced transport flexible terms formatting syntactically similar lisp-style expressions identical advanced transport example allows octet-strings represented verbatim string length followed colon entire raw string quoted form allowing escape characters hexadecimal base64 placed directly token meets certain conditions rivest tokens differ lisp tokens former convenience aesthetics treated exactly like strings latter specific syntactical meaning rivest draft defines canonical representation digital signature purposes intended compact easier parse unique abstract s-expression allows verbatim strings prohibits whitespace formatting outside strings finally basic transport representation either canonical form encoded base64 surrounded braces latter intended safely transport canonically encoded s-expression system might change spacing e.g email system 80-character-wide lines wraps anything longer format widely adapted use outside spki users gnupg libgcrypt nettle gnu lsh rivest s-expressions web page provides c source code parser generator available mit license could adapted embedded programs addition restrictions independently implementing format I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	7,805	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_cluster_management_software.list cluster management software list software cluster management 1-hop neighbor's text information: docker_(software).docker software docker set platform-as-a-service paas products use operating-system-level virtualization deliver software packages called containers containers isolated one another bundle software libraries configuration files communicate well-defined channels containers run single operating-system kernel thus lightweight virtual machines service free premium tiers software hosts containers called docker engine first started 2013 developed docker inc. docker inc. founded solomon hykes sebastien pahl combinator summer 2010 startup incubator group launched 2011 hykes started docker project france internal project within dotcloud platform-as-a-service company initial contributors dotcloud engineers including andrea luzzardi francois-xavier bourlet jeff lindsay also became involved independent collaborator docker debuted public santa clara pycon 2013 released open-source march 2013 time used lxc default execution environment one year later release version 0.9 docker replaced lxc component written go programming language october 15 2014 microsoft announced integration docker engine next windows server release native support docker client role windows june 8 2016 microsoft announced docker could used natively windows 10 hyper-v containers build ship run containers utilizing windows server 2016 technical preview 5 nano server container os image since feature known windows containers made available windows 10 windows server 2016 two types windows containers windows server containers hyper-v isolation former nothing docker falls outside scope article latter however form hardware virtualization opposed os-level virtualization uses docker deliver guest os image guest os image windows nano server image 652 mb size separate end-user license agreement may 6 2019 microsoft announced second version windows subsystem linux wsl version wsl integrates full linux kernel windows 10 docker inc. announced started working version docker windows runs wsl 2 instead full virtual machine according linux.com docker package application dependencies virtual container run linux server helps enable flexibility portability application run whether on-premises public cloud private cloud docker uses resource isolation features linux kernel cgroups kernel namespaces union-capable file system overlayfs allow containers run within single linux instance avoiding overhead starting maintaining virtual machines docker containers lightweight single server virtual machine run several containers simultaneously 2016 analysis found typical docker use case involves running five containers per host many organizations run 10 linux kernel support namespaces mostly isolates application view operating environment including process trees network user ids mounted file systems kernel cgroups provide resource limiting memory cpu since version 0.9 docker includes component called directly use virtualization facilities provided linux kernel addition using abstracted virtualization interfaces via libvirt lxc systemd-nspawn docker implements high-level api provide lightweight containers run processes isolation docker software service offering consists three components 1-hop neighbor's text information: cluster_manager.cluster manager cluster manager usually backend graphical user interface gui command-line software runs one cluster nodes cases runs different server cluster management servers .the cluster manager works together cluster management agent agents run node cluster manage configure services set services manage configure complete cluster server see super computing cases cluster manager mostly used dispatch work cluster cloud perform last case subset cluster manager remote desktop application used configuration send work get back work results cluster cases cluster related availability load balancing computational specific service clusters Target text information: borg_(cluster_manager).borg cluster manager borg cluster manager used google led widespread use similar approaches docker kubernetes I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	11,041	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_object_pascal_and_c.comparison object pascal c computer programming languages c object pascal similar times origin influences purposes used design compile compilers early lifetimes c pascal old programming languages original pascal definition appeared 1969 first compiler 1970 first version c appeared 1972 c n't change much time pascal evolved lot nowadays vast majority pascal programming done modern object pascal old procedural pascal old procedural pascal today essentially limited microcontroller programming tools mikropascal object pascal main dialect used tools delphi lazarus ide free pascal documented modern object pascal used free pascal delphi c documented c99 standardized 1999 syntactically object pascal much algol-like c. english keywords retained c uses punctuation symbols — pascal codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 c uses codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 example however c actually algol-like pascal regarding simple declarations retaining type-name variable-name syntax example c accept declarations start block outer block function another subtle difference role semicolon pascal semicolons separate individual statements within compound statement whereas terminate statement c. also syntactically part statement c transforming expression statement difference manifests primarily two situations superfluous semicolon put last line end thereby formally inserting empty statement traditional c codice_9 since c99 also codice_10 object pascal codice_11 codice_12 codice_13 c pascal differ interpretation upper lower case c case sensitive pascal thus codice_14 codice_15 distinct names c identical pascal languages identifiers consist letters digits rule first character may digit c underscore counts letter even _abc valid name names leading underscore often used differentiate special system identifiers c. pascal also accepts character part identifiers difference c. c pascal use keywords words reserved use language examples const goto keywords happen common languages c basic built-in type names also keywords e.g int char combinations keywords e.g unsigned char pascal built-in type names predefined normal identifiers recent object pascal compilers however allow escape keywords feature mainly need directly communication foreign oop systems like com cocoa might use fields methods based pascal keywords c way escape keywords pascal procedure definitions start keywords procedure function type definitions type c function definitions determined syntactical context type definitions use keyword codice_16 languages use mix keywords punctuation definitions complex types instance arrays defined keyword array pascal punctuation c enumerations defined keyword codice_17 c punctuation pascal pascal functions begin end delimit block statements proper c functions use delimit block statements optionally preceded declarations c prior c99 strictly defines declarations must occur statements within particular block allows blocks appear within blocks way go around pascal strict declarations must occur statements allows definitions types functions variable declarations encapsulated function definitions level depth grammars languages similar size implementation perspective main difference two languages parse c necessary access symbol table types pascal one construct assignment instance c fragment codice_18 could declaration codice_19 object whose type pointer codice_20 statement-expression multiplies codice_20 codice_19 corresponding pascal fragment codice_23 unambiguous without symbol table pascal requires variable function declarations specify type explicitly traditional c type name may omitted contexts default type codice_24 corresponds codice_25 pascal implicitly assumed however defaults considered bad practice c often flagged warnings c accommodates different sizes signed unsigned modes integers using modifiers codice_26 codice_27 codice_28 codice_29 etc exact meaning resulting integer type machine-dependent however guaranteed codice_30 shorter codice_24 codice_24 shorter codice_33 however c standard least minimal sizes types specified guarantees codice_34 single byte codice_24 least two bytes pascal similar end performed declaring subrange integer compiler may choose allocate smaller amount storage declared variable subrange feature supported c. major subtle difference c pascal promote integer operations pascal operations integers integer subranges effect operands promoted full integer c defined rules promote different types integers typically resultant type operation two integers precision greater equal precisions operands make machine code generated c efficient many processors highly optimizing pascal compiler reduce eliminate effect standard pascal rules pre-standard implementation c well small-c et al allowed integer pointer types relatively freely intermixed c character type codice_34 kind integer longer codice_33 expressions codice_38 therefore perfectly legal declarations codice_39 codice_40 integer nature codice_34 eight-bit byte machines clearly illustrated declarations whether codice_34 type regarded codice_28 codice_29 default implementation pascal characters integers distinct types inbuilt compiler functions codice_45 codice_46 used typecast single characters corresponding integer value character set use vice versa e.g systems using ascii character set codice_47 codice_48 tab character addition codice_49 type object pascal also codice_50 represent unicode characters c usually implemented macro codice_16 name codice_52 simply alias codice_24 pascal boolean enumerated type possible values boolean false true ordinal value false=0 true=1 values undefined conversion integer ord used standard function integer boolean however conversion simple practice c binary valued relational operators == may regarded boolean sense always give results either zero one tests \|\| etc performed zero-checks false represented zero true represented value interface com object pascal added codice_54 codice_55 codice_56 type whose size respects prefix follow c truth table free pascal added proper pascal boolean types size suffix codice_57 interface glib uses codice_58 32-bit boolean type pascal truth table c programmer may sometimes use bitwise operators perform boolean operations care needs taken semantics different operands make use one bit represent value pascal another abstract high level method dealing bitwise data sets sets allow programmer set clear intersect unite bitwise data values rather using direct bitwise operators example pascal c although bit operations integers operations sets considered similar sets implemented using bits direct parallel uses unless non-standard conversion integers sets possible pascal could also bitwise operations exactly way c use codice_1 codice_2 codice_61 codice_62 operators operators normally work booleans operands integers behave bitwise operators made possible boolean integer distinct incompatible types therefore c code could written pascal c string remains pointer first element null-terminated array char 1972 one still use library support codice_63 manipulate strings object pascal many string types new type introduced old one kept backwards compatibility happened twice delphi 2 introduction ansistring delphi 2009 unicodestring besides main string types short- ansi- wide- unicodestring corresponding character types ansichar widechar=unicodechar types derived character type string properties pointer char array char dynamic array char pointer array char etc. object pascal codice_64 compiler-managed type reference-counted i.e. storage management handled compiler accurately runtime code inserted compiler executable string concatenation done codice_65 operator string comparison done standard relational operators case sensitive codice_66 object pascal also provides c-compatible strings type codice_67 manipulation routines defined codice_68 unit moreover object pascal provides wide variety string types convenience plain codice_76 type provided depending compiler switch could mean codice_69 codice_71 codice_74 additional convention used limit number characters given codice_69 otherwise codice_81 codice_82 strings freely intermixed manipulating strings compiler silent conversion required note target string type codice_69 silent truncation might happen due maximum length allowed example c real concept array pseudo construct declare storage multiple variables type arrays c n't know length 're referenced pointer first element 're always 0 based example get array length one calculate codice_84 therefore count length integer array use codice_85 common mistake calculate function expecting array argument despite appearance function accept pointer argument real array therefore inside function array treated plain pointer example common solution problem always pass array length function argument functions expect array argument also provide placeholder length despite treatment pointer pointer style constructs could used array example code would compile fine would cause access violation executed care taken designing code documentation explicitly state prevent users mistake assignment static arrays n't allowed one must use codice_86 function variants copy data arrays pascal array declared using codice_87 keyword specifying lower upper bound base type latter usually defined range type example arrays know upper lower bounds implicitly length bounds passed along function expects array argument functions codice_88 codice_89 codice_90 retrieve lower bound upper bound array length respectively context without explicit cast arrays ca n't wo n't converted pointers compile time error property type-safe programming assignment static arrays allowed assignment copies items source array destination mandatory upper lower bounds compatible source destination somehow 're different one use codice_91 partially copy data however since codice_91 low-level function one must use care programmer responsibility ensure data movement exceeds neither destination source boundary example c language support declaring using dynamic arrays however due pointer dereference syntax dynamic array could implemented memory management functions usually codice_93 example seen length n't maintained automatically reallocation use additional variable protect enough memory error assignment dynamic arrays follows pointer assignment rule object pascal provides language-level support dynamic arrays declared lower upper bound omitted one must call codice_94 function allocate storage dynamic arrays object pascal reference counted one n't worry freeing storage dynamic arrays always zero-based three functions codice_88 codice_89 codice_90 would still retrieve lower bound upper bound array length correctly example assignment dynamic arrays copies reference source array destination real copy required one use codice_98 function example 1-hop neighbor's text information: tops-10.tops-10 tops-10 system timesharing total operating system-10 discontinued operating system digital equipment corporation dec pdp-10 decsystem-10 mainframe computer family launched 1967 tops-10 evolved earlier monitor software pdp-6 pdp-10 computers renamed tops-10 1970 tops-10 supported shared memory allowed development one first true multiplayer computer games game called decwar text-oriented star trek type game users terminals typed commands fought real time tops-10 also home original multi user dungeon mud fore runner today mmorpgs another groundbreaking application called forum application perhaps first so-called cb simulator allowed users converse one another known chat room application showed potential multi-user communication led development compuserve chat application tops-10 robust application programming interface api used mechanism called uuo unimplemented user operation uuos implemented operating system calls way made look like machine instructions monitor call api much ahead time like operating system made system programming decsystem-10s simple powerful tops-10 scheduler supported prioritized run queues appended process onto queue depending priority system also included user file device independence following list commands supported tops-10 pdp-6 monitor software first released 1964 support pdp-10 ka10 processor added monitor release 2.18 1967 tops-10 name first used 1970 release 5.01 release 6.01 may 1974 first tops-10 implement virtual memory demand paging enabling programs larger physical memory run release 7.00 onwards symmetrical multiprocessing available opposed master/slave arrangement used final release tops-10 7.04 1988 hobbyists entitled set use tops-10 hobbyist license easiest way hobbyist run tops-10 acquire suitable emulator operating system image tops-10 may also generated archived original distribution tapes paul allen maintained several publicly accessible historic computer systems including decsystem-2065 running tops-10 request account try running tops-10 original equipment tops-10 assembler macro-10 bundled tops-10 distribution following programming languages implemented tops-10 layered products following programming languages implemented tops-10 contributions decus members following major user utilities implemented tops-10 ms-dos heavily influenced tops-10 identical elements include three character long file extensions several standard extensions eg exe txt asterisk wildcard usage slash character switch separator 1-hop neighbor's text information: snobol.snobol snobol string oriented symbolic language series computer programming languages developed 1962 1967 bell laboratories david j. farber ralph e. griswold ivan p. polonsky culminating snobol4 one number text-string-oriented languages developed 1950s 1960s others included comit trac snobol4 stands apart programming languages era patterns first-class data type i.e data type whose values manipulated ways permitted data type programming language providing operators pattern concatenation alternation later object-oriented languages javascript patterns type object admit various manipulations strings generated execution treated programs executed eval function languages snobol4 quite widely taught larger us universities late 1960s early 1970s widely used 1970s 1980s text manipulation language humanities 1980s 1990s use faded newer languages awk perl made string manipulation means regular expressions fashionable snobol4 patterns subsume bnf grammars equivalent context-free grammars powerful regular expressions regular expressions current versions awk perl fact extensions regular expressions traditional sense regular expressions unlike snobol4 patterns recursive gives distinct computational advantage snobol4 patterns recursive expressions appear perl 5.10 though released december 2007 one designers snobol ralph griswold designed successors snobol4 called sl5 icon combined backtracking snobol4 pattern matching standard algol-like structuring well adding features initial snobol language created tool used authors work symbolic manipulation polynomials written assembly language ibm 7090 simple syntax one datatype string functions declarations little error control however despite simplicity personal nature use began spread groups result authors decided extend tidy rewrote added functions standard user-defined released result snobol3 snobol2 exist short-lived intermediate development version without user-defined functions never released snobol3 became quite popular rewritten computers ibm 7090 programmers result several incompatible dialects arose snobol3 became popular authors received requests extensions language also began receive complaints incompatibility bugs versions n't written address take advantage new computers introduced late 1960s decision taken develop snobol4 many extra datatypes features based virtual machine allow improved portability across computers snobol4 language translator still written assembly language however macro features assembler used define virtual machine instructions snobol implementation language sil much improved portability language making relatively easy port virtual machine hosted translator recreating virtual instructions machine included macro assembler indeed high level language snobol4 supports number built-in data types integers limited precision real numbers strings patterns arrays tables associative arrays also allows programmer define additional data types new functions snobol4 programmer-defined data type facility advanced time—it similar earlier cobol later pascal records snobol command lines form five elements optional general subject matched pattern object present matched portion replaced object via rules replacement transfer absolute branch conditional branch dependent upon success failure subject evaluation pattern evaluation pattern match object evaluation final assignment also transfer code created compiled program run snobol pattern simple extremely complex simple pattern text string e.g abcd complex pattern may large structure describing example complete grammar computer language possible implement language interpreter snobol almost directly backus–naur form expression changes creating macro assembler interpreter completely theoretical piece hardware could take little hundred lines new instruction added single line complex snobol patterns things would impractical impossible using primitive regular expressions used pattern matching languages power derives so-called spitbol extensions since incorporated basically modern implementations original snobol 4 language although possible achieve power without part power comes side effects possible produce pattern matching operation including saving numerous intermediate/tentative matching results ability invoke user-written functions pattern match perform nearly desired processing influence ongoing direction interrupted pattern match takes even indeed change pattern matching operation patterns saved like first-class data item concatenated used within patterns used create complex sophisticated pattern expressions possible write example snobol4 pattern matches complete name international postal mailing address well beyond anything practical even attempt using regular expressions snobol4 pattern-matching uses backtracking algorithm similar used logic programming language prolog provides pattern-like constructs via dcgs algorithm makes easier use snobol logic programming language case languages snobol stores variables strings data structures single garbage-collected heap snobol rivals apl distinctiveness format programming style radically unlike standard procedural languages basic fortran c. hello world program might follows ... end simple program ask user name use output sentence ... end choose three possible outputs ... meh output hi username end love output nice meet username end hate output oh username end continue requesting input forthcoming ... namecount namecount 1 getinput output please give name namecount 1 end classic implementation pdp-10 used study compilers formal grammars artificial intelligence especially machine translation machine comprehension natural languages original implementation ibm 7090 bell labs holmdel n.j. snobol4 specifically designed portability first implementation started ibm 7094 1966 completed ibm 360 1967 rapidly ported many platforms normally implemented interpreter difficulty implementing high-level features compiler spitbol compiler provides nearly facilities interpreter provides gnat ada compiler comes package gnat.spitbol implements spitbol string manipulation semantics called within ada program file editor michigan terminal system mts provided pattern matching based snobol4 patterns several implementations currently available macro snobol4 c written phil budne free open source implementation capable running almost platform catspaw inc provided commercial implementation snobol4 language many different computer platforms including dos macintosh sun rs/6000 others implementations available free catspaw minnesota snobol4 viktors berstis closest pc implementation original ibm mainframe version even including fortran-like format statement support also free although snobol structured programming features snobol preprocessor called snostorm designed implemented 1970s fred g. swartz use michigan terminal system mts university michigan snostorm used eight fifteen sites ran mts also available university college london ucl 1982 1984 snocone andrew koenig adds block-structured constructs snobol4 language snocone self-contained programming language rather proper superset snobol4 spitbol implementation also introduced number features using traditional structured programming keywords nevertheless used provide many equivalent capabilities normally thought structured programming notably nested if/then/else type constructs features since added recent snobol4 implementations many years commercial product april 2009 spitbol released free software gnu general public license according dave farber griswold polonsky finally arrived name symbolic expression interpreter sexi common backronyms snobol 'string oriented symbolic language quasi-initialism 'string oriented symbolic language Target text information: algol.algol algol short algorithmic language family imperative computer programming languages originally developed mid-1950s greatly influenced many languages standard method algorithm description used acm textbooks academic sources thirty years sense syntax modern languages algol-like arguably influential four high-level programming languages among roughly contemporary fortran lisp cobol designed avoid perceived problems fortran eventually gave rise many programming languages including pl/i simula bcpl b pascal c. algol introduced code blocks codice_1 ... codice_2 pairs delimiting also first language implementing nested function definitions lexical scope moreover first programming language gave detailed attention formal language definition algol 60 report introduced backus–naur form principal formal grammar notation language design three major specifications named year first published algol 68 substantially different algol 60 well received general algol means algol 60 dialects thereof international algebraic language ial algol 58 extremely influential generally considered ancestor modern programming languages so-called algol-like languages additionally algol object code simple compact stack-based instruction set architecture commonly used teaching compiler construction high order languages algol generally considered first algol developed jointly committee european american computer scientists meeting 1958 eth zurich cf algol 58 specified three different syntaxes reference syntax publication syntax implementation syntax different syntaxes permitted use different keyword names conventions decimal points commas vs periods different languages algol used mostly research computer scientists united states europe use commercial applications hindered absence standard input/output facilities description lack interest language large computer vendors burroughs corporation algol 60 however become standard publication algorithms profound effect future language development john backus developed backus normal form method describing programming languages specifically algol 58 revised expanded peter naur algol 60 donald knuth suggestion renamed backus–naur form peter naur editor algol bulletin drawn international discussions language selected member european language design group november 1959 capacity editor algol 60 report produced result algol 60 meeting paris january 1960 following people attended meeting paris 1 16 january alan perlis gave vivid description meeting meetings exhausting interminable exhilarating one became aggravated one good ideas discarded along bad ones others nevertheless diligence persisted entire period chemistry 13 excellent algol 60 inspired many languages followed tony hoare remarked language far ahead time improvement predecessors also nearly successors scheme programming language variant lisp adopted block structure lexical scope algol also adopted wording revised report algorithmic language scheme standards documents homage algol peter landin noted language algol first language combine seamlessly imperative effects call-by-name lambda calculus perhaps elegant formulation language due john c. reynolds best exhibits syntactic semantic purity reynolds idealized algol also made convincing methodological argument regarding suitability local effects context call-by-name languages contrasted global effects used call-by-value languages ml conceptual integrity language made one main objects semantic research along pcf ml date least 70 augmentations extensions derivations sublanguages algol 60 burroughs dialects included special bootstrapping dialects espol newp latter still used unisys mcp system software algol 60 officially defined i/o facilities implementations defined ways rarely compatible contrast algol 68 offered extensive library transput input/output facilities algol 60 allowed two evaluation strategies parameter passing common call-by-value call-by-name call-by-name certain effects contrast call-by-reference example without specifying parameters value reference impossible develop procedure swap values two parameters actual parameters passed integer variable array indexed integer variable think passing pointer swap function every time swap referenced reevaluated say 1 2 every time swap referenced 'll return combination values 1,2 2,1 1,2 similar situation occurs random function passed actual argument call-by-name known many compiler designers interesting thunks used implement donald knuth devised man boy test separate compilers correctly implemented recursion non-local references test contains example call-by-name algol 68 defined using two-level grammar formalism invented adriaan van wijngaarden bears name van wijngaarden grammars use context-free grammar generate infinite set productions recognize particular algol 68 program notably able express kind requirements many programming language standards labelled semantics expressed ambiguity-prone natural language prose implemented compilers ad hoc code attached formal language parser procedure absmax size n result subscripts k example produce table using elliott 803 algol punch 3 sends output teleprinter rather tape punch. br sameline suppresses carriage return line feed normally printed arguments. br aligned 1,6 controls format output 1 digit 6 decimal point following code samples algol 68 versions algol 60 code samples algol 68 implementations used algol 60 approaches stropping algol 68 case tokens bold typeface reserved words types modes operators note lower ⌊ upper ⌈ bounds array array slicing directly available programmer variations lack portability programs one implementation another easily demonstrated classic hello world program algol 58 i/o facilities since algol 60 i/o facilities portable hello world program algol simpler program using inline format even simpler program using display statement alternative example using elliott algol i/o follows elliott algol used different characters open-string-quote close-string-quote version elliott 803 algol a104 standard elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape thus upper case code lacked quote characters £ uk pound sign used open quote question mark close quote special sequences placed double quotes e.g ££l produced new line teleprinter ict 1900 series algol i/o version allowed input paper tape punched card paper tape 'full mode allowed lower case output line printer open close quote characters represented using spaces algol 68 code published reserved words typically lowercase bolded underlined language algol 68 report input/output facilities collectively called transput algols conceived time character sets diverse evolving rapidly also algols defined uppercase letters required 1960 ifip – algol 60 language report included several mathematical symbols available modern computers operating systems unfortunately supported computing systems time instance × ÷ ≤ ≥ ≠ ¬ ∨ ∧ ⊂ ≡ ␣ ⏨ 1961 september ascii – ascii character set early stage development back slash character added order support algol boolean operators /\ \/ 1962 alcor – character set included unusual ᛭ runic cross character multiplication ⏨ decimal exponent symbol floating point notation 1964 gost – 1964 soviet standard gost 10859 allowed encoding 4-bit 5-bit 6-bit 7-bit characters algol 1968 algol 68 report – used existing algol characters adopted → ↓ ↑ □ ⌊ ⌈ ⎩ ⎧ ○ ⊥ ¢ characters found ibm 2741 keyboard golf-ball print heads inserted apl golfball became available mid-1960s algol 68 drafted report translated russian german french bulgarian allowed programming languages larger character sets e.g cyrillic alphabet soviet besm-4 algol characters also part unicode standard available several popular fonts 2009 october unicode – ⏨ decimal exponent symbol floating point notation added unicode 5.2 backward compatibility historic buran spacecraft algol software I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	512	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_protocol_suite.internet protocol suite internet protocol suite conceptual model set communications protocols used internet similar computer networks commonly known tcp/ip foundational protocols suite transmission control protocol tcp internet protocol ip occasionally known department defense dod model development networking method funded united states department defense darpa internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying data packetized addressed transmitted routed received functionality organized four abstraction layers classify related protocols according scope networking involved lowest highest layers link layer containing communication methods data remains within single network segment link internet layer providing internetworking independent networks transport layer handling host-to-host communication application layer providing process-to-process data exchange applications technical standards underlying internet protocol suite constituent protocols maintained internet engineering task force ietf internet protocol suite predates osi model comprehensive reference framework general networking systems internet protocol suite resulted research development conducted defense advanced research projects agency darpa late 1960s initiating pioneering arpanet 1969 darpa started work number data transmission technologies 1972 robert e. kahn joined darpa information processing technology office worked satellite packet networks ground-based radio packet networks recognized value able communicate across spring 1973 vinton cerf helped develop existing arpanet network control program ncp protocol joined kahn work open-architecture interconnection models goal designing next protocol generation arpanet summer 1973 kahn cerf worked fundamental reformulation differences local network protocols hidden using common internetwork protocol instead network responsible reliability arpanet function delegated hosts cerf credits hubert zimmermann louis pouzin designer cyclades network important influences design protocol implemented transmission control program first published 1974 initially tcp managed datagram transmissions routing protocol grew researchers recommended division functionality protocol layers advocates included jonathan postel university southern california information sciences institute edited request comments rfcs technical strategic document series documented catalyzed internet development postel stated screwing design internet protocols violating principle layering encapsulation different mechanisms intended create environment upper layers could access needed lower layers monolithic design would inflexible lead scalability issues transmission control program split two distinct protocols transmission control protocol internet protocol design network included recognition provide functions efficiently transmitting routing traffic end nodes intelligence located edge network end nodes design known end-to-end principle using design became possible connect almost network arpanet irrespective local characteristics thereby solving kahn initial internetworking problem one popular expression tcp/ip eventual product cerf kahn work run two tin cans string years later joke ip avian carriers formal protocol specification created successfully tested computer called router provided interface network forwards network packets back forth originally router called gateway term changed avoid confusion types gateways 1973 1974 cerf networking research group stanford worked details idea resulting first tcp specification significant technical influence early networking work xerox parc produced parc universal packet protocol suite much existed around time darpa contracted bbn technologies stanford university university college london develop operational versions protocol different hardware platforms four versions developed tcp v1 tcp v2 tcp v3 ip v3 tcp/ip v4 last protocol still use today 1975 two-network tcp/ip communications test performed stanford university college london november 1977 three-network tcp/ip test conducted sites us uk norway several tcp/ip prototypes developed multiple research centers 1978 1983 march 1982 us department defense declared tcp/ip standard military computer networking year peter t. kirstein research group university college london adopted protocol migration arpanet tcp/ip officially completed flag day january 1 1983 new protocols permanently activated 1985 internet advisory board later internet architecture board held three-day tcp/ip workshop computer industry attended 250 vendor representatives promoting protocol leading increasing commercial use 1985 first interop conference focused network interoperability broader adoption tcp/ip conference founded dan lynch early internet activist beginning large corporations ibm dec attended meeting ibm dec first major corporations adopt tcp/ip despite competing proprietary protocols ibm 1984 barry appelman group tcp/ip development navigated corporate politics get stream tcp/ip products various ibm systems including mvs vm os/2 time several smaller companies ftp software wollongong group began offering tcp/ip stacks dos microsoft windows first vm/cms tcp/ip stack came university wisconsin early tcp/ip stacks written single-handedly programmers jay elinsky ibm research wrote tcp/ip stacks vm/cms os/2 respectively 1984 donald gillies mit wrote ntcp multi-connection tcp ran atop ip/packetdriver layer maintained john romkey mit 1983-4 romkey leveraged tcp 1986 ftp software founded starting 1985 phil karn created multi-connection tcp application ham radio systems ka9q tcp spread tcp/ip fueled june 1989 university california berkeley agreed place tcp/ip code developed bsd unix public domain various corporate vendors including ibm included code commercial tcp/ip software releases microsoft released native tcp/ip stack windows 95 event helped cement tcp/ip dominance protocols microsoft-based networks included ibm systems network architecture sna platforms digital equipment corporation decnet open systems interconnection osi xerox network systems xns british academic network janet converted tcp/ip 1991 end-to-end principle evolved time original expression put maintenance state overall intelligence edges assumed internet connected edges retained state concentrated speed simplicity real-world needs firewalls network address translators web content caches like forced changes principle robustness principle states general implementation must conservative sending behavior liberal receiving behavior must careful send well-formed datagrams must accept datagram interpret e.g. object technical errors meaning still clear second part principle almost important software hosts may contain deficiencies make unwise exploit legal obscure protocol features encapsulation used provide abstraction protocols services encapsulation usually aligned division protocol suite layers general functionality general application highest level model uses set protocols send data layers data encapsulated level early architectural document emphasizes architectural principles layering rfc 1122 titled host requirements structured paragraphs referring layers document refers many architectural principles emphasize layering loosely defines four-layer model layers names numbers follows link layer networking scope local network connection host attached regime called link tcp/ip literature lowest component layer internet protocols tcp/ip designed hardware independent result tcp/ip may implemented top virtually hardware networking technology link layer used move packets internet layer interfaces two different hosts link processes transmitting receiving packets given link controlled software device driver network card well firmware specialized chipsets perform data link functions adding packet header prepare transmission actually transmit frame physical medium tcp/ip model includes specifications translating network addressing methods used internet protocol link layer addresses media access control mac addresses aspects level however implicitly assumed exist link layer explicitly defined tcp/ip model link layer also layer packets may selected sent virtual private network networking tunnels scenario link layer data may considered application data traverses another instantiation ip stack transmission reception another ip connection connection virtual link may established transport protocol even application scope protocol serves tunnel link layer protocol stack thus tcp/ip model dictate strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence link layer tcp/ip model corresponding functions layer 2 open systems interconnection osi model internet layer responsibility sending packets across potentially multiple networks internetworking requires sending data source network destination network process called routing internet protocol performs two basic functions internet layer agnostic data structures transport layer also distinguish operation various transport layer protocols ip carries data variety different upper layer protocols protocols identified unique protocol number example internet control message protocol icmp internet group management protocol igmp protocols 1 2 respectively protocols carried ip icmp used transmit diagnostic information igmp used manage ip multicast data layered top ip perform internetworking functions illustrates differences architecture tcp/ip stack internet osi model tcp/ip model internet layer corresponds layer three open systems interconnection osi model referred network layer internet layer provides unreliable datagram transmission facility hosts located potentially different ip networks forwarding transport layer datagrams appropriate next-hop router relaying destination functionality internet layer makes possible internetworking interworking different ip networks essentially establishes internet internet protocol principal component internet layer defines two addressing systems identify network hosts computers locate network original address system arpanet successor internet internet protocol version 4 ipv4 uses 32-bit ip address therefore capable identifying approximately four billion hosts limitation eliminated 1998 standardization internet protocol version 6 ipv6 uses 128-bit addresses ipv6 production implementations emerged approximately 2006 transport layer establishes basic data channels applications use task-specific data exchange layer establishes host-to-host connectivity meaning provides end-to-end message transfer services independent structure user data logistics exchanging information particular specific purpose independent underlying network protocols layer may provide error control segmentation flow control congestion control application addressing port numbers end-to-end message transmission connecting applications transport layer categorized either connection-oriented implemented tcp connectionless implemented udp purpose providing process-specific transmission channels applications layer establishes concept network port numbered logical construct allocated specifically communication channels application needs many types services port numbers standardized client computers may address specific services server computer without involvement service announcements directory services ip provides best effort delivery transport layer protocols offer reliability however ip run reliable data link protocol high-level data link control hdlc example tcp connection-oriented protocol addresses numerous reliability issues providing reliable byte stream newer stream control transmission protocol sctp also reliable connection-oriented transport mechanism message-stream-oriented—not byte-stream-oriented like tcp—and provides multiple streams multiplexed single connection also provides multi-homing support connection end represented multiple ip addresses representing multiple physical interfaces one fails connection interrupted developed initially telephony applications transport ss7 ip also used applications user datagram protocol connectionless datagram protocol like ip best effort unreliable protocol reliability addressed error detection using weak checksum algorithm udp typically used applications streaming media audio video voice ip etc on-time arrival important reliability simple query/response applications like dns lookups overhead setting reliable connection disproportionately large real-time transport protocol rtp datagram protocol designed real-time data streaming audio video applications given network address distinguished tcp udp port convention certain well known ports associated specific applications tcp/ip model transport host-to-host layer corresponds roughly fourth layer open systems interconnection osi model also called transport layer application layer includes protocols used applications providing user services exchanging application data network connections established lower level protocols may include basic network support services protocols routing host configuration examples application layer protocols include hypertext transfer protocol http file transfer protocol ftp simple mail transfer protocol smtp dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp data coded according application layer protocols encapsulated transport layer protocol units tcp udp messages turn use lower layer protocols effect actual data transfer tcp/ip model consider specifics formatting presenting data define additional layers application transport layers osi model presentation session layers functions realm libraries application programming interfaces application layer protocols generally treat transport layer lower protocols black boxes provide stable network connection across communicate although applications usually aware key qualities transport layer connection end point ip addresses port numbers application layer protocols often associated particular client-server applications common services well-known port numbers reserved internet assigned numbers authority iana example hypertext transfer protocol uses server port 80 telnet uses server port 23 clients connecting service usually use ephemeral ports i.e. port numbers assigned duration transaction random specific range configured application transport layer lower-level layers unconcerned specifics application layer protocols routers switches typically examine encapsulated traffic rather provide conduit however firewall bandwidth throttling applications must interpret application data example resource reservation protocol rsvp also sometimes necessary network address translator nat traversal consider application payload application layer tcp/ip model often compared equivalent combination fifth session sixth presentation seventh application layers open systems interconnection osi model furthermore tcp/ip model distinguishes user protocols support protocols support protocols provide services system network infrastructure user protocols used actual user applications example ftp user protocol dns support protocol following table shows various networking models number layers varies three seven networking models textbooks secondary sources may conflict intent rfc 1122 ietf primary sources three top layers osi model i.e application layer presentation layer session layer distinguished separately tcp/ip model application layer transport layer pure osi protocol applications x.400 also combined requirement tcp/ip protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture transport layer example nfs application protocol runs external data representation xdr presentation protocol turn runs protocol called remote procedure call rpc rpc provides reliable record transmission safely use best-effort udp transport different authors interpreted tcp/ip model differently disagree whether link layer entire tcp/ip model covers osi layer 1 physical layer issues whether hardware layer assumed link layer several authors attempted incorporate osi model layers 1 2 tcp/ip model since commonly referred modern standards example ieee itu often results model five layers link layer network access layer split osi model layers 1 2 ietf protocol development effort concerned strict layering protocols may fit cleanly osi model although rfcs sometimes refer often use old osi layer numbers ietf repeatedly stated internet protocol architecture development intended osi-compliant rfc 3439 addressing internet architecture contains section entitled layering considered harmful example session presentation layers osi suite considered included application layer tcp/ip suite functionality session layer found protocols like http smtp evident protocols like telnet session initiation protocol sip session layer functionality also realized port numbering tcp udp protocols cover transport layer tcp/ip suite functions presentation layer realized tcp/ip applications mime standard data exchange conflicts apparent also original osi model iso 7498 considering annexes model e.g. iso 7498/4 management framework iso 8648 internal organization network layer ionl ionl management framework documents considered icmp igmp defined layer management protocols network layer like manner ionl provides structure subnetwork dependent convergence facilities arp rarp ietf protocols encapsulated recursively demonstrated tunneling protocols generic routing encapsulation gre gre uses mechanism osi uses tunneling network layer internet protocol suite presume specific hardware software environment requires hardware software layer exists capable sending receiving packets computer network result suite implemented essentially every computing platform minimal implementation tcp/ip includes following internet protocol ip address resolution protocol arp internet control message protocol icmp transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp internet group management protocol igmp addition ip icmp tcp udp internet protocol version 6 requires neighbor discovery protocol ndp icmpv6 igmpv6 often accompanied integrated ipsec security layer application programmers typically concerned interfaces application layer often also transport layer layers services provided tcp/ip stack operating system ip implementations accessible programmers sockets apis unique implementations include lightweight tcp/ip open source stack designed embedded systems ka9q nos stack associated protocols amateur packet radio systems personal computers connected via serial lines microcontroller firmware network adapter typically handles link issues supported driver software operating system non-programmable analog digital electronics normally charge physical components link layer typically using application-specific integrated circuit asic chipset network interface physical standard high-performance routers large extent based fast non-programmable digital electronics carrying link level switching 1-hop neighbor's text information: ipv6.ipv6 internet protocol version 6 ipv6 recent version internet protocol ip communications protocol provides identification location system computers networks routes traffic across internet ipv6 developed internet engineering task force ietf deal long-anticipated problem ipv4 address exhaustion ipv6 intended replace ipv4 december 1998 ipv6 became draft standard ietf subsequently ratified internet standard 14 july 2017 devices internet assigned unique ip address identification location definition rapid growth internet commercialization 1990s became evident far addresses would needed connect devices ipv4 address space available 1998 internet engineering task force ietf formalized successor protocol ipv6 uses 128-bit address theoretically allowing 2 approximately addresses actual number slightly smaller multiple ranges reserved special use completely excluded use total number possible ipv6 addresses times many ipv4 uses 32-bit addresses provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses two protocols designed interoperable complicating transition ipv6 however several ipv6 transition mechanisms devised permit communication ipv4 ipv6 hosts ipv6 provides technical benefits addition larger addressing space particular permits hierarchical address allocation methods facilitate route aggregation across internet thus limit expansion routing tables use multicast addressing expanded simplified provides additional optimization delivery services device mobility security configuration aspects considered design protocol ipv6 addresses represented eight groups separated colons four hexadecimal digits full representation may simplified several methods notation example 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 becomes 2001 db8 :8a2e:370:7334 ipv6 internet layer protocol packet-switched internetworking provides end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple ip networks closely adhering design principles developed previous version protocol internet protocol version 4 ipv4 addition offering addresses ipv6 also implements features present ipv4 simplifies aspects address configuration network renumbering router announcements changing network connectivity providers simplifies processing packets routers placing responsibility packet fragmentation end points ipv6 subnet size standardized fixing size host identifier portion address 64 bits network security design requirement ipv6 architecture included original specification ipsec addressing architecture ipv6 defined allows three different types transmission unicast anycast multicast internet protocol version 4 ipv4 first publicly used version internet protocol ipv4 developed research project defense advanced research projects agency darpa united states department defense agency becoming foundation internet world wide web ipv4 includes addressing system uses numerical identifiers consisting 32 bits addresses typically displayed quad-dotted notation decimal values four octets range 0 255 8 bits per number thus ipv4 provides addressing capability 2 approximately 4.3 billion addresses address exhaustion initially concern ipv4 version originally presumed test darpa networking concepts first decade operation internet became apparent methods developed conserve address space early 1990s even redesign addressing system using classless network model became clear would suffice prevent ipv4 address exhaustion changes internet infrastructure needed last unassigned top-level address blocks 16 million ipv4 addresses allocated february 2011 internet assigned numbers authority iana five regional internet registries rirs however rir still available address pools expected continue standard address allocation policies one /8 classless inter-domain routing cidr block remains blocks 1024 addresses /22 provided rirs local internet registry lir september 2015 asia-pacific network information centre apnic réseaux ip européens network coordination centre ripe_ncc latin america caribbean network information centre lacnic american registry internet numbers arin reached stage leaves african network information center afrinic sole regional internet registry still using normal protocol distributing ipv4 addresses november 2018 afrinic minimum allocation /22 1024 ipv4 addresses lir may receive additional allocation 80 address space utilized widely expected internet use ipv4 alongside ipv6 foreseeable future direct communication ipv4 ipv6 network protocols possible internet data transmitted form network packets ipv6 specifies new packet format designed minimize packet header processing routers headers ipv4 packets ipv6 packets significantly different two protocols interoperable however transport application-layer protocols need little change operate ipv6 exceptions application protocols embed internet-layer addresses file transfer protocol ftp network time protocol ntp new address format may cause conflicts existing protocol syntax main advantage ipv6 ipv4 larger address space length ipv6 address 128 bits compared 32 bits ipv4 address space therefore 2 approximately addresses 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 approximately 340 undecillion 340 billion billion billion billion addresses ipv4 addresses reserved special uses addition ipv4 address space poorly allocated 2011 approximately 14 available addresses utilized numbers large intent designers ipv6 address space assure geographical saturation usable addresses rather longer addresses simplify allocation addresses enable efficient route aggregation allow implementation special addressing features ipv4 complex classless inter-domain routing cidr methods developed make best use small address space standard size subnet ipv6 2 addresses square size entire ipv4 address space thus actual address space utilization rates small ipv6 network management routing efficiency improved large subnet space hierarchical route aggregation multicasting transmission packet multiple destinations single send operation part base specification ipv6 ipv4 optional although commonly implemented feature ipv6 multicast addressing features protocols common ipv4 multicast also provides changes improvements eliminating need certain protocols ipv6 implement traditional ip broadcast i.e transmission packet hosts attached link using special broadcast address therefore define broadcast addresses ipv6 result achieved sending packet link-local nodes multicast group address ff02 :1 analogous ipv4 multicasting address 224.0.0.1 ipv6 also provides new multicast implementations including embedding rendezvous point addresses ipv6 multicast group address simplifies deployment inter-domain solutions ipv4 difficult organization get even one globally routable multicast group assignment implementation inter-domain solutions arcane unicast address assignments local internet registry ipv6 least 64-bit routing prefix yielding smallest subnet size available ipv6 also 64 bits assignment possible embed unicast address prefix ipv6 multicast address format still providing 32-bit block least significant bits address approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers thus user ipv6 subnet automatically available set globally routable source-specific multicast groups multicast applications ipv6 hosts configure automatically connected ipv6 network using neighbor discovery protocol via internet control message protocol version 6 icmpv6 router discovery messages first connected network host sends link-local router solicitation multicast request configuration parameters routers respond request router advertisement packet contains internet layer configuration parameters routers present special case requirements address configuration often sources autoconfiguration information router prefix advertisements stateless configuration routers achieved special router renumbering protocol renumbering existing network new connectivity provider different routing prefixes major effort ipv4 ipv6 however changing prefix announced routers principle renumber entire network since host identifiers least-significant 64 bits address independently self-configured host ipv6 stateless address auto-configuration unsuitable ipv6 like ipv4 allows stateful configuration dynamic host configuration protocol version 6 dhcpv6 manual static configuration hosts like ipv4 ipv6 supports globally unique ip addresses design ipv6 intended re-emphasize end-to-end principle network design originally conceived establishment early internet approach device network unique address globally reachable directly location internet unique ip address potentially used track network activity device moreover using ipv6 address auto-configuration interface identifier mac address network card used make public ipv6 interface identifier unique exposing type hardware used providing unique handle user online activity autoconfiguration basis network card mac address therefore particular privacy concern mobile devices laptops access internet different local area networks mac based interface identifier would always stay thus mac address based interface identifier used track movement usage particular mobile device ipv6 developed mid-90s internet accessed large number mobile devices privacy priority become today address privacy concerns slaac protocol updated mechanisms termed “ privacy extensions stateless address autoconfiguration ipv6 ” codified rfc 4941 rfc 7217 rfc 8064 prevents ipv6 address leaking mac address device first method generate interface identifier randomly interface identifier generated two devices local area network duplicate address detection dad function ipv6 neighbor discovery protocol ndp resolve situation slaac privacy extension also implements time configurable ipv6 interface addresses discarded new interface identifier generated typically time configured 24 hours ipv6 autoconfiguration generate set new ipv6 host address every day stable address needed another method generate interface identifier secret key network prefix since 2017 method codified rfc 7217 preferred stable private address according ietf late 2014 slaac privacy extensions functionality implemented following operating systems microsoft windows windows xp versions mac os x 10.7 onward versions ios since 4.3 versions android since 4.0 ice cream sandwich privacy extension enabled default windows since xp sp1 os x since 10.7 ios since version 4.3 linux distributions enabled privacy extensions well internet protocol security ipsec originally developed ipv6 found widespread deployment first ipv4 re-engineered ipsec mandatory part ipv6 protocol implementations internet key exchange ike recommended rfc 6434 inclusion ipsec ipv6 implementations downgraded recommendation considered impractical require full ipsec implementation types devices may use ipv6 however rfc 4301 ipv6 protocol implementations implement ipsec need implement ikev2 need support minimum set cryptographic algorithms requirement help make ipsec implementations interoperable devices different vendors ipsec authentication header ah encapsulating security payload header esp implemented ipv6 extension headers packet header ipv6 simpler ipv4 header many rarely used fields moved optional header extensions simplified ipv6 packet header process packet forwarding routers simplified although ipv6 packet headers least twice size ipv4 packet headers packet processing routers generally efficient less processing required routers due headers aligned match common word sizes moreover ipv6 header include checksum ipv4 header checksum calculated ipv4 header recalculated routers every time time live called hop limit ipv6 protocol reduced one absence checksum ipv6 header furthers end-to-end principle internet design envisioned processing network occurs leaf nodes integrity protection data encapsulated ipv6 packet assumed assured link layer error detection higher-layer protocols namely transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp transport layer thus ipv4 allowed udp datagram headers checksum indicated 0 header field ipv6 requires checksum udp headers ipv6 routers perform ip fragmentation ipv6 hosts required either perform path mtu discovery perform end-to-end fragmentation send packets larger default maximum transmission unit mtu 1280 octets unlike mobile ipv4 mobile ipv6 avoids triangular routing therefore efficient native ipv6 ipv6 routers may also allow entire subnets move new router connection point without renumbering ipv6 packet header minimum size 40 octets 320 bits options implemented extensions provides opportunity extend protocol future without affecting core packet structure however study 2015 indicated network operators dropped ipv6 packets extension headers traversed transit autonomous systems ipv4 limits packets 65,535 2−1 octets payload ipv6 node optionally handle packets limit referred jumbograms large 4,294,967,295 2−1 octets use jumbograms may improve performance high-mtu links use jumbograms indicated jumbo payload option extension header ipv6 packet two parts header payload header consists fixed portion minimal functionality required packets may followed optional extensions implement special features fixed header occupies first 40 octets 320 bits ipv6 packet contains source destination addresses traffic classification options hop counter type optional extension payload follows header next header field tells receiver interpret data follows header packet contains options field contains option type next option next header field last option points upper-layer protocol carried packet payload extension headers carry options used special treatment packet network e.g. routing fragmentation security using ipsec framework without special options payload must less jumbo payload option hop-by-hop options extension header payload must less 4 gb unlike ipv4 routers never fragment packet hosts expected use path mtu discovery make packets small enough reach destination without needing fragmented see ipv6 packet fragmentation ipv6 addresses 128 bits design ipv6 address space implements different design philosophy ipv4 subnetting used improve efficiency utilization small address space ipv6 address space deemed large enough foreseeable future local area subnet always uses 64 bits host portion address designated interface identifier most-significant 64 bits used routing prefix identifier unique within subnet host connected ipv6 mechanism automatic address detection address autoconfiguration always produces unique assignments 128 bits ipv6 address represented 8 groups 16 bits group written four hexadecimal digits sometimes called hextets formally hexadectets informally quibble quad-nibble groups separated colons example representation convenience ipv6 address may abbreviated shorter notations application following rules example application rules loopback address defined may abbreviated using rules ipv6 address may one representation ietf issued proposed standard representing text interfaces ipv6 hosts require link-local address ipv6 link-local address derived mac address interface prefix process involves filling address space prefix bits left-justified most-significant bit filling mac address eui-64 format least-significant bits bits remain filled two parts set zero ipv6 implement broadcast functionality address resolution protocol arp based neighbor discovery protocol ndp nd used link layer map layer 3 ipv6 addresses layer 2 addresses mac address ethernet network cards ndp relies icmpv6 multicast transmission ipv6 hosts verify uniqueness ipv6 addresses local area network lan sending neighbor solicitation message asking link layer address ipv6 address host lan using address responds lan mac addresses designed unique network card minimizes chances duplication generated link-local address ipv6 host determines lan connected router network card ipv6 implementation sending icmpv6 router solicitation message all-routers multicast group link-local address source answer predetermined number attempts host concludes routers connected get response router network information inside needed create globally unique address also two flag bits tell host whether use dhcp get information addresses assignment procedure global addresses similar local address construction prefix supplied router advertisements network multiple prefix announcements cause multiple addresses configured stateless address autoconfiguration slaac requires address block defined local internet registries assigned least blocks divide among subordinate networks initial recommendation stated assignment subnet end-consumer sites replaced recommends giving home sites significantly single recommend every home site given either specifically considered remains seen isps honor recommendation example initial trials comcast customers given single network domain name system dns hostnames mapped ipv6 addresses aaaa quad-a resource records reverse resolution ietf reserved domain ip6.arpa name space hierarchically divided 1-digit hexadecimal representation nibble units 4 bits ipv6 address scheme defined dual-stack host queries dns server resolve fully qualified domain name fqdn dns client host sends two dns requests one querying records querying aaaa records host operating system may configured preference address selection rules alternate record type used early dns implementations ipv6 designed facilitate network renumbering a6 records forward lookup number innovations bit-string labels dname records defined references discussion pros cons schemes deprecated experimental status ipv6 foreseen supplant ipv4 instantaneously protocols continue operate simultaneously time therefore ipv6 transition mechanisms needed enable ipv6 hosts reach ipv4 services allow isolated ipv6 hosts networks reach ipv4 infrastructure according silvia hagen dual-stack implementation ipv4 ipv6 devices easiest way migrate ipv6 many transition mechanisms use tunneling encapsulate ipv6 traffic within ipv4 networks vice versa imperfect solution reduces maximum transmission unit mtu link therefore complicates path mtu discovery may increase latency dual-stack ip implementations provide complete ipv4 ipv6 protocol stacks operating system computer network device top common physical layer implementation ethernet permits dual-stack hosts participate ipv6 ipv4 networks simultaneously method defined device dual-stack implementation operating system ipv4 ipv6 address communicate nodes lan internet using either ipv4 ipv6 domain name system dns protocol used ip protocols resolve fully qualified domain names fqdn ip addresses dual stack requires resolving dns server resolve types addresses dual stack dns server would hold ipv4 addresses records ipv6 addresses aaaa records depending destination resolved dns name server may return ipv4 ipv6 ip address default address selection mechanism preferred protocol needs configured either hosts dns server ietf published happy eyeballs assist dual stack applications connect using ipv4 ipv6 prefer ipv6 connection available however dual-stack also needs implemented routers host service dns server returned ipv6 address dual-stack clients configured prefer ipv6 network able forward ipv6 packets using ipv6 versions routing protocols dual stack networks protocols place application layer migrated ipv6 dual-stack supported major operating system network device vendors legacy networking hardware servers n't support ipv6 internet service providers isps increasingly providing business private customers public-facing ipv6 global unicast addresses however local area network lan ipv4 still used isp provide public facing ipv6 ipv4 lan addresses translated public facing ipv6 address using nat64 network address translation nat mechanism isps provide customers public-facing ipv4 ipv6 addresses thus supporting dual stack networking isps exhausted globally routable ipv4 address pool meanwhile isp customers still trying reach ipv4 web servers destinations significant percentage isps regional internet registry rir zones obtained ipv6 address space includes many world ’ major isps mobile network operators verizon wireless starhub cable chubu telecommunications kabel deutschland swisscom t-mobile internode telefonica isps still allocate customers ipv4 addresses many isps allocate customers ipv6 dual stack ipv4 ipv6 isps report share ipv6 traffic customers network anything 20 40 mid-2017 ipv6 traffic still accounted fraction total traffic several large internet exchange points ixps ams-ix reported 2 seattleix reported 7 2017 survey found many dsl customers served dual stack isp request dns servers resolve fully qualified domain names ipv6 addresses survey also found majority traffic ipv6-ready webserver resources still requested served ipv4 mostly due isp customers use dual stack facility provided isp lesser extent due customers ipv4-only isps technical basis tunneling encapsulating ipv6 packets ipv4 packets outlined rfc 4213 internet backbone ipv4-only one frequently used tunneling protocols 6to4 teredo tunneling also frequently used integrating ipv6 lans ipv4 internet backbone teredo outlined rfc 4380 allows ipv6 local area networks tunnel ipv4 networks encapsulating ipv6 packets within udp teredo relay ipv6 router mediates teredo server native ipv6 network expected 6to4 teredo would widely deployed isp networks would switch native ipv6 2014 google statistics showed use mechanisms dropped almost 0 hybrid dual-stack ipv6/ipv4 implementations recognize special class addresses ipv4-mapped ipv6 addresses addresses typically written 96-bit prefix standard ipv6 format remaining 32 bits written customary dot-decimal notation ipv4 addresses group consist 80-bit prefix zeros next 16 bits ones remaining least-significant 32 bits contain ipv4 address example :ffff:192.0.2.128 represents ipv4 address 192.0.2.128 another deprecated format ipv4-compatible ipv6 addresses :192.0.2.128 significant internal differences ipv4 ipv6 protocol stacks lower-level functionality available programmers ipv6 stack work used ipv4-mapped addresses common ipv6 stacks implement ipv4-mapped address feature either ipv6 ipv4 stacks separate implementations e.g. microsoft windows 2000 xp server 2003 security concerns openbsd operating systems program must open separate socket ip protocol uses systems e.g. linux kernel netbsd freebsd feature controlled socket option ipv6_v6only specified compatibility ipv6 networking mainly software firmware issue however much older hardware could principle upgraded likely replaced instead 2010 american registry internet numbers arin suggested internet servers prepared serve ipv6-only clients january 2012 host software may ipv4 ipv6 networking software may support dual-stack hybrid dual-stack operation many popular applications networking capabilities compliant software transitioning mechanisms outlined ipv6 implemented major operating systems use commercial business home consumer environments personal computers smartphones running recent major operating system versions support ipv6 cablelabs consortium published 160 mbit/s docsis 3.0 ipv6-ready specification cable modems august 2006 docsis 2.0 updated docsis 2.0 ipv6 provide ipv6 support may available firmware upgrade addition nodes ipv6 enabled default software manufacturer may result inadvertent creation shadow networks causing ipv6 traffic flowing networks ipv4 security management place may also occur operating system upgrades newer operating system enables ipv6 default older one failing update security infrastructure accommodate ipv6 lead ipv6 traffic bypassing shadow networks occurred business networks enterprises replacing windows xp systems ipv6 stack enabled default windows 7 systems ipv6 stack implementors therefore recommended disabling ipv4 mapped addresses instead using dual-stack network supporting ipv4 ipv6 necessary research shown use fragmentation leveraged evade network security controls similar ipv4 result requires first fragment ipv6 packet contains entire ipv6 header chain pathological fragmentation cases forbidden additionally result research evasion ra-guard deprecated use fragmentation neighbor discovery discouraged use fragmentation secure neighbor discovery send due anticipated global growth internet internet engineering task force ietf early 1990s started effort develop next generation ip protocol beginning 1992 several proposals appeared expanded internet addressing system end 1992 ietf announced call white papers september 1993 ietf created temporary ad-hoc ip next generation ipng area deal specifically issues new area led allison mankin scott bradner directorate 15 engineers diverse backgrounds direction-setting preliminary document review working-group members j. allard microsoft steve bellovin jim bound digital equipment corporation ross callon wellfleet brian carpenter cern dave clark mit john curran nearnet steve deering xerox dino farinacci cisco paul francis ntt eric fleischmann boeing mark knopper ameritech greg minshall novell rob ullmann lotus lixia zhang xerox internet engineering task force adopted ipng model 25 july 1994 formation several ipng working groups 1996 series rfcs released defining internet protocol version 6 ipv6 starting version 5 used experimental internet stream protocol first rfc standardize ipv6 1995 became obsoleted 1998 july 2017 rfc replaced 1993 introduction classless inter-domain routing cidr routing ip address allocation internet extensive use network address translation nat delayed ipv4 address exhaustion final phase exhaustion started 3 february 2011 universities among early adopters ipv6 virginia tech deployed ipv6 trial location 2004 since expanded ipv6 deployment across campus network 2016 82 traffic network used ipv6 imperial college london experimenting ipv6 deployment since 2003 2016 ipv6 traffic networks averaged 20 40 significant portion ipv6 traffic generated high energy physics collaboration cern depends entirely ipv6 since 2008 domain name system dns supports ipv6 year ipv6 first used major world event 2008 summer olympic games beijing 4 domain names 16.2 networks internet ipv6 protocol support 2014 ipv4 still carried 99 worldwide internet traffic deployment ipv6 internet backbone progress 2018 25.3 54,000 autonomous systems advertised ipv4 ipv6 prefixes global border gateway protocol bgp routing database 243 networks advertised ipv6 prefix internet backbone transit networks offering ipv6 support exist every country globally except parts africa middle east china mid-2018 major european broadband isps deployed ipv6 majority customers british sky broadcasting provided 86 customers ipv6 deutsche telekom 56 deployment ipv6 xs4all netherlands 73 deployment belgium broadband isps voo telenet 73 63 ipv6 deployment respectively united states broadband isp comcast ipv6 deployment 66 2018 comcast reported estimated 36.1 million ipv6 users reported 22.3 million ipv6 users internet exchanges amsterdam seattle large exchanges publicly show ipv6 traffic statistics october 2018 tracking 2.9 7.7 growing 1.9 -2.6 per year respectively percentage users reaching google services ipv6 29 26 alexa top 1000 web servers support ipv6 according internet society report state ipv6 deployment 2018 major mobile network providers drove ipv6 adoption japan mobile network providers nippon telegraph telephone ntt kddi softbank pushed forward ipv6 deployment india ipv6 adoption advanced jio lte network covers india ’ 29 states reaches 80 country ’ population 2018 jio estimated 237.6 million ipv6 users united states ipv6 adoption pioneered verizon wireless 2009 verizon mandated ipv6 operation reduced ipv4 optional capability lte cellular hardware verizon productively deployed ipv6 across existing ipv4 network avoid network complexity arose networks using private network ipv4 address space 2018 80 traffic verizon wireless major content providers using ipv6 united states data centers transitioned ipv6 networking since 2018 facebook eliminating ipv4 data centers network-facing load balancers accept ipv4 ipv6 traffic linkedin microsoft stated intentions move networks ipv6 google linkedin akamai 2018 deploying ipv6 data center networks connecting natively ipv6 end users governments including united states china issued guidelines requirements ipv6 capability Target text information: host_model.host model computer networking host model option designing tcp/ip stack networking operating system like microsoft windows linux unicast packet arrives host ip must determine whether packet locally destined destination matches address assigned interface host ip stack implemented weak host model accepts locally destined packet regardless network interface packet received ip stack implemented strong host model accepts locally destined packets destination ip address packet matches ip address assigned network interface packet received weak host model provides better network connectivity example easy find packet arriving host using ordinary tools also makes hosts susceptible multihome-based network attacks strong host model provides better security ipv4 implementation microsoft windows versions prior windows vista uses weak host model windows vista windows server 2008 tcp/ip stack supports strong host model ipv4 ipv6 configured use default however also configured use weak host model ipv4 implementation linux defaults weak host model source validation reversed path specified rfc 1812 enabled rp_filter option distributions default quite strong host model defends class attacks typical multihomed hosts arp_ignore arp_announce also used tweak behaviour bsd defaults strong host model I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	1,081	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: gnome_web.gnome web gnome web called epiphany 2012 free open-source lightweight web browser based webkitgtk developed gnome linux unix-like systems browser forked galeon 2002 developers disagreements galeon growing complexity since developed part gnome core applications uses gnome technology settings applicable follows gnome human interface guidelines gnome web originally used mozilla gecko version 2.28 starting version 2.20 september 2007 switched webkitgtk due technical problems gecko change allows relatively small developer community maintain sufficient level modern web standards support features gnome web includes best integration gnome reuse gnome configuration settings built-in integration gnome keyring securely store passwords first-class support new linux technologies like major gtk versions wayland small package size 2mb debian ubuntu full multimedia support using gstreamer reader mode/reading mode since v3.30 september 2018 mouse gestures smart bookmarks web application integration user desktop management page support google safe browsing since v3.28 2018-03 gnome web default web browser elementary os recommended excellent web application integration security benefits related marco pesenti gritti initiator galeon originally developed epiphany 2002 fork galeon fork occurred divergent aims gritti rest galeon development team new features gritti regarded galeon monolithic design number user-configurable features factors limiting galeon maintainability user base expansion rest galeon developers wanted see features added time gnome project created gnome human interface guidelines promoted simplification user interfaces galeon oriented towards power users developers saw implementation guidelines unacceptable result gritti created new browser based galeon codebase non-mission-critical features removed intended epiphany comply fully gnome human interface guidelines simple user-interface epiphany theme settings uses gnome settings specified gnome control center gritti explained motivations galeon continued fork lost momentum due remaining developers failure keep new features changes mozilla introduced galeon development finally stalled developers decided work set extensions bring galeon advanced features epiphany instead epiphany early philosophy included commitment creating web browser specifically gnome gritti ended work epiphany project gnome team led xan lopez christian persch jean-françois rameau direct project gritti died cancer 23 may 2015 promote epiphany default web browser linux distributions gnome default desktop environment distros offer firefox instead minimalist distributions epiphany installed gnome meta-package packages group first version epiphany released december 24 2002 epiphany initially used gecko layout engine mozilla project display web pages provided gnome integrated graphical user interface gecko instead mozilla xul interface development process epiphany mainly focused numerous small usability improvements notable new text entry widget first appeared 1.8 stable version series new widget supported icons inside text area reduced amount screen space needed present information improved gnome integration second major milestone version 1.0 epiphany development 2.14 release first epiphany release followed gnome version numbering also featured network awareness using networkmanager smart bookmarks-related improvements possibility compiled xulrunner latter critical previously epiphany could use firefox mozilla/seamonkey layout engine provider could installed alongside one browsers xulrunner support made possible install epiphany sole web browser system development process suffered major problems related gecko backend address issues july 2007 epiphany team added support webkit alternative rendering engine epiphany backend development advanced epiphany team announced would stop using gecko rendering engine proceed using webkit size development team complexity porting whole browser new backend caused epiphany re-release version 2.22 bugfixes instead actual development code browser development remained stagnant project team announced epiphany 2.26 would final gecko-based version eventually september 2009 webkit-powered epiphany 2.28 released part gnome 2.28 gnome 3.4 release epiphany renamed web however name epiphany still used internally development bug tracking source code package remains epiphany-browser debian-based distros epiphany redhat-based distros gnome web based webkit browser engine provides support html 4 xhtml css 1 2 substantial degree implementation html5 css 3 features web inspector html javascript debugging tool npapi including adobe flash icedtea-web plug-ins support web reuses gnome frameworks settings therefore user interface theme gnome default theme network settings gnome networkmanager configuration printing gnome printing system settings gsettings gnome default applications settings used internet media types handling built-in preference manager web designed present user basic browser-specific settings advanced configuration done stand-alone gsettings configurator tools gnome default dconf command line dconf-editor graphical follows gnome human interface guidelines follows platform-wide design changes example web 3.4 release menu application-wide actions moved gnome shell top panel application menu menubar replaced super menu button triggers display window-specific menu entries browsers feature hierarchical folder-based bookmark system web uses categorized bookmarks single bookmark web exist multiple categories web browsers gnome computer software special category includes bookmarks yet categorized another innovative concept supported web though originally galeon smart bookmarks take single argument specified address bar textbox toolbar bookmarks along browsing history accessed address bar find-as-you-type manner gnome web extensible official third-party extensions version 3.6 plug-in system called web extensions package distributed developers gnome web contained official extensions version 3.8 system removed due problems stability maintainability popular extensions ad blocking moved core application instead since gnome 3.2 released september 2011 web allows creating application launchers web applications subsequent invocation launcher brings plain site-specific browser single instance web limited one domain off-site links opening normal browser launcher created way accessible desktop limited gnome shell instance may used unity used ubuntu feature facilitates integration desktop world wide web goal web developers similar features found windows version google chrome purpose mozilla foundation previously developed standalone application mozilla prism superseded project chromeless web applications managed within epiphany main instance applications deleted page accessible special uri applications approach supposed temporary solution common gnome-wide application management intended implemented gnome 3.4 rolled since gnome 3.26 web support firefox sync allows users sync bookmarks history passwords open tabs firefox sync shared copy firefox web user signs firefox sync since gnome 3.28 gnome web support google safe browsing help prevent users visiting malicious websites component gnome desktop environment web neither software hardware dependencies beyond gnome platform though gnome project list minimum system requirements states gnome 3 run modern computer gnome web run many hardware platforms including i386 amd64 several instruction set architectures reviewing webkit-powered epiphany 2.28 september 2009 ryan paul ars technica said epiphany quite snappy gnome 2.28 scores 100/100 acid3 test using webkit help differentiate epiphany firefox shipped default browser major linux distributors reviewing epiphany 2.30 july 2010 jack wallen described efficient different noted problem crashes first started working epiphany crashed sites visited little research little debugging realized issue javascript epiphany current release strange reason n't like javascript way around disable javascript yes means lot features wo n't work lot sites – also means sites load faster wo n't prone issues like crashing browser wallen concluded positively browser although epiphany n't fully replaced chrome firefox one-stop-shop browser use much would previously small footprint fast startup clean interface march 2011 veronica henry reviewed epiphany 2.32 saying fair would hard sell primary desktop browser users fact n't even setting let designate default browser instance need fire lighting-fast browser quick surfing epiphany trick noted though still use firefox primary browser lately seems run snail pace one first things noticed epiphany quickly launches subsequent page loads system equally fast henry criticized epiphany short list extensions singling lack firebug deficiency web instead supports web inspector offered webkit engine similar functionality april 2012 ryan paul ars technica used web example criticism gnome 3.4 design decisions aside poor initial discoverability panel menu model works reasonably well simple applications ... unfortunately n't scale well complex applications best example approach pose difficulties gnome default web browser ... application functionality split across two completely separate menus constitute usability improvement addressed later versions single unified menu october 2016 review bertel king jr. noted makeuseof later versions offer best integration find gnome shell lacks add-ons found mainstream browsers users like minimalism speed tab isolation prevents one misbehaving site crashing entire browser 1-hop neighbor's text information: flock_(web_browser).flock web browser flock discontinued web browser specialized providing social networking web 2.0 facilities built user interface earlier versions flock used gecko html rendering engine mozilla version 2.6.2 released january 27 2011 last version based mozilla firefox starting version 3 flock based chromium used webkit rendering engine flock available free download supported microsoft windows mac os x one time linux well support flock discontinued april 2011 flock successor round two raised money bessemer venture partners catamount ventures shasta ventures angel investors bart decrem geoffrey arone co-founded company flock raised 15 million fourth round funding led fidelity ventures may 22 2008 estimated total 30 million according cnet company previous investors bessemer venture partners catamount ventures shasta ventures also participated round january 2011 flock inc. acquired zynga browser discontinued support ending april 26 2011 flock 2.5 integrated social networking media services including myspace facebook youtube twitter flickr blogger gmail yahoo mail etc logging supported social services flock could track updates friends profiles uploaded photos flock latest 2.5 version added twitter search functionality multi-casting status updates multiple services introduction instant messaging via facebook chat browser features include december 2007 flock mashable open web awards applications widgets march 2008 flock south southwest web award community cnet gave mac os x version flock 1.0 title best mac software 2007 pc world harry mccracken reviewed flock new favorite web browser february 2008 aol announced would discontinue support netscape browser recommended flock firefox alternative browsers userbase netscape 9 users netscape 8 userbase aol recommended flock browser users march 2008 flock announced seen nearly 3 million downloads 135 increase active users first two months 2008 also announced 70 percent flock users making default browser choice may 2008 flock social networking category webby awards flock nominated award along facebook bebo ning flock discontinuation announced april 2011 reviewer joey sneddon omg ubuntu offered analysis whether poor implementation design wise one needs glance 'rockmelt example social browser done right general apathy towards alerts twitter flickr facebook digg et al face time moot flock flocked innovation never quite lived hype upon exiting beta flock number awards 1-hop neighbor's text information: spacetime_(software).spacetime software spacetime also known spacetime3d 3d graphical user interface displays web pages 3d tabbed stack interface available online flash application free desktop software download microsoft windows operating system technology presented 2008 ces tradeshow ceo eddie bakhash began working spacetime 1993 product debuted beta june 4 2007 day release san jose mercury news noted software advanced 3-d navigation system 've seen n't make dizzy except thoughts could become software capabilities compared current browsing 3d technologies techcrunch comment spacetime pure eye candy sort like second life meets firefox online version spacetime features ability search google google images wikipedia youtube desktop application released beta form june 4 2007 currently available windows 2000 xp vista systems mac os x version planned 2008 yet come fruition spacetime developers currently working port product opengl framework order support linux unix operating systems using search engines including google google images yahoo yahoo image ebay flickr spacetime loads first ten results stack pages beta browser received mixed reviews katherine boehret wall street journal stated though ’ still rely google basic searches visual search save time turn searching fun process jack m. germain technewsworld described spacetime delivers promise save time provide revolutionary online searching stating continue use 3-d searching environment though fun work edward n. albro pcworld gave beta browser 2.5/5 stating visual results make searches easier basic browsing spacetime appeal browser buggy slow basic browsing Target text information: pale_moon_(web_browser).pale moon web browser pale moon open-source web browser emphasis customizability motto browser way official releases microsoft windows linux unofficial build macos contributed builds various platforms pale moon fork firefox substantial divergence main differences user interface add-on support running single-process mode pale moon retains highly customizable user interface firefox version 4–28 era also continues support types add-ons longer supported firefox pale moon diverged firefox number ways version 26.5 final official release support windows xp version 27.9 final official release support windows vista end xp support quickly followed pale moon getting least two forks take recent pale moon code recompile xp new moon roytam1 mypal feodor2 official releases support older processors without sse2 instruction set however contributed build linux available supports older processors pale moon source code released mozilla public license 2.0 except parts relating branding ensure quality redistribution officially branded pale moon binaries permissible specific circumstances name logo trademarked project founder used without prior permission m.c straver project founder lead developer straver first official release pale moon 2009 rebuild firefox 3.5.2 tweaked compiler settings eventually scope project grew version 24 became true fork firefox 24 esr starting version 25 pale moon uses completely independent versioning scheme pale moon 27 major re-fork core browser code firefox 38 esr added http/2 directx 11 mse/dash javascript es6 capabilities add-on support remained almost entirely unchanged slight reduction jetpack compatibility 2017 team behind pale moon began unified xul platform uxp project uxp actively maintained fork historical fork point mozilla code firefox 52 esr significant modifications codebase updated web technology support creating number xul-based applications demonstrate develop refine platform straver used create new browser basilisk pale moon 28 released august 2018 first version built uxp thereby providing improved support web standards video pale moon android distinct development effort longer maintained first released 2014 straver announced following year would likely abandoned due lack community involvement final release 25.9.6 straver remarked role benchmark tests questionable stating ca n't used draw hard regularly even conclusions plain simple indication nothing serve well compare closely related siblings e.g firefox iceweasel different builds exact browser get relative performance difference two limited subset actually tested far goes br questionable role confirmed leading technology experts example google announced retiring octane benchmark 2017 2013 pale moon bit slower firefox clubcompy real-world benchmark browsers respectively scoring 8,168 9,344 points possible 50,000 2016 browser comparison test ghacks pale moon version 25 smallest memory footprint opening 10 different websites separate tabs however report pale moon scored bottom mozilla kraken google octane 32-bit robohornet tests second-to-last 64-bit robohornet benchmarks whilst browsers hung tests pale moon hung jetstream javascript benchmark current uxp versions pale moon score comparatively browsers benchmarks showing e.g significant difference sunspider benchmark compared firefox quantum I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	1,664	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: shell_builtin.shell builtin computing shell builtin command function called shell executed directly shell instead external executable program shell would load execute shell builtins work significantly faster external programs program loading overhead however code inherently present shell thus modifying updating requires modifications shell therefore shell builtins usually used simple almost trivial functions text output nature operating systems functions systems must necessarily implemented shell builtins notable example codice_1 command changes working directory shell since executable program runs separate process working directories specific process loading codice_1 external program would affect working directory shell loaded widely used shell-builtin codice_3 function terminates session function different names depending shell 1-hop neighbor's text information: ping_(networking_utility).ping networking utility ping computer network administration software utility used test reachability host internet protocol ip network available virtually operating systems networking capability including embedded network administration software ping measures round-trip time messages sent originating host destination computer echoed back source name comes active sonar terminology sends pulse sound listens echo detect objects water ping operates sending internet control message protocol icmp echo request packets target host waiting icmp echo reply program reports errors packet loss statistical summary results typically including minimum maximum mean round-trip times standard deviation mean command-line options ping utility output vary numerous implementations options may include size payload count tests limits number network hops ttl probes traverse interval requests many systems provide companion utility ping6 testing internet protocol version 6 ipv6 networks implement icmpv6 ping utility written mike muuss december 1983 employment ballistic research laboratory us army research laboratory created tool troubleshoot problems ip network mike muuss inspired remark david mills using icmp echo packets ip network diagnosis measurements author named sound sonar makes since methodology analogous sonar echo location first released version public domain software subsequent versions licensed bsd license ping first included 4.3bsd freedos version developed erick engelke licensed gpl tim crawford developed reactos version licensed mit license rfc 1122 prescribes host must process icmp echo requests issue echo replies return following output running ping linux sending five probes target host www.example.com output lists probe message results obtained finally lists statistics entire test example shortest round trip time 9.674 ms average 10.968 ms maximum value 11.726 ms measurement standard deviation 0.748 ms cases response target host implementations display either nothing periodically print notifications timing possible ping results indicating problem include following case error target host intermediate router sends back icmp error message example host unreachable ttl exceeded transit addition messages include first eight bytes original message case header icmp echo request including quench value ping utility match responses originating queries generic composition icmp packet echo request ping icmp/icmp6 message identifier sequence number used client match reply request caused reply practice linux systems use unique identifier every ping process sequence number increasing number within process windows uses fixed identifier varies windows versions sequence number reset boot time echo reply icmp message generated response echo request mandatory hosts must include exact payload received request payload packet generally filled ascii characters output tcpdump utility shows last 32 bytes following example eight-byte icmp header starting payload may include timestamp indicating time transmission sequence number found example allows ping compute round trip time stateless manner without needing record time transmission packet payload may also include magic packet wake-on-lan protocol minimum payload case longer shown echo request typically receive reply host sleeping hibernation state host still wakes sleep state interface configured accept wakeup requests host already active configured allow replies incoming icmp echo request packets returned reply include payload may used detect remote host effectively woken repeating new request delay allow host resume network services host sleeping low power active state single request wakes host enough allow echo reply service reply instantly service enabled host need completely wake devices may return low power mode short delay configuration may used avoid host enter hibernation state much longer wake delay time passed low power active mode conduct denial-of-service attack attacker may send ping requests fast possible possibly overwhelming victim icmp echo requests technique called ping flood ping requests multiple addresses ping sweeps may used obtain list hosts network 1-hop neighbor's text information: fsck.fsck system utility fsck file system consistency check tool checking consistency file system unix unix-like operating systems linux macos freebsd similar command chkdsk exists microsoft windows ancestor ms-dos agreed pronunciation pronounced f-s-c-k f-s-check fizz-check f-sack fisk fizik f-sick f-sock f-sek feshk sibilant fsk fix farsk fusk generally fsck run either automatically boot time manually system administrator command works directly data structures stored disk internal specific particular file system use fsck command tailored file system generally required exact behaviors various fsck implementations vary typically follow common order internal operations provide common command-line interface user fsck utilities provide options either interactively repairing damaged file systems user must decide fix specific problems automatically deciding fix specific problems user answer questions reviewing problems need resolved file system without actually fixing partially recovered files original file name reconstructed typically recovered lost+found directory stored root file system system administrator also run fsck manually believe problem file system file system normally checked unmounted mounted read-only system special maintenance mode modern journaling file systems designed tools fsck need run unclean shutdown i.e crash ufs2 file system freebsd background fsck usually necessary wait fsck finish accessing disk full copy-on-write file systems zfs btrfs designed avoid causes corruption traditional fsck repair tool scrub utility examines repairs problems background mounted file system equivalent programs microsoft windows ms-dos chkdsk scandisk severity file system corruption led terms fsck fscked becoming used among unix system administrators minced oath fuck fucked unclear whether usage cause effect report question answer session usenix 1998 claims fsck originally different name go fsck occasionally used online injunction person go correct issue attitude ignorance subject matter etc way running fsck involves fixing fundamental errors following example checks file system configured mounted /usr partition file system needs unmounted first following example checks linux jfs file system mdadm software raid device Target text information: du_(unix).du unix codice_1 abbreviated disk usage standard unix program used estimate file space usage—space used particular directory files file system codice_1 utility first appeared version 1 unix version codice_1 bundled gnu coreutils written torbjorn granlund david mackenzie paul eggert jim meyering default single unix specification sus specifies codice_1 display file space allocated file directory contained current directory links displayed size link file linked size content directories displayed expected codice_1 reports allocation space absolute file space amount space file system shown codice_1 may vary shown codice_7 files deleted blocks yet freed also minfree setting allocates datablocks filesystem super user processes creates discrepancy total blocks sum used available blocks minfree setting usually set 5 total filesystem size info see core utils faq codice_1 takes single argument specifying pathname du work specified current directory used sus mandates du following options unix unix-like operating systems may add extra options example bsd gnu codice_1 specify -h option displaying disk usage format easier read user adding units appropriate si prefix e.g 10 mb sum directories -s kilobytes -k sum directories -s human-readable format -h byte kilobyte megabyte gigabyte terabyte petabyte disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted filesize disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted reverse filesize weight size subdirectory current directory -d 1 sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h du gnu weight size subdirectories root directory -d 1 trailing sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h without traversing filesystems -x useful /var /tmp directories separate storage root directory du gnu I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	9,204	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: constructor_(object-oriented_programming).constructor object-oriented programming class-based object-oriented programming constructor abbreviation ctor special type subroutine called create object prepares new object use often accepting arguments constructor uses set required member variables constructor resembles instance method differs method explicit return type implicitly inherited usually different rules scope modifiers constructors often name declaring class task initializing object data members establishing invariant class failing invariant invalid properly written constructor leaves resulting object valid state immutable objects must initialized constructor languages allow overloading constructor one constructor class differing parameters languages take consideration special types constructors constructors concretely use single class create objects return new instance class abstracted factories also create objects various ways using multiple classes different allocation schemes object pool constructors take least one argument termed parameterized constructors.when object declared parameterized constructor initial values passed arguments constructor function normal way object declaration may work constructors called explicitly implicitly method calling constructor implicitly also called shorthand method.if want initialize fields class values use parameterized constructor programmer supply constructor instantiable class java compiler inserts default constructor code behalf constructor known default constructor would find source code java file would inserted code compilation exists .class file.the behavior default constructor language dependent may initialize data members zero values may nothing all.in java default constructor refer nullary constructor automatically generated compiler constructors defined class absence programmer-defined constructors e.g java.the default constructor implicitly calls superclass nullary constructor executes empty body fields left initial value 0 integer types 0.0 floating-point types false boolean type null reference types like c++ java also supports copy constructor unlike c++ java ’ create default copy constructor ’ write copy constructors define actions performed compiler copying class objects copy constructor one formal parameter type class parameter may reference object used create copy existing object class even though classes counts conversion constructor copy constructors usually abbreviated copy ctor cctor nothing class constructors used .net using abbreviation conversion constructors provide means compiler implicitly create object belonging one class based object different type constructors usually invoked implicitly convert arguments operands appropriate type may also called explicitly c++ move constructors take value reference object class used implement ownership transfer parameter object resources java c vb .net constructor creates reference type objects special memory structure called heap value types int double etc created sequential structure called stack vb .net c also allow use new operator create value type objects value type objects created stack regardless whether operator used c++ objects created stack constructor invoked without new operator created heap constructor invoked new operator stack objects deleted implicitly go scope heap objects must deleted implicitly destructor explicitly using delete operator java constructors differ methods java constructors perform following tasks following order java permit users call one constructor another constructor using codice_21 keyword codice_21 must first statement java provides access superclass constructor codice_23 keyword constructor taking zero number arguments called no-arguments no-arg constructor es6 javascript direct constructors like many programming languages written instantiated equivalent es6 creating function instantiates object instantiated way visual basic .net constructors use method declaration name codice_4 example c constructor c static constructor static data initializer static constructors also called class constructors since actual method generated name .cctor often also called cctors static constructors allow complex static variable initialization static constructors called implicitly class first accessed call class static constructor call triggers static constructor execution static constructors thread safe implement singleton pattern used generic programming class static constructors called every new generic instantiation one per type static variables instantiated well c++ name constructor name class returns nothing parameters like member function constructor functions usually declared public section also declared protected private sections user wants restrict access constructor two parts first initializer list follows parameter list method body starts colon entries comma-separated initializer list required offers opportunity provide values data members avoid separate assignment statements initializer list required const reference type data members members parameterless constructor logic assignments occur according order data members declared even order initializer list different second part body normal method body enclosed curly brackets c++ allows one constructor constructors must different parameters additionally constructors contain parameters given default values must adhere restriction parameters given default value situation matters default constructor constructor base class base classes also called derived class constructor functions inherited addresses referenced memory allocation required new delete operators called implicitly copy constructor parameter type passed const reference example vector const vector rhs provided explicitly compiler uses copy constructor member variable simply copies values case primitive types default implementation efficient class dynamically allocated members handles resources lead double calls delete double release resources upon destruction example invocations returning objects functions passing objects value objects copy constructor called implicitly unless return value optimization applies c++ implicitly generates default copy constructor call copy constructors base classes member variables unless programmer provides one explicitly deletes copy constructor prevent cloning one base classes member variables copy constructor deleted accessible private cases calling customized copy constructor e.g reference counting deep copy pointers also require customizing destructor copy assignment operator commonly referred rule three f constructor include codice_25 codice_26 statements defined class codice_25 statements define private fields codice_26 statements execute code additional constructors defined using codice_17 keyword eiffel routines initialize new objects called creation procedures creation procedures following traits although object creation involves subtleties creation attribute typical declaration codice_30 expressed creation instruction codice_31 consists following sequence steps first snippet class codice_35 defined procedure codice_33 coded keyword codice_37 keyword codice_38 introduces list procedures used initialize instances case list includes codice_39 procedure empty implementation inherited class codice_40 codice_33 procedure coded within class second snippet class client codice_35 declarations codice_43 codice_44 type codice_35 procedural code codice_43 created origin 0.0 0.0 creation procedure specified procedure codice_39 inherited class codice_40 used line could coded codice_49 procedures named creation procedures used instruction codice_38 keyword next creation instruction codice_44 providing initial values codice_44 coordinates third instruction makes ordinary instance call codice_33 procedure reinitialize instance attached codice_44 different values cfml uses method named 'codice_14 constructor method cheese.cfc create instance cheese since coldfusion 10 cfml also supported specifying name constructor method object pascal constructor similar factory method syntactic difference regular methods keyword codice_11 front name instead codice_57 codice_58 name though convention codice_12 prefix codice_60 creating instance class works like calling static method class codice_61 perl programming language version 5 default constructors factory methods methods create return object concretely meaning create return blessed reference typical object reference hash though rarely references types used convention constructor named new though allowed name otherwise multiple constructors example person class may constructor named new well constructor new_from_file reads file person attributes new_from_person uses another person object template moose object system perl boilerplate left default new created attributes specified well whether set reset required addition extra constructor functionality included build method moose generated constructor call checked arguments buildargs method specified handle constructor arguments hashref key value form cases person class instiated like perl 6 even boilerplate left given default new method inherited attributes specified well whether set reset required addition extra constructor functionality included build method get called allow custom initialization tweak method specified post-process attributes already implicitly initialized person class instantiated like alternatively named parameters specified using colon-pair syntax perl 6 set variables names identical named parameters use shortcut use name variable named parameter php version 5 constructor method named codice_62 notice double underscore keyword codice_17 automatically calls creating object usually used automatically perform initializations property initializations constructors also accept arguments case codice_17 statement written also need send constructor arguments parameters python constructors defined one codice_5 codice_6 methods new instance created calling class function calls codice_5 codice_6 methods constructor method defined class next one found class method resolution order called typical case codice_6 method need defined common exception immutable objects classes normally act factories new instances class callable object like function call constructor calling class returns instance class however codice_5 method permitted return something instance class specialised purposes case codice_6 invoked ruby constructors created defining method called codice_72 method executed initialize new instance ocaml one constructor parameters defined right class name used initialize instance variables accessible throughout class anonymous hidden method called codice_73 allows evaluate expression immediately object built 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_c_sharp_and_java.comparison c sharp java article compares two programming languages c java focus article mainly languages features comparison necessarily also consider features platforms libraries detailed comparison platforms please see comparison java .net platforms c java similar languages typed statically strongly manifestly object-oriented designed semi-interpretation runtime just-in-time compilation curly brace languages like c c++ languages statically typed class-based object orientation java primitive types special object-oriented could defined using language also share common ancestor reference types java reference types derive common root type c unified type system types besides unsafe pointers ultimately derive common root type consequently types implement methods root type extension methods defined object type apply types even primitive int literals delegates allows c unlike java support objects encapsulation reference types java compound types synonymous reference types methods defined type unless also class reference type c concepts encapsulation methods decoupled reference requirement type support methods encapsulation without reference type reference types support virtual methods specialization however languages support many built-in types copied passed value rather reference java calls types primitive types called simple types c primitive/simple types typically native support underlying processor architecture c simple types implement several interfaces consequently offer many methods directly instances types even literals c type names also merely aliases common language runtime clr types c system.int64 type exactly type long type difference former canonical .net name latter c alias java offer methods directly primitive types instead methods operate primitive values offered companion primitive wrapper classes fixed set wrapper classes exist wraps one fixed set primitive types example java long type reference type wraps primitive long type type however java c support signed integers bit widths 8 16 32 64 bits use name/aliases types except 8-bit integer called byte java sbyte signed byte c c supports unsigned addition signed integer types unsigned types byte ushort uint ulong 8 16 32 64 bit widths respectively unsigned arithmetic operating types supported well example adding two unsigned integers uints still yields uint result long signed integer java feature unsigned integer types particular java lacks primitive type unsigned byte instead java byte type sign extended common source bugs confusion unsigned integers left java deliberately james gosling believed programmers would understand unsigned arithmetic works.in programming language design one standard problems language grows complex nobody understand one little experiments tried asking people rules unsigned arithmetic c. turns nobody understands unsigned arithmetic c works obvious things people understand many people n't understand c type literal notation high-precision 28 decimal digits decimal arithmetic appropriate financial monetary calculations contrary float double data types decimal fractional numbers 0.1 represented exactly decimal representation float double representations numbers often non-terminating binary expansions making representations prone round-off errors java lacks built-in type java library feature arbitrary precision decimal type considered language type support usual arithmetic operators rather reference type must manipulated using type methods see arbitrary-size/precision numbers languages offer library-defined arbitrary-precision arithmetic types arbitrary-size integers decimal point calculations java data type arbitrary precision decimal point calculations c type working complex numbers languages number operations performed advanced numeric types limited compared built-in ieee 754 floating point types instance none arbitrary-size types support square root logarithms c allows library-defined types integrated existing types operators using custom implicit/explicit conversions operator overloading see example section integration library-defined types languages feature native char character datatype simple type although char type used bit-wise operators performed promoting char value integer value operation thus result bitwise operation numeric type character languages languages treat strings immutable objects reference type languages type contains several methods manipulate strings parse format etc languages regular expressions considered external feature implemented separate classes languages libraries define classes working dates calendars different cultures java java.util.date mutable reference type whereas c system.datetime struct value type c additionally defines timespan type working time periods languages support date time arithmetic according different cultures c allows programmer create user-defined value types using struct keyword unlike classes like standard primitives value types passed assigned value rather reference also part object either field boxed stored array without memory indirection normally exists class types value types notion null value used arrays without initialization always come implicit default constructor essentially fills struct memory space zeroes programmer define additional constructors one arguments value types virtual method tables fixed memory footprint implicitly sealed however value types frequently implement interfaces example built-in integer types implement several interfaces apart built-in primitive types java include concept value types languages define enumerations implemented fundamentally different ways enumerations one area tools designed automatically translate code two languages java c converters fail c implemented enumerations manner similar c wrappers around bit-flags implemented primitive integral types int byte short etc. performance benefits improves interaction c/c++ compiled code provides fewer features lead bugs low-level value types directly cast enumeration type allowed c language therefore seen syntactic sugar contrast java implements enumerations full featured collection instances requiring memory aiding interaction c/c++ code providing additional features reflection intrinsic behavior implementation language described table c java programmers use enumerations switch statement without conversion string primitive integer type however c disallows implicit fall-through unless case statement contain code common cause hard-to-find bugs fall-through must explicitly declared using goto statement c implements object-oriented method pointers form delegates delegate special type capture type-safe reference method reference stored delegate-type variable passed method delegate parameter later invocation c delegates support covariance contravariance hold reference signature-compatible static method instance method anonymous method lambda expression delegates confused closures inline functions concepts related reference closure/inline function must captured delegate reference useful delegate always reference inline function also reference existing static instance methods delegates form basis c events confused either delegates deliberately left java considered unnecessary detrimental language potential performance issues instead alternative mechanisms used wrapper pattern resembles delegates c allows client access one client-defined methods known interface one mechanism another use adapter objects using inner classes designers java argued better solution bound method references see also example c delegates equivalent java constructs c allows value/primitive/simple types lifted allow special null value addition type native values type lifted adding suffix type name equivalent using nullable generic type type lifted conversions implicitly defined convert values base lifted type lifted type compared null tested hasvalue also lifted operators implicitly automatically defined based non-lifted base — exception boolean operators — null argument propagate result java support type lifting concept built-in primitive types corresponding wrapper types support null value virtue reference types classes according java spec attempt dereference null reference must result exception thrown run-time specifically nullpointerexception would make sense dereference otherwise definition points object memory also applies attempting unbox variable wrapper type evaluates null program throw exception object unboxed thus boxed value take part subsequent computation following example illustrates different behavior c liftedoperator propagates null value operand java unboxing null reference throws exception c lifted operators defined propagate null unconditionally one operands null specifically boolean operators lifted support ternary logic thus keeping impedance sql java boolean operators support ternary logic implemented base class library c features late bound dynamic type supports no-reflection dynamic invocation interoperability dynamic languages ad-hoc binding example document object models dynamic type resolves member access dynamically runtime opposed statically/virtual compile time member lookup mechanism extensible traditional reflection fall-back mechanism several use cases dynamic type c java support late-bound type use cases c dynamic type different corresponding constructs java see also example interoperability dynamic languages java precludes pointers pointer-arithmetic within java runtime environment java language designers reasoned pointers one main features enable programmers put bugs code chose support java allow directly passing receiving objects/structures to/from underlying operating system thus need model objects/structures specific memory layout layouts frequently would involve pointers java communication underlying operating system instead based upon java native interface jni communication with/adaptation underlying operating system handled external glue layer c allow use pointers corresponding pointer arithmetic c language designers concerns pointers could potentially used bypass strict rules object access thus c default also precludes pointers however pointers needed calling many native functions pointers allowed explicit unsafe mode code blocks methods use pointers must marked unsafe keyword able use pointers compiler requires /unsafe switch allow compiling code assemblies compiled using /unsafe switch marked may execute explicitly trusted allows using pointers pointer arithmetic directly pass receive objects to/from operating system native apis using native memory layout objects also isolating potentially unsafe code specifically trusted assemblies languages references central concept instances classes reference directly evident language syntax per se languages support concept weak references instance referenced weak references eligible garbage collection references languages feature exposed associated libraries even though really core runtime feature along weak references java soft references much like weak references jvm deallocate softly-referenced objects memory needed arrays collections concepts featured languages syntax used declare access arrays identical except c added syntax declaring manipulating multidimensional arrays multidimensional arrays cases increase performance increased locality one pointer dereference instead one every dimension array case jagged arrays however since array element access multidimensional array requires multiplication/shift two dimensions advantage random access scenarios another difference entire multidimensional array allocated single application operator new jagged arrays require loops allocations every dimension however java provides syntactic construct allocating jagged array regular lengths loops multiple allocations performed virtual machine need explicit source level languages feature extensive set collection types includes various ordered unordered types lists maps/dictionaries sets etc java also supports syntax c/c++ languages allow automatic boxing unboxing i.e allow implicit casting primitive types corresponding reference types c primitive types subtypes object type java true given primitive type corresponding wrapper type specific relationship except autoboxing unboxing act syntactic sugar interchanging done intentionally maintain backward compatibility prior versions java automatic casting allowed programmer worked two separate sets types primitive types wrapper reference type hierarchy difference following consequences first c primitive types define methods override object tostring method java task accomplished primitive wrapper classes secondly java extra cast needed whenever one tries directly dereference primitive value boxed automatically expression integer 42 .tostring convert integer literal string java 42.tostring performs operation c latter one instance call primitive value 42 former one instance call object type java.lang.integer finally another difference java makes heavy use boxed types generics see languages considered curly brace languages c/c++ family overall syntaxes languages similar syntax statement expression level almost identical obvious inspiration c/c++ tradition type definition level classes interfaces minor differences exist java explicit extending classes implementing interfaces c infers kind types new class/interface derives c supports features java extent also evident syntax specifies keywords grammar rules java languages evolved language designers languages faced situations wanted extend languages new keywords syntax new keywords particular may break existing code source level i.e older code may longer compile presented compiler later version language language designers keen avoid regressions designers two languages following different paths addressing problem java language designers avoided new keywords much possible preferring instead introduce new syntactic constructs legal reuse existing keywords new contexts way n't jeopardize backward compatibility example former found loop extended accept iterable types example latter found extends especially super keywords reused specifying type bounds generics introduced java 1.5 one time java 1.4 new keyword assert introduced reserved keyword potential render previously valid code invalid instance code used assert identifier designers chose address problem four-step solution 1 introducing compiler switch indicates java 1.4 later used 2 marking assert keyword compiling java 1.4 later 3 defaulting 1.3 avoid rendering previous non 1.4 aware code invalid 4 issue warnings keyword used java 1.3 mode order allow developers change code c language designers introduced several new keywords since first version however instead defining keywords global keywords define context sensitive keywords means even introduced among others partial yield keywords c 2.0 use words identifiers still valid clash possible use keyword use identifier given context thus present c syntax fully backward compatible source code written previous version without specifying language version used c java designed ground object-oriented languages using dynamic dispatch syntax similar c++ c++ turn derives c neither language superset c c++ however c allows class definition split across several source files using feature called partial classes part must marked keyword partial parts must presented compiler part single compilation parts reference members parts parts implement interfaces one part define base class feature useful code generation scenarios user interface ui design code generator supply one part developer another part compiled together developer thus edit part without risk code generator overwriting code later time unlike class extension mechanism partial class allows circular dependencies among parts guaranteed resolved compile time java corresponding concept languages allow inner classes class defined lexically inside another class however language inner classes rather different semantics java unless inner class declared static reference instance inner class carries reference outer class result code inner class access static non-static members outer class create instance non-static inner class instance embracing outer class must named done via new new-operator introduced jdk 1.3 outerclassinstance.new outer.innerclass done class reference instance outer class c inner class conceptually normal class sense outer class acts namespace thus code inner class access non-static members outer class unless explicit reference instance outer class programmers declare inner class private allow outer class access java provides another feature called local classes anonymous classes defined within method body generally used implement interface one two methods typically event handlers however also used override virtual methods superclass methods local classes access outer method local variables declared final c satisfies use-cases providing anonymous delegates see event handling c also provides feature called anonymous types/classes rather different java concept name allows programmer instantiate class providing set names properties class expression initialize types properties inferred types expressions implicitly-declared classes derived directly object c multicast-delegates used events events provide support event-driven programming implementation observer pattern support specific syntax define events classes operators register unregister combine event handlers see information events implemented java operator overloading user-defined casts separate features aim allow new types become first-class citizens type system using features c types complex decimal integrated usual operators like addition multiplication work new types unlike c++ c restrict use operator overloading prohibiting operators new \|\| variations compound statements like += compound operators call overloaded simple operators like -= calling java include operator overloading custom conversions order prevent abuse feature keep language simple c also includes indexers considered special case operator overloading like c++ operator parameterized get/set properties indexer property named uses one parameters indexes indices objects type java include indexers common java pattern involves writing explicit getters setters c programmer would use indexer c java object fields initialized either variable initializers expressions assigned variables defined constructors special subroutines executed object created addition java contains instance initializers anonymous blocks code arguments run explicit implicit call superclass constructor constructor executed c initializes object fields following order creating object fields may applicable e.g object static fields derived fields defined object direct class base field term fields defined one object superclasses note object representation memory contains fields defined class superclasses even fields superclasses defined private guaranteed field initializers take effect constructors called since instance constructor object class superclasses called field initializers called however potential trap object initialization virtual method called base constructor overridden method subclass may reference field defined subclass field may initialized constructor subclass contains field initialization called constructor base class java order initialization follows like c new object created calling specific constructor within constructor first statement may invocation another constructor omitted call argumentless constructor superclass added implicitly compiler otherwise either another overloaded constructor object class called explicitly superclass constructor called former case called constructor call another constructor either object class subclass chain sooner later ends call one constructors superclass another constructor called causes direct invocation superclass constructor forth object class instance variables defined object class initialized even variable initializers explicitly defined variables variables initialized default values note instance variables defined superclasses already initialized point initialized superclass constructor called either constructor code variable initializers performed constructor code implicitly default values java variable initializers executed according textual order source file finally constructor body executed ensures proper order initialization i.e fields base class finish initialization initialization fields object class begins two main potential traps java object initialization first variable initializers expressions contain method calls since methods reference variable defined class method called variable initializer reference variable defined variable initialized since initialization order corresponds textual order variable definitions variable would initialized value prescribed initializer would contain default value another potential trap method overridden derived class called base class constructor lead behavior programmer would expect object derived class created according initialization order body base class constructor executed variable initializers evaluated body derived class constructor executed overridden method called base class constructor however reference variables defined derived class yet initialized values specified initializers set derived class constructor latter issue applies c well less critical form since c methods overridable default languages mainly use garbage collection means reclaiming memory resources rather explicit deallocation memory cases object holds resources different kinds memory file handles graphical resources etc. must notified explicitly application longer uses c java offer interfaces deterministic disposal c java since java 7 feature automatic resource management statements automatically invoke disposal/close methods interfaces using special designator first parameter method c allows method act member method type first parameter extension foreign class purely syntactical extension method must declared static defined within purely static class method must obey member access restriction like method external class thus static methods break object encapsulation extension active within scopes namespace static host class imported since java 8 java similar feature called default methods methods body declared interfaces opposed c extension methods java default methods instance methods interface declare definition default methods classes implement interface optional class define method default definition used instead c extension methods java default methods allow class override default implementation extension/default method respectively languages override achieved defining method class use alternate implementation method c scope rules defines matching method found class takes precedence matching extension method java class declared implement interface default method assumed default methods implementions unless class implements method related partial classes c allows partial methods specified within partial classes partial method intentional declaration method several restrictions signature restrictions ensure definition provided class part method every call safely erased feature allows code provide large number interception points like template method gof design pattern without paying runtime overhead extension points used another class part compile time java corresponding concept methods c non-virtual default must declared virtual explicitly desired java non-static non-private methods virtual virtuality guarantees recent override method always called incurs certain runtime cost invocation invocations normally inlined require indirect call via virtual method table however jvm implementations including oracle reference implementation implement inlining commonly called virtual methods java methods virtual default although sealed using final modifier disallow overriding way let derived classes define new unrelated method name means default java explicitly enabled c new methods may defined derived class name signature base class method called superclass reference object deepest overridden implementation base class method called according specific subclass object referenced cases subclass introduces method name signature method already present base class problems occur java mean method derived class implicitly override method base class even though may intent designers either class mitigate c requires method intended override inherited method override keyword must specified otherwise method hide inherited method keyword absent compiler warning effect issued silenced specifying new keyword avoids problem arise base class extended non-private method i.e inherited part namespace whose signature already use derived class java similar compiler check form override method annotation compulsory absence compilers provide comment method overridden java possible prevent reassignment local variable method parameter using keyword applying keyword primitive type variable causes variable become immutable however applying reference type variable prevents another object assigned prevent data contained object mutated c 7 possible prevent reassignment method parameter using keyword however keyword used local variables java applying parameter prevents parameter reassigned different value still possible mutate data contained object languages support essential feature const-correctness exists c/c++ makes method constant java defines word constant arbitrarily field variables capital-only variables names separated underscore parameter considered constant although may case primitive data type immutable class like c method declared returning ienumerable ienumerator generic versions interfaces implemented using yield syntax form limited compiler-generated continuations drastically reduce code needed traverse generate sequences although code generated compiler instead feature also used implement infinite sequences e.g. sequence fibonacci numbers java equivalent feature instead generators typically defined providing specialized implementation well-known collection iterable interface compute element demand generator used statement must implement interface java.lang.iterable see also example fibonacci sequence c also explicit interface implementation allows class specifically implement methods interface separate class methods provide different implementations two methods name signature inherited two base interfaces either language method property c specified name signature multiple interfaces members clash class designed implements interfaces implementation default implement common method interfaces separate implementations needed methods serve separate purposes return values differ interfaces c explicit interface implementation solve problem though allowing different results method depending current cast object java way solve problem refactoring one interfaces avoid name clashes arguments primitive types e.g int double method passed value java whereas objects passed reference means method operates copies primitives passed instead actual variables contrary actual objects cases changed following example object string changed object class changed c possible enforce reference ref keyword similar c++ sense c. feature c particularly useful one wants create method returns one object java trying return multiple values method unsupported unless wrapper used case named ref java supports checked exceptions along unchecked exceptions c supports unchecked exceptions checked exceptions force programmer either declare exception thrown method catch thrown exception using try-catch clause checked exceptions encourage good programming practice ensuring errors dealt however anders hejlsberg chief c language architect argues extent experiment java shown worthwhile except small example programs one criticism checked exceptions encourage programmers use empty catch block catch exception e silently swallows exceptions rather letting exceptions propagate higher-level exception-handling routine cases however exception chaining applied instead re-throwing exception wrapper exception example object changed access database instead file could caught re-thrown since caller may need know inner workings object however programmers agree stance james gosling others maintain checked exceptions useful misusing caused problems silently catching exceptions possible yes must stated explicitly exception versus unchecked exceptions allow nothing default ignored code must written explicitly ignore also differences two languages treating try-finally statement finally block always executed even try block contains control-passing statements like throw return java may result unexpected behavior try block left return statement value finally block executed afterward also left return statement different value c resolves problem prohibiting control-passing statements like return break finally block common reason using try-finally blocks guard resource managing code thus guaranteeing release precious resources finally block c features using statement syntactic shorthand common scenario dispose method object using always called rather subtle difference moment stack trace created exception thrown java stack trace created moment exception created exception statement always contain constructor stack-trace matter often foo called c hand stack-trace created moment throw executed code exception contain stack-trace first throw-line catching exception two options case exception rethrown throw rethrow original exception original stack throw e would created new stack trace java allows flow control leave finally block try statement regardless way entered cause another control flow statement return terminated mid-execution example code return statement within try block causes control leave thus finally block executed actual return happens however finally block also performs return thus original return caused entered executed method returns 1 rather 0 informally speaking tries return 0 finally returns 1 c allow statements allow control flow leave finally block prematurely except throw particular return allowed goto allowed target label outside finally block continue break allowed nearest enclosing loop outside finally block field generics two languages show superficial syntactical similarity deep underlying differences generics java language-only construction implemented compiler generated classfiles include generic signatures form metadata allowing compiler compile new classes runtime knowledge generic type system generics part jvm instead generics classes methods transformed compiling via process termed type erasure compiler replaces generic types raw version inserts casts/checks appropriately client code type methods used resulting byte code contain references generic types parameters see also generics java language specification intentionally prohibits certain uses generics necessary allow implementing generics type erasure allow migration compatibility c builds support generics virtual execution system i.e. language feature language merely front-end cross-language generics support clr compiling generics verified correctness code generation implement generics deferred class-load time client code code invoking generic methods/properties fully compiled safely assume generics type-safe called reification runtime unique set type parameters generic class/method/delegate encountered first time class loader/verifier synthesize concrete class descriptor generate method implementations generation method implementations reference types considered one type reference types safely share implementations merely purpose implementing code different sets reference types still unique type descriptors method tables merely point code following list illustrates differences java c managing generics exhaustive c allows generics directly primitive types java instead allows use boxed types type parameters e.g. list integer instead list int comes cost since values need boxed/unboxed used need heap-allocated however generic type specialized array type primitive type java example list int allowed several third-party libraries implemented basic collections java backing primitive arrays preserve runtime memory optimization primitive types provide java type erasure design motivated design requirement achieve migration compatibility confused backward compatibility particular original requirement … clean demonstrable migration path collections apis introduced java 2 platform designed new generic collections passable methods expected one pre-existing collection classes c generics introduced language preserving full backward compatibility preserve full migration compatibility old code pre c 2.0 runs unchanged new generics-aware runtime without recompilation migration compatibility new generic collection classes interfaces developed supplemented non-generic .net 1.x collections rather replacing addition generic collection interfaces new generic collection classes implement non-generic collection interfaces possible prevents use new generic collections pre-existing non-generic aware methods methods coded use collection classes covariance contravariance supported languages java use-site variance allows single generic class declare members using co- contravariance c define-site variance generic interfaces delegates variance unsupported directly classes supported implementation variant interfaces c also use-site covariance support methods delegates closure inline function captures variables lexical scope c supports closures anonymous methods lambda expressions full-featured closure semantics java anonymous inner classes remain preferred way emulate closures java 8 become new standard verbose construction approach also differences compared real closures notably controlled access variables enclosing scopes final members referenced java 8 however introduces lambdas fully inherit current scope fact introduce new scope reference method passed around later execution problem arises method references variables/parameters lexical scope c closures access variable/parameter lexical scope java anonymous inner classes references final members lexical scope allowed thus requiring developer mark variables make available state possibly requiring boxing c java feature special type in-line closures called lambdas anonymous methods signature body name mainly used specify local function-valued arguments calls methods technique mainly associated functional programming c unlike java allows use lambda functions way define special data structures called expression trees whether seen executable function data structure depends compiler type inference type variable parameter assigned cast lambdas expression trees play key roles language integrated query linq c namespaces similar c++ unlike package names java namespace way tied location source file strictly necessary java source file location mirror package directory structure conventional organization languages allow importing classes e.g. import java.util java allowing class referenced using name sometimes classes name exist multiple namespaces packages classes referenced using fully qualified names importing selected classes different names java allows importing single class e.g. import java.util.list c allows importing classes new local name using following syntax using console system.console also allows importing specializations classes form using intlist system.collections.generic.list int languages static import syntax allows using short name static methods/fields class e.g. allowing foo bar foo statically imported another class c static class syntax confused static inner classes java restricts class contain static methods c 3.0 introduces extension methods allow users statically add method type e.g. allowing foo.bar bar imported extension method working type foo sun microsystems java compiler requires source file name must match public class inside c allows multiple public classes file puts restrictions file name c 2.0 later allows splitting class definition several files using partial keyword source code java public class always source file c source code files logical units separation tightly related unlike java c implements conditional compilation using preprocessor directives also provides conditional attribute define methods called given compilation constant defined way assertions provided framework feature method debug.assert evaluated debug constant defined since version 1.4 java provides language feature assertions turned runtime default enabled using -enableassertions -ea switch invoking jvm languages include thread synchronization mechanisms part language syntax .net framework 4.0 new task-based programming model introduced replace existing event-based asynchronous model api based around task task classes tasks composed chained convention every method returns task name postfixed async c 5 set language compiler extensions introduced make easier work task model language extensions included notion async methods await statement make program flow appear synchronous syntactic sugar c compiler generates state-machine handles necessary continuations without developers think java supports threads since jdk 1.0 java offers high versatility running threads often called tasks done implementing functional interface java.lang.runnable interface defining single void no-args method demonstrated following example similar c java higher level mechanism working threads executors execute asynchronous tasks also manage group subprocesses threads executorservices instance handled pool executorservice instance reused hood revenant tasks possible runs many concurrent tasks programmer wants throughout life-cycle application using single executor service instance first thread-example looks like using executors executorservice instance also supports callable interface another single method interface like runnable signature contained method callable returns value way lambda expression must also return value calling method get blocks current thread waits callable completes returning value example web page content adequately support applications field mathematical financial computation several language features exist java strictfp keyword enables strict floating-point calculations region code strict floating-point calculations require even platform offers higher precision calculations intermediate results must converted single/double ensures strict floating-point calculations return exactly result platforms without strict floating-point platform implementation free use higher precision intermediate results calculation c allows implementation given hardware architecture always use higher precision intermediate results available i.e c allow programmer optionally force intermediate results use potential lower precision single/double although java floating-point arithmetic largely based ieee 754 standard binary floating-point arithmetic certain features unsupported even using strictfp modifier exception flags directed roundings abilities mandated ieee standard 754 see criticism java floating point arithmetic c provides built-in decimal type higher precision less range java/c double decimal type 128-bit data type suitable financial monetary calculations decimal type represent values ranging 1.0 × 10 approximately 7.9 × 10 28-29 significant digits structure uses c operator overloading decimals manipulated using operators and like primitive data types types provided java allow arbitrary-precision representation decimal numbers integer numbers respectively java standard library classes deal complex numbers biginteger complex types provided c allow representation manipulation arbitrary-precision integers complex numbers respectively structures use c operator overloading instances manipulated using operators like primitive data types c standard library classes deal arbitrary-precision floating point numbers see software arbitrary-precision arithmetic c help mathematical applications checked unchecked operators allow enabling disabling run-time checking arithmetic overflow region code c language integrated query linq set features designed work together allow in-language querying abilities distinguishing feature c java linq consists following features java native interface jni feature allows java programs call non-java code however jni require code called follow several conventions imposes restrictions types names used means extra adaption layer legacy code java often needed adaption code must coded non-java language often c c++ java native access jna allows easier calling native code requires writing java code comes performance cost addition third party libraries provide java-component object model com bridging e.g. jacob free j-integra com proprietary .net platform invoke p/invoke offers ability allowing calls c microsoft terms unmanaged code metadata attributes programmer control exactly parameters results marshalled thus avoiding external glue code needed equivalent jni java p/invoke allows almost complete access procedural apis win32 posix limited access c++ class libraries addition .net framework also provides .net-com bridge allowing access com components first-class .net objects c also allows programmer disable normal type-checking safety features clr enables use pointer variables using feature programmer must mark code using unsafe keyword jni p/invoke unsafe code equally risky features exposing possible security holes application instability advantage unsafe managed code p/invoke jni allows programmer continue work familiar c environment accomplish tasks otherwise would require calling unmanaged code assembly program library using unsafe code must compiled special switch marked enables runtime environments take special precautions executing potentially harmful code java programming language designed execute java platform via java runtime environment jre java platform includes java virtual machine jvm common set libraries jre originally designed support interpreted execution final compiling option jre environments execute fully least partially compiled programs possibly adaptive optimization java compiler produces java bytecode upon execution bytecode loaded java runtime either interpreted directly compiled machine instructions executed c designed execute common language runtime clr clr designed execute fully compiled code c compiler produces common intermediate language instructions upon execution runtime loads code compiles machine instructions target architecture example illustrating copy text one line time one file another using languages c allows library-defined types integrated existing types operators using custom implicit/explicit conversions operator overloading illustrated following example example illustrates java c used create invoke instance class implemented another programming language deepthought class implemented using ruby programming language represents simple calculator multiply two input values b calculate method invoked addition conventional way java graalvm virtual machine capable run implemented programming language example illustrates fibonacci sequence implemented using two languages c version takes advantage c generator methods java version takes advantage stream interface method references java c examples use k r style code formatting classes methods statements 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_programming_languages_by_type_system.comparison programming languages type system onlyinclude comparison programming languages type system compares features type systems type checking multiple programming languages brief definitions /onlyinclude Target text information: comparison_of_programming_languages_(list_comprehension).comparison programming languages list comprehension list comprehension syntactic construct available programming languages creating list based existing lists follows form mathematical set-builder notation set comprehension distinct use map filter functions list doubles 0 10 exclusive list names customers based rio de janeiro previous code syntactic sugar following code written using lambda expressions filtering numbers divisible 3 multiple generators infinite lazy sequence list comprehension using multiple generators list comprehensions expressed codice_1 macro codice_2 keyword conditionals expressed codice_3 follows list names customers list customers balances list names customers balances general forms note putting condition expression variable name enumerable object editors ides provide autocompletion members variable lazily-evaluated sequences floating point values lists arrays list comprehensions part greater family language constructs called computation expressions example list comprehension using multiple generators using range object io language create list easy languages list comprehensions expressed codice_4 special form conditionals expressed codice_3 follows java 8 introduces new streams api includes intstream interface allows operations like following julia supports comprehensions using syntax multidimensional comprehensions like 2i 1..100 ii 3 multiple generators ocaml supports list comprehension ocaml batteries 2 ** 2 3 0 .. 99 python uses following syntax express list comprehensions finite lists generator expression may used python versions 2.4 gives lazy evaluation input used generators iterate 'infinite input count generator function returns successive integers subsequent use generator expression determine stop generating values example multiple generators using for-comprehension list comprehensions supported scheme use srfi-42 library example list comprehension using multiple generators 2x \|\| x list :getmember_nd l xx 3 short-hand notation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	1,931	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: python_(programming_language).python programming language python interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language created guido van rossum first released 1991 python design philosophy emphasizes code readability notable use significant whitespace language constructs object-oriented approach aim help programmers write clear logical code small large-scale projects python dynamically typed garbage-collected supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming python often described batteries included language due comprehensive standard library python conceived late 1980s successor abc language python 2.0 released 2000 introduced features like list comprehensions garbage collection system capable collecting reference cycles python 3.0 released 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible much python 2 code run unmodified python 3 due concern amount code written python 2 support python 2.7 last release 2.x series extended 2020 language developer guido van rossum shouldered sole responsibility project july 2018 shares leadership member five-person steering council python interpreters available many operating systems global community programmers develops maintains cpython open source reference implementation non-profit organization python software foundation manages directs resources python cpython development python conceived late 1980s guido van rossum centrum wiskunde informatica cwi netherlands successor abc language inspired setl capable exception handling interfacing amoeba operating system implementation began december 1989 van rossum continued python lead developer july 12 2018 announced permanent vacation responsibilities python benevolent dictator life title python community bestowed upon reflect long-term commitment project chief decision-maker january 2019 active python core developers elected brett cannon nick coghlan barry warsaw carol willing van rossum five-member steering council lead project python 2.0 released 16 october 2000 many major new features including cycle-detecting garbage collector support unicode python 3.0 released 3 december 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible many major features backported python 2.6.x 2.7.x version series releases python 3 include codice_1 utility automates least partially translation python 2 code python 3 python 2.7 end-of-life date initially set 2015 postponed 2020 concern large body existing code could easily forward-ported python 3 january 2017 google announced work python 2.7 go transcompiler improve performance concurrent workloads python multi-paradigm programming language object-oriented programming structured programming fully supported many features support functional programming aspect-oriented programming including metaprogramming metaobjects magic methods many paradigms supported via extensions including design contract logic programming python uses dynamic typing combination reference counting cycle-detecting garbage collector memory management also features dynamic name resolution late binding binds method variable names program execution python design offers support functional programming lisp tradition codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 functions list comprehensions dictionaries sets generator expressions standard library two modules itertools functools implement functional tools borrowed haskell standard ml language core philosophy summarized document zen python pep 20 includes aphorisms rather functionality built core python designed highly extensible compact modularity made particularly popular means adding programmable interfaces existing applications van rossum vision small core language large standard library easily extensible interpreter stemmed frustrations abc espoused opposite approach python strives simpler less-cluttered syntax grammar giving developers choice coding methodology contrast perl one way motto python embraces one—and preferably one—obvious way design philosophy alex martelli fellow python software foundation python book author writes describe something 'clever considered compliment python culture python developers strive avoid premature optimization reject patches non-critical parts cpython reference implementation would offer marginal increases speed cost clarity speed important python programmer move time-critical functions extension modules written languages c use pypy just-in-time compiler cython also available translates python script c makes direct c-level api calls python interpreter important goal python developers keeping fun use reflected language name—a tribute british comedy group monty python—and occasionally playful approaches tutorials reference materials examples refer spam eggs famous monty python sketch instead standard foo bar common neologism python community pythonic wide range meanings related program style say code pythonic say uses python idioms well natural shows fluency language conforms python minimalist philosophy emphasis readability contrast code difficult understand reads like rough transcription another programming language called unpythonic users admirers python especially considered knowledgeable experienced often referred pythonists pythonistas pythoneers python meant easily readable language formatting visually uncluttered often uses english keywords languages use punctuation unlike many languages use curly brackets delimit blocks semicolons statements optional fewer syntactic exceptions special cases c pascal python uses whitespace indentation rather curly brackets keywords delimit blocks increase indentation comes certain statements decrease indentation signifies end current block thus program visual structure accurately represents program semantic structure feature also sometimes termed off-side rule python statements include among others python support tail call optimization first-class continuations according guido van rossum never however better support coroutine-like functionality provided 2.5 extending python generators 2.5 generators lazy iterators information passed unidirectionally generator python 2.5 possible pass information back generator function python 3.3 information passed multiple stack levels python expressions similar languages c java python distinction expressions statements rigidly enforced contrast languages common lisp scheme ruby leads duplicating functionality example statements part expression list comprehensions lambda expressions expressions contain statements particular case assignment statement codice_78 form part conditional expression conditional statement advantage avoiding classic c error mistaking assignment operator codice_79 equality operator codice_36 conditions codice_81 syntactically valid probably unintended c code codice_82 causes syntax error python methods objects functions attached object class syntax codice_83 normal methods functions syntactic sugar codice_84 python methods explicit codice_85 parameter access instance data contrast implicit codice_85 codice_87 object-oriented programming languages e.g. c++ java objective-c ruby python uses duck typing typed objects untyped variable names type constraints checked compile time rather operations object may fail signifying given object suitable type despite dynamically typed python strongly typed forbidding operations well-defined example adding number string rather silently attempting make sense python allows programmers define types using classes often used object-oriented programming new instances classes constructed calling class example codice_88 codice_89 classes instances metaclass codice_90 instance allowing metaprogramming reflection version 3.0 python two kinds classes old-style new-style syntax styles difference whether class codice_91 inherited directly indirectly new-style classes inherit codice_91 instances codice_90 versions python 2 python 2.2 onwards kinds classes used old-style classes eliminated python 3.0 long term plan support gradual typing python 3.5 syntax language allows specifying static types checked default implementation cpython experimental optional static type checker named mypy supports compile-time type checking python usual c language arithmetic operators codice_50 codice_95 codice_96 codice_33 codice_58 also codice_34 exponentiation e.g codice_100 codice_101 new matrix multiply codice_35 operator included version 3.5 additionally unary operator codice_103 essentially inverts bits one argument integers means codice_104 operators include bitwise shift operators codice_105 shifts codice_106 left codice_107 places codice_108 codice_109 shifts codice_106 right codice_107 places codice_112 behavior division changed significantly time division integers produces accurate floating point results rounding towards negative infinity though different languages adds consistency instance means equation codice_126 always true also means equation codice_127 valid positive negative values codice_128 however maintaining validity equation means result codice_129 expected half-open interval 0 b codice_130 positive integer lie interval b 0 codice_130 negative python provides codice_132 function rounding float nearest integer tie-breaking versions 3 use round-away-from-zero codice_133 1.0 codice_134 −1.0 python 3 uses round even codice_135 2 codice_136 2 python allows boolean expressions multiple equality relations manner consistent general use mathematics example expression codice_137 tests whether codice_128 less codice_130 codice_130 less codice_141 c-derived languages interpret expression differently c expression would first evaluate codice_142 resulting 0 1 result would compared codice_141 python extensive built-in support arbitrary precision arithmetic integers transparently switched machine-supported maximum fixed-precision usually 32 64 bits belonging python type codice_144 arbitrary precision belonging python type codice_145 needed latter l suffix textual representation python 3 distinction codice_144 codice_145 types eliminated behavior entirely contained codice_144 class codice_149 type/class module codice_150 since version 2.4 provides decimal floating point numbers arbitrary precision several rounding modes codice_151 type module codice_152 since version 2.6 provides arbitrary precision rational numbers due python extensive mathematics library third-party library numpy extends native capabilities frequently used scientific scripting language aid problems numerical data processing manipulation python large standard library commonly cited one greatest strengths provides tools suited many tasks internet-facing applications many standard formats protocols mime http supported includes modules creating graphical user interfaces connecting relational databases generating pseudorandom numbers arithmetic arbitrary precision decimals manipulating regular expressions unit testing parts standard library covered specifications example web server gateway interface wsgi implementation codice_153 follows pep 333 modules specified code internal documentation test suites supplied however standard library cross-platform python code modules need altering rewriting variant implementations python implementations including cpython include read–eval–print loop repl permitting function command line interpreter user enters statements sequentially receives results immediately shells including idle ipython add abilities auto-completion session state retention syntax highlighting well standard desktop integrated development environments web browser-based ides sagemath intended developing science math-related python programs pythonanywhere browser-based ide hosting environment canopy ide commercial python ide emphasizing scientific computing cpython reference implementation python written c meeting c89 standard several select c99 features compiles python programs intermediate bytecode executed virtual machine cpython distributed large standard library written mixture c native python available many platforms including windows modern unix-like systems platform portability one earliest priorities pypy fast compliant interpreter python 2.7 3.5 just-in-time compiler brings significant speed improvement cpython stackless python significant fork cpython implements microthreads use c memory stack thus allowing massively concurrent programs pypy also stackless version micropython circuitpython python 3 variants optimised microcontrollers includes lego mindstorms ev3 just-in-time python compilers developed unsupported 2005 nokia released python interpreter series 60 mobile phones named pys60 includes many modules cpython implementations additional modules integrate symbian operating system project kept up-to-date run variants s60 platform several third-party modules available nokia n900 also supports python gtk widget libraries enabling programs written run target device several compilers high-level object languages either unrestricted python restricted subset python language similar python source language performance comparison various python implementations non-numerical combinatorial workload presented euroscipy '13 python development conducted largely python enhancement proposal pep process primary mechanism proposing major new features collecting community input issues documenting python design decisions python coding style covered pep 8 outstanding peps reviewed commented python community steering council enhancement language corresponds development cpython reference implementation mailing list python-dev primary forum language development specific issues discussed roundup bug tracker maintained python.org development originally took place self-hosted source-code repository running mercurial python moved github january 2017 cpython public releases come three types distinguished part version number incremented many alpha beta release-candidates also released previews testing final releases although rough schedule release often delayed code ready python development team monitors state code running large unit test suite development using buildbot continuous integration system community python developers also contributed 86,000 software modules python package index pypi official repository third-party python libraries major academic conference python pycon also special python mentoring programmes pyladies python name derived british comedy group monty python python creator guido van rossum enjoyed developing language monty python references appear frequently python code culture example metasyntactic variables often used python literature spam eggs instead traditional foo bar official python documentation also contains various references monty python routines prefix py- used show something related python examples use prefix names python applications libraries include pygame binding sdl python commonly used create games pyqt pygtk bind qt gtk python respectively pypy python implementation originally written python python api documentation generators include since 2003 python consistently ranked top ten popular programming languages tiobe programming community index third popular language behind java c selected programming language year 2007 2010 2018 empirical study found scripting languages python productive conventional languages c java programming problems involving string manipulation search dictionary determined memory consumption often better java much worse c c++ large organizations use python include wikipedia google yahoo cern nasa facebook amazon instagram spotify smaller entities like ilm ita social news networking site reddit written entirely python python serve scripting language web applications e.g. via mod_wsgi apache web server web server gateway interface standard api evolved facilitate applications web frameworks like django pylons pyramid turbogears web2py tornado flask bottle zope support developers design maintenance complex applications pyjs ironpython used develop client-side ajax-based applications sqlalchemy used data mapper relational database twisted framework program communications computers used example dropbox libraries numpy scipy matplotlib allow effective use python scientific computing specialized libraries biopython astropy providing domain-specific functionality sagemath mathematical software notebook interface programmable python library covers many aspects mathematics including algebra combinatorics numerical mathematics number theory calculus python successfully embedded many software products scripting language including finite element method software abaqus 3d parametric modeler like freecad 3d animation packages 3ds max blender cinema 4d lightwave houdini maya modo motionbuilder softimage visual effects compositor nuke 2d imaging programs like gimp inkscape scribus paint shop pro musical notation programs like scorewriter capella gnu debugger uses python pretty printer show complex structures c++ containers esri promotes python best choice writing scripts arcgis also used several video games adopted first three available programming languages google app engine two java go python commonly used artificial intelligence projects help libraries like tensorflow keras scikit-learn scripting language modular architecture simple syntax rich text processing tools python often used natural language processing many operating systems include python standard component ships linux distributions amigaos 4 freebsd package netbsd openbsd package macos used command line terminal many linux distributions use installers written python ubuntu uses ubiquity installer red hat linux fedora use anaconda installer gentoo linux uses python package management system portage python used extensively information security industry including exploit development sugar software one laptop per child xo developed sugar labs written python raspberry pi single-board computer project adopted python main user-programming language libreoffice includes python intends replace java python python scripting provider core feature since version 4.0 7 february 2013 python design philosophy influenced many programming languages python development practices also emulated languages example practice requiring document describing rationale issues surrounding change language python pep also used tcl erlang python received tiobe programming language year awards 2007 2010 2018 award given language greatest growth popularity year measured tiobe index 1-hop neighbor's text information: lisp_(programming_language).lisp programming language lisp historically lisp family computer programming languages long history distinctive fully parenthesized prefix notation originally specified 1958 lisp second-oldest high-level programming language widespread use today fortran older one year lisp changed since early days many dialects existed history today best-known general-purpose lisp dialects clojure common lisp scheme lisp originally created practical mathematical notation computer programs influenced notation alonzo church lambda calculus quickly became favored programming language artificial intelligence ai research one earliest programming languages lisp pioneered many ideas computer science including tree data structures automatic storage management dynamic typing conditionals higher-order functions recursion self-hosting compiler read–eval–print loop name lisp derives list processor linked lists one lisp major data structures lisp source code made lists thus lisp programs manipulate source code data structure giving rise macro systems allow programmers create new syntax new domain-specific languages embedded lisp interchangeability code data gives lisp instantly recognizable syntax program code written s-expressions parenthesized lists function call syntactic form written list function operator name first arguments following instance function takes three arguments would called john mccarthy developed lisp 1958 massachusetts institute technology mit mccarthy published design paper communications acm 1960 entitled recursive functions symbolic expressions computation machine part showed simple operators notation functions one build turing-complete language algorithms information processing language first ai language 1955 1956 already included many concepts list-processing recursion came used lisp mccarthy original notation used bracketed m-expressions would translated s-expressions example m-expression equivalent s-expression lisp implemented programmers rapidly chose use s-expressions m-expressions abandoned m-expressions surfaced short-lived attempts mlisp horace enea cgol vaughan pratt lisp first implemented steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions two assembly language macros ibm 704 became primitive operations decomposing lists contents address part register number contents decrement part register number register used refer registers computer central processing unit cpu lisp dialects still use operations return first item list rest list respectively first complete lisp compiler written lisp implemented 1962 tim hart mike levin mit compiler introduced lisp model incremental compilation compiled interpreted functions intermix freely language used hart levin memo much closer modern lisp style mccarthy earlier code lisp difficult system implement compiler techniques stock hardware 1970s garbage collection routines developed mit graduate student daniel edwards made practical run lisp general-purpose computing systems efficiency still problem led creation lisp machines dedicated hardware running lisp environments programs 1980s 1990s great effort made unify work new lisp dialects mostly successors maclisp zetalisp nil new implementation lisp single language new language common lisp somewhat compatible dialects replaced book common lisp language notes compatibility various constructs 1994 ansi published common lisp standard ansi x3.226-1994 information technology programming language common lisp since inception lisp closely connected artificial intelligence research community especially pdp-10 systems lisp used implementation programming language micro planner used famous ai system shrdlu 1970s ai research spawned commercial offshoots performance existing lisp systems became growing issue sixty-year history lisp spawned many variations core theme s-expression language moreover given dialect may several implementations—for instance dozen implementations common lisp differences dialects may quite visible—for instance common lisp uses keyword codice_1 name function scheme uses codice_2 within dialect standardized however conforming implementations support core language different extensions libraries declined somewhat 1990s lisp experienced resurgence interest 2000 new activity focused around implementations common lisp scheme emacs lisp clojure racket includes development new portable libraries applications many new lisp programmers inspired writers paul graham eric s. raymond pursue language others considered antiquated new lisp programmers often describe language eye-opening experience claim substantially productive languages increase awareness may contrasted ai winter lisp brief gain mid-1990s dan weinreb lists survey common lisp implementations eleven actively maintained common lisp implementations scieneer common lisp new commercial implementation forked cmucl first release 2002 open source community created new supporting infrastructure cliki wiki collects common lisp related information common lisp directory lists resources lisp popular irc channel allows sharing commenting code snippets support lisppaste irc bot written lisp planet lisp collects contents various lisp-related blogs lispforum users discuss lisp topics lispjobs service announcing job offers weekly news service weekly lisp news common-lisp.net hosting site open source common lisp projects quicklisp library manager common lisp fifty years lisp 1958–2008 celebrated lisp50 oopsla regular local user meetings boston vancouver hamburg events include european common lisp meeting european lisp symposium international lisp conference scheme community actively maintains twenty implementations several significant new implementations chicken gambit gauche ikarus larceny ypsilon developed 2000s decade revised report algorithmic language scheme standard scheme widely accepted scheme community scheme requests implementation process created lot quasi standard libraries extensions scheme user communities individual scheme implementations continue grow new language standardization process started 2003 led rrs scheme standard 2007 academic use scheme teaching computer science seems declined somewhat universities longer using scheme computer science introductory courses mit uses python instead scheme undergraduate computer science program mitx massive open online course several new dialects lisp arc hy nu liskell lfe lisp flavored erlang parser julia implemented femtolisp dialect scheme julia inspired scheme often considered lisp common lisp scheme represent two major streams lisp development languages embody significantly different design choices common lisp successor maclisp primary influences lisp machine lisp maclisp nil s-1 lisp spice lisp scheme many features lisp machine lisp large lisp dialect used program lisp machines designed efficiently implementable personal computer workstation common lisp general-purpose programming language thus large language standard including many built-in data types functions macros language elements object system common lisp object system common lisp also borrowed certain features scheme lexical scoping lexical closures common lisp implementations available targeting different platforms llvm java virtual machine x86-64 powerpc alpha arm motorola 68000 mips operating systems windows macos linux solaris freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd heroku scheme statically scoped properly tail-recursive dialect lisp programming language invented guy l. steele jr. gerald jay sussman designed exceptionally clear simple semantics different ways form expressions designed decade earlier common lisp scheme minimalist design much smaller set standard features certain implementation features tail-call optimization full continuations specified common lisp wide variety programming paradigms including imperative functional message passing styles find convenient expression scheme scheme continues evolve series standards revised report algorithmic language scheme series scheme requests implementation clojure recent dialect lisp targets mainly java virtual machine common language runtime clr python vm ruby vm yarv compiling javascript designed pragmatic general-purpose language clojure draws considerable influences haskell places strong emphasis immutability clojure provides access java frameworks libraries optional type hints type inference calls java avoid reflection enable fast primitive operations lisp dialects used scripting languages many applications best-known emacs lisp emacs editor autolisp later visual lisp autocad nyquist audacity scheme lilypond potential small size useful scheme interpreter makes particularly popular embedded scripting examples include siod tinyscheme successfully embedded gimp image processor generic name script-fu librep lisp interpreter john harper originally based emacs lisp language embedded sawfish window manager lisp first language structure program code represented faithfully directly standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed homoiconicity thus lisp functions manipulated altered even created within lisp program without lower-level manipulations generally considered one main advantages language regard expressive power makes language suitable syntactic macros metacircular evaluation conditional using if–then–else syntax invented mccarthy fortran context proposed inclusion algol made part algol 58 specification lisp mccarthy used general cond -structure algol 60 took if–then–else popularized lisp deeply influenced alan kay leader research team developed smalltalk xerox parc turn lisp influenced smalltalk later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features inheritance classes encapsulating instances message passing etc 1970s flavors object system introduced concept multiple inheritance mixin common lisp object system provides multiple inheritance multimethods multiple dispatch first-class generic functions yielding flexible powerful form dynamic dispatch served template many subsequent lisp including scheme object systems often implemented via metaobject protocol reflective metacircular design object system defined terms lisp second language smalltalk still one languages possess metaobject system many years later alan kay suggested result confluence features smalltalk lisp could regarded properly conceived object-oriented programming systems lisp introduced concept automatic garbage collection system walks heap looking unused memory progress modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms generational garbage collection stimulated use lisp edsger w. dijkstra 1972 turing award lecture said largely resource requirements respect early computing hardware including early microprocessors lisp become popular outside ai community fortran algol-descended c language suitability complex dynamic applications lisp enjoying resurgence popular interest 2010s lisp expression oriented language unlike languages distinction made expressions statements code data written expressions expression evaluated produces value common lisp possibly multiple values embedded expressions value data type mccarthy 1958 paper introduced two types syntax symbolic expressions s-expressions sexps mirror internal representation code data meta expressions m-expressions express functions s-expressions m-expressions never found favor almost lisps today use s-expressions manipulate code data use parentheses lisp immediately obvious difference programming language families result students long given lisp nicknames lost stupid parentheses lots irritating superfluous parentheses however s-expression syntax also responsible much lisp power syntax extremely regular facilitates manipulation computer however syntax lisp limited traditional parentheses notation extended include alternative notations example xmlisp common lisp extension employs metaobject protocol integrate s-expressions extensible markup language xml reliance expressions gives language great flexibility lisp functions written lists processed exactly like data allows easy writing programs manipulate programs metaprogramming many lisp dialects exploit feature using macro systems enables extension language almost without limit lisp list written elements separated whitespace surrounded parentheses example list whose elements three atoms values implicitly typed respectively two integers lisp-specific data type called symbol declared empty list also represented special atom entity lisp atom list expressions written lists using prefix notation first element list name function name macro lambda expression name special operator see remainder list arguments example function returns arguments list expression evaluates list quote preceding example special operator returns argument without evaluating unquoted expressions recursively evaluated enclosing expression evaluated example evaluates list note third argument list lists nested arithmetic operators treated similarly expression evaluates 10 equivalent infix notation would lisp notion operators implemented algol-derived languages arithmetic operators lisp variadic functions n-ary able take number arguments c-style '++ increment operator sometimes implemented name incf giving syntax equivalent setq x x 1 returning new value x special operators sometimes called special forms provide lisp control structure example special operator takes three arguments first argument non-nil evaluates second argument otherwise evaluates third argument thus expression evaluates course would useful non-trivial expression substituted place lisp also provides logical operators operators short circuit evaluation return first nil non-nil argument respectively evaluate james another special operator used bind variables values evaluated within expression operator also used create functions arguments list arguments expression expressions function evaluates returned value value last expression evaluated expression evaluates function applied takes one argument binds returns number one greater argument lambda expressions treated differently named functions invoked way therefore expression evaluates 're function application execute anonymous function passing value 5 named functions created storing lambda expression symbol using defun macro original lisp two fundamental data types atoms lists list finite ordered sequence elements element either atom list atom number symbol symbol essentially unique named item written alphanumeric string source code used either variable name data item symbolic processing example list contains three elements symbol list number 2 essential difference atoms lists atoms immutable unique two atoms appeared different places source code written exactly way represented object whereas list separate object could altered independently lists could distinguished lists comparison operators data types introduced later lisp dialects programming styles evolved concept atom lost importance many dialects still retained predicate atom legacy compatibility defining true object cons lisp list implemented singly linked list cell list called cons scheme pair composed two pointers called car cdr respectively equivalent fields discussed article linked list many data structures built cons cells one basic called proper list proper list either special empty list symbol cons points datum may another cons structure list points another proper list given cons taken head linked list car points first element list cdr points rest list reason functions also called referring conses part linked list rather say tree thus lisp list atomic object instance container class c++ java would list nothing aggregate linked conses variable refers given list simply pointer first cons list traversal list done cdring list taking successive cdrs visit cons list using several higher-order functions map function list conses lists universal lisp systems common misconception lisp data structures fact simplistic lisps data structures vectors arrays hash tables structures forth parenthesized s-expressions represent linked list structures several ways represent list s-expression cons written dotted-pair notation car cdr longer proper list might written dotted-pair notation conventionally abbreviated list notation improper list may written combination two – list three conses whose last cdr i.e. list fully specified form lisp provides many built-in procedures accessing controlling lists lists created directly procedure takes number arguments returns list arguments way lists constructed cons pairs procedure used add element front list note procedure asymmetric handles list arguments lists constructed procedure appends two lists one another lisp lists linked lists appending two lists asymptotic time complexity formula_1 lisp lists simple linked lists share structure one another say two lists tail final sequence conses instance execution following common lisp code lists respectively however tail structure lists copy cons cells pointing memory locations lists sharing structure rather copying give dramatic performance improvement however technique interact undesired ways functions alter lists passed arguments altering one list replacing affect changes thereby also changes – possibly unexpected result source bugs functions alter arguments documented destructive reason aficionados functional programming avoid destructive functions scheme dialect favors functional style names destructive functions marked cautionary exclamation point bang —such read set car bang replaces car cons common lisp dialect destructive functions commonplace equivalent named replace car function rarely seen however common lisp includes special facility make easier define use destructive functions frequent style common lisp write code functionally without destructive calls prototyping add destructive calls optimization safe lisp evaluates expressions entered user symbols lists evaluate usually simpler expression – instance symbol evaluates value variable names evaluates however forms evaluate entering lisp returns expression also marked prevent evaluated necessary symbols lists role special operator abbreviation one quotation mark instance usually entering symbol returns value corresponding variable error variable refer literal symbol enter usually common lisp scheme also support backquote operator termed quasiquote scheme entered character grave accent almost plain quote except allows expressions evaluated values interpolated quoted list comma unquote comma-at splice operators variable value evaluates evaluates backquote often used defining macro expansions self-evaluating forms quoted forms lisp equivalent literals may possible modify values mutable literals program code instance function returns quoted form code calls function modifies form may alter behavior function subsequent iterations modifying quoted form like generally considered bad style defined ansi common lisp erroneous resulting undefined behavior compiled files file-compiler coalesce similar constants put write-protected memory etc. lisp formalization quotation noted douglas hofstadter gödel escher bach others example philosophical idea self-reference lisp family splits use dynamic static a.k.a lexical scope clojure common lisp scheme make use static scoping default newlisp picolisp embedded languages emacs autocad use dynamic scoping since version 24.1 emacs uses dynamic lexical scoping fundamental distinction lisp languages lisp textual representation program simply human-readable description internal data structures linked lists symbols number characters etc would used underlying lisp system lisp uses implement powerful macro system like macro languages c macro returns code compiled however unlike c macros macros lisp functions exploit full power lisp lisp code structure lists macros built list-processing functions language short anything lisp data structure lisp macros code contrast languages parser output purely internal language implementation manipulated programmer feature makes easy develop efficient languages within languages example common lisp object system implemented cleanly language extension using macros means application needs different inheritance mechanism use different object system stark contrast languages example java support multiple inheritance reasonable way add simplistic lisp implementations list structure directly interpreted run program function literally piece list structure traversed interpreter executing however substantial lisp systems also include compiler compiler translates list structure machine code bytecode execution code run fast code compiled conventional languages c. macros expand compilation step thus offer interesting options program needs precomputed table macro might create table compile time compiler need output table need call code create table run time lisp implementations even mechanism codice_3 allows code present compile time macro would need present emitted module lisp languages often used interactive command line may combined integrated development environment ide user types expressions command line directs ide transmit lisp system lisp reads entered expressions evaluates prints result reason lisp command line called read–eval–print loop repl basic operation repl follows simplistic description omits many elements real lisp quoting macros function accepts textual s-expressions input parses internal data structure instance type text prompt translates linked list three elements symbol number 1 number 2 happens list also valid piece lisp code evaluated car list names function—the addition operation note read single symbol read number one hundred twenty-three read string 123 function evaluates data returning zero lisp data result evaluation mean interpretation lisp systems compile every expression native machine code simple however describe evaluation interpretation evaluate list whose car names function first evaluates arguments given cdr applies function arguments case function addition applying argument list yields answer result evaluation symbol evaluates value symbol foo data like string 123 evaluates string list evaluates list 1 2 3 job function represent output user simple result trivial expression evaluated piece list structure would require traverse list print s-expression implement lisp repl necessary implement three functions infinite-loop function naturally implementation complex since must also implement special operators like done basic repl one line code lisp repl typically also provides input editing input history error handling interface debugger lisp usually evaluated eagerly common lisp arguments evaluated applicative order 'leftmost innermost scheme order arguments undefined leaving room optimization compiler lisp originally control structures many added language evolution lisp original conditional operator precursor later structures programmers scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion scheme commonality academic computer science led students believe tail recursion common way write iterations lisp incorrect oft-seen lisp dialects imperative-style iteration constructs scheme loop common lisp complex expressions moreover key issue makes objective rather subjective matter scheme makes specific requirements handling tail calls thus reason use tail recursion generally encouraged scheme practice expressly supported language definition contrast ansi common lisp require optimization commonly termed tail call elimination thus fact tail recursive style casual replacement use traditional iteration constructs discouraged common lisp matter stylistic preference potentially one efficiency since apparent tail call common lisp may compile simple jump program correctness since tail recursion may increase stack use common lisp risking stack overflow lisp control structures special operators equivalent languages syntactic keywords expressions using operators surface appearance function calls differ arguments necessarily evaluated—or case iteration expression may evaluated contrast major programming languages lisp allows implementing control structures using language several control structures implemented lisp macros even macro-expanded programmer wants know work common lisp scheme operators non-local control flow differences operators deepest differences two dialects scheme supports re-entrant continuations using procedure allows program save later restore particular place execution common lisp support re-entrant continuations support several ways handling escape continuations often algorithm expressed lisp either imperative functional style noted scheme tends favor functional style using tail recursion continuations express control flow however imperative style still quite possible style preferred many common lisp programmers may seem familiar programmers used structured languages c preferred schemers closely resembles pure-functional languages haskell lisp early heritage list processing wide array higher-order functions relating iteration sequences many cases explicit loop would needed languages like loop c lisp task accomplished higher-order function true many functional programming languages good example function scheme called common lisp called given function one lists applies function successively lists elements order collecting results new list applies function corresponding pair list elements yielding result examples common lisp code basic hello world program lisp syntax lends naturally recursion mathematical problems enumeration recursively defined sets simple express notation evaluate number factorial alternative implementation takes less stack space previous version underlying lisp system optimizes tail recursion contrast iterative version uses common lisp macro following function reverses list lisp built-in reverse function thing various object systems models built top alongside lisp including 1-hop neighbor's text information: julia_(programming_language).julia programming language julia high-level general-purpose dynamic programming language designed high-performance numerical analysis computational science also useful low-level systems programming specification language web programming server web use web client programming distinctive aspects julia design include type system parametric polymorphism types fully dynamic programming language multiple dispatch core programming paradigm allows concurrent parallel distributed computing direct calling c fortran libraries without glue code just-in-time compiler referred just-ahead-of-time julia community used julia garbage-collected uses eager evaluation includes efficient libraries floating-point calculations linear algebra random number generation regular expression matching many libraries available including e.g. fast fourier transforms previously bundled julia separate tools available julia include ides integrated tools e.g linter debugger rebugger.jl package supports repeated-execution debugging work julia started 2009 jeff bezanson stefan karpinski viral b. shah alan edelman set create free language high-level fast 14 february 2012 team launched website blog post explaining language mission interview infoworld april 2012 karpinski said name julia good reason really seemed like pretty name bezanson said chose name recommendation friend since 2012 launch julia community grown 9,000,000 downloads used 1,500 universities official julia docker images docker hub seen 4,000,000 downloads january 2019 juliacon academic conference julia users developers held annually since 2014 version 0.3 released august 2014 version 0.4 october 2015 version 0.5 october 2016 julia 0.6 released june 2017 stable release version 8 august 2018 julia 0.7 useful release testing packages knowing upgrade 1.0 version 1.0 released 8 august 2018 work julia 0.7 huge undertaking e.g. entirely new optimizer changes made syntax syntax stable 1.x 0.7 semantics iteration interface simplified release candidate julia 1.0 julia 1.0.0-rc1 released 7 august 2018 final version day later julia 1.1 released 21 january 2019 e.g. new exception stack language feature bugfix releases expected roughly monthly julia 1.1.x 1.0.x 1.0.x currently long-term support least year julia 1.0.1 1.0.4 followed schedule bugfix releases pipeline 0.7-release julia 1.2 released 20 august 2019 julia 1.1.x release longer maintained 1.0.x 1.2.x e.g built-in support web browsers testing running javascript vm packages work julia 1.0.x also work 1.1.x newer enabled forward compatible syntax guarantee major exception interacting non-julia code javacall.jl package however calling languages e.g r language works package r fixed call java scala etc use languages julia e.g jdbc.jl apache spark spark.jl users choose stay lts version julia milestone set fix julia 1.4 however already workaround julia-1.3.0-rc1 julia attracted high-profile users investment manager blackrock uses time-series analytics british insurer aviva uses risk calculations 2015 federal reserve bank new york used julia make models us economy noting language made model estimation 10 times faster previous matlab implementation julia co-founders established julia computing 2015 provide paid support training consulting services clients though julia remains free use 2017 juliacon conference jeffrey regier keno fischer others announced celeste project used julia achieve peak performance 1.54 petaflops using 1.3 million threads 9300 knights landing knl nodes cori cray xc40 supercomputer 5th fastest world time november 2017 8th fastest julia thus joins c c++ fortran high-level languages petaflops computations achieved three julia co-creators recipients 2019 james h. wilkinson prize numerical software awarded every four years creation julia innovative environment creation high-performance tools enable analysis solution computational science problems julia received contributions 800 developers worldwide dr. jeremy kepner mit lincoln laboratory founding sponsor julia project early days addition funds gordon betty moore foundation alfred p. sloan foundation intel agencies nsf darpa nih nasa faa essential development julia julia computing inc. founded 2015 viral b. shah deepak vinchhi alan edelman jeff bezanson stefan karpinski keno fischer june 2017 julia computing raised 4.6m seed funding general catalyst founder collective according official website main features language multiple dispatch also termed multimethods lisp generalization single dispatch polymorphic mechanism used common object-oriented programming oop languages uses inheritance julia concrete types subtypes abstract types directly indirectly subtypes type top type hierarchy concrete types subtyped way languages composition used instead see also inheritance vs subtyping julia draws significant inspiration various dialects lisp including scheme common lisp shares many features dylan also multiple-dispatch-oriented dynamic language features algol-like free-form infix syntax rather lisp-like prefix syntax julia everything expression fortress another numerical programming language features multiple dispatch sophisticated parametric type system common lisp object system clos adds multiple dispatch common lisp functions generic functions julia dylan fortress extensibility default system built-in functions generic extensible dylan multiple dispatch fundamental julia user-defined functions even basic built-in operations like codice_1 generic dylan type system however fully support parametric types typical ml lineage languages default clos allow dispatch common lisp parametric types extended dispatch semantics added extension clos metaobject protocol convergent design fortress also features multiple dispatch parametric types unlike julia however fortress statically rather dynamically typed separate compiling executing phases language features summarized following table default julia runtime must pre-installed user-provided source code run alternatively standalone executable needs julia source code built applicationbuilder.jl packagecompiler.jl julia syntactic macros used metaprogramming like lisp macros powerful different text-substitution macros used preprocessor languages c work level abstract syntax trees asts julia macro system hygienic also supports deliberate capture desired like anaphoric macros using codice_2 construct julia official distribution includes interactive session shell called julia read–eval–print loop repl used experiment test code quickly following fragment represents sample session example strings concatenated automatically println repl gives user access system shell help mode pressing codice_3 codice_4 prompt preceding command respectively also keeps history commands including sessions code tested inside julia interactive section saved file codice_5 extension run command line typing julia supported jupyter online interactive notebooks environment julia practice interoperable many languages julia keyword used call c-exported fortran shared library functions individually julia unicode 12.0 support latest 12.1.0 support adds one letter julia 1.3 utf-8 used strings default julia source code meaning also allowing option common math symbols many operators ∈ codice_6 operator julia packages supporting markup languages html also http xml json bson databases web use general julia core implemented julia c together c++ llvm dependency parsing code-lowering implemented femtolisp scheme dialect llvm compiler infrastructure project used back end generation 64-bit 32-bit optimized machine code depending platform julia runs exceptions e.g. pcre standard library implemented julia notable aspect julia implementation speed often within factor two relative fully optimized c code thus often order magnitude faster python r development julia began 2009 open-source version publicized february 2012 julia uses jit mcjit llvm julia generates native machine code directly function first run bytecodes run virtual machine vm translated bytecode running e.g java jvm dalvik android julia four support tiers currently supports x86-64 processors 64-bit optimized latest generations ia-32 x86 processors except decades old ones i.e. 32-bit mode i686 excepting cpus pre-pentium 4-era supports lower tiers e.g. tier 2 fully supports armv8 aarch64 processors supports armv7 armv6 aarch32 caveats cuda i.e nvidia ptx tier 1 support help external package least platforms may need compiled source code e.g. original raspberry pi options changed download page otherwise executables source available julia successfully built several arm platforms e.g. armv8 data center cloud processors cavium thunderx first arm 48 cores arm v7 32-bit tier 2 support binaries first get x86 arm v8 64-bit ptx 64-bit meaning nvidia cuda gpus external support powerpc 64-bit tier 3 support may may build julia supported raspbian support better newer e.g. armv7 pis julia support promoted raspberry pi foundation also support web browsers/javascript jsexpr.jl alternative language web browsers webassembly support minimal support julia supports several upcoming external julia projects Target text information: docstring.docstring programming docstring string literal specified source code used like comment document specific segment code unlike conventional source code comments even specifically formatted comments like javadoc documentation docstrings stripped source tree parsed retained throughout runtime program allows programmer inspect comments run time instance interactive help system metadata appears first introduced original teco implementation emacs languages support docstrings include python lisp elixir clojure gherkin julia documentation supported language level form docstrings markdown elixir de facto markup language choice use docstrings lisp docstrings known documentation strings common lisp standard states particular implementation may choose discard docstrings whenever want whatever reason kept docstrings may viewed changed using documentation function instance common practice documenting code object head definition captured addition docstring syntax python language docstring python code object module class function first statement code object immediately following definition 'def 'class statement statement must bare string literal kind expression docstring code object available code object codice_1 attribute codice_2 function following python file shows declaration docstrings within python source file assuming code saved mymodule.py following interactive session showing docstrings may accessed I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,310	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: btrfs.btrfs btrfs pronounced butter fuss better f butter f b-tree f simply spelling file system based copy-on-write cow principle initially designed oracle corporation use linux development btrfs began 2007 since november 2013 file system on-disk format marked stable btrfs intended address lack pooling snapshots checksums integral multi-device spanning linux file systems chris mason principal btrfs author stated goal let linux scale storage available scaling addressing storage also means able administer manage clean interface lets people see used makes reliable core data structure btrfsthe copy-on-write b-treewas originally proposed ibm researcher ohad rodeh presentation usenix 2007 chris mason engineer working reiserfs suse time joined oracle later year began work new file system based b-trees 2008 principal developer ext3 ext4 file systems theodore ts stated although ext4 improved features major advance uses old technology stop-gap ts said btrfs better direction offers improvements scalability reliability ease management btrfs also number design ideas reiser3/4 btrfs 1.0 finalized on-disk format originally slated late-2008 release finally accepted linux kernel mainline 2009 several linux distributions began offering btrfs experimental choice root file system installation july 2011 btrfs automatic defragmentation scrubbing features merged version 3.0 linux kernel mainline besides mason oracle miao xie fujitsu contributed performance improvements june 2012 chris mason left oracle fusion-io left year later josef bacik join facebook companies mason continued work btrfs 2012 two linux distributions moved btrfs experimental production supported status oracle linux march followed suse linux enterprise august 2015 btrfs adopted default filesystem suse linux enterprise server 12 august 2017 red hat announced release notes red hat enterprise linux rhel 7.4 longer planned move btrfs included technology preview since rhel 6 beta fully supported feature noting would remain available rhel 7 release series btrfs removed rhel 8 may 2019 version 5.0 linux kernel btrfs implements following features 2009 btrfs expected offer feature set comparable zfs developed sun microsystems oracle acquisition sun 2009 mason oracle decided continue btrfs development btrfs provides clone operation atomically creates copy-on-write snapshot file cloned files sometimes referred reflinks light associated linux kernel system calls cloning file system create new link pointing existing inode instead creates new inode initially shares disk blocks original file result cloning works within boundaries btrfs file system since version 3.6 linux kernel may cross boundaries subvolumes certain circumstances actual data blocks duplicated time due copy-on-write cow nature btrfs modifications cloned files visible original file vice versa cloning confused hard links directory entries associate multiple file names actual files file system hard links taken different names file cloning btrfs provides independent files share disk blocks support btrfs feature added version 7.5 gnu coreutils via codice_2 option codice_3 command btrfs subvolume thought separate posix file namespace mountable separately passing codice_4 codice_5 options utility also accessed mounting top-level subvolume case subvolumes visible accessible subdirectories subvolumes created place within file system hierarchy also nested nested subvolumes appear subdirectories within parent subvolumes similarly way top-level subvolume presents subvolumes subdirectories deleting subvolume possible subvolumes nesting hierarchy deleted result top-level subvolumes deleted btrfs file system always default subvolume initially set top-level subvolume mounted default subvolume selection option passed codice_6 default subvolume changed required btrfs snapshot subvolume shares data metadata subvolume using btrfs copy-on-write capabilities modifications snapshot visible original subvolume writable snapshot made treated alternate version original file system example roll back snapshot modified original subvolume needs unmounted snapshot needs mounted place point original subvolume may also deleted copy-on-write cow nature btrfs means snapshots quickly created initially consuming little disk space since snapshot subvolume creating nested snapshots also possible taking snapshots subvolume recursive process thus snapshot subvolume created every subvolume snapshot subvolume already contains mapped empty directory name inside snapshot taking snapshots directory possible subvolumes snapshots however workaround involves reflinks spread across subvolumes new subvolume created containing cross-subvolume reflinks content targeted directory available snapshot new volume created subvolume btrfs quite different traditional logical volume manager lvm logical volume lvm logical volume separate block device btrfs subvolume treated used way making dd lvm snapshots btrfs leads dataloss either original copy mounted computer given pair subvolumes snapshots btrfs generate binary diff using codice_7 command replayed later using codice_8 possibly different btrfs file system send–receive feature effectively creates applies set data modifications required converting one subvolume another send/receive feature used regularly scheduled snapshots implementing simple form file system master–slave replication purpose performing incremental backups quota group qgroup imposes upper limit space subvolume snapshot may consume new snapshot initially consumes quota data shared parent thereafter incurs charge new files copy-on-write operations existing files quotas active quota group automatically created new subvolume snapshot initial quota groups building blocks grouped codice_9 command hierarchies implement quota pools quota groups apply subvolumes snapshots quotas enforced individual subdirectories users user groups possible however workarounds possible using different subvolumes users user groups require quota enforced result little metadata anchored fixed locations btrfs warp fit unusual spatial layouts backend storage devices codice_10 tool exploits ability in-place conversion ext2/3/4 reiserfs file system nesting equivalent btrfs metadata unallocated space—while preserving unmodified copy original file system conversion involves creating copy whole ext2/3/4 metadata btrfs files simply point blocks used ext2/3/4 files makes bulk blocks shared two filesystems conversion becomes permanent thanks copy-on-write nature btrfs original versions file data blocks preserved file modifications conversion becomes permanent blocks marked free ext2/3/4 used hold new btrfs modifications meaning conversion undone time although erase changes made conversion btrfs converted files available writable default subvolume btrfs sparse file holding references original ext2/3/4 filesystem created separate subvolume mountable read-only disk image allowing original converted file systems accessed time deleting sparse file frees space makes conversion permanent june 2015 4.x versions linux kernel mainline in-place ext3/4 conversion considered untested rarely used feature however rewritten scratch 2016 codice_11 4.6. considered stable since in-place conversion reiserfs introduced september 2017 kernel 4.13 creating new btrfs existing btrfs used read-only seed file system new file system act copy-on-write overlay seed form union mounting seed later detached btrfs point rebalancer simply copy seed data still referenced new file system detaching mason suggested may useful live cd installer might boot read-only btrfs seed optical disc rebalance target partition install disk background user continues work eject disc complete installation without rebooting 2009 interview chris mason stated support encryption planned btrfs meantime workaround combining encryption btrfs use full-disk encryption mechanism dm-crypt luks underlying devices create btrfs filesystem top layer unix systems traditionally rely fsck programs check repair filesystems functionality implemented via codice_12 program since version 4.0 functionality deemed relatively stable however august 2017 btrfs documentation suggests used tried recovery methods another tool named codice_13 used recover files unmountable filesystem without modifying broken filesystem i.e. non-destructively normal use btrfs mostly self-healing recover broken root trees mount time thanks making periodic data flushes permanent storage default every 30 seconds thus isolated errors cause maximum 30 seconds filesystem changes lost next mount period changed specifying desired value seconds codice_14 mount option ohad rodeh original proposal usenix 2007 noted b+ trees widely used on-disk data structures databases could efficiently allow copy-on-write-based snapshots leaf nodes linked together leaf copy-on-written siblings parents would well would siblings parents entire tree copied suggested instead modified b-tree leaf linkage refcount associated tree node stored ad-hoc free map structure certain relaxations tree balancing algorithms make copy-on-write friendly result would data structure suitable high-performance object store could perform copy-on-write snapshots maintaining good concurrency oracle later year chris mason began work snapshot-capable file system would use data structure almost exclusively—not metadata file data also recursively track space allocation trees allowed traversal modifications funneled single code path features copy-on-write checksumming mirroring needed implemented benefit entire file system btrfs structured several layers trees using b-tree implementation trees store generic items sorted 136-bit key first 64 bits key unique object id middle 8 bits item type field use hardwired code item filter tree lookups objects multiple items multiple types remaining right-hand 64 bits used type-specific ways therefore items object end adjacent tree ordered type choosing certain right-hand key values objects put items type particular order interior tree nodes simply flat lists key-pointer pairs pointer logical block number child node leaf nodes contain item keys packed front node item data packed end two growing toward leaf fills every tree appears object root tree tree tree roots trees file system trees log trees variable number instances given object id trees singletons data relocation extent chunk trees assigned special fixed object ids ≤256 root tree appears tree object id 1 trees refer object id may also refer individual nodes trees triplet tree object id node level within tree leftmost key value references independent tree actually stored user-visible files directories contained file system tree one file system tree per subvolume subvolumes nest case appear directory item described whose data reference nested subvolume file system tree within file system tree file directory object inode item extended attributes acl entries stored alongside separate items within directory directory entries appear directory items whose right-hand key values crc32c hash filename data location key key inode item points directory items together thus act index path-to-inode lookups used iteration sorted hash effectively randomly permuting means user applications iterating opening files large directory would thus generate many disk seeks non-adjacent files—a notable performance drain file systems hash-ordered directories reiserfs ext3 htree-indexes enabled ext4 tea-hashed filenames avoid directory entry directory index item whose right-hand key value item set per-directory counter increments new directory entry iteration index items thus returns entries roughly order stored disk besides inode items files directories also reference item whose right-hand key value object id parent directory data part reference item filename inode known directory allows upward traversal directory hierarchy providing way map inodes back paths files hard links multiple directories multiple reference items one parent directory files multiple hard links directory pack links filenames reference item design flaw limited number same-directory hard links however many could fit single tree block default block size 4 kib average filename length 8 bytes per-filename header 4 bytes would less 350 applications made heavy use multiple same-directory hard links git gnus gmame backuppc later observed fail hitting limit limit eventually removed october 2012 merged pending release linux 3.7 introducing spillover extended reference items hold hard link filenames could otherwise fit file data kept outside tree extents contiguous runs disk blocks extent blocks default 4kib size headers contain possibly compressed file data compressed extents individual blocks compressed separately rather compression stream spans entire extent files extent data items track extents hold contents item right-hand key value starting byte offset extent makes efficient seeks large files many extents correct extent given file offset computed one tree lookup snapshots cloned files share extents small part large extent overwritten resulting copy-on-write may create three new extents small one containing overwritten data two large ones unmodified data either side overwrite avoid re-write unmodified data copy-on-write may instead create bookend extents extents simply slices existing extents extent data items allow including offset extent tracking items bookends non-zero offsets file data small enough fit inside tree node instead pulled in-tree stored inline extent data item tree node stored tree block —a single uncompressed block header tree block regarded free-standing single-block extent extent allocation tree acts allocation map file system unlike trees items tree object ids represent regions space left-hand right-hand key values starting offsets lengths regions represent file system zones allocated space block groups variable-sized allocation regions alternate successively preferring metadata extents tree nodes data extents file contents default ratio data metadata block groups 1:2 intended work like orlov block allocator block groups ext3 allocating related files together resisting fragmentation leaving allocation gaps groups ext3 block groups however fixed locations computed size file system whereas btrfs dynamic created needed block group associated block group item inode items file system tree include reference current block group extent items contain back-reference tree node file occupying extent may multiple back-references extent shared snapshots many back-references fit item spill individual extent data reference items tree nodes turn back-references containing trees makes possible find extents tree nodes region space b-tree range lookup pair offsets bracketing region following back-references relocating data allows efficient upwards traversal relocated blocks quickly find fix downwards references blocks without walk entire file system turn allows file system efficiently shrink migrate defragment storage online extent allocation tree trees file system copy-on-write writes file system may thus cause cascade whereby changed tree nodes file data result new extents allocated causing extent tree change avoid creating feedback loop extent tree nodes still memory yet committed disk may updated in-place reflect new copy-on-written extents theory extent allocation tree makes conventional free-space bitmap unnecessary extent allocation tree acts b-tree version bsp tree practice however in-memory red-black tree page-sized bitmaps used speed allocations bitmaps persisted disk starting linux 2.6.37 via codice_15 mount option special extents exempt checksumming copy-on-write extent items tracking extents stored root tree crc-32c checksums computed data metadata stored checksum items checksum tree room 256 bits metadata checksums full leaf block roughly 4 kb data checksums checksum algorithm options planned future one checksum item per contiguous run allocated blocks per-block checksums packed end-to-end item data checksums fit spill rightwards another checksum item new leaf file system detects checksum mismatch reading block first tries obtain create good copy block another device internal mirroring raid techniques use btrfs initiate online check entire file system triggering file system scrub job performed background scrub job scans entire file system integrity automatically attempts report repair bad blocks finds along way fsync request commit modified data immediately stable storage fsync-heavy workloads like database virtual machine whose running os fsyncs intensively could potentially generate great deal redundant write i/o forcing file system repeatedly copy-on-write flush frequently modified parts trees storage avoid temporary per-subvolume log tree created journal fsync-triggered copy-on-writes log trees self-contained tracking extents keeping checksum items items replayed deleted next full tree commit system crash next remount block devices divided physical chunks 256 mb physical chunks across multiple devices mirrored striped together single logical chunk logical chunks combined single logical address space rest filesystem uses chunk tree tracks storing device therein device item logical chunks chunk map items provide forward mapping logical physical addresses storing offsets right-hand 64 bits key chunk map items one several different types n however many block devices still free space chunk allocated n large enough chosen mirroring/mapping filesystem effectively space device tree inverse chunk tree device extent items provide reverse mapping byte-ranges block devices back logical chunks storing device number left hand 64-bits physical offset right-hand 64 bits key two trees together allow btrfs grow shrink even change raid levels without unmounting make possible efficiently locate chunks affected shrink/move operations relocate contents on-the-fly file system chunks devices assigned universally unique identifier uuid header every tree node contains uuid containing chunk uuid file system chunk device trees refer devices chunks uuids filesystems single block device dup also default profile metadata intended improve odds successful data salvage event media errors defragmentation shrinking rebalancing operations require extents relocated however simple copy-on-write relocating extent break sharing snapshots consume disk space preserve sharing update-and-swap algorithm used special relocation tree serving scratch space affected metadata extent relocated first copied destination following backreferences upward affected subvolume file system tree metadata pointing old extent progressively updated point new one newly updated items stored relocation tree update complete items relocation tree swapped counterparts affected subvolume relocation tree discarded file system trees—including chunk tree itself—are stored chunks creating potential bootstrapping problem mounting file system bootstrap mount list physical addresses chunks belonging chunk root trees must stored superblock superblock mirrors kept fixed locations 64 kib every block device additional copies 64 mib 256 gib 1 pib superblock mirror updated generation number incremented mount time copy highest generation number used superblock mirrors updated tandem except ssd mode alternates updates among mirrors provide wear levelling 1-hop neighbor's text information: unix-like.unix-like unix-like sometimes referred unx nix operating system one behaves manner similar unix system necessarily conforming certified version single unix specification unix-like application one behaves like corresponding unix command shell standard defining term difference opinion possible degree given operating system application unix-like term include free open-source operating systems inspired bell labs unix designed emulate features commercial proprietary work-alikes even versions based licensed unix source code may sufficiently unix-like pass certification bear unix trademark open group owns unix trademark administers single unix specification unix name used certification mark approve construction unix-like consider misuse trademark guidelines require unix presented uppercase otherwise distinguished surrounding text strongly encourage using branding adjective generic word system discourage use hyphenated phrases parties frequently treat unix genericized trademark add wildcard character name make abbreviation like unx nix since unix-like systems often unix-like names aix a/ux hp-ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix xinu xnu patterns literally match many system names still generally recognized refer unix descendant work-alike system even completely dissimilar names darwin/macos illumos/solaris freebsd 2007 wayne r. gray sued dispute status unix trademark lost case lost appeal court upholding trademark ownership unix-like systems started appear late 1970s early 1980s many proprietary versions idris 1978 unos 1982 coherent 1983 uniflex 1985 aimed provide businesses functionality available academic users unix allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing unix 1979 variety proprietary systems developed based including aix hp-ux irix sunos tru64 ultrix xenix largely displaced proprietary clones growing incompatibility among systems led creation interoperability standards including posix single unix specification various free low-cost unrestricted substitutes unix emerged 1980s 1990s including 4.4bsd linux minix turn basis commercial unix-like systems bsd/os macos several versions mac os x/macos running intel-based mac computers certified single unix specification bsd variants descendants unix developed university california berkeley unix source code bell labs however bsd code base evolved since replacing code since bsd variants certified compliant single unix specification referred unix-like rather unix dennis ritchie one original creators unix expressed opinion unix-like systems linux de facto unix systems eric s. raymond rob landley suggested three kinds unix-like systems systems historical connection codebase commercial unix systems fall category bsd systems descendants work done university california berkeley late 1970s early 1980s systems original code still trace ancestry designs systemslargely commercial naturehave determined open group meet single unix specification allowed carry unix name systems commercial derivatives system v code base one form another although apple macos 10.5 later bsd variant certified systems ibm z/os earned trademark posix compatibility layer otherwise inherently unix systems many ancient unix systems longer meet definition broadly unix-like system behaves manner roughly consistent unix specification including program manages login command line sessions specifically refer systems linux minix behave similarly unix system genetic trademark connection code base free/open-source implementations unix design whether genetic unix fall restricted definition third category due expense obtaining open group certification costs thousands dollars commercial closed source systems around 2001 linux given opportunity get certification including free help posix chair andrew josey symbolic price one dollar activities make linux posix-compliant josey prepared list differences posix standard linux standard base specification august 2005 project shut missing interest lsb work group non-unix-like operating systems provide unix-like compatibility layer variable degrees unix-like functionality means windows-unix interoperability include 1-hop neighbor's text information: process_(computing).process computing computing process instance computer program executed one many threads contains program code activity depending operating system os process may made multiple threads execution execute instructions concurrently computer program passive collection instructions process actual execution instructions several processes may associated program example opening several instances program often results one process executed multitasking method allow multiple processes share processors cpus system resources cpu core executes single task time however multitasking allows processor switch tasks executed without wait task finish depending operating system implementation switches could performed tasks perform input/output operations task indicates switched hardware interrupts common form multitasking time-sharing time-sharing method allow high responsiveness interactive user applications time-sharing systems context switches performed rapidly makes seem like multiple processes executed simultaneously processor seeming execution multiple processes simultaneously called concurrency security reliability modern operating systems prevent direct communication independent processes providing strictly mediated controlled inter-process communication functionality general computer system process consists said following resources operating system holds information active processes data structures called process control blocks subset resources typically least processor state may associated process threads operating systems support threads child processes operating system keeps processes separate allocates resources need less likely interfere cause system failures e.g. deadlock thrashing operating system may also provide mechanisms inter-process communication enable processes interact safe predictable ways multitasking operating system may switch processes give appearance many processes executing simultaneously parallel though fact one process executing one time single cpu unless cpu multiple cores multithreading similar technologies used usual associate single process main program child processes spin-off parallel processes behave like asynchronous subroutines process said resources image program memory one resource however multiprocessing systems many processes may run share reentrant program location memory process said image program processes often called tasks embedded operating systems sense process task something takes time opposed memory something takes space description applies processes managed operating system processes defined process calculi process requests something must wait blocked process blocked state eligible swapping disk transparent virtual memory system regions process memory may really disk main memory time note even portions active processes/tasks executing programs eligible swapping disk portions used recently parts executing program data physical memory associated process active operating system kernel allows multitasking needs processes certain states names states standardised similar functionality processes communicate called inter-process communication ipc processes frequently need communicate instance shell pipeline output first process need pass second one process preferred well-structured way using interrupts even possible two processes running different machines operating system os may differ one process therefore mediator called protocols needed early 1960s computer control software evolved monitor control software example ibsys executive control software time computers got faster computer time still neither cheap fully utilized environment made multiprogramming possible necessary multiprogramming means several programs run concurrently first one program ran single processor result underlying uniprocessor computer architecture shared scarce limited hardware resources consequently concurrency serial nature later systems multiple processors multiple programs may run concurrently parallel programs consist sequences instructions processors single processor run one instruction time impossible run programs time program might need resource input device large delay program might start slow operation sending output printer would lead processor idle unused keep processor busy times execution program halted operating system switches processor run another program user appear programs run time hence term parallel shortly thereafter notion program expanded notion executing program context concept process born also became necessary invention re-entrant code threads came somewhat later however advent concepts time-sharing computer networks multiple-cpu shared memory computers old multiprogramming gave way true multitasking multiprocessing later multithreading Target text information: live_cd.live cd live cd also live dvd live disc live operating system complete bootable computer installation including operating system runs directly cd-rom similar storage device computer memory rather loading hard disk drive live cd allows users run operating system purpose without installing making changes computer configuration live cds run computer without secondary storage hard disk drive corrupted hard disk drive file system allowing data recovery cd dvd drives steadily phased-out live cds become less popular replaced live usbs equivalent systems written onto usb flash drives added benefit write-able storage functionality live cd also available bootable live usb flash drive external hard disk drive connected usb many live cds offer option persistence writing files hard drive usb flash drive many linux distributions make iso images available burning cd dvd open source operating systems used free commercial software windows go requires license use many live cds used data recovery computer forensics disk imaging system recovery malware removal tails operating system aimed preserving privacy anonymity users allowing work sensitive documents without leaving record computer hard drive computers except earliest digital computers built form minimal built-in loader loads program succession programs storage medium operate computer initially read-only medium punched tape punched cards used initial program load introduction inexpensive read-write storage read-write floppy disks hard disks used boot media introduction audio compact disc adapted use medium storing distributing large amounts computer data data may also include application operating-system software sometimes packaged archived compressed formats later seen convenient useful boot computer directly compact disc often minimal working system install full system onto hard drive read-write optical discs either mass-produced read-only discs write-once discs used purpose first compact disc drives personal computers generally much slow run complex operating systems computers designed boot optical disc operating systems came distributed compact discs either boot floppy cd would boot specifically install onto hard drive world first oldest non-linux live cd fm towns os first released 1989 release macintosh system 7 1991 yggdrasil linux 1992 although early developers users distributions built top linux kernel could take advantage cheap optical disks rapidly declining prices cd drives personal computers linux distribution cds distros generally treated collection installation packages must first permanently installed hard disks target machine however case distributions built top linux kernel free operating system meeting resistance consumer market perceived difficulty effort risk involved installing additional partition hard disk parallel existing operating system installation term live cd coined typical pc ram large enough 52x speed cd drives cd burners widespread among pc owners finally became convenient practical boot kernel run x11 window manager gui applications directly cd without disturbing os hard disk new different situation linux operating systems updates/upgrades released quickly different distributions versions offered online especially users burning cds first linux-based 'live cd yggdrasil linux first released beta form 1992~1993 ceased production 1995 though practice functionality hampered due low throughput contemporary cd-rom drives demolinux released 1998 first linux distribution specially designed live cd linuxcare bootable business card first released 1999 first live cd focus system administration first distributed bootable business card form factor finnix first released 2000 oldest live cd still production knoppix debian-derived linux distribution released 2003 found popularity rescue disk system primary distribution right since 2003 popularity live cds increased substantially partly due linux live scripts remastersys made easy build customized live systems popular linux distributions include live cd variant cases also preferred installation medium live cds made many different uses designed demonstrate test drive particular operating system usually linux another free open source operating system software tested run particular single use without interfering system setup data system functioning normally due operating system software issues made available example data recovered machine active virus infection without virus process active causing damage virus removed defences removal bypassed although live cds load memory free optical drive uses loading data cd-rom still slower typical hard drive boot rarely default large live cd images smaller live cd images loading filesystem directly ram provide significant performance boost ram much faster hard drive uses less power experienced users operating system may also use live cd determine whether extent particular operating system version compatible particular hardware configuration certain peripherals way know beforehand computer peripheral work buying live cd used troubleshoot hardware especially hard drive fails generally recovery disc case problems live cds save user-created files windows partition usb drive network drive accessible media live backup cds create image drives back files without problems due open files inconsistent sets additional uses include several live cds dedicated specific type applications according requirements thematic user communities cds tailored needs applications subject including general knowledge tutorial specifications trial data topics covers sub topics e.g administration breaks firewall rescue security etc type live cds cases particular live dvd covers one topic packaging software appliance installable live cd live iso often beneficial single image run real hardware types virtual machines allows developers avoid complexities involved supporting multiple incompatible virtual machine images formats focus lowest common denominator instead typically booting machine live cd appliance either runs non-persistent demo mode installs user request available storage device files live cd iso image accessed microsoft windows disk image emulator daemon tools unix variants mounting loop device later versions windows i.e windows 8 later software available earlier versions allow iso mounted volume mounting live cd filesystem software live cd run directly without booting chrooting mounted filesystem live cd iso image also mounted virtual machine software virtualbox vmware workstation converted live usb using syslinux special tools automate process live cd initialization user typically may resort using one boot codes change booting behavior vary distribution distribution often accessed upon first boot screen one function keys live cds come installation utility launchable desktop icon optionally install system hard drive usb flash drive live cds access information internal and/or external hard drives diskettes usb flash drives live cds usually distributed read-only media requiring either copying rewriteable media i.e hard drive cd writer complete remastering install additional software however exceptions puppy linux recorded open multisession medium changes made use files created programs installed preferences customised written new session boot medium persisting subsequent boots term live cd came used cd containing operating system software could run without installation host computer operating systems used live include amigaos 4 amithlon aros freebsd freedos classic mac os macos microsoft windows installation repair discs os/2 reactos netbsd openbsd minix 3 plan 9 bell labs morphos opensolaris belenix others based solaris maintenance versions microsoft windows bootable cd bartpe windows pe microsoft diagnostics recovery toolset dart previously known emergency repair disk commander erd commander first personal computer operating system cd support live operations might amigaos could booted cd amiga cdtv 1990.. earlier examples live os course operating systems used floppy widely spread dos unlike previous operating systems optical media though linux os/2 live cds specifically designed run without installation onto media like hard disk drive live cd concept meant promote linux showcase abilities free open source operating system conventional personal computers microsoft windows already installed pc bootable compact disc generally conforms el torito specification introduced 1994 many linux based live cds use compressed filesystem image often cloop compressed loopback driver squashfs compressed filesystem generally doubling effective storage capacity although slowing application start resulting environment quite rich typical knoppix systems include around 1,200 separate software packages live cds reputation supporting advanced auto-configuration plug-and-play functionality came necessity avoid requiring user configure system time boots make easily usable new operating system read-only file system cd-rom drawback unable save current working data reason read-only file system often merged temporary writable file system form ram disk often default linux directories codice_1 containing users personal files configuration files codice_2 containing variable data kept ramdisk system updates frequently puppy linux live cds allow configuration added files written used later sessions modern live cds read-only file system merged ram drive using transparent techniques unionfs aufs ewf boot loaders like syslinux boot iso files usb memory devices live cds able detect use wide variety hardware including network cards graphic cards etc realtime often using facilities udev hotplug hal udisk etc.. common part distributions based linux kernel 2.6 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,150	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: free_and_open-source_graphics_device_driver.free open-source graphics device driver free open-source graphics device driver software stack controls computer-graphics hardware supports graphics-rendering application programming interfaces apis released free open-source software license graphics device drivers written specific hardware work within specific operating system kernel support range apis used applications access graphics hardware may also control output display display driver part graphics hardware free open-source graphics device drivers developed mesa project driver made compiler rendering api software manages access graphics hardware drivers without freely legally -available source code commonly known binary drivers binary drivers used context operating systems prone ongoing development change linux create problems end users package maintainers problems affect system stability security performance main reason independent development free open-source drivers technical documentation available understanding underlying hardware often gained clean-room reverse engineering based understanding device drivers may written legally published software license rare cases manufacturer driver source code available internet without free license means code studied altered personal use altered usually original source code freely distributed solutions bugs driver easily shared form modified versions driver therefore utility drivers significantly reduced comparison free open-source drivers objections binary-only drivers based copyright security reliability development concerns part wider campaign binary blobs openbsd lead developer theo de raadt said binary driver way fix breaks break product relies binary drivers declared end-of-life manufacturer effectively broken forever project also stated binary drivers hide bugs workarounds bugs observation somewhat vindicated flaws found binary drivers including exploitable bug nvidia 3d drivers discovered october 2006 rapid7 speculated bug existed since 2004 nvidia denied asserting issue communicated july 2006 2004 bug bug x.org nvidia driver binary drivers often work current versions open-source software almost never support development snapshots open-source software usually directly possible developer use nvidia ati proprietary drivers development snapshot x server development snapshot linux kernel features like kernel mode-setting added binary drivers anyone vendors prevents inclusion vendor lacks capacity interest linux kernel development community linus torvalds made strong statements issue binary-only modules refuse even consider tying hands binary-only module ... want people know use binary-only modules problem another kernel developer greg kroah-hartman said binary-only kernel module comply kernel license gnu general public license violates gpl due fun things like derivative works linking stuff writer computer scientist peter gutmann expressed concern digital rights management scheme microsoft windows vista operating system may limit availability documentation required write open drivers since requires operational details device kept confidential case binary drivers objections due free software philosophy software quality security concerns 2006 greg kroah-hartman concluded closed source linux kernel modules illegal simple 've misfortune talking lot different ip lawyers years topic every one 've talked agree way anyone create linux kernel module today closed source violates gpl due fun things like derivative works linking linux kernel never maintained stable in-kernel application binary interface also concerns proprietary drivers may contain backdoors like one found samsung galaxy-series modem drivers applications 3d game engine 3d computer graphics software shunt calculations cpu gpu usually use special-purpose api like opengl direct3d address hardware directly translation api calls gpu opcodes done device driver contains specialized knowledge object optimization due history rigidity proprietary driver development recent surge number community-backed device drivers desktop mobile gpus free open hardware organizations like fossi lowrisc others would also benefit development open graphical hardware standard would provide computer manufacturers hobbyists like complete royalty-free platform develop computing hardware related devices desktop computer market long dominated pc hardware using x86/x86-64 instruction set gpus available pc three major competitors nvidia amd intel main competing factor price hardware raw performance 3d computer games greatly affected efficient translation api calls gpu opcodes display driver video decoder inherent parts graphics card hardware designed assist calculations necessary decoding video streams market pc hardware dwindled seems unlikely new competitors enter market unclear much knowledge one company could gain seeing source code companies drivers mobile sector presents different situation functional blocks application-specific integrated circuit display driver 2- 3d acceleration video decoding encoding separate semiconductor intellectual property sip blocks chip since hardware devices vary substantially portable media players require display driver accelerates video decoding require 3d acceleration development goal raw 3d performance system integration power consumption 2d capabilities also approach abandons traditional method vsync updating display makes better use sample hold technology lower power consumption second quarter 2013 79.3 percent smartphones sold worldwide running version android linux kernel dominates smartphones hardware developers incentive deliver linux drivers hardware due competition incentive make drivers free open-source additional problems android-specific augmentations linux kernel accepted mainline atomic display framework adf adf feature 3.10 aosp kernels provides dma-buf-centric framework android hwcomposer hal kernel driver adf significantly overlaps drm-kms framework adf accepted mainline different set solutions addressing problems known atomic mode setting development projects libhybris harness android device drivers run linux platforms android phoronix compares free drivers source real-world testing uncommon video-game magazines report benchmark testing linux benchmarks phoronix limited scope primarily testing games available linux support automated benchmarking free open-source drivers primarily developed linux linux kernel developers third-party programming enthusiasts employees companies advanced micro devices driver five parts drm kernel-specific vesa driver generally available operating system vesa driver supports graphics cards without acceleration display resolutions limited set programmed video bios manufacturer linux graphics stack evolved detoured x window system core protocol amd proprietary driver amd catalyst radeon available microsoft windows linux formerly fglrx current version downloaded amd site linux distributions contain repositories process replaced amdgpu-pro hybrid driver combining open-source kernel x mesa multimedia drivers closed-source opengl opencl vulkan drivers derived catalyst foss drivers ati-amd gpus developed name radeon xf86-video-ati xserver-xorg-video-radeon still must load proprietary microcode gpu enable hardware acceleration radeon 3d code split six drivers according gpu technology radeon r200 r300 classic drivers r300g r600g radeonsi gallium3d drivers up-to-date feature matrix available support video coding engine unified video decoder free open-source radeon graphics device drivers reverse-engineered based documentation released amd without requirement sign non-disclosure agreement nda documentation began gradually released 2007 contrast amd main competitor graphics field nvidia proprietary driver similar amd catalyst provides support free-graphics initiatives addition providing necessary documentation amd employees contribute code support hardware features 2014 game developers conference company announced exploring strategy change re-base user-space part catalyst free open-source drm kernel module instead proprietary kernel blob components radeon graphics device driver developed core contributors interested parties worldwide 2011 r300g outperformed catalyst cases release amdgpu stack announced dri-devel mailing list april 2015 although amdgpu officially supports gcn 1.2 later graphics cards experimental support gcn 1.0 1.1 graphics cards officially supported radeon driver may enabled via kernel parameter separate libdrm libdrm-amdgpu included since libdrm 2.4.63 nvidia proprietary driver nvidia geforce driver geforce available windows xp x86-x86-64 later linux x86-x86-64-armv7-a os x 10.5 later solaris x86-x86-64 freebsd x86/x86-64 current version downloaded internet linux distributions contain repositories beta nvidia geforce driver 331.13 supports egl interface enabling support wayland conjunction driver nvidia free open-source driver named nv limited supporting 2d acceleration matthew garrett dirk hohndel others called source code confusing nvidia decided deprecate nv adding support fermi later gpus displayport march 2010 december 2009 nvidia announced would support free graphics initiatives company announced would release documentation gpus nouveau based almost entirely information gained reverse engineering project aims produce 3d acceleration x.org/wayland using gallium3d march 26 2012 nouveau drm component marked stable promoted staging area linux kernel nouveau supports tesla- earlier fermi- kepler- maxwell-based gpus nvidia employee alexandre courbot committed extensive patch set adds initial support gk20a tegra k1 nouveau june 2014 codethink reportedly ran wayland-based weston compositor linux kernel 3.15 using egl 100 open-source graphics driver stack tegra k1 feature matrix available july 2014 nouveau unable outperform nvidia geforce driver due missing re-clocking support tegra-re project working reverse-engineer nvidia vliw-based tegra series gpus predate tegra k1 nvidia distributes proprietary device drivers tegra oems part linux tegra formerly l4t development kit nvidia partner avionic design working submitting grate free open-source drivers tegra upstream mainline linux kernel april 2012 company co-founder ceo laid tegra processor roadmap ubuntu unity 2013 gpu technology conference nvidia unified memory driver nvidia-uvm.ko implements memory management pascal volta gpus linux mit licensed source code available nvidia linux driver downloads systems support nvidia-uvm.ko intel history producing commissioning open-source drivers graphics chips exception powervr-based chips 2d x.org driver called xf86-video-intel kernel mode-setting driver linux kernel use video bios switching video modes since bioses limited range modes provides reliable access supported intel video cards company worked optimizing free linux drivers performance approaching windows counterparts especially sandy bridge newer hardware performance optimizations allowed intel driver outperform proprietary windows drivers certain tasks 2011 performance enhancements may also benefit users older hardware support intel llc last level cache l4-cache crystalwell iris pro added linux kernel 3.12 company 20 30 full-time linux graphics developers matrox develops manufactures matrox mystique parhelia g200 g400 g550 although company provides free open-source drivers chipsets older g550 chipsets newer g550 supported closed-source driver s3 graphics develops s3 trio virge savage chrome supported openchrome arm holdings fabless semiconductor company licenses semiconductor intellectual property cores although known licensing arm instruction set cpus based also develop license mali series gpus january 21 2012 phoronix reported luc verhaegen driving reverse-engineering attempt aimed arm holdings mali series gpus specifically mali-200 mali-400 versions reverse-engineering project known lima presented fosdem february 4 2012 february 2 2013 verhaegen demonstrated quake iii arena timedemo mode running top lima driver may 2018 lima developer posted driver inclusion linux kernel arm indicated intention providing support graphics acceleration hardware licensed free open-source license however arm employees sent patches linux kernel support arm hdlcd display controller mali dp500 dp550 dp650 sip blocks december 2015 april 2016 imagination technologies fabless semiconductor company develops licenses semiconductor intellectual property cores among powervr gpus intel manufactured number powervr-based gpus powervr gpus widely used mobile socs company provide foss driver public documentation powervr due wide use embedded devices free software foundation put reverse-engineering powervr driver high-priority project list vivante corporation fabless semiconductor company licenses semiconductor intellectual property cores develops gcxxxx series gpus vivante proprietary closed-source linux driver consists kernel- user-space parts although kernel component open-source gpl user-space components—consisting gles 2 implementations hal library—are contain bulk driver logic wladimir j. van der laan found documented state bits command stream shader isa studying blobs work examining manipulating command-stream dumps etnaviv gallium3d driver written based documentation van der laan work inspired lima driver project produced functional-but-unoptimized gallium3d llvm driver etnaviv driver performed better vivante proprietary code benchmarks supports vivante gc400 gc800 gc1000 gc2000 gc3000 series january 2017 etnaviv added mesa opengl es 2.0 desktop opengl 2.0 support qualcomm develops adreno formerly ati imageon gpu series includes part snapdragon system phoronix slashdot reported 2012 rob clark inspired lima driver working reverse-engineering drivers adreno gpu series referenced blog post clark wrote project spare time qualcomm platform viable target working open 3d graphics employers texas instruments linaro affiliated imagination powervr arm mali cores would primary targets working command streams 2d support 3d commands seemed characteristics driver code published gitorious freedreno moved mesa 2012 working shader assembler completed demonstration versions developed texture mapping phong shading using reverse-engineered shader compiler clark demonstrated freedreno running desktop compositing xbmc media player quake iii arena fosdem february 2 2013 august 2013 kernel component freedreno msm driver accepted mainline available linux kernel 3.12 later ddx driver gained support server-managed file descriptors requiring x.org server version 1.16 july 2014 january 2016 mesa gallium3d-style driver gained support adreno 430 november year driver added support adreno 500 series freedreno used devices 96boards dragonboard 410c nexus 7 2013 traditional linux distributions like debian fedora android broadcom develops designs videocore gpu series part socs since used raspberry pi considerable interest foss driver videocore raspberry pi foundation co-operation broadcom announced october 24 2012 open-sourced arm cpu code drives gpu however announcement misleading according author reverse-engineered lima driver newly open-sourced components allowed message-passing arm cpu videocore offered little insight videocore little additional programability videocore gpu runs rtos handles processing video acceleration done rtos firmware coded proprietary gpu firmware open-sourced date since neither toolchain targeting proprietary gpu documented instruction set advantage could taken firmware source code became available videocoreiv project attempted document videocore gpus february 28 2014 raspberry pi second anniversary broadcom raspberry pi foundation announced release full documentation videocore iv graphics core complete source release graphics stack 3-clause bsd license free-license 3d graphics code committed mesa 29 august 2014 first appeared mesa 10.3 release although silicon integrated systems via technologies expressed limited interest open-source drivers released source code integrated x.org foss developers july 2008 via opened documentation products improve image linux open-source communities company failed work open-source community provide documentation working drm driver leaving expectations linux support unfulfilled january 6 2011 announced via longer interested supporting free graphics initiatives displaylink announced open-source project libdlo goal bringing support usb graphics technology linux platforms code available lgpl license integrated x.org driver displaylink graphics support available kernel udlfb driver fbdev mainline udl/drm driver march 2012 available drm-next tree non-hardware-related vendors may also assist free graphics initiatives red hat two full-time employees david airlie jérôme glisse working radeon software fedora project sponsors fedora graphics test week event launch new linux distribution versions test free graphics drivers companies provided development support include novell vmware project vga aims create low-budget open-source vga-compatible video card open graphics project aims create open-hardware gpu open graphics device v1 dual dvi-i outputs 100-pin idc connector september 2010 first 25 ogd1 boards made available grant application purchase milkymist system chip targeted embedded graphics instead desktop computers supports vga output limited vertex shader 2d texturing unit nyuzi experimental gpgpu processor includes synthesizable hardware design written system verilog instruction set emulator llvm-based c-c++ compiler software libraries tests explores parallel software hardware run terasic de2-115 field-programmable gate array board project uses fpgas generally partially completely closed-source toolchain currently couple open-source toolchains available however lattice-based fpgas notably ice40 ecp5 boards utilize project icestorm trellis respectively also larger ongoing effort create gcc fpgas called symbiflow includes aforementioned fpga toolchains well early-stage open-source toolchain xilinx-based fpgas 1-hop neighbor's text information: tegra.tegra tegra system chip soc series developed nvidia mobile devices smartphones personal digital assistants mobile internet devices tegra integrates arm architecture central processing unit cpu graphics processing unit gpu northbridge southbridge memory controller onto one package early tegra socs designed efficient multimedia processors recent models emphasize performance gaming machine learning applications without sacrificing power efficiency tegra apx 2500 announced february 12 2008 tegra 6xx product line revealed june 2 2008 apx 2600 announced february 2009 apx chips designed smartphones tegra 600 650 chips intended smartbooks mobile internet devices mid first product use tegra microsoft zune hd media player september 2009 followed samsung m1 microsoft kin first cellular phone use tegra however phone app store tegra power provide much advantage september 2008 nvidia opera software announced would produce version opera 9.5 browser optimised tegra windows mobile windows ce mobile world congress 2009 nvidia introduced port google android tegra january 7 2010 nvidia officially announced demonstrated next generation tegra system-on-a-chip nvidia tegra 250 consumer electronics show 2010 nvidia primarily supports android tegra 2 booting arm-supporting operating systems possible devices bootloader accessible tegra 2 support ubuntu gnu/linux distribution also announced nvidia developer forum nvidia announced first quad-core soc february 2011 mobile world congress event barcelona though chip codenamed kal-el branded tegra 3 early benchmark results show impressive gains tegra 2 chip used many tablets released second half 2011 january 2012 nvidia announced audi selected tegra 3 processor in-vehicle infotainment systems digital instruments display processor integrated audi entire line vehicles worldwide beginning 2013 process iso 26262-certified summer 2012 tesla motors began shipping model electric high performance sedan contains two nvidia tegra 3d visual computing modules vcm one vcm powers 17-inch touchscreen infotainment system one drives 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster march 2015 nvidia announced tegra x1 first soc graphics performance 1 teraflop announcement event nvidia showed epic games unreal engine 4 elemental demo running tegra x1 october 20 2016 nvidia announced nintendo upcoming switch hybrid home/portable game console powered tegra hardware march 15 2017 techinsights revealed nintendo switch powered tegra x1 model t210 second generation tegra soc dual-core arm cortex-a9 cpu ultra low power ulp geforce gpu 32-bit memory controller either lpddr2-600 ddr2-667 memory 32kb/32kb l1 cache per core shared 1mb l2 cache tegra 2 cortex a9 implementation include arm simd extension neon version tegra 2 soc supporting 3d displays soc uses higher clocked cpu gpu tegra 2 video decoder largely unchanged original tegra limited support hd formats lack support high-profile h.264 particularly troublesome using online video streaming services common features tegra 3 codenamed kal-el functionally soc quad-core arm cortex-a9 mpcore cpu includes fifth companion core nvidia refers variable smp architecture cores cortex-a9s companion core manufactured low-power silicon process core operates transparently applications used reduce power consumption processing load minimal main quad-core portion cpu powers situations tegra 3 first tegra release support arm simd extension neon gpu tegra 3 evolution tegra 2 gpu 4 additional pixel shader units higher clock frequency also output video 2560×1600 resolution supports 1080p mpeg-4 avc/h.264 40 mbit/s high-profile vc1-ap simpler forms mpeg-4 divx xvid tegra 3 released november 9 2011 common features tegra 4 codenamed wayne announced january 6 2013 soc quad-core cpu includes fifth low-power cortex a15 companion core invisible os performs background tasks save power power-saving configuration referred variable smp architecture operates like similar configuration tegra 3 geforce gpu tegra 4 evolution predecessors however numerous feature additions efficiency improvements implemented number processing resources dramatically increased clock rate increased well 3d tests tegra 4 gpu typically several times faster tegra 3 additionally tegra 4 video processor full support hardware decoding encoding webm video 1080p 60mbit/s 60fps along tegra 4 nvidia also introduced i500 optional software modem based nvidia acquisition icera reprogrammed support new network standards supports category 3 100mbit/s lte later updated category 4 150mbit/s common features pixel shaders vertex shaders pixel pipelines tegra 4i codenamed grey announced february 19 2013 hardware support audio video formats using cortex-a9 cores instead cortex-a15 tegra 4i low-power variant tegra 4 designed phones tablets unlike tegra 4 counterpart tegra 4i also integrates icera i500 lte/hspa+ baseband processor onto die common features pixel shaders vertex shaders pixel pipelines nvidia ’ tegra k1 codenamed logan features arm cortex-a15 cores 4+1 configuration similar tegra 4 nvidia 64-bit project denver dual-core processor well kepler graphics processing unit support direct3d 12 opengl es 3.1 cuda 6.5 opengl 4.4/opengl 4.5 vulkan nvidia claims outperforms xbox 360 ps3 whilst consuming significantly less power support adaptive scalable texture compression late april 2014 nvidia shipped jetson tk1 development board containing tegra k1 soc running ubuntu linux unified shaders texture mapping units render output units december 2015 web page wccftech.com published article stating tesla going use tegra k1 based design derived template nvidia visual computing module vcm driving infotainment systems providing visual driving aid respective vehicle models time news found similar successor clear confirmation later place combination multimedia auto pilot system vehicle models nvidia tegra x1 codenamed erista features four arm cortex-a57 cores four arm cortex-a53 cores well maxwell-based graphics processing unit supports adaptive scalable texture compression contrary initial belief nvidia use eight cores arm big.little configuration instead devices utilizing tegra x1 always show four arm cortex-a57 cores available four arm cortex-a53 cores accessed operating system used automatically low power scenarios determined cpu nvidia tegra x2 codenamed parker features nvidia custom general-purpose armv8-compatible core denver 2 well code-named pascal graphics processing core gpgpu support chips made using finfet process technology using tsmc 16 nm finfet+ manufacturing process recent tegra soc xavier named comic book character professor x announced 28 september 2016 march 2019 released contains 7 billion transistors 8 custom armv8 cores volta gpu 512 cuda cores open sourced tpu tensor processing unit called dla deep learning accelerator able encode decode 8k ultra hd 7680×4320 users configure operating modes 10w 15w 30w tdp needed die size 350 mm nvidia confirmed fabrication process 12 nm finfet ces 2018 linux kernel mailing list tegra194 based development board type id p2972-0000 got reported board consists p2888 compute module p2822 baseboard nvidia announced next-gen soc codename orin resembling name aquaman comic hero march 27 2018 gpu technology conference 2018 presentations already indicate design two orin chips planned par performance pegasus board four chips supposed formed two xavier chips two gpu chips factor five performance xavier orin seems indicated nowiki /nowiki pixel shaders vertex shaders since kepler unified shaders used nvidia distributes proprietary device drivers tegra oems part linux tegra formerly l4t development kit newer powerful devices tegra family supported nvidia vibrante linux distribution vibrante comes larger set gnu/linux tools plus several nvidia provided libraries acceleration area data processing especially image processing driving safety automated driving level deep learning neuronal networks make e.g heavy use cuda capable accelerator blocks via opencv make use neon vector extensions arm cores due different business needs geforce line graphics cards nvidia one embedded partners avionic design gmbh germany also working submitting open-source drivers tegra upstream mainline linux kernel nvidia co-founder ceo laid tegra processor roadmap using ubuntu unity gpu technology conference 2013 end 2018 evident nvidia employees contributed substantial code parts make t186 t194 models run hdmi display audio upcoming official linux kernel 4.21 q1 2019 thus positively affected software modules open source nouveau closed source nvidia graphics drivers along nvidia proprietary cuda interface drive px2 board announced qnx rtos support april 2016 gpu technology conference socs platforms comparable specifications e.g audio/video input output processing capability connectivity programmability entertainment/embedded/automotive capabilities certifications power consumption 1-hop neighbor's text information: stream_processing.stream processing stream processing computer programming paradigm equivalent dataflow programming event stream processing reactive programming allows applications easily exploit limited form parallel processing applications use multiple computational units floating point unit graphics processing unit field-programmable gate arrays fpgas without explicitly managing allocation synchronization communication among units stream processing paradigm simplifies parallel software hardware restricting parallel computation performed given sequence data stream series operations kernel functions applied element stream kernel functions usually pipelined optimal local on-chip memory reuse attempted order minimize loss bandwidth accredited external memory interaction uniform streaming one kernel function applied elements stream typical since kernel stream abstractions expose data dependencies compiler tools fully automate optimize on-chip management tasks stream processing hardware use scoreboarding example initiate direct memory access dma dependencies become known elimination manual dma management reduces software complexity associated elimination hardware cached i/o reduces data area expanse involved service specialized computational units arithmetic logic units 1980s stream processing explored within dataflow programming example language sisal streams iteration single assignment language stream processing essentially compromise driven data-centric model works well traditional dsp gpu-type applications image video digital signal processing less general purpose processing randomized data access databases sacrificing flexibility model implications allow easier faster efficient execution depending context processor design may tuned maximum efficiency trade-off flexibility stream processing especially suitable applications exhibit three application characteristics examples records within streams include record read input perform operations write output permissible multiple inputs multiple outputs never piece memory readable writable basic computers started sequential execution paradigm traditional cpus sisd based means conceptually perform one operation time computing needs world evolved amount data managed increased quickly obvious sequential programming model could cope increased need processing power various efforts spent finding alternative ways perform massive amounts computations solution exploit level parallel execution result efforts simd programming paradigm allowed applying one instruction multiple instances different data time simd used swar environment using complicated structures one could also mimd parallelism although two paradigms efficient real-world implementations plagued limitations memory alignment problems synchronization issues limited parallelism simd processors survived stand-alone components embedded standard cpus consider simple program adding two arrays containing 100 4-component vectors i.e 400 numbers total sequential paradigm familiar variations exist inner loops structures ultimately boil construct actually oversimplified assumes instruction codice_1 works although happens instruction intrinsics much information actually taken account number vector components data format done clarity see however method reduces number decoded instructions numelements componentsperelement numelements number jump instructions also decreased loop run fewer times gains result parallel execution four mathematical operations happened however packed simd register holds certain amount data possible get parallelism speed somewhat limited assumption made performing four parallel operations please note common altivec sse paradigm whole dataset defined rather component block defined separately describing set data assumed first two rows result inferred sources kernel simplicity 1:1 mapping input output data need applied kernels also much complex implementation paradigm unroll loop internally allows throughput scale chip complexity easily utilizing hundreds alus elimination complex data patterns makes much extra power available stream processing branch simd/mimd processing must confused although simd implementations often work streaming manner performance comparable model envisions different usage pattern allows far greater performance noted applied generic processors standard cpu 1.5x speedup reached contrast ad-hoc stream processors easily reach 10x performance mainly attributed efficient memory access higher levels parallel processing although various degrees flexibility allowed model stream processors usually impose limitations kernel stream size example consumer hardware often lacks ability perform high-precision math lacks complex indirection chains presents lower limits number instructions executed stanford university stream processing projects included stanford real-time programmable shading project started 1999 prototype called imagine developed 2002 project called merrimac ran 2004 also researched stream-enhanced processors graphics processing units rapidly evolved speed functionality since early days dozens stream processing languages developed well specialized hardware immediate challenge realm parallel processing lie much type hardware architecture used easy program system question real-world environment acceptable performance machines like imagine use straightforward single-threaded model automated dependencies memory allocation dma scheduling result research mit stanford finding optimal layering tasks programmer tools hardware programmers beat tools mapping algorithms parallel hardware tools beat programmers figuring smartest memory allocation schemes etc particular concern mimd designs cell programmer needs deal application partitioning across multiple cores deal process synchronization load balancing efficient multi-core programming tools severely lacking today drawback simd programming issue array-of-structures aos structure-of-arrays soa programmers often wanted build data structures 'real meaning example happened structures assembled arrays keep things nicely organized array structures aos structure laid memory compiler produce interleaved data sense structures contiguous constant offset say size attribute structure instance element following instance offset depends structure definition possibly things considered compiler policies also problems example three position variables simd-ized way sure allocated continuous memory space make sure simd operations work shall grouped 'packed memory location least array another problem lies color xyz defined three-component vector quantities simd processors usually support 4-component operations exceptions however kinds problems limitations made simd acceleration standard cpus quite nasty proposed solution structure arrays soa follows readers experienced c '* identifier means pointer case used point first element array allocated later java programmers roughly equivalent drawback various attributes could spread memory make sure cause cache misses 'll update various reds greens blues stream processors usage structures encouraged application point view attributes defined flexibility taking gpus reference set attributes least 16 available attribute application state number components format components primitive data types supported various attributes attached memory block possibly defining stride 'consecutive elements attributes effectively allowing interleaved data gpu begins stream processing gather various attributes single set parameters usually looks like structure magic global variable performs operations scatters results memory area later processing retrieving modern stream processing frameworks provide fifo like interface structure data literal stream abstraction provides means specify data dependencies implicitly enabling runtime/hardware take full advantage knowledge efficient computation one simplest efficient stream processing modalities date c++ raftlib enables linking independent compute kernels together data flow graph using c++ stream operators example apart specifying streaming applications high-level language models computation mocs also widely used dataflow models process-based models historically cpus began implementing various tiers memory access optimizations ever-increasing performance compared relatively slow growing external memory bandwidth gap widened big amounts die area dedicated hiding memory latencies since fetching information opcodes alus expensive little die area dedicated actual mathematical machinery rough estimation consider less 10 similar architecture exists stream processors thanks new programming model amount transistors dedicated management actually little beginning whole system point view stream processors usually exist controlled environment gpus exist add-in board seems also apply imagine cpus dirty job managing system resources running applications stream processor usually equipped fast efficient proprietary memory bus crossbar switches common multi-buses employed past exact amount memory lanes dependent market range written still 64-bit wide interconnections around entry-level mid-range models use fast 128-bit crossbar switch matrix 4 2 segments high-end models deploy huge amounts memory actually 512 mb slightly slower crossbar 256 bits wide contrast standard processors intel pentium athlon 64 single 64-bit wide data bus memory access patterns much predictable arrays exist dimension fixed kernel invocation thing closely matches multiple pointer indirection indirection chain however guaranteed finally read write specific memory area inside stream simd nature stream processor execution units alus clusters read/write operations expected happen bulk memories optimized high bandwidth rather low latency difference rambus ddr sdram example also allows efficient memory bus negotiations 90 stream processor work done on-chip requiring 1 global data stored memory knowing kernel temporaries dependencies pays internally stream processor features clever communication management circuits interesting stream register file srf conceptually large cache stream data stored transferred external memory bulks cache-like software-controlled structure various alus srf shared various alu clusters key concept innovation done stanford imagine chip compiler able automate allocate memory optimal way fully transparent programmer dependencies kernel functions data known programming model enables compiler perform flow analysis optimally pack srfs commonly cache dma management take majority project schedule something stream processor least imagine totally automates tests done stanford showed compiler well better job scheduling memory hand tuned thing much effort proof lot clusters inter-cluster communication assumed rare internally however cluster efficiently exploit much lower amount alus intra-cluster communication common thus needs highly efficient keep alus fetched data alu equipped local register files lrfs basically usable registers three-tiered data access pattern makes easy keep temporary data away slow memories thus making silicon implementation highly efficient power-saving although order magnitude speedup reasonably expected even mainstream gpus computing streaming manner applications benefit communication latencies actually biggest problem although pci express improved full-duplex communications getting gpu possibly generic stream processor work possibly take long amounts time means usually counter-productive use small datasets changing kernel rather expensive operation stream architecture also incurs penalties small streams behaviour referred short stream effect pipelining widespread heavily used practice stream processors gpus featuring pipelines exceeding 200 stages cost switching settings dependent setting modified considered always expensive avoid problems various levels pipeline many techniques deployed über shaders texture atlases techniques game-oriented nature gpus concepts interesting generic stream processing well programming languages stream processors start java c c++ add extensions provide specific instructions allow application developers tag kernels and/or streams also applies shading languages considered stream programming languages certain degree non-commercial examples stream programming languages include commercial implementations either general purpose tied specific hardware vendor examples general purpose languages include vendor-specific languages include event-based processing batch file-based processing emulates actual stream processing much lower performance general continuous operator stream processing stream processing services Target text information: mali_(gpu).mali gpu mali series graphics processing units gpus multimedia processors semiconductor intellectual property cores produced arm holdings licensing various asic designs arm partners mali gpus developed falanx microsystems a/s spun research project norwegian university science technology arm holdings acquired falanx microsystems a/s june 23 2006 renamed company arm norway like embedded ip cores 3d rendering acceleration mali gpu include display controllers driving monitors contrast common desktop video cards instead mali arm core pure 3d engine renders graphics memory passes rendered image another core handle display arm however license display controller sip cores independently mali 3d accelerator sip block e.g mali dp500 dp550 dp650 arm also supplies tools help authoring opengl es shaders named mali gpu shader development studio mali gpu user interface engine display controllers arm hdlcd display controller available separately mali core grew cores previously produced falanx currently constitute microarchitectures chips support cache coherency l2 cache cpu adaptive scalable texture compression astc supported mali-t620 t720/t760 t820/t830/t860/t880 mali-g series mali gpu variants found following systems chips socs mali video name given arm holdings dedicated video decoding video encoding asic multiple versions implementing number video codecs hevc vp9 h.264 vp8 arm products mali video processor semiconductor intellectual property core licensed third parties inclusion chips real time encode-decode capability central videotelephony interface arm trustzone technology also built-in enable digital rights management copyrighted material first version mali video processor v500 released 2013 mali-t622 gpu v500 multicore design sporting 1–8 cores support h.264 protected video path using arm trustzone 8 core version sufficient 4k video decode 120 frames per second fps v500 encode vp8 h.264 decode h.264 h.263 mpeg4 mpeg2 vc-1/wmv real vp8 released mali-t800 gpu arm v550 video processors added encode decode hevc support 10-bit color depth technologies reduced power consumption v550 also included technology improvements better handle latency save bandwidth built around idea scalable number cores 1–8 v550 could support 1080p60 1 core 4k120 8 cores v550 supported hevc main h.264 vp8 jpeg encode hevc main 10 hevc main h.264 h.263 mpeg4 mpeg2 vc-1/wmv real vp8 jpeg decode mali v61 video processor formerly named egil released mali bifrost gpu 2016 v61 designed improve video encoding particular hevc vp9 allow encoding either single multiple streams simultaneously design continues 1–8 variable core number design single core supporting 1080p60 8 cores drive 4kp120 decode encode vp9 10-bit vp9 8-bit hevc main 10 hevc main h.264 vp8 jpeg decode mpeg4 mpeg2 vc-1/wmv real h.263 mali v52 video processor released mali g52 g31 gpus march 2018 processor intended support 4k including hdr video mainstream devices mali v76 video processor released mali g76 gpu cortex-a76 cpu 2018 v76 designed improve video encoding decoding performance design continues 2–8 variable core number design 8 cores capable 8kp60 decoding 8kp30 encoding relative v61 support added 10-bit hdr h.264 encode decode however av1 codec supported mali-d71 added arm framebuffer compression afbc 1.2 encoder support arm corelink mmu-600 assertive display 5 assertive display 5 support hdr10 hybrid log-gamma hlg mali-d77 added features including asynchronous timewarp atw lens distortion correction ldc chromatic aberration correction cac mali-d77 also capable 3k 2880x1440 120hz 4k 90hz april 25th 2017 mali-c71 announced arm first image signal processor isp january 3th 2019 mali-c52 c32 announced aimed everyday devices including drones smart home assistants security internet protocol ip camera january 21 2012 phoronix reported luc verhaegen driving reverse-engineering attempt aimed mali series gpus specifically mali 200 mali 400 versions project known lima support opengl es 2.0 reverse-engineering project presented fosdem february 4 2012 followed opening website demonstrating renders february 2 2013 verhaegen demonstrated quake iii arena timedemo mode running top lima driver may 2018 lima developer posted driver inclusion linux kernel may 2019 lima driver part mainline linux kernel panfrost reverse-engineered driver effort mali txxx midgard gxx bifrost gpus introducing panfrost talk presented x.org developer conference 2018 may 2019 panfrost driver part mainline linux kernel I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	2,838	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: pascal_(microarchitecture).pascal microarchitecture pascal codename gpu microarchitecture developed nvidia successor maxwell architecture architecture first introduced april 2016 release tesla p100 gp100 april 5 2016 primarily used geforce 10 series starting geforce gtx 1080 gtx 1070 using gp104 gpu released may 17 2016 june 10 2016 respectively pascal manufactured using tsmc 16nm finfet process later samsung 14nm finfet process architecture named 17th century french mathematician physicist blaise pascal march 18 2019 nvidia announced driver due april 2019 would enable directx raytracing pascal-based cards starting gtx 1060 6 gb 16 series cards feature reserved turing-based rtx series point march 2014 nvidia announced successor maxwell would pascal microarchitecture announced may 6 2016 released may 27 year tesla p100 gp100 chip different version pascal architecture compared gtx gpus gp104 chip shader units gp104 maxwell-like design architectural improvements gp100 architecture include following architectural improvements gp104 architecture include following chip partitioned graphics processor clusters gpcs gp104 chips gpc encompasses 5 sms streaming multiprocessor corresponds amd compute unit smp encompasses 128 single-precision alus cuda cores gp104 chips 64 single-precision alus gp100 chips amd calls cu compute unit compared nvidia calls sm streaming multiprocessor cu versions consist 64 shader processors i.e 4 simd vector units 16-lane wide 64 nvidia regularly calling shader processors cuda cores experimented different numbers polymorph engine version 4.0 unit responsible tessellation corresponds functionally amd geometric processor moved shader module tpc allow one polymorph engine feed multiple sms within tpc gp104 chip sm consists 128 single-precision alus cuda cores gp100 64 single-precision alus due different organization chips like number double precision alus theoretical double precision performance gp100 half theoretical one single precision ratio 1/32 gp104 chip theoretical single-precision processing power pascal gpu gflops computed 2 x operations per fma instruction per cuda core per cycle × number cuda cores × core clock speed ghz theoretical double-precision processing power pascal gpu 1/2 single precision performance nvidia gp100 1/32 nvidia gp102 gp104 gp106 gp107 gp108 theoretical half-precision processing power pascal gpu 2× single precision performance gp100 1/64 gp102 gp104 gp106 gp107 gp108 pascal next architecture preliminarily codenamed volta nvidia announced volta gpu would feature high bandwidth memory unified memory complete fp16 support two times fp32 nvlink still known volta part consumer lineup may replaced ampere turing microarchitectures 1-hop neighbor's text information: graphics_processing_unit.graphics processing unit graphics processing unit gpu specialized electronic circuit designed rapidly manipulate alter memory accelerate creation images frame buffer intended output display device gpus used embedded systems mobile phones personal computers workstations game consoles modern gpus efficient manipulating computer graphics image processing highly parallel structure makes efficient general-purpose central processing units cpus algorithms process large blocks data parallel personal computer gpu present video card embedded motherboard certain cpus embedded cpu die term gpu coined sony reference playstation console toshiba-designed sony gpu 1994 term popularized nvidia 1999 marketed geforce 256 world first gpu presented single-chip processor integrated transform lighting triangle setup/clipping rendering engines rival ati technologies coined term visual processing unit vpu release radeon 9700 2002 arcade system boards using specialized graphics chips since 1970s early video game hardware ram frame buffers expensive video chips composited data together display scanned monitor fujitsu mb14241 video shifter used accelerate drawing sprite graphics various 1970s arcade games taito midway gun fight 1975 sea wolf 1976 space invaders 1978 namco galaxian arcade system 1979 used specialized graphics hardware supporting rgb color multi-colored sprites tilemap backgrounds galaxian hardware widely used golden age arcade video games game companies namco centuri gremlin irem konami midway nichibutsu sega taito home market atari 2600 1977 used video shifter called television interface adaptor atari 8-bit computers 1979 antic video processor interpreted instructions describing display list —the way scan lines map specific bitmapped character modes memory stored need contiguous frame buffer 6502 machine code subroutines could triggered scan lines setting bit display list instruction antic also supported smooth vertical horizontal scrolling independent cpu nec µpd7220 first implementation pc graphics display processor single large scale integration lsi integrated circuit chip enabling design low-cost high-performance video graphics cards number nine visual technology became best known graphics processing unit mid-1980s first fully integrated vlsi large-scale integration metal-oxide-semiconductor nmos graphics display processor pcs supported 1024x1024 resolution laid foundations emerging pc graphics market used number graphics cards licensed clones intel 82720 first intel graphics processing units williams electronics arcade games robotron 2084 joust sinistar bubbles released 1982 contain custom blitter chips operating 16-color bitmaps 1984 hitachi released artc hd63484 first major cmos graphics processor pc artc capable displaying 4k resolution monochrome mode used number pc graphics cards terminals late 1980s 1985 commodore amiga featured custom graphics chip blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation line draw area fill functions also included coprocessor simple instruction set capable manipulating graphics hardware registers sync video beam e.g per-scanline palette switches sprite multiplexing hardware windowing driving blitter 1986 texas instruments released tms34010 first fully programmable graphics processor could run general-purpose code graphics-oriented instruction set 1990-1992 chip would become basis texas instruments graphics architecture tiga windows accelerator cards 1987 ibm 8514 graphics system released one first video cards ibm pc compatibles implement fixed-function 2d primitives electronic hardware sharp x68000 released 1987 used custom graphics chipset 65,536 color palette hardware support sprites scrolling multiple playfields eventually serving development machine capcom cp system arcade board fujitsu later competed fm towns computer released 1989 support full 16,777,216 color palette 1988 first dedicated polygonal 3d graphics boards introduced arcades namco system 21 taito air system ibm proprietary video graphics array vga display standard introduced 1987 maximum resolution 640×480 pixels november 1988 nec home electronics announced creation video electronics standards association vesa develop promote super vga svga computer display standard successor ibm proprietary vga display standard super vga enabled graphics display resolutions 800×600 pixels 36 increase 1991 s3 graphics introduced s3 86c911 designers named porsche 911 indication performance increase promised 86c911 spawned host imitators 1995 major pc graphics chip makers added 2d acceleration support chips time fixed-function windows accelerators surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors windows performance coprocessors faded away pc market throughout 1990s 2d gui acceleration continued evolve manufacturing capabilities improved level integration graphics chips additional application programming interfaces apis arrived variety tasks microsoft wing graphics library windows 3.x later directdraw interface hardware acceleration 2d games within windows 95 later early- mid-1990s real-time 3d graphics becoming increasingly common arcade computer console games led increasing public demand hardware-accelerated 3d graphics early examples mass-market 3d graphics hardware found arcade system boards sega model 1 namco system 22 sega model 2 fifth-generation video game consoles saturn playstation nintendo 64 arcade systems sega model 2 namco magic edge hornet simulator 1993 capable hardware l transform clipping lighting years appearing consumer graphics cards systems used dsps accelerate transformations fujitsu worked sega model 2 arcade system began working integrating l single lsi solution use home computers 1995 fujitsu pinolite first 3d geometry processor personal computers released 1997 first hardware l gpu home video game consoles nintendo 64 reality coprocessor released 1996 1997 mitsubishi released 3dpro/2mp fully featured gpu capable transformation lighting workstations windows nt desktops ati utilized firegl 4000 graphics card released 1997 term gpu coined sony reference 32-bit sony gpu designed toshiba playstation video game console released 1994 pc world notable failed first tries low-cost 3d graphics chips s3 virge ati rage matrox mystique chips essentially previous-generation 2d accelerators 3d features bolted many even pin-compatible earlier-generation chips ease implementation minimal cost initially performance 3d graphics possible discrete boards dedicated accelerating 3d functions lacking 2d gui acceleration entirely powervr 3dfx voodoo however manufacturing technology continued progress video 2d gui acceleration 3d functionality integrated one chip rendition verite chipsets among first well enough worthy note 1997 rendition went step collaborating hercules fujitsu thriller conspiracy project combined fujitsu fxg-1 pinolite geometry processor vérité v2200 core create graphics card full l engine years nvidia geforce 256 card designed reduce load placed upon system cpu never made market opengl appeared early '90s professional graphics api originally suffered performance issues allowed glide api step become dominant force pc late '90s however issues quickly overcome glide api fell wayside software implementations opengl common time although influence opengl eventually led widespread hardware support time parity emerged features offered hardware offered opengl directx became popular among windows game developers late 90s unlike opengl microsoft insisted providing strict one-to-one support hardware approach made directx less popular standalone graphics api initially since many gpus provided specific features existing opengl applications already able benefit leaving directx often one generation behind see comparison opengl direct3d time microsoft began work closely hardware developers started target releases directx coincide supporting graphics hardware direct3d 5.0 first version burgeoning api gain widespread adoption gaming market competed directly many more-hardware-specific often proprietary graphics libraries opengl maintained strong following direct3d 7.0 introduced support hardware-accelerated transform lighting l direct3d opengl capability already exposed inception 3d accelerator cards moved beyond simple rasterizers add another significant hardware stage 3d rendering pipeline nvidia geforce 256 also known nv10 first consumer-level card released market hardware-accelerated l professional 3d cards already capability hardware transform lighting already existing features opengl came consumer-level hardware '90s set precedent later pixel shader vertex shader units far flexible programmable nvidia first produce chip capable programmable shading geforce 3 code named nv20 pixel could processed short program could include additional image textures inputs geometric vertex could likewise processed short program projected onto screen used xbox console competed playstation 2 used custom vector dsp hardware accelerated vertex processing commonly referred vu0/vu1 earliest incarnations shader execution engines used xbox general purpose could execute arbitrary pixel code vertices pixels processed different units resources pixel shaders much tighter constraints executed much higher frequencies vertices pixel shading engines actually akin highly customizable function block n't really run program many disparities vertex pixel shading would n't addressed much later unified shader model october 2002 introduction ati radeon 9700 also known r300 world first direct3d 9.0 accelerator pixel vertex shaders could implement looping lengthy floating point math quickly becoming flexible cpus yet orders magnitude faster image-array operations pixel shading often used bump mapping adds texture make object look shiny dull rough even round extruded introduction geforce 8 series produced nvidia new generic stream processing unit gpus became generalized computing device today parallel gpus begun making computational inroads cpu subfield research dubbed gpu computing gpgpu general purpose computing gpu found way fields diverse machine learning oil exploration scientific image processing linear algebra statistics 3d reconstruction even stock options pricing determination gpgpu time precursor call compute shaders e.g cuda opencl directcompute actually abused hardware degree treating data passed algorithms texture maps executing algorithms drawing triangle quad appropriate pixel shader obviously entails overheads since involve units like scan converter n't really needed even care triangles except invoke pixel shader years energy consumption gpus increased manage several techniques proposed nvidia cuda platform first introduced 2007 earliest widely adopted programming model gpu computing recently opencl become broadly supported opencl open standard defined khronos group allows development code gpus cpus emphasis portability opencl solutions supported intel amd nvidia arm according recent report evan data opencl gpgpu development platform widely used developers us asia pacific 2010 nvidia began partnership audi power cars dashboards tegra gpus powering cars dashboard offering increased functionality cars navigation entertainment systems advancements gpu technology cars helped push self-driving technology amd radeon hd 6000 series cards released 2010 2011 amd released 6000m series discrete gpus used mobile devices kepler line graphics cards nvidia came 2012 used nvidia 600 700 series cards new feature new gpu microarchitecture included gpu boost technology adjusts clock-speed video card increase decrease according power draw kepler microarchitecture manufactured 28 nm process ps4 xbox one released 2013 use gpus based amd radeon hd 7850 7790 nvidia kepler line gpus followed maxwell line manufactured process 28 nm chips nvidia manufactured tsmc taiwan semiconductor manufacturing company manufacturing using 28 nm process time compared 40 nm technology past new manufacturing process allowed 20 percent boost performance drawing less power virtual reality headsets high system requirements vr headset manufacturers recommended gtx 970 r9 290x better time release pascal next generation consumer graphics cards nvidia released 2016 geforce 10 series cards generation graphics cards made using 16 nm manufacturing process improves upon previous microarchitectures nvidia released one non-consumer card new volta architecture titan v. changes titan xp pascal high-end card include increase number cuda cores addition tensor cores hbm2 tensor cores cores specially designed deep learning high-bandwidth memory on-die stacked lower-clocked memory offers extremely wide memory bus useful titan v intended purpose emphasize titan v gaming card nvidia removed geforce gtx suffix adds consumer gaming cards new generation rtx turing gpus unveiled august 20 2018 add ray-tracing cores gpus improving performance lighting effects polaris 11 polaris 10 gpus amd fabricated 14-nanometer process release results substantial increase performance per watt amd video cards amd also released vega gpus series high end market competitor nvidia high end pascal cards also featuring hbm2 like titan v. many companies produced gpus number brand names 2009 intel nvidia amd/ati market share leaders 49.4 27.8 20.6 market share respectively however numbers include intel integrated graphics solutions gpus counting nvidia amd control nearly 100 market 2018 respective market shares 66 33 addition s3 graphics matrox produce gpus modern smartphones also using mostly adreno gpus qualcomm powervr gpus imagination technologies mali gpus arm modern gpus use transistors calculations related 3d computer graphics addition 3d hardware today gpus include basic 2d acceleration framebuffer capabilities usually vga compatibility mode newer cards like amd/ati hd5000-hd7000 even lack 2d acceleration emulated 3d hardware gpus initially used accelerate memory-intensive work texture mapping rendering polygons later adding units accelerate geometric calculations rotation translation vertices different coordinate systems recent developments gpus include support programmable shaders manipulate vertices textures many operations supported cpus oversampling interpolation techniques reduce aliasing high-precision color spaces computations involve matrix vector operations engineers scientists increasingly studied use gpus non-graphical calculations especially suited embarrassingly parallel problems emergence deep learning importance gpus increased research done indigo found training deep learning neural networks gpus 250 times faster cpus explosive growth deep learning recent years attributed emergence general purpose gpus level competition area asics prominently tensor processing unit tpu made google however require changes existing code gpus still popular gpus made since 1995 support yuv color space hardware overlays important digital video playback many gpus made since 2000 also support mpeg primitives motion compensation idct process hardware accelerated video decoding portions video decoding process video post-processing offloaded gpu hardware commonly referred gpu accelerated video decoding gpu assisted video decoding gpu hardware accelerated video decoding gpu hardware assisted video decoding recent graphics cards even decode high-definition video card offloading central processing unit common apis gpu accelerated video decoding dxva microsoft windows operating system vdpau vaapi xvmc xvba linux-based unix-like operating systems except xvmc capable decoding videos encoded mpeg-1 mpeg-2 mpeg-4 asp mpeg-4 part 2 mpeg-4 avc h.264 divx 6 vc-1 wmv3/wmv9 xvid opendivx divx 4 divx 5 codecs xvmc capable decoding mpeg-1 mpeg-2 video decoding processes accelerated today modern gpu hardware personal computers two main forms gpus many synonyms gpus designed specific usage real-time 3d graphics mass calculations gpus powerful class typically interface motherboard means expansion slot pci express pcie accelerated graphics port agp usually replaced upgraded relative ease assuming motherboard capable supporting upgrade graphics cards still use peripheral component interconnect pci slots bandwidth limited generally used pcie agp slot available dedicated gpu necessarily removable necessarily interface motherboard standard fashion term dedicated refers fact dedicated graphics cards ram dedicated card use fact dedicated gpus removable ram usually specially selected expected serial workload graphics card see gddr sometimes systems dedicated discrete gpus called dis systems opposed uma systems see next section dedicated gpus portable computers commonly interfaced non-standard often proprietary slot due size weight constraints ports may still considered pcie agp terms logical host interface even physically interchangeable counterparts technologies sli nvidia crossfire amd allow multiple gpus draw images simultaneously single screen increasing processing power available graphics integrated graphics processing unit igpu integrated graphics shared graphics solutions integrated graphics processors igp unified memory architecture uma utilize portion computer system ram rather dedicated graphics memory igps integrated onto motherboard part chipset die cpu like amd apu intel hd graphics certain motherboards amd igps use dedicated sideport memory separate fixed block high performance memory dedicated use gpu early 2007 computers integrated graphics account 90 pc shipments less costly implement dedicated graphics processing tend less capable historically integrated processing often considered unfit play 3d games run graphically intensive programs could run less intensive programs adobe flash examples igps would offerings sis via circa 2004 however modern integrated graphics processors amd accelerated processing unit intel hd graphics capable handling 2d graphics low stress 3d graphics gpu extremely memory intensive integrated processing may find competing cpu relatively slow system ram minimal dedicated video memory igps 29.856 gb/s memory bandwidth system ram whereas graphics card may 264 gb/s bandwidth ram gpu core memory bus bandwidth limit performance gpu though multi-channel memory mitigate deficiency older integrated graphics chipsets lacked hardware transform lighting newer ones include newer class gpus competes integrated graphics low-end desktop notebook markets common implementations ati hypermemory nvidia turbocache hybrid graphics cards somewhat expensive integrated graphics much less expensive dedicated graphics cards share memory system small dedicated memory cache make high latency system ram technologies within pci express make possible solutions sometimes advertised much 768mb ram refers much shared system memory becoming increasingly common use general purpose graphics processing unit gpgpu modified form stream processor vector processor running compute kernels concept turns massive computational power modern graphics accelerator shader pipeline general-purpose computing power opposed hard wired solely graphical operations certain applications requiring massive vector operations yield several orders magnitude higher performance conventional cpu two largest discrete see dedicated graphics cards gpu designers amd nvidia beginning pursue approach array applications nvidia amd teamed stanford university create gpu-based client folding home distributed computing project protein folding calculations certain circumstances gpu calculates forty times faster conventional cpus traditionally used applications gpgpu used many types embarrassingly parallel tasks including ray tracing generally suited high-throughput type computations exhibit data-parallelism exploit wide vector width simd architecture gpu furthermore gpu-based high performance computers starting play significant role large-scale modelling three 10 powerful supercomputers world take advantage gpu acceleration gpu supports api extensions c programming language opencl openmp furthermore gpu vendor introduced api works cards amd app sdk cuda amd nvidia respectively technologies allow specified functions called compute kernels normal c program run gpu stream processors makes possible c programs take advantage gpu ability operate large buffers parallel still using cpu appropriate cuda also first api allow cpu-based applications directly access resources gpu general purpose computing without limitations using graphics api since 2005 interest using performance offered gpus evolutionary computation general accelerating fitness evaluation genetic programming particular approaches compile linear tree programs host pc transfer executable gpu run typically performance advantage obtained running single active program simultaneously many example problems parallel using gpu simd architecture however substantial acceleration also obtained compiling programs instead transferring gpu interpreted acceleration obtained either interpreting multiple programs simultaneously simultaneously running multiple example problems combinations modern gpu readily simultaneously interpret hundreds thousands small programs modern workstation gpus nvidia quadro workstation cards using volta turing architectures feature dedicating processing cores tensor-based deep learning applications nvidia current series gpus cores called tensor cores gpus usually significant flops performance increases utilizing 4x4 matrix multiplication division resulting hardware performance 128 tflops applications tensor cores also supposed appear consumer cards running turing architecture possibly navi series consumer cards amd external gpu graphics processor located outside housing computer external graphics processors sometimes used laptop computers laptops might substantial amount ram sufficiently powerful central processing unit cpu often lack powerful graphics processor instead less powerful energy-efficient on-board graphics chip on-board graphics chips often powerful enough playing latest games graphically intensive tasks editing video therefore desirable able attach gpu external bus notebook pci express bus commonly used purpose port may example expresscard mpcie port pcie ×1 5 2.5 gbit/s respectively thunderbolt 1 2 3 port pcie ×4 10 20 40 gbit/s respectively ports available certain notebook systems official vendor support external gpus gained traction recently one notable milestone apple ’ decision officially support external gpus mac os high sierra 10.13.4 also several major hardware vendors hp alienware razer releasing thunderbolt 3 egpu enclosures support continued fuel egpu implementations enthusiasts 2013 438.3 million gpus shipped globally forecast 2014 414.2 million 1-hop neighbor's text information: turing_(microarchitecture).turing microarchitecture turing codename graphics processing unit gpu microarchitecture developed nvidia successor volta architecture named prominent mathematician computer scientist alan turing architecture first introduced august 2018 siggraph 2018 along professional workstation quadro rtx products based one week later gamescom along consumer geforce rtx 20 series products based architecture introduces first consumer products capable real-time ray tracing longstanding goal computer graphics industry key elements include dedicated artificial intelligence processors tensor cores dedicated ray tracing processors turing leverages microsoft dxr optix vulkan access ray-tracing february 2019 nvidia released geforce 16 series gpus utilizes new turing design lacks ray tracing artificial intelligence cores turing manufactured using tsmc 12 nm finfet semiconductor fabrication process high-end tu102 gpu includes 18.6billion transistors fabricated using process turing also uses gddr6 memory samsung electronics previously micron technology turing microarchitecture combines multiple types specialized processor core enables implementation limited real-time ray tracing accelerated use new rt ray-tracing cores designed process quadtrees spherical hierarchies speed collision tests individual triangles features turing gddr6 memory produced samsung electronics quadro rtx series rtx 20 series initially launched micron memory chips switching samsung chips november 2018 nvidia reported rasterization cuda performance gains existing titles approximately 30–50 previous generation ray-tracing performed rt cores used produce reflections refractions shadows replacing traditional raster techniques cube maps depth maps instead replacing rasterization entirely however information gathered ray-tracing used augment shading information much photo-realistic especially regards off-camera action nvidia said ray-tracing performance increased 8 times previous consumer architecture pascal generation final image accelerated tensor cores used fill blanks partially rendered image technique known de-noising tensor cores perform result deep learning supercomputers codify example increase resolution images tensor cores primary usage problem solved analyzed supercomputer taught example results desired supercomputer determines method use achieve results done consumer tensor cores methods delivered via driver updates consumers turing development platform called rtx rtx uses microsoft dxr optix vulkan access ray-tracing includes access ai-accelerated features ngx windows 10 october 2018 update includes public release directx raytracing Target text information: ampere_(microarchitecture).ampere microarchitecture ampere codename graphics processing unit gpu microarchitecture developed nvidia successor turing architecture scheduled release 2020 named french mathematician physicist andré-marie ampère june 2019 samsung electronics announced awarded contract produce ampere 7nm euv finfet process replacing tsmc nvidia partner I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,949	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: port_forwarding.port forwarding computer networking port forwarding port mapping application network address translation nat redirects communication request one address port number combination another packets traversing network gateway router firewall technique commonly used make services host residing protected masqueraded internal network available hosts opposite side gateway external network remapping destination ip address port number communication internal host port forwarding allows remote computers example computers internet connect specific computer service within private local-area network lan typical residential network nodes obtain internet access dsl cable modem connected router network address translator nat/napt hosts private network connected ethernet switch communicate via wireless lan nat device external interface configured public ip address computers behind router hand invisible hosts internet communicate private ip address configuring port forwarding network administrator sets aside one port number gateway exclusive use communicating service private network located specific host external hosts must know port number address gateway communicate network-internal service often port numbers well-known internet services port number 80 web services http used port forwarding common internet services may implemented hosts within private networks typical applications include following administrators configure port forwarding gateway operating system linux kernels achieved packet filter rules iptables netfilter kernel components bsd macos operating systems prior yosemite os 10.10.x implement ipfirewall ipfw module macos operating systems beginning yosemite implement packet filter pf module used gateway devices port forward may implemented single rule translate destination address port linux kernels dnat rule source address port case left unchanged used machines default gateway network source address must changed address translating machine packets bypass translator connection fail port forward implemented proxy process application layer firewalls socks based firewalls via tcp circuit proxies packets actually translated data proxied usually results source address port number changed proxy machine.. usually one private hosts use specific forwarded port one time configuration sometimes possible differentiate access originating host source address unix-like operating systems sometimes use port forwarding port numbers smaller 1024 created software running root user running superuser privileges order bind port may security risk host therefore port forwarding used redirect low-numbered port another high-numbered port application software may execute common operating system user reduced privileges universal plug play protocol upnp provides feature automatically install instances port forwarding residential internet gateways upnp defines internet gateway device protocol igd network service internet gateway advertises presence private network via simple service discovery protocol ssdp application provides internet-based service may discover gateways use upnp igd protocol reserve port number gateway cause gateway forward packets listening socket port forwarding divided following specific types local remote dynamic port forwarding local port forwarding common type port forwarding used let user connect local computer another server i.e forward data securely another client application running computer secure shell ssh client using local port forwarding firewalls block certain web pages able bypassed connections ssh client forwarded via ssh server intended destination server ssh server configured redirect data specified port local host runs ssh client secure tunnel specified destination host port local port computer ssh client port forwarded port computer client wants connect destination host port configured connect forwarded port rather directly destination host port connection established ssh client listens forwarded port directs data sent applications port secure tunnel ssh server server decrypts data redirects destination host port command line “ -l ” specifies local port forwarding destination server two port numbers need included port numbers less 1024 greater 49150 reserved system programs work specific source ports part source port number used uses local port forwarding form port forwarding enables applications server side secure shell ssh connection access services residing ssh client side addition ssh proprietary tunnelling schemes utilize remote port forwarding general purpose words remote port forwarding lets users connect server side tunnel ssh another remote network service located tunnel client side use remote port forwarding address destination server tunnel client side two port numbers must known port numbers chosen depend application used remote port forwarding allows computers access applications hosted remote servers two examples dynamic port forwarding dpf on-demand method traversing firewall nat use firewall pinholes goal enable clients connect securely trusted server acts intermediary purpose sending/receiving data one many destination servers dpf implemented setting local application ssh socks proxy server used process data transmissions network internet programs web browsers must configured individually direct traffic proxy acts secure tunnel another server proxy longer needed programs must reconfigured original settings manual requirements dpf often used connection established dpf used provide additional security user connected untrusted network since data must pass secure tunnel another server forwarded original destination user protected packet sniffing may occur lan dpf powerful tool many uses example user connected internet coffee shop hotel otherwise minimally secure network may wish use dpf way protecting data dpf also used bypass firewalls restrict access outside websites corporate networks 1-hop neighbor's text information: firewall_(computing).firewall computing computing firewall network security system monitors controls incoming outgoing network traffic based predetermined security rules firewall typically establishes barrier trusted internal network untrusted external network internet firewalls often categorized either network firewalls host-based firewalls network firewalls filter traffic two networks run network hardware host-based firewalls run host computers control network traffic machines term firewall originally referred wall intended confine fire within building later uses refer similar structures metal sheet separating engine compartment vehicle aircraft passenger compartment term applied late 1980s network technology emerged internet fairly new terms global use connectivity predecessors firewalls network security routers used late 1980s separated networks one another thus halting spread problems one network another first reported type network firewall called packet filter packet filters act inspecting packets transferred computers packet match packet filter set filtering rules packet filter either drops silently discards packet rejects packet discards generates internet control message protocol notification sender else allowed pass packets may filtered source destination network addresses protocol source destination port numbers bulk internet communication 20th early 21st century used either transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp conjunction well-known ports enabling firewalls era distinguish thus control specific types traffic web browsing remote printing email transmission file transfer unless machines side packet filter used non-standard ports first paper published firewall technology 1988 engineers digital equipment corporation dec developed filter systems known packet filter firewalls bell labs bill cheswick steve bellovin continued research packet filtering developed working model company based original first generation architecture 1989–1990 three colleagues bell laboratories dave presotto janardan sharma kshitij nigam developed second generation firewalls calling circuit-level gateways second-generation firewalls perform work first-generation predecessors also maintain knowledge specific conversations endpoints remembering port number two ip addresses using layer 4 transport layer osi model conversation allowing examination overall exchange nodes type firewall potentially vulnerable denial-of-service attacks bombard firewall fake connections attempt overwhelm firewall filling connection state memory marcus ranum wei xu peter churchyard released application firewall known firewall toolkit fwtk october 1993 became basis gauntlet firewall trusted information systems key benefit application layer filtering understand certain applications protocols file transfer protocol ftp domain name system dns hypertext transfer protocol http useful able detect unwanted application service attempting bypass firewall using disallowed protocol allowed port detect protocol abused harmful way 2012 so-called next-generation firewall ngfw wider deeper inspection application layer example existing deep packet inspection functionality modern firewalls extended include firewalls generally categorized network-based host-based network-based firewalls positioned gateway computers lans wans intranets either software appliances running general-purpose hardware hardware-based firewall computer appliances firewall appliances may also offer functionality internal network protect acting dhcp vpn server network host-based firewalls positioned network node control network traffic machines host-based firewall may daemon service part operating system agent application endpoint security protection advantages disadvantages however role layered security firewalls also vary type depending communication originates intercepted state communication traced network layer firewalls also called packet filters operate relatively low level tcp/ip protocol stack allowing packets pass firewall unless match established rule set firewall administrator may define rules default rules may apply term packet filter originated context bsd operating systems network layer firewalls generally fall two sub-categories stateful stateless commonly used packet filters various versions unix ipfw freebsd mac os x 10.7 npf netbsd pf mac os x 10.4 openbsd bsds iptables ipchains linux ipfilter application-layer firewalls work application level tcp/ip stack i.e. browser traffic telnet ftp traffic may intercept packets traveling application application firewalls function determining whether process accept given connection application firewalls accomplish function hooking socket calls filter connections application layer lower layers osi model application firewalls hook socket calls also referred socket filters application firewalls work much like packet filter application filters apply filtering rules allow/block per process basis instead filtering connections per port basis generally prompts used define rules processes yet received connection rare find application firewalls combined used conjunction packet filter also application firewalls filter connections examining process id data packets rule set local process involved data transmission extent filtering occurs defined provided rule set given variety software exists application firewalls complex rule sets standard services sharing services per-process rule sets limited efficacy filtering every possible association may occur processes also per-process rule sets defend modification process via exploitation memory corruption exploits limitations application firewalls beginning supplanted new generation application firewalls rely mandatory access control mac also referred sandboxing protect vulnerable services proxy server running either dedicated hardware software general-purpose machine may act firewall responding input packets connection requests example manner application blocking packets proxy server gateway one network another specific network application sense functions proxy behalf network user proxies make tampering internal system external network difficult misuse one internal system would necessarily cause security breach exploitable outside firewall long application proxy remains intact properly configured conversely intruders may hijack publicly reachable system use proxy purposes proxy masquerades system internal machines use internal address spaces enhances security crackers may still employ methods ip spoofing attempt pass packets target network firewalls often network address translation nat functionality hosts protected behind firewall commonly addresses private address range defined rfc 1918 firewalls often functionality hide true address computer connected network originally nat function developed address limited number ipv4 routable addresses could used assigned companies individuals well reduce amount therefore cost obtaining enough public addresses every computer organization although nat considered security feature hiding addresses protected devices become often used defense network reconnaissance 1-hop neighbor's text information: outline_of_computer_security.outline computer security following outline provided overview topical guide computer security computer security – security applied computing devices computers smartphones well computer networks private public networks including whole internet field covers processes mechanisms digital equipment information services protected unintended unauthorized access change destruction growing importance line increasing reliance computer systems societies worldwide computer security includes measures taken ensure integrity files stored computer server well measures taken prevent unauthorized access stored data securing physical perimeter computer equipment authentication users computer accounts accessing data providing secure method data transmission computer security described following variety threats combined rapid development new threats made cyber insecurity removal information assurance 'status quo long man continues use computer man also takes interest manipulating modifying creating bypassing 'rules 'security standards common effective method violating computer security protocols phishing phishing process providing cloned login page site victim uses example google gmail user enters his/her login information data captured access victims account gained many corporations executive mid-ranking managers even low level staff many current u.s. corporations idea malicious user quietly passively intercepting communications strong motivation theft intellectual property often victims phishing either never become aware privacy breached many months pass become aware privacy lost methods computer network attack computer network exploitation social engineering frequent method attack take form phishing spear phishing corporate government world well counterfeit websites hid spoofing keylogger access control – selective restriction access place resource act accessing may mean consuming entering using permission access resource called authorization application security data security – protecting data database destructive forces unwanted actions unauthorized users independent organization evaluates rates antivirus security suite software microsoft windows android operating systems according variety criteria every month researchers publish results testing list products awarded certification organisation based magdeburg germany internet police – police secret police departments law enforcement agencies charge policing internet major purposes internet police depending state fighting cybercrime well censorship propaganda monitoring manipulating online public opinion rubber-hose cryptanalysis Target text information: firewall_pinhole.firewall pinhole computer networking firewall pinhole port protected firewall allow particular application gain access service host network protected firewall leaving ports open firewall configurations exposes protected system potentially malicious abuse fully closed firewall prevents applications accessing services side firewall protection mechanism opening pinhole firewall implement user validation authorization firewalls performing network address translation nat function mapping external ip address port socket internal ip address port socket often called pinhole pinholes created manually programmatically temporary created dynamically specific duration dynamic connection permanent signaling functions firewalls sometimes automatically close pinholes period time typically minutes minimize security exposure applications require pinhole kept open often need generate artificial traffic pinhole order cause firewall restart timer I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,308	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include Target text information: ca_anti-spyware.ca anti-spyware ca anti-spyware spyware detection program distributed ca inc. 2007 known pestpatrol product offered total defense inc. named total defense anti-virus pestpatrol inc. carlisle pa based software company founded dr. david stang robert bales developed pestpatrol released first version 2000 originally called safersite company changed name 2002 better reflect focus company pestpatrol anti-malware product designed protect computer system threats adware spyware viruses performed automated scans system hard disks windows registry crucial system areas enabled manual scans specific threats selected long list known malicious software among unique features cookiepatrol purges spyware cookies keypatrol detects keyloggers unlike anti-spyware programs designed home use single desktop pestpatrol also provided solution network environments found enterprises among features made appealing enterprise security administrators ability manage networked desktops remotely early versions product criticized poor user interface described alternatively something looks like application ported os/2 unclear buttons clunky text-based ui reviewers praised malware detection removal capabilities stating pestpatrol effective anti-spyware system short switch linux 've ever used described infoworld one established brands anti-spyware 2002 selected security product year network world cited ability detect remove 60,000 types malware defenses remote administration tools rats billing authority spyware protection licensed signature files use yahoo companion others 2003 along anti-spyware anti-malware companies webroot lavasoft aluria formed industry consortium fight malware called consortium antispyware technology coast computer associates ca technologies bought pestpatrol 2004 made part etrust computer security line includes virus scanner firewall using newly acquired technology ca created bundle named ca integrated threat management itm consisted anti-virus solution pestpatrol anti-spyware renamed ca anti-spyware 2007 program bought separately part ca internet security 2007 ca anti-spyware team instrumental exposing fact facebook collecting personal information users without knowledge even users opted facebook ill-fated beacon program even users logged facebook I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,932	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: mvs.mvs multiple virtual storage commonly called mvs commonly used operating system system/370 system/390 ibm mainframe computers developed ibm unrelated ibm mainframe operating systems e.g. vse vm tpf first released 1974 mvs extended program products new names multiple times first ibm described mvs simply new release os/vs2 fact major rewrite os/vs2 release 1 upgrade os/360 mvt retained original code like mvt mainly written assembly language mvs core almost entirely written assembler xf although modules written pl/s performance-sensitive ones particular input/output supervisor ios ibm use os/vs2 emphasized upwards compatibility application programs ran mvt even need recompiling run mvs job control language files could used unchanged utilities non-core facilities like tso ran unchanged ibm users almost unanimously called new system mvs start ibm continued use term mvs naming later major versions mvs/xa os/360 mft multitasking fixed number tasks provided multitasking several memory partitions fixed size set operating system installed operator redefined example could small partition two medium partitions large partition two large programs ready run one would wait finished vacated large partition os/360 mvt multitasking variable number tasks enhancement refined memory use instead using fixed-size memory partitions mvt allocated memory regions job steps needed provided enough contiguous physical memory available significant advance mft memory management weaknesses job allocated memory dynamically sort programs database management systems programmers estimate job maximum memory requirement pre-define mvt job step contained mix small large programs wasted memory small programs ran seriously memory could become fragmented i.e. memory used current jobs could divided uselessly small chunks areas used current jobs remedy wait current jobs finished starting new ones early 1970s ibm sought mitigate difficulties introducing virtual memory ibm called virtual storage allowed programs request address spaces larger physical memory original implementations single virtual address space shared jobs os/vs1 os/360 mft within single virtual address space os/vs2 svs os/360 mvt within single virtual address space os/vs1 svs principle disadvantages mft mvt impacts less severe jobs could request much larger address spaces requests came 16 mb pool even physical storage smaller mid-1970s ibm introduced mvs supported virtual storage larger available real storage svs also allowed indefinite number applications run different address spaces two concurrent programs might try access virtual memory address virtual memory system redirected requests different areas physical memory address spaces consisted three areas operating system one instance shared jobs application area unique application shared virtual area used various purposes including inter-job communication ibm promised application areas would always least 8 mb made mvs perfect solution business problems resulted need run applications mvs maximized processing potential providing multiprogramming multiprocessing capabilities like mvt os/vs2 svs predecessors mvs supported multiprogramming program instructions associated data scheduled control program given processing cycles unlike single-programming operating system systems maximize use processing potential dividing processing cycles among instructions associated several different concurrently running programs way control program wait i/o operation complete proceeding executing instructions multiple programs computer able switch back forth active inactive programs early editions mvs mid-1970s among first ibm os series support multiprocessor configurations though m65mp variant os/360 running 360 models 65 67 provided limited multiprocessor support 360 model 67 also hosted multiprocessor capable tss/360 mts cp-67 operating systems multiprocessing systems execute instructions simultaneously offer greater processing power single-processing system result mvs able address business problems brought need process large amounts data multiprocessing systems either loosely coupled means computer access common workload tightly coupled means computers share real storage controlled single copy operating system mvs retained loosely coupled multiprocessing attached support processor asp tightly coupled multiprocessing os/360 model 65 multiprocessing tightly coupled systems two cpus shared concurrent access memory copy operating system peripherals providing greater processing power degree graceful degradation one cpu failed loosely coupled configurations group processors single tightly coupled memory operating system shared peripherals operating system component jes3 allowed managing whole group one console provided greater resilience let operators decide processor run jobs central job queue mvs jes3 gave users opportunity network together two data processing systems via shared disks channel-to-channel adapters ctca capability eventually became available jes2 users multi-access spool mas mvs originally supported 24-bit addressing i.e. 16 mb underlying hardware progressed supported 31-bit xa esa 2048 mb z/os 64-bit addressing significant motives rapid upgrade 31-bit addressing growth large transaction-processing networks mostly controlled cics ran single address space—and db2 relational database management system needed 8 mb application address space run efficiently early versions configured two address spaces communicated via shared virtual area imposed significant overhead since communications transmit via operating system main user interfaces mvs job control language jcl originally designed batch processing 1970s onwards also used start allocate resources long-running interactive jobs cics tso time sharing option interactive time-sharing interface mainly used run development tools end-user information systems ispf tso application users 3270-family terminals later vm well allows user accomplish tasks tso command line menu form oriented manner full screen editor file browser tso basic interface command line although facilities added later form-driven interfaces mvs took major step forward fault-tolerance built earlier stae facility ibm called software recovery ibm decided years practical real-world experience mvt business world system failures major impacts customer businesses ibm decided take major design jump assume despite best software development testing techniques 'problems occur profound assumption pivotal adding great percentages fault-tolerance code system likely contributed system success tolerating software hardware failures statistical information hard come prove value design features measure 'prevented 'recovered problems ibm many dimensions enhanced fault-tolerant software recovery rapid problem resolution features time design specified hierarchy error-handling programs system kernel/'privileged mode called functional recovery routines user 'task 'problem program mode called estae extended specified task abnormal exit routines invoked case system detected error actually hardware processor storage error software error recovery routine made 'mainline function reinvokable captured error diagnostic data sufficient debug causing problem either 'retried reinvoke mainline 'percolated escalated error processing next recovery routine hierarchy thus error system captured diagnostic data attempted perform repair keep system worst thing possible take user address space 'job case unrepaired errors though initial design point recent mvs version z/os recovery program guaranteed recovery routine recovery routine recovery routine recovery structure embedded basic mvs control program programming facilities available used application program developers 3rd party developers practically mvs software recovery made problem debugging easier difficult software recovery requires programs leave 'tracks thus facilitating debugging—but fact processing progresses despite error overwrite tracks early data capture time error maximizes debugging facilities exist recovery routines task system mode ibm included additional criteria major software problem required ibm service mainline component failed initiate software recovery considered valid reportable failure also recovery routine failed collect significant diagnostic data original problem solvable data collected recovery routine ibm standards dictated fault reportable required repair thus ibm standards rigorously applied encouraged continuous improvement ibm introduced on-demand hypervisor major serviceability tool called dynamic support system dss first release mvs facility could invoked initiate session create diagnostic procedures invoke already-stored procedures procedures 'trapped special events loading program device i/o system procedure calls triggered activation previously defined procedures procedures could invoked recursively allowed reading writing data alteration instruction flow program event recording hardware used due overhead tool removed customer-available mvs systems program-event recording per exploitation performed enhancement diagnostic slip command introduction per support slip/per su 64/65 1978 multiple copies mvs ibm operating systems could share machine machine controlled vm/370 case vm/370 real operating system regarded guest operating systems applications unusually high privileges result later hardware enhancements one instance operating system either mvs vm guests could also occupy logical partition lpar instead entire physical system multiple mvs instances organized collectively administered structure called systems complex sysplex introduced september 1990 instances interoperate software component called cross-system coupling facility xcf hardware component called hardware coupling facility cf integrated coupling facility icf co-located mainframe hardware multiple sysplexes joined via standard network protocols ibm proprietary systems network architecture sna recently via tcp/ip z/os operating system mvs recent descendant also native support execute posix single unix specification applications support began mvs/sp v4r3 ibm obtained unix 95 certification z/os v1r2 later system typically used business banking applications often written cobol cobol programs traditionally used transaction processing systems like ims cics program running cics special exec cics statements inserted cobol source code preprocessor translator replaces exec cics statements appropriate cobol code call cics program compiled — altogether unlike sql used call db2 applications also written languages c c++ java assembly language fortran basic rpg rexx language support packaged common component called language environment le allow uniform debugging tracing profiling language independent functions mvs systems traditionally accessed 3270 terminals pcs running 3270 emulators however many mainframe applications days custom web gui interfaces z/os operating system built-in support tcp/ip system management done past 3270 terminal done hardware management console hmc increasingly web interfaces operator consoles provided 2074 emulators unlikely see s/390 zseries processor real 3270 connected native character encoding scheme mvs peripherals ebcdic tr instruction made easy translate 7- 8-bit codes time ibm added hardware-accelerated services perform translation larger codes hardware-specific service unicode transforms software support e.g. ascii iso/iec 8859 utf-8 utf-16 utf-32 software translation services take source destination code pages inputs files properly called data sets mvs names files organized catalogs vsam files data set names dsns mainframe term filenames organized hierarchy whose levels separated dots e.g dept01.system01.file01 level hierarchy eight characters long total filename length maximum 44 characters including dots convention components separated dots used organize files similarly directories operating systems example utility programs performed similar functions windows explorer without gui usually batch processing mode adding renaming deleting new elements reporting contents specified element however unlike many systems levels usually actual directories naming convention like original macintosh file system folder hierarchy illusion maintained finder tso supports default prefix files similar current directory concept racf supports setting access controls based filename patterns analogous access controls directories platforms members os family mvs data sets record-oriented mvs inherited three main types predecessors sequential isam datasets could store either fixed-length variable length records types could occupy one disk volume based vtoc disk structure early ibm database management systems used various combinations isam bdam datasets usually bdam actual data storage isam indexes early 1970s ibm virtual memory operating systems introduced new file management component vsam provided similar facilities vsam formats became basis ibm database management systems ims/vs db2 usually esds actual data storage ksds indexes vsam also included catalog component used mvs master catalog partitioned data sets pds sequential data sets subdivided members could processed sequential files right like folder hierarchical file system important use pdses program libraries system administrators used main pds way allocate disk space project project team created edited members uses pdss libraries frequently used job control procedures procs “ copy books ” programming language statements record definitions used several programs generation data groups gdgs groups like named data sets referenced absolute generation number offset recent generation originally designed support grandfather-father-son backup procedures file modified changed version became new son previous son became father previous father became grandfather previous grandfather deleted one could set gdgs 3 generations applications used gdgs collect data several sources feed information one program collecting program created new generation file final program read whole group single sequential file specifying generation jcl modern versions mvs e.g. z/os also support posix-compatible slash filesystems along facilities integrating two filesystems os make mvs dataset appear file posix program subsystem newer filesystems include hierarchical file system hfs confused apple hierarchical file system zfs confused sun zfs programs running network-connected computers as/400 use local data management interfaces transparently create manage access vsam record-oriented files using client-server products implemented according distributed data management architecture ddm ddm also base architecture mvs db2 server implements distributed relational database architecture drda mvs part z/os older mvs releases longer supported ibm since 2007 64-bit z/os releases supported z/os supports running older 24-bit 31-bit mvs applications alongside 64-bit applications mvs releases 3.8j 24-bit released 1981 freely available possible run mvs 3.8j release mainframe emulators free mvs/370 generic term versions mvs operating system prior mvs/xa system/370 architecture time mvs released supported 24-bit virtual addresses mvs/370 operating system architecture based 24-bit address 24-bit address length programs running mvs/370 given 16 megabytes contiguous virtual storage mvs/xa multiple virtual storage/extended architecture version mvs supported 370-xa architecture expanded addresses 24 bits 31 bits providing 2 gigabyte addressable memory area also supported 24-bit legacy addressing mode older 24-bit applications i.e stored 24-bit address lower 24 bits 32-bit word utilized upper 8 bits word purposes mvs/esa mvs enterprise system architecture version mvs first introduced mvs/sp version 3 february 1988 replaced by/renamed os/390 late 1995 subsequently z/os mvs/esa openedition upgrade version 4 release 3 mvs/esa announced february 1993 support posix standards initial release national institute standards technology nist certification federal information processing standard fips 151 compliance subsequent releases certified higher levels organizations e.g x/open successor open group included 1 million new lines code provide api shell utilities extended user interface works hierarchical file system provided dfsms data facility system managed storage shell utilities based mortice kerns interopen products independent specialists estimate 80 open systems-compliant—more unix systems dce2 support announced february 1994 many application development tools march 1995 mid 1995 open features became standard part vanilla mvs/esa sp version 5 release 1 ibm stopped distinguishing openedition operating system os/390 became unix system services kept name z/os late 1995 ibm bundled mvs several program products changed name mvs/esa os/390 current level mvs marketed z/os japanese mainframe manufacturers fujitsu hitachi repeatedly illegally obtained ibm mvs source code internal documentation one 20th century famous cases industrial espionage fujitsu relied heavily ibm code msp mainframe operating system likewise hitachi vos3 operating system msp vos3 heavily marketed japan still hold substantial share mainframe installed base also degree countries notably australia even ibm bugs documentation misspellings faithfully copied ibm cooperated u.s. federal bureau investigation sting operation reluctantly supplying fujitsu hitachi proprietary mvs mainframe hardware technologies course multi-year investigations culminating early 1980s—investigations implicated senior company managers even japanese government officials amdahl however involved fujitsu theft ibm intellectual property communications amdahl fujitsu amdahl specifications scrupulously cleansed ibm ip references ibm ip subsequent investigations ibm reached multimillion-dollar settlements fujitsu hitachi collecting substantial fractions companies profits many years reliable reports indicate settlements exceeded us 500,000,000 three companies long since amicably agreed many joint business ventures example 2000 ibm hitachi collaborated developing ibm z900 mainframe model historical copying msp vos3 properly classified forks mvs many third party software vendors mvs-compatible products able produce msp- vos3-compatible versions little modification ibm introduced 64-bit z/architecture mainframes year 2000 ibm also introduced 64-bit z/os operating system direct successor os/390 mvs fujitsu hitachi opted license ibm z/architecture quasi-mvs operating systems hardware systems msp vos3 still nominally supported vendors maintain mvs 1980s architectural limitations present day since z/os still supports mvs-era applications technologies—indeed z/os still contains mvs code albeit greatly enhanced improved decades evolution—applications operational procedures running msp vos3 move z/os much easily operating systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_systems_application_architecture.ibm systems application architecture systems application architecture saa introduced 1987 set standards computer software developed ibm saa initiative started 1987 leadership earl wheeler father saa intent implement saa ibm operating systems including mvs os/400 os/2 aix ibm version unix operating system target saa interoperability saa family saa define new standards selected among ibm existing guidelines software ibm also purchased third party software developers bachman information systems index technology inc. knowledgeware inc intended implemented uniformly across saa compliant environments standard designed make application programs look work manner across entire range company personal computing systems midrange processors system/370 processors saa labeled complex obscure potentially difficult learn lou gerstner ibm later quietly discontinued use saa umbrella 2001 saa spoken past tense however many individual components saa still use common programming interface attempted standardize compilers application programming interfaces among systems participating saa objective providing common programming interface entire ibm computer product line pcs system/3x system/370 implies saa program written ibm machine run cpi included number pieces common user access aimed providing common user interface entire ibm product line user sits pc see menus keyboards procedures would 3270 terminal hardware differences complete commonality impossible attain ibm created two cua standards basic interface ibm 3270 ibm 5250 terminals advanced interface so-called intelligent workstations pcs keyboard standardized model 101 key enhanced keyboard layout common communications services defined methods heterogeneous systems communicated ccs depended advanced program-to-program communications also known appc lu6.2 systems network architecture sna pu2.1 low entry networking peer peer networking sna management services network control three types data links supported application services provided officevision saa-compliant successor profs as/400 office office automation ad/cycle family development tools intended simplify development saa applications 1-hop neighbor's text information: time_sharing_option.time sharing option time sharing option tso interactive time-sharing environment ibm mainframe operating systems including os/360 mvt os/vs2 svs mvs os/390 z/os time-sharing means many people access operating system concurrently unaware others also accessing operating system appears tso user user system tso commonly used mainframe system administrators programmers provides tso interacts users either line-by-line mode full screen menu-driven mode line-by-line mode user enters commands typing keyboard turn system interprets commands displays responses terminal screen mainframe interaction actually via ispf allows customized menu-driven interaction combination called tso/ispf tso also provide unix-style environment os/390 z/os via unix system services command shell without ispf tso commands embedded rexx execs clists run interactively batch tso eliminated need punch cards keypunch machine send card decks computer room read card reading machine originally introduced 1971 ibm considered time-sharing optional feature compared standard batch processing hence offered tso option os/360 mvt introduction mvs 1974 ibm made standard component top-end mainframe operating system tso/e time sharing option/extensions set extensions original tso tso/e base element z/os z/os tso extensions tso/e element os/390 licensed program mvs mvs/esa system products since z/os installations usually tso tso/e functions installed normal refer tso tso/e tso first released tso module names always prefix ikj plus second third letters associated pre-tso functional group iea original functional group supervisor hence tso module name ikjeaxxx ieb original functional group dataset utilities hence tso module name ikjebxxx etc. common run tso batch opposed interactively usual tso line-mode interactive commands also executed via job control language jcl running programs codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 supplying line commands file pointed codice_4 primary difference three programs handling return codes executed commands batch execution tso one way allow ibm mainframe application access db2 resources Target text information: ibm_cross_system_product.ibm cross system product ibm cross system product csp application generator intended create online systems ibm mainframe platforms introduced 1981 csp consisted set source code generators allowed developers interactively define test generate execute application programs csp composed two products csp version 3 released 1986 extended functions 1987 saa announcement cast doubt ibm commitment csp – n't silent csp dismembered it. last version csp version 4.1 went support end 2001 1994 ibm released successor product called visualgen incorporated ability develop client/server applications particularly addition graphical user interfaces guis applications ability access data non-ibm vendors ’ data stores ability execute application operating environments beyond mainframe 1996 product renamed visualage generator visualage generator withdrawn service 2009 succeeded rational business developer I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,450	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: trueos.trueos trueos formerly pc-bsd pcbsd unix-like server-oriented operating system built upon recent releases freebsd-current 2018 aimed easy install using graphical installation program easy ready-to-use immediately providing kde sc lumina lxde mate xfce desktop environment june 2018 developers announced trueos core os provides basis projects thus n't include graphical installer anymore graphical end-user-orientated oses based trueos ghostbsd trident trueos provides official binary nvidia intel drivers hardware acceleration optional 3d desktop interface kwin wine ready-to-use running microsoft windows software trueos able run linux software addition freebsd ports collection .txz package manager trueos supports openzfs installer offers disk encryption geli trueos founded freebsd professional kris moore early 2005 pc-bsd august 2006 voted beginner-friendly operating system osweekly.com first beta pc-bsd consisted gui installer get user running freebsd 6 system kde3 pre-configured major innovation time anyone wishing install freebsd would manually tweak run text installer kris moore goal make freebsd easy everyone use desktop since diverged even direction usability including additional gui administration tools .pbi application installers pc-bsd application installer management involved different approach installing software many unix-like operating systems including version 8.2 means pbidir website instead using freebsd ports tree directly although remained available pc-bsd used files .pbi filename extension push button installer double-clicked brought installation wizard program autobuild system tracked freebsd ports collection generated new .pbi files daily software packages dependencies installed inside .pbi files self-contained directories /programs convention aimed decrease confusion binary programs reside remove possibility package breaking system libraries upgraded changed prevent dependency hell october 10 2006 pc-bsd acquired enterprise-class hardware solution provider ixsystems ixsystems employs kris moore full-time developer leader project november 2007 ixsystems entered distribution agreement fry electronics whereby fry electronics stores nationwide carry boxed copies pc-bsd version 1.4 da vinci edition january 2008 ixsystems entered similar agreement micro center september 1 2016 pc-bsd team announced name operating system change trueos along rebranding project also became rolling release distribution based freebsd-current branch november 15 2016 trueos began transition freebsd rc.d openrc default init system apart gentoo/alt openrc initially developed major bsd based operating system using openrc july 2018 trueos announced would spin desktop edition separate project named project trident since version 7 pc-bsd began following numbering system freebsd since version 9.0 kde sc customized support tighter application integration .txz package management system longer desktop environment supported pc-bsd manual installation desktops xfce gnome technically possible earlier releases none supported earlier versions major functionality lost using pc-bsd special build kde sc starting version 9.0 pc-bsd added desktop environments including gnome xfce lxde mate pc-bsd used support amd64 i686 architectures support i686 dropped version 9.2 starting september 2016 rebranding pc-bsd trueos became rolling release distribution based freebsd current branch trueos package manager takes similar approach installing software many unix-like operating systems instead using freebsd ports tree directly although remains available trueos uses files .txz filename extension packages contain compiled ports autobuild system tracks freebsd ports collection generates new .txz files daily trueos package management system aims visually similar major operating systems microsoft windows apple macos applications installed single download link graphical prompts maintaining internally traditional .txz package management systems many unix-like systems use trueos package manager also takes care creating categorized links kde menu kde sc desktop 2014 pc-bsd project announced development new desktop environment scratch named lumina ken moore main developer lumina based qt toolkit july 2016 lumina web site desktop environment application development toolkit aims graphical interface uses plugins customization trueos originally licensed gnu general public license gpl developers impression applications using qt trueos uses interface development must licensed gpl q public license upon discovering fact restriction trueos developers later relicensed code bsd-like 3-clause license trueos trueos logo registered trademarks ixsystems inc new york city *bsd user group runs service named dmesgd provides user-submitted dmesg information different computer hardware laptops workstations single-board computers embedded systems virtual machines etc capable running trueos according trueos wiki trueos following hardware requirements uefi support amd64 added installer boot manager since version 10.1 default efi boot manager refind includes acpi detection setup root system description pointer rsdp extended system descriptor table xsdt root system description table rsdt pass-through values kernel new installation needed order install uefi support requires creation small fat partition current uefi support secure boot 1-hop neighbor's text information: freenas.freenas freenas free open-source network-attached storage nas software based freebsd openzfs file system licensed terms bsd license runs commodity x86-64 hardware freenas supports windows macos unix clients various virtualization hosts xenserver vmware using smb afp nfs iscsi ssh rsync ftp/tftp protocols advanced freenas features include full-disk encryption plug-in architecture third-party software freenas supports openzfs filesystem provides data integrity checking prevent data corruption enable point time snapshotting replication several levels redundancy including striping mirroring striped mirrors raid 1+0 three levels raidz freenas managed comprehensive web interface supplemented minimal shell console handles essential administrative functions web interface supports storage pool configuration user management sharing configuration system maintenance embedded system appliance freenas boots usb flash device sata dom image configured using usb flash/cd-rom bootable installer freenas operating system fully independent storage disks allowing configuration database encryption keys backed restored fresh installation os separation also allows freenas system upgrades performed web interface freenas project started october 2005 olivier cochard-labbé based m0n0wall embedded firewall freebsd 6.0 volker theile joined project july 2006 became project lead april 2008 september 2009 development team concluded project release .7 due complete rewrite order accommodate modern features plug-in architecture volker theile decided project best reimplemented using debian linux shifted development efforts interim corenas project eventually openmediavault continues project lead cochard-labbé responded community objections debian version freenas resumed activity project oversaw transfer freenas user ixsystems developers daisuke aoyama michael zoon continued developing freenas 7 nas4free project meanwhile ixsystems rewrote freenas new architecture based freebsd 8.1 releasing freenas 8 beta november 2010 plug-in architecture arrived freenas 8.2 freenas versioning synchronized freebsd clarity freenas 8.3 introduced full-disk encryption freebsd 9.1-based freenas 9.1 brought updated plug-in architecture compatible trueos warden jail management framework freenas 9.1 also first version freenas use community-supported openzfs v5000 feature flags freenas 9.2 based freebsd 9.2 included performance improvements introduced rest api remote system administration freenas 9.3 based freebsd 9.3 introduced zfs-based boot device initial setup wizard high-performance in-kernel iscsi server freenas 9.10 based freebsd 10.3-rc3 brought end freenas/freebsd synchronized naming introduced graphite monitoring support experimental support bhyve hypervisor october 2015 ten years original freenas release freenas 10 alpha released providing preview would become freenas corral ga march 15 2017 freenas corral introduced new graphical user interface command-line interface underlying middleware container management system virtual machine management system freenas corral departs freenas providing nas functionality also hyper-converged functionality thanks integrated virtual machine support however april 12 2017 ixsystems announced freenas corral would instead relegated 'technology preview citing issues general instability lack feature parity 9.10 jails iscsi etc users experiencing lower performance expected departure project lead instead decision made revert existing 9.10 code bring corral features 9.10.3 may 2017 ix systems announced freenas 11 would imminently released based 9.10 included features update freebsd operating system virtual machine management updates jails new beta user interface along lines corral based angular js 8.0 reimplementation freenas moved project m0n0bsd/m0n0wall/php-based architecture one based freebsd nanobsd embedded build system python programming language django web application framework dōjō toolkit javascript library also used lighttpd web server replaced nginx freenas 8.2 terminated successor 9.10.2 known freenas corral retained nginx web server zfs-based boot device freenas replaces django/dōjō web application framework original one freenas 11 implemented new interface using angular js features plugins shown 11.0 branch 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_products_based_on_freebsd.list products based freebsd many products based freebsd information products version freebsd based often difficult come since fact widely publicised Target text information: ghostbsd.ghostbsd ghostbsd unix-like operating system based trueos mate default desktop environment gnome previous desktop environment xfce-desktop community based edition aims easy install ready-to-use easy use project goal combine security privacy stability usability openness freedom free charge prior ghostbsd 18.10 project based freebsd may 2018 announced future versions operating system based trueos beginning ghostbsd 18.10 project moved base freebsd trueos following trueos based ghostbsd releases ghostbsd originally licensed 3-clause bsd license revised bsd license new bsd license modified bsd license 2014 eric turgeon re-licensed ghostbsd 2-clause license simplified bsd license freebsd license ghostbsd contains gpl-licensed software following minimum recommended requirements I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,177	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: database_forensics.database forensics database forensics branch digital forensic science relating forensic study databases related metadata discipline similar computer forensics following normal forensic process applying investigative techniques database contents metadata cached information may also exist servers ram requiring live analysis techniques forensic examination database may relate timestamps apply update time row relational table inspected tested validity order verify actions database user alternatively forensic examination may focus identifying transactions within database system application indicate evidence wrongdoing fraud software tools used manipulate analyse data tools also provide audit logging capabilities provide documented proof tasks analysis forensic examiner performed database currently many database software tools general reliable precise enough used forensic work demonstrated first paper published database forensics currently single book published field though destined additionally subsequent sql server forensics book kevvie fowler named sql server forensics well regarded also forensic study relational databases requires knowledge standard used encode data computer disk documentation standards used encode information well-known brands db sql server oracle contributed public domain others include apex analytix forensic analysis database executed isolation technological framework within subject database exists crucial understanding resolving questions data authenticity integrity especially relates database users 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_forensics.computer forensics computer forensics also known computer forensic science branch digital forensic science pertaining evidence found computers digital storage media goal computer forensics examine digital media forensically sound manner aim identifying preserving recovering analyzing presenting facts opinions digital information although often associated investigation wide variety computer crime computer forensics may also used civil proceedings discipline involves similar techniques principles data recovery additional guidelines practices designed create legal audit trail evidence computer forensics investigations usually subjected guidelines practices digital evidence used number high-profile cases becoming widely accepted reliable within u.s. european court systems early 1980s personal computers became accessible consumers leading increased use criminal activity example help commit fraud time several new computer crimes recognized cracking discipline computer forensics emerged time method recover investigate digital evidence use court since computer crime computer related crime grown jumped 67 2002 2003 today used investigate wide variety crime including child pornography fraud espionage cyberstalking murder rape discipline also features civil proceedings form information gathering example electronic discovery forensic techniques expert knowledge used explain current state digital artifact computer system storage medium e.g hard disk cd-rom electronic document e.g email message jpeg image scope forensic analysis vary simple information retrieval reconstructing series events 2002 book computer forensics authors kruse heiser define computer forensics involving preservation identification extraction documentation interpretation computer data go describe discipline art science indicating forensic methodology backed flexibility extensive domain knowledge however several methods used extract evidence given computer strategies used law enforcement fairly rigid lack flexibility found civilian world court computer forensic evidence subject usual requirements digital evidence requires information authentic reliably obtained admissible different countries specific guidelines practices evidence recovery united kingdom examiners often follow association chief police officers guidelines help ensure authenticity integrity evidence voluntary guidelines widely accepted british courts computer forensics used evidence criminal law since mid-1980s notable examples include computer forensic investigations usually follow standard digital forensic process phases acquisition examination analysis reporting investigations performed static data i.e acquired images rather live systems change early forensic practices lack specialist tools led investigators commonly working live data number techniques used computer forensics investigations much written many techniques used law enforcement particular seizing evidence machine still active information stored solely ram recovered powering may lost one application live analysis recover ram data example using microsoft cofee tool windd windowsscope prior removing exhibit captureguard gateway bypasses windows login locked computers allowing analysis acquisition physical memory locked computer ram analyzed prior content power loss electrical charge stored memory cells takes time dissipate effect exploited cold boot attack length time data recoverable increased low temperatures higher cell voltages holding unpowered ram −60 °c helps preserve residual data order magnitude improving chances successful recovery however impractical field examination tools needed extract volatile data however require computer forensic lab maintain legitimate chain evidence facilitate work machine necessary law enforcement applies techniques move live running desktop computer include mouse jiggler moves mouse rapidly small movements prevents computer going sleep accidentally usually uninterruptible power supply ups provides power transit however one easiest ways capture data actually saving ram data disk various file systems journaling features ntfs reiserfs keep large portion ram data main storage media operation page files reassembled reconstruct ram time number open source commercial tools exist computer forensics investigation typical forensic analysis includes manual review material media reviewing windows registry suspect information discovering cracking passwords keyword searches topics related crime extracting e-mail pictures review several computer forensics certifications available isfce certified computer examiner digital forensics investigation professional dfip iacrb certified computer forensics examiner top vendor independent certification especially within eu considered ccfp certified cyber forensics professional others worth mention usa apac iacis international association computer investigative specialists offers certified computer forensic examiner cfce program isfcs international society forensic computer examiners® offers certified computer examiner cce program asian school cyber laws offers international level certifications digital evidence analysis digital forensic investigation courses available online class room mode many commercial based forensic software companies also offering proprietary certifications products example guidance software offering ence certification tool encase accessdata offering ace certification tool ftk passmark software offering oce certification tool osforensics x-ways software technology offering x-pert certification software x-ways forensics 1-hop neighbor's text information: adf_solutions.adf solutions advanced digital forensic solutions inc. adf solutions company based bethesda maryland develops tools scanning suspect computers digital devices order locate extract data process known digital forensics digital forensic tools scan mobile phones computers digital devices collect intelligence evidence crime identify computers contain content relevant investigation tools used digital forensic labs field operatives defense intelligence law enforcement border security government agencies adf produces four forensic triage tools mobile device investigator digital evidence investigator triage-g2 triage-investigator tool targets different kinds users specific scenarios triage-g2 media exploitation medex tool used computers peripheral devices typically deployed usb device military personnel working field usb devices known triage keys prepared advance field selecting specific search criteria users tool require significant technical computer skills triage-g2 currently use several u.s. defense intelligence agencies mobile device investigator provides field investigators rapid evidence collection analysis reporting ios android devices smartphones tablets recover call records messages saved contacts calendar data browsing history download history search terms wifi connections installed applications pictures videos audio files documents police investigators review analyze results immediately make on-scene decisions digital evidence investigator forensic triage tool used computers forensic examiners lab environments location scan suspect devices prioritize full examinations digital evidence investigator use law enforcement agencies worldwide triage-investigator used law enforcement investigators field scan suspect computers evidence crime like triage-g2 users minimal technical experience tool also comes usb key used create field reports developed partnership u.s. department homeland security science technology directorate software used technology employs sets search criteria known captures software allows analysts operators describe specific search exploitation want conduct also used automate recurring categories investigations shared among agencies need according technopedia.com document media exploitation defined extraction translation analysis physical digital documents media generate useful timely information also known domex similar discipline computer forensics digital forensics media exploitation Target text information: national_software_reference_library.national software reference library national software reference library nsrl project national institute standards technology nist maintains repository known software file profiles file signatures use law enforcement organizations involved computer forensic investigations project supported united states department justice national institute justice federal bureau investigation fbi defense computer forensics laboratory dcfl u.s. customs service software vendors state local law enforcement also provides research environment computational analysis large sets files nsrl made three major elements nsrl collects software various sources computes message digests cryptographic hash values digests stored reference data set rds used identify known files digital media help alleviate much effort involved determining files important evidence computers file systems seized part criminal investigations although rds hashset contains malicious software steganography hacking tools contain illicit material e.g indecent images collection original software media maintained order provide repeatability calculated hash values ensuring admissibility data court 2004 nsrl released set hashes verifying evoting software part us election assistance commission electronic voting security strategy october 1 2013 reference data set version 2.42 contains 33.9 million unique hash values data set available cost public addition operating system application software library also collected numerous popular video game titles used part data forensics well partially serve video game preservation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	830	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: flag_of_convenience.flag convenience flag convenience foc business practice whereby ship owners register merchant ship ship register country ship owners ship flies civil ensign country called flag state term often used pejoratively practice regarded contentious merchant ship required international law registered registry created country ship subject laws country used also ship involved case admiralty law ship owners may elect register ship foreign country enables avoid regulations owners ’ country may example stricter safety standards may also select jurisdiction reduce operating costs bypassing laws protect wages working conditions mariners term flag convenience used since 1950s registry nationality residency requirement ship registration often described open registry panama example offers advantages easier registration often online ability employ cheaper foreign labour furthermore foreign owners pay income taxes modern practice ships registered foreign country began 1920s united states shipowners seeking serve alcohol passengers prohibition registered ships panama owners soon began perceive advantages terms avoiding increased regulations rising labor costs continued register ships panama even prohibition ended use open registries steadily increased 1968 liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest ship register half world merchant ships registered open registries almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage registered panama liberia marshall islands 2006 20 high-seas fishing vessels registered states connected according ihs markit march 2017 panama 8,052 ships registry singapore 3,574 ships liberia 3,277 ships marshall islands 3,244 ships hong kong 2,594 ships open registries criticised mainly trade union organisations based developed countries especially europe one criticism shipowners want hide ownership may select flag-of-convenience jurisdiction enables legally anonymous ships flags convenience found engaging crime offer substandard working conditions negatively impact environment primarily illegal unreported unregulated fishing shipowners may select jurisdiction measurement rules reduce certified grt size ship reduce subsequent port call dock dues consideration carnival cruise line changed flag rms empress canada 1972 panama 2011 cunard cruise line registered ships bermuda besides considerations enabled ship captains marry couples sea weddings sea described lucrative market thirteen flag states found international shipping organisations substandard regulations hand maritime industry practitioners seafarers countries contend natural product globalisation supporters practice however point economic regulatory advantages increased freedom choosing employees international labour pool ship owners developed countries use practice competitive global environment ships thirteen flags convenience targeted special enforcement countries visit ports countries called port state control international law requires every merchant ship registered country country ship registered flag state flag state gives ship right fly civil ensign ship operates laws flag state laws used ship involved admiralty case ship flag state exercises regulatory control vessel required inspect regularly certify ship equipment crew issue safety pollution prevention documents organization actually registers ship known registry registries may governmental private agencies reasons choosing open register varied include tax avoidance ability avoid national labor environmental regulations ability hire crews lower-wage countries national closed registries typically require ship owned constructed national interests least partially crewed citizens conversely open registries frequently offer on-line registration questions asked use flags convenience lowers registration maintenance costs turn reduces overall transportation costs accumulated advantages significant example 1999 28 american company sealand fleet 63 ships foreign-flagged saving company us 3.5 million per ship every year environmental disaster caused 1978 sinking flew liberian flag spurred creation new type maritime enforcement resulting strong political public outcry amoco cadiz sinking fourteen european nations signed 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou port state control ships international trade became subject inspection states visit addition shipboard living working conditions inspections cover items concerning safety life sea prevention pollution ships cases port state inspection uncovers problems ship port state may take actions including detaining ship 2015 member states paris mou conducted 17,858 inspections deficiencies resulted 595 detained vessels 11 banned member states tokyo memorandum understanding conducted 17,269 ship inspections 2015 recording 83,606 deficiencies resulted 1,153 detentions principle genuine link ship owners flag state dates back 1958 article 5 1 geneva convention high seas also required state must effectively exercise jurisdiction control administrative technical social matters ships flying flag principle repeated article 91 1982 treaty called united nations convention law sea often referred unclos 1986 united nations conference trade development attempted solidify genuine link concept united nations convention conditions registration ships convention registration ships would require flag state linked ships either economic stake ownership ships providing mariners crew ships come force 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25 world total 14 countries signed treaty merchant ships used false flags tactic evade enemy warships since antiquity examples found early roman era middle ages following american revolutionary war merchantmen flying flag fledgling united states quickly found offered little protection attack barbary pirates – many responded seeking transfer registry back great britain use false flags frequently used british napoleonic wars united states war 1812 mid-19th century slave ships flew various flags avoid searched british anti-slavery fleets belen quezada august 1919 first foreign ship re-registered panamanian registry employed running illegal alcohol canada united states prohibition modern practice registering ships foreign countries gain economic advantage originated united states era world war though term flag convenience come use 1950s 1915 1922 several laws passed united states strengthen united states merchant marine provide safeguards mariners period u.s.-flagged ships became subject regular inspections undertaken american bureau shipping also time robert lafollette seamen act 1915 described magna carta sailors rights seamen act regulated mariners working hours payment established baseline requirements shipboard food also reduced penalties disobedience abolished practice imprisoning sailors offense desertion another aspect seamen act enforcement safety standards requirements lifeboats number qualified able seamen board officers seamen able speak language laws put u.s.-flagged vessels economic disadvantage countries lacking safeguards ships started re-registered panama open registry 1919 addition sidestepping seamen act panamanian-flagged ships early period paid sailors japanese wage scale much lower western merchant powers early phase world war ii transfer american-owned ships panama registry sanctioned united states government could used deliver materials britain without dragging united states neutral unintentionally war liberian open registry founded 1948 brainchild edward stettinius franklin d. roosevelt secretary state world war ii stettinius created corporate structure included liberia corporation joint-venture government liberia corporation structured one-fourth revenue would go liberian government another 10 went fund social programs liberia remainder returned stettinius corporation liberian registry created time panama registry becoming less attractive several reasons including unpopularity u.s. labor movement european shipping concerns political unrest panama increases fees regulations 11 march 1949 greek shipping magnate stavros niarchos registered first ship liberian flag world peace stettinius died 1949 ownership registry passed international bank washington led general george olmsted within 18 years liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest register due liberia 1989 1999 civil wars registry eventually fell second panama flag convenience maritime funds continued supply 70 total government revenue civil war 1990 liberia joined republic marshall islands develop new maritime corporate program resulting company international registries formed parent company 1993 bought management taking liberian government americo-liberian warlord charles taylor signed new registry contract liberian international ship corporate registry commonly known liscr liscr one legal sources income taylor regime liberia registry operated virginia united states open registries panama liberia marshall islands accounted almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage year top ten flags convenience registered 55 world deadweight tonnage including 61 bulk carriers 56 oil tankers counteract class hopping 2009 iacs established transfer class agreement toca international transport workers federation itf maintains list registries considers flags convenience foc registries developing list itf considers ability willingness flag state enforce international minimum social standards vessels degree ratification enforcement ilo conventions recommendations safety environmental record list includes 35 countries panama liberia marshall islands world three largest registries terms deadweight tonnage dwt three organizations registered 11,636 ships total 39 world shipborne carrying capacity panama dominates scene 8,065 ships accounting almost 23 world dwt three marshall islands 1,265 registered ships greatest rate dwt increase 2009 increasing tonnage almost 15 bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide behind hong kong greek registries similar size marshallese flag convenience 200 ships carrying capacity lower malta ninth position worldwide 100 ships bahamas capacity representing 4 world fleet 12 growth year eleventh position cyprus registered 1,016 ships 2009 2.6 world tonnage remaining top 11 flags convenience antigua barbuda 20 bermuda 22 saint vincent grenadines 26 french international ship register fis number 27 bermuda fis fewer 200 ships apiece large average bermudan ship average fis ship way reference average capacity ships u.s. u.k. registers respectively registries antigua barbuda saint vincent grenadines 1,000 ships average capacity respectively remaining flags convenience listed itf account less 1 world dwt half world merchant ships measured tonnage registered flags convenience number common threads found criticisms flag convenience system one flag states insufficient regulations regulations poorly enforced another many cases flag state identify shipowner much less hold owner civilly criminally responsible ship actions result lack flag state control flags convenience criticized grounds enabling tax avoidance providing environment conducting criminal activities supporting terrorism providing poor working conditions seafarers adverse effect environment david cockroft former general secretary itf says panama largest maritime register followed liberia landlocked bolivia also major registry mongolia also registers based countries example panama consulates manage documentation collect registration fees liberia registry managed company virginia bahamas city london ship beneficial owner legally financially responsible ship activities number reasons justifiable suspicious shipowners wish conceal ownership may use number strategies achieve goal jurisidictions permit actual owners may establish shell corporations legal owners ships making difficult impossible track beneficial owner ship 2004 report un secretary general consultative group flag state implementation reported easy comparatively inexpensive establish complex web corporate entities provide effective cover identities beneficial owners want known according 2003 report organisation economic co-operation development oecd report entitled ownership control ships corporate structures often multi-layered spread across numerous jurisdictions make beneficial owner almost impenetrable law enforcement officials taxation report concludes regardless reasons cloak anonymity made available provided also assist may wish remain hidden engage illegal criminal activities including terrorists oecd report concludes use bearer shares perhaps single important perhaps widely used mechanism protect anonymity ship beneficial owner physically possessing bearer share accords ownership corporation requirement reporting transfer bearer shares every jurisdiction requires serial numbers even recorded two similar techniques provide anonymity ship beneficial owner nominee shareholders nominee directors jurisdictions require shareholder identities reported loophole may exist beneficial owner may appoint nominee shareholder nominee legally compelled reveal identity beneficial owner corporations required least one director however many jurisdictions allow nominee director nominee director name would appear corporate paperwork place beneficial owners like nominee shareholders jurisdictions compel nominee director divulge identity beneficial owners hurdle jurisdictions allow corporation named director flag convenience ships long linked crime high seas example 1982 honduras shut open registry operations enabled illegal traffic kinds given honduras bad name ships registered cambodia shipping corporation csc found smuggling drugs cigarettes europe breaking iraq oil embargo engaging human trafficking prostitution europe asia response activities 2000 ahamd yahya cambodian ministry public works transport told industry publication fairplay n't know care owns ships whether 're 'white 'black business ... concern less two years later french forces seized cambodian-flagged greek-owned mv winner cocaine smuggling shortly seizure cambodian prime minister hun sen closed registry foreign ships cambodia canceled contract csc shortly thereafter north korean flag convenience also garnered significant scrutiny 2003 north korean freighter pong su reflagged tuvalu middle voyage shortly seized australian authorities smuggling heroin country year thirteen nations began monitoring vessels north korean flag illicit cargos like drugs missiles nuclear weapon fuel accompanying material ilo maritime labour convention 2006 international labour organization estimated time approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across world document goes say working aboard ships flagged states exercise effective jurisdiction control ships seafarers often work unacceptable conditions detriment well-being health safety safety ships work international transport workers federation goes stating flags convenience provide means avoiding labor regulation country ownership become vehicle paying low wages forcing long hours work unsafe working conditions since foc ships real nationality beyond reach single national seafarers trade union also say ships low safety standards construction requirements enforce safety standards minimum social standards trade union rights seafarers frequently fail pay crews poor safety records engage practices abandoning crewmen distant ports flag convenience ships involved highest-profile oil spills history maltese-flagged bahamian-flagged marshallese-flagged deepwater horizon liberian-flagged ss torrey canyon common environmental criticism face regards illegal fishing critics flag convenience system argue many foc flag states lack resources properly monitor control vessels environmental justice foundation ejf contends illegal unreported unregulated fishing iuu vessels use flags convenience avoid fisheries regulations controls flags convenience help reduce operating costs associated illegal fishing methods help illegal operators avoid prosecution hide beneficial ownership result flags convenience perpetuate iuu fishing extensive environmental social economic impacts particularly developing countries ejf campaigning end granting flags convenience fishing vessels effective measure combat iuu fishing according franz fischler european union fisheries commissioner international regulations maritime industry promulgated agencies united nations particularly international maritime organization international labour organization flag states adopt regulations ships ratifying individual treaties one common criticism flag convenience countries allow shipowners avoid regulations ratifying important treaties failing enforce international chamber shipping ics issues annual report entitled shipping industry flag state performance table identifying six core conventions representing minimum level maritime regulation viewpoint shipowners solas marpol 66 stcw mlc clc/fund92 35 flag convenience countries listed itf ratified stcw convention concerning standards training certification watchkeeping seafarers 19 ratified six however least fourteen listed countries ratified remaining five conventions put context 60 flag states ratified six conventions including china united states america safety life sea solas load line 66 conventions focus shipboard safety issues originally developed response sinking rms titanic solas sets regulations lifeboats emergency equipment safety procedures including continuous radio watches updated include regulations ship construction fire protection systems life-saving appliances radio communications safety navigation management safe operation ships safety security concerns 66 sets standards minimum buoyancy hull stress ship fittings well establishing navigational zones extra precautions must taken international labour organization maritime labour convention 2006 provides comprehensive rights protection work seafarers including requirements minimum age qualifications hours work rest medical care complaint procedures wage payments onboard living arrangements mlc replaced number earlier ilo conventions including ilo147 marpol clc/fund92 relate pollution international convention prevention pollution ships 1973 marpol modified protocol 1978 including annexes i–vi regulates pollution ships including oil air pollution shipboard sewage garbage civil liability oil pollution damage clc international fund compensation oil pollution damage fund92 together provide mechanisms ensure compensation victims oil spills 1978 number european countries agreed hague audit labour conditions board vessels vis-a-vis rules international labour organization end 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou established setting port state control standards twenty-six european countries canada several regional memoranda understanding established based paris model including memorandum understanding port state control asia-pacific region typically referred tokyo mou organizations black sea caribbean indian ocean mediterranean latin america tokyo paris organizations generate based deficiencies detentions black- white- grey-lists flag states us coast guard handles port state control inspections us maintains similar target list underperforming flag states least thirteen thirty-five flags convenience listed itf targeted special enforcement countries paris tokyo mous u.s. coast guard united nations conference trade development 2009 report maritime trade states shipowners often register ships foreign flag order employ seafarers developing countries lower wages philippines china supply large percentage maritime labor general major flags convenience particular 2009 flag-states employing highest number expatriate-filipino seafarers panama bahamas liberia marshall islands year 150,000 filipino sailors employed four flags convenience 2006 study united states maritime administration marad sailors people republic china comprised 40 crews surveyed ships flying panamanian flag around 10 flying liberian flag marad report referred china philippines low cost crewing sources seafaring industry often divided two employment groups licensed mariners including deck officers marine engineers mariners required licenses able seamen cooks required certified latter group collectively known unlicensed mariners ratings differences wages seen groups high cost crewing sources united states low cost sources china philippines however salaries flag convenience ships still far higher median salaries non-seafarers countries addition income tax exemption seamen particularly philippines unlicensed mariners 2009 statistics american bureau labor statistics give median earnings able ordinary seamen us 35,810 varying 21,640 10th percentile 55,360 90th percentile compared 2006 statistics international labour organization giving average yearly earnings filipino chinese able seamen around 2,000 3,000 per year php9,900 per month cny3,071 per year among licensed mariners american chief engineers earned median 63,630 varying 35,030 109,310 filipino counterparts averaged 5,500 per year php21,342 per month Target text information: merchant_navy_(united_kingdom).merchant navy united kingdom merchant navy maritime register united kingdom comprises seagoing commercial interests uk-registered ships crews merchant navy vessels fly red ensign regulated maritime coastguard agency mca king george v bestowed title merchant navy british merchant shipping fleets following service first world war number nations since adopted title merchant navy existence significant period english british history owing growth trade imperial expansion dated back 17th century attempt made register seafarers source labour royal navy times conflict registration merchant seafarers failed successfully implemented 1835 merchant fleet grew successive years become world foremost merchant fleet benefiting considerably trade british possessions india far east lucrative trades sugar contraband opium china spices tea carried ships cutty sark helped entrench dominance 19th century first second world wars merchant service suffered heavy losses german u-boat attacks policy unrestricted warfare meant merchant seafarers risk attack enemy ships tonnage lost u-boats first world war around 7,759,090 tons around 14,661 merchant seafarers killed honour sacrifice made merchant seafarers first world war george v granted title merchant navy companies 1928 george v gave edward prince wales title master merchant navy fishing fleets retained accession throne january 1936 relinquished abdication december since edward viii title held sovereigns george vi elizabeth ii united kingdom british empire entered second world war september 1939 george vi issued message anxious days would like express officers men british merchant navy british fishing fleets confidence unfailing determination play vital part defence one would say task less essential people experience allotted navy army air force upon nation depends much foodstuffs raw materials transport troops overseas long glorious history proud bear title master merchant navy fishing fleets know carry duties resolution fortitude high chivalrous traditions calling safe hands god keep prosper great task second world war german u-boats sank nearly 14.7 million tons allied shipping amounted 2,828 ships around two thirds total allied tonnage lost united kingdom alone suffered loss 11.7 million tons 54 total merchant navy fleet outbreak second world war 32,000 merchant seafarers killed aboard convoy vessels war along royal navy convoys successfully imported enough supplies allow allied victory honour sacrifices made two world wars merchant navy lays wreaths remembrance alongside armed forces annual remembrance day service 11 november following many years lobbying bring official recognition sacrifices made merchant seafarers two world wars since merchant navy day became official day remembrance 3 september 2000 ensigns displayed stern vessel displayed gaff yardarm red ensigns defaced flown warrant onboard vessel house flags personal designed company displayed port halyard yardarm despite maintaining dominant position many decades decline british empire rise use flag convenience foreign competition led decline merchant fleet example 1939 merchant navy largest world 33 total tonnage 2012 merchant navy — yet still remaining one largest world — held 3 total tonnage 2010 merchant navy consisted 504 uk registered ships addition uk merchant marine interests possessed 308 ships registered countries 271 foreign-owned ships registered uk 2012 british merchant marine interests consisted 1,504 ships included ships either directly uk-owned parent-owned managed british company amounted alternatively according annual maritime shipping statistics provided british government department transport signatory stcw convention uk ships commanded deck officers engineering officers officers undergo 3 years training known cadetship one approved maritime colleges united kingdom include warsash maritime academy south tyneside college fleetwood plymouth university city glasgow college cadets usually choice two academic routes foundation degree higher national diploma successful completion results qualification marine operations marine engineering generally costs cadetship met sponsorship uk shipping company three years training cadets also go sea period year usually spread across cadetship affords practical education along academic time college prepares candidate separate final oral exam oral exam carried master mariner office maritime coastguard agency successful completion oral exam result award certificate competency international qualification issued uk government allows officer work qualified capacity onboard ship certificates issued different ranks officer usually return complete subsequent series studies reach highest qualification first uk deck officer certificates competency issued 1845 conducted final oral exam master mariner training regime officers set official syllabus merchant navy training board training still encompasses traditional trades celestial navigation ship stability general cargo seamanship includes training business legislation law computerisation deck officers marine engineering principles workshop technology steam propulsion motor diesel propulsion auxiliaries mechanics thermodynamics engineering drawing ship construction marine electrics well practical workshop training engineering officers historically person wishing become captain master prior 1973 five choices attend one three elite naval schools age 12 fixed-base hms conway hms worcester pangbourne nautical college would automatically lead apprenticeship seagoing cadet officer apply one several training programmes elsewhere go sea immediately applying directly merchant shipping company age 17 would three years prior training four years without seagoing experience aboard ship work-clothes mates deck crew direction bo'sun cleaning bilges chipping paint polishing brass cement washing freshwater tanks holystoning teak decks studying navigation seamanship bridge uniform direction officer taking exams become second mate historically composition crew uk ships diverse characteristic extant shipping companies trade extent british empire availability crew different ports one ship might largely british crew another might crew composed many indians chinese african sailors crews outside britain usually drawn areas ship traded far east trading ships either singapore hong kong crews banana boats west indian crews ships trading west africa southern africa african crews ships trading indian ocean including east africa crews indian subcontinent crews made recruits britain commonly used ships trading across north atlantic south america australia new zealand traditionally still ships crew run bosun overseen responsible deck officer usually chief mate ship may also different sub-departments galley radio department hospitality services overseen chief cook radio officer chief steward many roles changed ships crews become smaller commercial shipping ships radio department disappeared along radio officer colloquially known 'sparks replaced changes technology requirement stcw convention deck officers hold individual certification gmdss system electro-technical officers eto also serve aboard ships trained fix maintain complex systems number notable merchant navy personnel include members uk merchant navy awarded victoria cross george cross george medal distinguished service order distinguished service cross actions serving merchant navy canadian philip bent ex-british merchant navy joined british army outbreak world war victoria cross members merchant navy served either world war also received relevant campaign medals second world war many merchant navy members received king commendation brave conduct lloyd london awarded lloyd war medal bravery sea 541 merchant navy personnel bravery 1939–45 many royal humane society medals awards conferred merchant navy seafarers acts humanity war peacetime september 2016 uk government introduced merchant navy medal meritorious service medal awarded serving served merchant navy fishing fleets uk isle man channel islands exemplary service devotion duty rewarding set outstanding example others first state award meritorious service history merchant navy recipients must nominated someone least two written letters support normally required completed 20 years service merchant navy although exceptional circumstances may less british merchant navy consists various private shipping companies decades many companies come gone merged changed name changed owners british shipping represented nationally globally uk chamber shipping headquartered london list british shipping companies past present I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	8,311	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: alexandra_elbakyan.alexandra elbakyan alexandra asanovna elbakyan kazakhstani graduate student computer programmer described internet pirate hiding science pirate queen creator site sci-hub nature listed 2016 top ten people mattered science ars technica compared aaron swartz new york times compared edward snowden elbakyan born almaty kazakhstan 6 november 1988 armenian slavic asian descent elbakyan undertook university studies almaty developed skills computer hacking year working computer security moscow gave finances proceed freiburg 2010 work brain–computer interface project developed interest transhumanism led summer internship georgia institute technology united states studied neuroscience consciousness 2009 obtained bachelor science degree computer science kazakh national technical university specializing information security began sci-hub return kazakhstan 2011 characterised science correspondent john bohannon awe-inspiring act altruism massive criminal enterprise depending ask following lawsuit brought us publisher elsevier elbakyan presently hiding due risk extradition elsevier granted 15 million injunction according 2016 interview neuroscience research hold enrolled history science master ’ program small private university undisclosed location thesis focuses scientific communication december 2016 nature publishing group named alexandra elbakyan one 10 people mattered science 2016 elbakyan sci-hub involved lawsuit 2017 time american chemical society acs sued site copyright infringement contributory copyright infringement trademark counterfeiting trademark infringement conversion later year court ruled favor acs fining sci-hub 4,800,000 damages elbakyan stated inspired communist ideals although consider strict marxist stated supports strong state stand western world want scientists russia native kazakhstan share fates scientists iraq libya syria 'helped usa become democratic particular elbakyan strongly critical former dynasty foundation associated figures believing foundation politicized tied russia liberal opposition fit legal definition foreign agent dynasty founder opinion financed researchers whose political views agreed elbakyan states began investigate foundation activities published findings online became target cyberharassment campaign dynasty supporters 2017 species parasitoid wasps discovered russian mexican entomologists named elbakyan idiogramma elbakyanae elbakyan offended writing analyse situation scientific publications real parasites scientific publishers sci-hub contrary fights equal access scientific information following event context long-running tense relations liberal pro-western wing russian scientific community blocked access sci-hub users russian federation sci-hub access later restored russia elbakyan said interview many fans contacted convinced opinion so-called 'science popularizers attacked internet considered opinion scientific community russian entomologist responsible naming wasp stated supports sci-hub event naming insult particular parasitoids closer predators parasites elbakyan strong supporter open access movement claims sci-hub mission falls perfectly line movement argues websites like sci-hub part goal open access proponents striving towards elbakyan believes via open access movement citizens become informed 2018 elbakyan asked supporters sci-hub join local pirate party order fight copyright laws changed 1-hop neighbor's text information: free_license.free license free license open license license agreement contains provisions allow individuals reuse another creator work giving four major freedoms without special license uses normally prohibited copyright law commercial license free licenses worldwide royalty-free non-exclusive perpetual see copyright durations free licenses often basis crowdsourcing crowdfunding projects invention term free license focus rights users connected sharing traditions hacker culture 1970s public domain software ecosystem social political free software movement since 1980 open source movement since 1990s rights codified different groups organizations different domains free software definition open source definition debian free software guidelines definition free cultural works open definition definitions transformed licenses using copyright legal mechanism since ideas free/open licenses spread different spheres society open source free culture unified free open-source movement anticopyright wikimedia foundation projects public domain advocacy groups pirate parties connected free open licenses creative commons affiliates 100 jurisdictions world eupl created european union harald welte created gpl-violations.org 1-hop neighbor's text information: aaron_swartz.aaron swartz aaron hillel swartz november 8 1986january 11 2013 american computer programmer entrepreneur writer political organizer internet hacktivist involved development web feed format rss markdown publishing format organization creative commons website framework web.py co-founder social news site reddit given title co-founder combinator owner paul graham formation bug inc. merger swartz project infogami company run alexis ohanian steve huffman swartz work also focused civic awareness activism helped launch progressive change campaign committee 2009 learn effective online activism 2010 became research fellow harvard university safra research lab institutional corruption directed lawrence lessig founded online group demand progress known campaign stop online piracy act 2011 swartz arrested massachusetts institute technology mit police state breaking-and-entering charges connecting computer mit network unmarked unlocked closet setting download academic journal articles systematically jstor using guest user account issued mit federal prosecutors later charged two counts wire fraud eleven violations computer fraud abuse act carrying cumulative maximum penalty 1 million fines 35 years prison asset forfeiture restitution supervised release swartz declined plea bargain would served six months federal prison two days prosecution rejected counter-offer swartz found dead brooklyn apartment hanged 2013 swartz inducted posthumously internet hall fame swartz born highland park illinois suburb chicago eldest son jewish parents susan robert swartz brother noah benjamin father founded software firm mark williams company swartz immersed study computers programming internet internet culture attended north shore country day school small private school near chicago 9th grade swartz left high school 10th grade enrolled courses chicago area college 1999 13 years old created website theinfo.org collaborative online library theinfo.org made swartz winner arsdigita prize given young people create useful educational collaborative noncommercial websites age 14 became member working group authored rss 1.0 web syndication specification swartz attended stanford university dropped first year swartz first year stanford applied combinator first summer founders program proposing work startup called infogami designed flexible content management system allow creation rich visually interesting websites form wiki structured data working infogami co-founder simon carstensen summer 2005 aaron opted return stanford choosing instead continue develop seek funding infogami part work infogami swartz created web.py web application framework unhappy available systems python programming language early fall 2005 swartz worked fellow co-founders another nascent y-combinator firm reddit rewrite reddit lisp codebase using python web.py although infogami platform abandoned bug acquired infogami software used support internet archive open library project web.py web framework used basis many projects swartz many others infogami failed find funding y-combinator organizers suggested infogami merge reddit november 2005 resulting formation new firm bug devoted promoting products result merger swartz given title co-founder reddit although projects initially struggled gain traction reddit began make large gains popularity 2005 2006 october 2006 based largely success reddit bug acquired condé nast publications owner wired magazine swartz moved company san francisco work wired swartz found office life uncongenial ultimately left company september 2007 swartz joined infogami co-founder simon carstensen launch new firm jottit another attempt create another markdown driven content management system python 2008 swartz founded watchdog.net good government site teeth aggregate visualize data politicians year wrote widely circulated guerilla open access manifesto december 27 2010 swartz filed freedom information act foia request learn treatment chelsea manning alleged source wikileaks 2008 swartz downloaded 2.7 million federal court documents stored pacer public access court electronic records database managed administrative office united states courts huffington post characterized actions way swartz downloaded public court documents pacer system effort make available outside expensive service move drew attention fbi ultimately decided press charges documents fact public pacer charging 8 cents per page information carl malamud founded nonprofit group public.resource.org contended free federal documents covered copyright fees plowed back courts finance technology system ran budget surplus 150 million according court reports reported new york times pacer used technology designed bygone days screechy telephone modems ... putting nation legal system behind wall cash kludge malamud appealed fellow activists urging visit one 17 libraries conducting free trial pacer system download court documents send public distribution reading malamud call action swartz used perl computer script running amazon cloud servers download documents using credentials belonging sacramento library september 4 20 2008 accessed documents uploaded cloud computing service released documents malamud organization september 29 2008 gpo suspended free trial pending evaluation program swartz actions subsequently investigated fbi case closed two months charges filed swartz learned details investigation result filing foia request fbi described response usual mess confusions shows fbi lack sense humor pacer still charges per page customers using firefox option saving documents free public access plug-in called recap 2013 memorial swartz malamud recalled work pacer brought millions u.s. district court records behind pacer pay wall said found full privacy violations including medical records names minor children confidential informants malamud penned detailed account collaboration swartz pacer project essay appears website writing ars technica timothy lee later made use documents obtained swartz co-creator recap offered insight discrepancies reporting much data swartz downloaded back-of-the-envelope calculation days offsite crawl shut swartz guessed got around 25 percent documents pacer new york times similarly reported swartz downloaded estimated 20 percent entire database based facts swartz downloaded 2.7 million documents pacer time contained 500 million lee concluded swartz downloaded less one percent database 2009 wanting learn effective activism swartz helped launch progressive change campaign committee wrote blog spend days experimenting new ways get progressive policies enacted progressive politicians elected swartz led first activism event career progressive change campaign committee delivering thousands honor kennedy petition signatures massachusetts legislators asking fulfill former senator ted kennedy last wish appointing senator vote health care reform 2010 swartz co-founded demand progress political advocacy group organizes people online take action contacting congress leaders funding pressure tactics spreading word civil liberties government reform issues academic year 2010–11 swartz conducted research studies political corruption lab fellow harvard university edmond j. safra research lab institutional corruption author cory doctorow novel homeland drew advice swartz setting protagonist could use information available voters create grass-roots anti-establishment political campaign afterword novel swartz wrote political hacktivist tools used anyone motivated talented enough ... change system ... let know help swartz involved campaign prevent passage stop online piracy act sopa sought combat internet copyright violations criticized basis would made easier u.s. government shut web sites accused violating copyright would placed intolerable burdens internet providers following defeat bill swartz keynote speaker f2c freedom connect 2012 event washington d.c. may 21 2012 speech titled stopped sopa informed audience added fight everyone made hero story everyone took job save crucial freedom referring series protests bill numerous websites described electronic frontier foundation biggest internet history 115,000 sites altering webpages swartz also presented topic event organized thoughtworks swartz participated wikipedia august 2003 2006 ran unsuccessfully wikimedia foundation board trustees 2006 swartz wrote analysis wikipedia articles written concluded bulk actual content comes tens thousands occasional contributors outsiders made contributions site core group 500 1,000 regular editors tend correct spelling formatting errors according swartz formatters aid contributors way around conclusions based analysis edit histories several randomly selected articles contradicted opinion wikipedia co-founder jimmy wales believed core group regular editors providing content thousands others contributed formatting issues swartz came conclusions counting total number characters added editor particular article wales counted total number edits aaron swartz noted knowledge produced public universities financed us government graduate students released free public instead copyrighted benefits given authors privatized locked for-profit corporations invest public works instead earned billions us dollars year private publishers since publications repackaged academic databases university libraries pay thousands dollars subscribe students access content swartz used full text scholarly online databases jstor accessed mit network order download books journals etc produced thanks public funds paid money collected taxpayers according state federal authorities swartz used jstor digital repository download large number academic journal articles mit computer network course weeks late 2010 early 2011 time swartz research fellow harvard university provided jstor account visitors mit open campus authorized access jstor network authorities said swartz downloaded documents laptop connected networking switch controlled-access wiring closet mit door closet kept unlocked according press reports discovered video camera placed room film swartz swartz computer left untouched video captured swartz download stopped swartz identified rather pursue civil lawsuit june 2011 reached settlement wherein surrendered downloaded data september 25 2010 ip address 18.55.6.215 part mit network began sending hundreds pdf download requests per minute affecting performance entire jstor site prompted block ip address morning another ip address also within mit network began sending jstor pdf download requests resulting temporary full block firewall level mit servers entire 18.0.0.0/8 range email sent mit describing situation email sent september 29 2010 one jstor employee wrote mit july 30 2013 jstor released 300 partially redacted documents provided incriminating evidence aaron swartz documents originally sent united states attorney office response subpoenas case united states v. aaron swartz following images excerpts 3,461-page pdf document night january 6 2011 swartz arrested near harvard campus mit police united states secret service agent arraigned cambridge district court two state charges breaking entering intent commit felony july 11 2011 swartz indicted federal grand jury charges wire fraud computer fraud unlawfully obtaining information protected computer recklessly damaging protected computer november 17 2011 swartz indicted middlesex county superior court grand jury state charges breaking entering intent grand larceny unauthorized access computer network december 16 2011 state prosecutors filed notice dropping two original charges charges listed november 17 2011 indictment dropped march 8 2012 according spokesperson middlesex county prosecutor state charges dropped permit federal prosecution headed stephen p. heymann supported evidence provided secret service agent michael s. pickett proceed unimpeded september 12 2012 federal prosecutors filed superseding indictment adding nine felony counts increased swartz maximum criminal exposure 50 years imprisonment 1 million fines plea negotiations swartz attorneys prosecutors offered recommend sentence six months low-security prison swartz would plead guilty 13 federal crimes swartz lead attorney rejected deal opting instead trial prosecutors would forced justify pursuit swartz federal prosecution involved characterized numerous critics former nixon white house counsel john dean overcharging 13-count indictment overzealous prosecution alleged computer crimes brought former u.s. attorney massachusetts carmen ortiz swartz died suicide january 11 2013 death federal prosecutors dropped charges december 4 2013 due freedom information act suit investigations editor wired magazine several documents related case released secret service including video swartz entering mit network closet evening january 11 2013 swartz found dead brooklyn apartment partner taren stinebrickner-kauffman spokeswoman new york medical examiner reported hanged suicide note found swartz family partner created memorial website issued statement saying used prodigious skills programmer technologist enrich make internet world fairer better place days swartz funeral lawrence lessig eulogized friend sometime-client essay prosecutor bully decried disproportionality swartz prosecution said question government needs answer necessary aaron swartz labeled 'felon 18 months negotiations willing accept cory doctorow wrote aaron unbeatable combination political insight technical skill intelligence people issues think could revolutionized american worldwide politics legacy may still yet swartz funeral services held january 15 2013 central avenue synagogue highland park illinois tim berners-lee creator world wide web delivered eulogy day wall street journal published story based part interview stinebrickner-kauffman told journal swartz lacked money pay trial hard ... make part life go public asking help also distressed said two friends subpoenaed longer believed mit would try stop prosecution several memorials followed soon afterward january 19 hundreds attended memorial cooper union speakers included stinebrickner-kauffman open source advocate doc searls creative commons glenn otis brown journalist quinn norton roy singham thoughtworks david segal demand progress january 24 memorial internet archive speakers including stinebrickner-kauffman alex stamos brewster kahle carl malamud february 4 memorial held cannon house office building capitol hill speakers memorial included senator ron wyden representatives darrell issa alan grayson jared polis lawmakers attendance included senator elizabeth warren representatives zoe lofgren jan schakowsky memorial also took place march 12 mit media lab swartz family recommended givewell donations memory organization swartz admired collaborated sole beneficiary january 12 2013 swartz family partner issued statement criticizing prosecutors mit speaking son funeral january 15 robert swartz said aaron killed government mit betrayed basic principles tom dolan husband u.s. attorney massachusetts carmen ortiz whose office prosecuted swartz case replied criticism swartz family truly incredible son obit blame others death make mention 6-month offer comment triggered criticism esquire writer charlie pierce replied glibness husband defenders toss 'mere six months federal prison low-security indication something seriously whack way prosecutors think days mit maintains open-campus policy along open network two days swartz death mit president l. rafael reif commissioned professor hal abelson lead analysis mit options decisions relating swartz legal struggles help guide fact-finding stage review mit created website community members could suggest questions issues review address swartz attorneys requested pretrial discovery documents made public move mit opposed swartz allies criticized mit opposition releasing evidence without redactions july 26 2013 abelson panel submitted 182-page report mit president l. rafael reif authorized public release july 30 panel reported mit supported charges swartz cleared institution wrongdoing however report also noted despite mit advocacy open access culture institutional level beyond university never extended support swartz report revealed example mit considered possibility issuing public statement position case statement never materialized huffington post reported ortiz faced significant backlash pursuing case swartz including petition white house fired news outlets reported similarly reuters news agency called swartz online icon help ed make virtual mountain information freely available public including estimated 19 million pages federal court documents associated press ap reported swartz case highlights society uncertain evolving view treat people break computer systems share data enrich make available others jstor lawyer former u.s. attorney southern district new york mary jo white asked lead prosecutor drop charges discussed editor hrag vartanian hyperallergic brooklyn new york muralist bamn means necessary created mural swartz swartz amazing human fought tirelessly right free open internet artist explained much 'reddit guy speaking april 17 2013 yuval noah harari described swartz first martyr freedom information movement aaron swartz legacy reported strengthening open access scholarship movement illinois home state swartz influence led state university faculties adopt policies favor open access january 13 2013 members anonymous hacked two websites mit domain replacing tributes swartz called members internet community use death rallying point open access movement banner included list demands improvements u.s. copyright system along swartz guerilla open access manifesto night january 18 2013 mit e-mail system taken offline ten hours january 22 e-mail sent mit redirected hackers aush0k tibitximer korea advanced institute science technology traffic mit redirected computer harvard university publishing statement headed r.i.p aaron swartz text 2009 posting swartz accompanied chiptunes version star-spangled banner mit regained full control seven hours early hours january 26 2013 u.s sentencing commission website ussc.gov hacked anonymous home page replaced embedded youtube video anonymous operation last resort video statement said swartz faced impossible choice hacker downloaded hundreds thousands scientific-journal articles swiss publisher website republished open web swartz honor week first anniversary death swartz death 50,000 people signed online petition white house calling removal ortiz overreach case aaron swartz similar petition submitted calling prosecutor stephen heymann firing january 2015 two years swartz death white house declined petitions august 3 2013 swartz posthumously inducted internet hall fame hackathon held swartz memory around date birthday 2013 weekend november 8–10 2013 inspired swartz work life second annual hackathon held least 16 cities around world preliminary topics worked 2013 aaron swartz hackathon privacy software tools transparency activism access legal fixes low-cost book scanner january 2014 lawrence lessig led walk across new hampshire honor swartz rallying campaign finance reform 2017 turkish-dutch artist ahmet öğüt commemorated swartz work entitled information power people depicting bust long-time supporter open access swartz wrote guerilla open access manifesto supporters swartz responded news death effort called pdftribute promote open access january 12 eva vivalt development economist world bank began posting academic articles online using hashtag pdftribute tribute swartz scholars posted links works story aaron swartz exposed topic open access scientific publications wider audiences wake aaron swartz many institutions personalities campaigned open access scientific knowledge swartz death prompted calls open access scholarly data e.g. open science data think computer foundation center information technology policy citp princeton university announced scholarships awarded memory aaron swartz 2013 swartz posthumously awarded american library association james madison award outspoken advocate public participation government unrestricted access peer-reviewed scholarly articles march editor editorial board journal library administration resigned en masse citing dispute journal publisher routledge one board member wrote crisis conscience publishing journal open access death aaron swartz 2002 swartz stated died wanted contents hard drives made publicly available coalition consortium launched european research council continues fight aaron swartz make available 2020 scientific publications financed member states coalition several members u.s. house representatives – republican darrell issa democrats jared polis zoe lofgren – house judiciary committee raised questions regarding government handling case calling charges ridiculous trumped polis said swartz martyr whose death illustrated need congress limit discretion federal prosecutors speaking memorial swartz capitol hill issa said massachusetts democratic senator elizabeth warren issued statement saying aaron advocacy internet freedom social justice wall street reform demonstrated ... power ideas ... letter attorney general eric holder texas republican senator john cornyn asked basis u.s. attorney district massachusetts conclude office conduct 'appropriate prosecution mr. swartz way retaliation exercise rights citizen freedom information act issa chairs house committee oversight government reform announced would investigate justice department actions prosecuting swartz statement huffington post praised swartz work toward open government free access people issa investigation garnered bipartisan support january 28 2013 issa ranking committee member elijah cummings published letter u.s. attorney general holder questioning federal prosecutors filed superseding indictment february 20 wbur reported ortiz expected testify upcoming oversight committee hearing office handling swartz case february 22 associate deputy attorney general steven reich conducted briefing congressional staffers involved investigation told swartz guerilla open access manifesto played role prosecutorial decision-making congressional staffers left briefing believing prosecutors thought swartz convicted felony carrying least short prison sentence order justify filed case first place excoriating department justice department vengeance stinebrickner-kauffman told guardian doj erred relying swartz guerilla open access manifesto accurate indication beliefs 2010 longer single issue activist said lots things healthcare climate change money politics march 6 holder testified senate judiciary committee case good use prosecutorial discretion stinebrickner-kauffman issued statement reply repeating amplifying claims prosecutorial misconduct public documents wrote reveal prosecutor stephen heymann instructed secret service seize hold evidence without warrant ... lied judge fact written briefs ... withheld exculpatory evidence ... year violating legal ethical obligations turn evidence defense march 22 senator al franken wrote holder letter expressing concerns writing charging young man like mr. swartz federal offenses punishable 35 years federal imprisonment seems remarkably aggressive – particularly appears one principal aggrieved parties ... support criminal prosecution 2013 rep. zoe lofgren d-calif. introduced bill aaron law exclude terms service violations 1986 computer fraud abuse act wire fraud statute lawrence lessig wrote bill critically important change ... cfaa hook government bullying ... law would remove hook single line longer would felony breach contract professor orin kerr specialist nexus computer law criminal law wrote arguing precisely sort reform act years aclu called reform cfaa remove dangerously broad criminalization online activity eff mounted campaign reforms lessig inaugural chair lecture furman professor law leadership entitled aaron laws law justice digital age dedicated lecture swartz aaron law bill stalled committee brian knappenberger alleges due oracle corporation financial interest maintaining status quo fair access science technology research act fastr bill would mandate earlier public release taxpayer-funded research fastr described aaron law senator ron wyden d-ore. senator john cornyn r-tex introduced senate version 2013 2015 bill introduced house reps. zoe lofgren d-calif. mike doyle d-pa. kevin yoder r-kans. senator wyden wrote bill fastr act provides access taxpayer funded research never hidden behind paywall legislation passed helped prompt motion toward open access part us administration shortly bill original introduction office science technology policy directed federal agency 100 million annual conduct research development expenditures develop plan support increased public access results research funded federal government swartz featured received dedications numerous art work 2013 kenneth goldsmith dedicated printing internet exhibition swartz fate aaron swartz also featured conservative filmmaker dinesh d'souza 2014 documentary wherein d'souza compares swartz prosecution conviction violating campaign finance laws alleges cases exemplify selective overzealous prosecution also dedicated biographical films aaron january 11 2014 marking first anniversary death preview released internet boy story aaron swartz documentary swartz nsa sopa film officially released january 2014 sundance film festival democracy covered release documentary well swartz life legal case sprawling interview director brian knappenberger swartz father brother attorney documentary released creative commons license debuted theaters on-demand june 2014 mashable called documentary powerful homage aaron swartz debut sundance received standing ovation mashable printed help experts internet boy makes clear argument swartz unjustly became victim rights freedoms stood hollywood reporter described heartbreaking story tech wunderkind persecuted us government must-see anyone knows enough care way laws govern information transfer digital age october 2014 killswitch film featuring aaron swartz well lawrence lessig tim wu edward snowden received world premiere woodstock film festival award best editing film focuses swartz role advocating internet freedoms february 2015 killswitch invited screen capitol visitor center washington d.c. congressman alan grayson event held eve federal communications commission historic decision net neutrality congressman grayson lawrence lessig free press ceo craig aaron spoke swartz fight behalf free open internet event congressman grayson states killswitch one honest accounts battle control internet – access information richard von busack metro silicon valley writes killswitch lapidary use found footage side atomic café fred swegles orange county register remarks anyone values unfettered access online information apt captivated killswitch gripping fast-paced documentary kathy gill geekwire asserts killswitch much dry recitation technical history director ali akbarzadeh producer jeff horn writer chris dollar created human-centered story large part connection comes lessig relationship swartz patriot web independent biographical film aaron swartz written directed darius burke set released august 2019 amazon film limited video demand release december 2017 reelhouse january 2018 pivotshare another biographical film swartz think aaron developed hbo films swartz identified cofounder reddit title source controversy merger infogami reddit swartz became co-owner director parent company bug inc. along reddit cofounders steve huffman alexis ohanian swartz referred cofounder press investor paul graham recommended merger ohanian describes co-owner Target text information: copyright_alternatives.copyright alternatives various copyright alternatives alternative compensation systems acs proposed ways allow widespread reproduction digital copyrighted works still paying authors copyright owners works article discusses proposals involve form government intervention models street performer protocol voluntary collective licenses could arguably called alternative compensation systems although different generally less effective solving free rider problem impetus proposals come widespread use peer-to-peer file sharing networks authors argue acs simply practical response situation acs advocates go holding p2p file sharing fact greatly beneficial tax levy funded systems actually desirable tools paying artists sales coupled drm copy prevention technologies artistic freedom voucher afv proposal argues current copyright system providing state enforced monopoly leads enormous inefficiencies creates substantial enforcement problems afv proposed system individuals would allowed contribute refundable tax credit approximately 100 creative worker contribution would act voucher used support artistic creative work recipients afv contribution would turn required register government similar fashion religious charitable institutions tax-exempt status sole purpose registration would prevent fraud would evaluation quality work produced alongside registration artists would also ineligible copyright protection set period time 5 years example work contributed public domain allowed freely reproduced afv would affect creative workers ability receive funds via live performances proponents claim system could create 20 billion annually pay artists far greater currently flows copyrighted material 100 per adult voucher 500,000 writers musicians singers actors creative workers could paid 40,000 year baker also states realistic assume savings reduced expenditures copyrighted work would vastly exceed cost afv majority savings would come individuals deciding use afv supported work place copyrighted work well lower advertising costs afv material would public domain copyright enforcement demand would also decrease afv material increased assumptions made low end direct costs public copyrighted material would reduced around 20 percent high end way 60 percent time also likely savings would increase due lesser costs system brighter prospects 2010 article critical afv proposal graphic designer mark stanley writes like school vouchers flat tax pretenders afv assumes necessity state intervention tries bend liberty around strictures freedom ’ forgiving manipulation systematic restructuring copyright laws proposed afv far put practice concept paying artists donations tested success 2006 musician jeff rosenstock founded quote unquote records advertised first donation-based record label artists label make music available download free invite listeners make small donation want donations ticket sales live shows quote unquote records successfully recording music expanding number bands label past twelve years proposals included targeted levies internet connections blank cds digital media players etc many goods levied various countries existing private copying schemes income taxation optional payments users terms economic theory consumer opt regimes different universal ones depending scheme administered differences might large example default option isp subscribers pay acs surcharge could avoided filing signed commitment make unauthorised downloads p2p networks effects might quite similar scheme however unsuitable business owners maintain free internet connections incentive customers would responsibility business owner monitor customer internet use various proposals made base distribution royalties measures consumer downloading usage voting computer security issues addressed collecting data considerable privacy verifiability obstacles similar encountered internet voting may soluble hardware assistance currently available ordinary pcs practical way deploy acs short term would collect statistical samples much smaller population actual distribution royalties would likely carried copyright collecting society alternative compensation systems two significant advantages digital copyright impose artificial scarcity copyright works everyone download many songs ebooks films want economic terns acs eliminate deadweight loss copyright monopolies also avoid high technological social costs digital copyright enforcement two greatest drawbacks acses excess burden taxation collected need decide tax/levy rates use system although methods contingent valuation may help little question canada private copying levy unforeseen result temporarily creating acs kinds p2p downloading bmg v. doe dictum suggested also apply uploading dictum criticised appeal france december 2005 dadvsi amendments passed senate would created acs called global license amendments removed bill finally became law 2009 german social democratic party added proposal acs variant called cultural flat-rate party platform I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,752	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: socket_2.socket 2 socket 2 one series cpu sockets various x86 microprocessors inserted updated socket 1 added support pentium overdrive processors socket 2 238-pin low insertion force lif zero insertion force zif 19×19 pin grid array pga socket suitable 5-volt 25 66 mhz 486 sx 486 dx 486 dx2 486 overdrive 63 83 mhz pentium overdrive processors 1-hop neighbor's text information: socket_p.socket p intel socket p mpga478mn mobile processor socket replacement core microarchitecture chips core 2 duo launched may 9 2007 part santa rosa platform merom penryn processors front-side bus fsb cpus install socket p run 400 533 667 800 1066 mt/s adapting multiplier frequency cpu throttle save power given socket p cpus support eist except celeron support eist socket p 478 pins electrically pin-compatible socket socket 478 socket p also known 478-pin micro fcpga μfcpga-478 plastic grid printed mpga478mn 1-hop neighbor's text information: mini-itx.mini-itx mini-itx motherboard developed via technologies 2001 commonly used small-configured computer systems originally niche product designed fan-less cooling low power consumption architecture made useful home theater pc systems fan noise detract cinema experience four mounting holes mini-itx board line four holes atx-specification motherboards locations backplate expansion slot though one holes used optional earlier versions atx spec mini-itx boards therefore often used cases designed atx micro-atx atx variants desired design provides one expansion slot earlier motherboards conventionally standard 33 mhz 5v 32-bit pci slot many older case designs use riser cards even two-slot riser cards although two-slot riser cards compatible boards boards based around non-x86 processors 3.3v pci slot mini-itx 2.0 2008 boards pci-express ×16 slot boards compatible standard pci riser cards supplied older itx cases march 2001 chipset manufacturer via technologies released reference design itx motherboard promote low power c3 processor bought centaur technology combination chipsets designed robert kuo via chief r expert 215×191 mm vt6009 itx reference board demonstrated information pc set-top box configurations later designed mini-itx specification point manufacturers took itx design shuttle jetway etc produced many itx based cube computers manufactures instead produced smaller boards based similar 229×191 mm flexatx configuration october 2001 via announced decision create new motherboard division provide standardized infrastructure lower-cost pc iterations focus embedded devices result november 2001 release vt6010 mini-itx reference design touted information pc low cost entry level x86 computing platform manufacturers still reluctant customer response much receptive via decided manufacture sell boards april 2002 first mini-itx motherboards—via epia 5000 fanless 533 mhz eden processor epia 800 800 mhz c3 —were sold industrial customers enthusiasts soon noticed advantages small size low noise power consumption started push boundaries case modding something else—building computers nearly every object imaginable sometimes even creating new cases altogether hollowed vintage computers humidors toys electronics musical instruments even 1960s-era toaster become homes relatively quiet even silent mini-itx systems capable many tasks modern desktop pc mini-itx boards primarily appeal industrial embedded pc markets majority sold bulk components integrated finished system single-purpose computing applications produced much longer sales life-cycle consumer boards original epias still available quality industrial users typically require manufacturers prototype using standard cases power supplies build enclosures volumes get high enough typical applications include playing music supermarkets powering self-service kiosks driving content digital displays via continues expand mini-itx motherboard line earlier generations included original pl133 chipset boards dubbed classic boards cle266 chipset boards adding mpeg-2 acceleration cn400 boards added mpeg-4 acceleration second generation boards featured epia mii cl pd tc ms — tailored slightly different markets legacy via boards use x86-compatible cpus — c3 c7 low-power eden variants newer boards featuring via nano cpu launched may 2008 manufacturers also produced boards designed around layout using via also intel amd transmeta powerpc technology intel introduced line mini-itx boards atom cpu demonstrates significant increase processing performance without added power consumption older via c3 c7 offerings helps make design viable personal computers manufacturers saw potential design followed suit even limiting atom evidenced zotac geforce 9300-itx board supports core 2 duo cpus fsb frequencies 1333 mhz two separate-channeled 800 mhz memory slots fully functional pci express 2.0 x16 slot could connect sli onboard video new wave offerings made mini-itx much popular among home users hobbyists even overclockers intel currently one mini-itx mainboard manufacturers list mechanical dimensions manuals number manufacturers released mini-itx motherboards feature embedded cpus often mobile low-tdp versions processors designed draw minimal power resulting lower tdp ideal fanless passively cooled configurations embedded applications starting lga 775 socketed intel mini-itx motherboards released intel zotac followed lga 1156 motherboards starting lga 1155 mini-itx motherboards started become mainstream many different manufacturers releasing products partly almost sandy bridge ivy bridge intel celeron pentium core series cpus integrated processor graphics eliminating need motherboard graphics discrete graphics cards trend continues lga 1150 lga 1151 cpus due limitations mini-itx design physical size lga 2011 socket mini-itx motherboards socket support single pci express expansion slot require using narrow-ilm version lga 2011 socket despite manufacturers released lga 2011 based mini-itx motherboards also mini-itx motherboards lga 2066 socket released four sodimm slots number manufacturers released several socketed amd mini-itx motherboards supporting socket am2 socket am2+ socket am3 socket fm1 socket fm2 socket fm2+ socket am1 socket am4 cpus socket am2+ am3 itx motherboards integrated motherboard graphics discrete graphics processor integrated graphics required platforms mini-itx motherboards integrated amd cpus also released motherboards often use mobile cpus passive cooling feature powerful integrated graphics compared intel counterparts makes suitable htpc ibase made first transmeta-based mini-itx motherboard mb860 board uses transmeta™ efficeon™ processors run 1.2 ghz supports sodimm ddr modules capacities 1 gb onboard 16 mb ati m7 graphics controller supports 3d games graphical intensive programs provides four usb 2.0 ports realtek 8100c 10/100mbit/s baset ethernet optional 8110s gigabit ethernet controller first powerpc motherboards produced eyetech 2005 stopped activity 2005 company acube systems made new board sam440ep primarily amigaos market cadia networks developed mini itx arm board comes arm cortex-a8 freescale i.mx53 series cpu according official website board offers ultra-low power soc variety i/o os support android linux2.6 windows embedded compact 7 kontron also developed mini itx arm board according website features arm cortex-a9 quad core 900mhz processor neon technology nvidia graphics processor 2 gb ram targeted power consumption 7w entire board appliedmicro offers xc-1 server development platform motherboard uses x-gene armv8 system chip 8 2.4 ghz cpu cores supports 128 gb ddr3 dram using 16 gb dimms baseboard management controller mini-itx standard define standard computer power supply though suggests possible options conventionally mini-itx boards use 20- 24-pin original atx power connector usually connected dc-dc converter board connects external power adapter generally vendors provide power adapter dc-dc board case boards built dc-dc converters converters also made plug directly atx connector e.g picopsu either options avoids need mount separate dc-dc converter case saving space design effort boards using full-power intel amd cpus typically use atx12v 2.x connections require case appropriate power supply cooling power-hungry chips defined atx specification power supplies atx12v connector separate 12 volts rail must idle 12 volts rail Target text information: lga_1156.lga 1156 lga 1156 also known socket h h1 intel desktop cpu socket lga stands land grid array incompatible successor lga 1155 last processors supporting ceased production 2011 lga 1156 along lga 1366 designed replace lga 775 whereas lga 775 processors connect northbridge using front side bus lga 1156 processors integrate features traditionally located northbridge within processor lga 1156 socket allows following connections made processor rest system lga 1156 lga 1366 sockets processors discontinued sometime 2012 superseded lga 1155 lga 2011 respectively lga 1156 4 holes fastening heatsink motherboard placed square lateral length 75 mm configuration retained later lga 1155 lga 1150 lga 1151 sockets meaning cooling solutions generally interchangeable lga 1156 processors motherboards made date interoperable making possible switch celeron pentium core i3 core i5 integrated graphics core i5 core i7 without graphics however using chip integrated graphics p55 motherboard addition likely requiring bios update allow use on-board graphics processor likewise using chip without integrated graphics h55 h57 q57 motherboard allow use motherboard graphics ports desktop chipsets support lga 1156 intel h55 h57 p55 q57 server chipsets supporting socket intel 3400 3420 3450 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,417	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sitara_arm_processor.sitara arm processor sitara arm processor family developed texas instruments features arm9 arm cortex-a8 arm cortex-a9 arm cortex-a15 arm cortex-a53 application cores c66x dsp cores immaging multimedia acceleration cores industrial communication ip technology serve broad base applications development using sitara processors supported open source beagle community well texas instruments open source development community sitara arm processors available today include 1-hop neighbor's text information: i.mx.i.mx i.mx range family freescale semiconductor part nxp proprietary microcontrollers multimedia applications based arm architecture focused low-power consumption i.mx application processors socs system-on-chip integrate many processing units one die like main cpu video processing unit graphics processing unit instance i.mx products qualified automotive industrial consumer markets guaranteed production lifetime 10 15 years.many devices use i.mx processors ford sync kobo ereader amazon kindle zune except zune hd sony reader onyx boox readers/tablets solidrun som including cubox logitech harmony remote controls squeezebox radio toshiba gigabeat mp4 players i.mx range previously known dragonball mx family fifth generation dragonball microcontrollers i.mx originally stood innovative multimedia extension i.mx solutions consist hardware processors development boards software optimized processor launched 2001/2002 i.mx1x series based arm920t architecture i.mx2x series family processors based arm9 architecture arm926ej-s designed cmos 90 nm process i.mx21 family designed low power handheld devices launched 2003 i.mx27 family designed videotelephony video surveillance launched 2007 i.mx25 family launched 2009 especially integrates key security features hardware high-end member family i.mx258 integrates 400 mhz arm9 cpu platform lcdc lcd controller security block supports mddr-sdram 133 mhz i.mx233 processor formerly known sigmatel stmp3780 stmp37xx family launched 2009 integrates power management unit pmu stereo audio codec within silicon unique integration removes need external power management chip audio codec chip i.mx28 family launched 2010 especially integrates key security features hardware adc power management unit supports mddr lv-ddr2 ddr2-sdram 200 mhz i.mx3x series family processors based arm11 architecture arm1136jf-s mainly designed cmos 90 nm process i.mx31 launched 2005 integrates 532 mhz arm1136 cpu platform vector floating point unit l1 caches 128kb l2 caches video processing unit vpu 3d gpu opengl es 1.1 ipu security block supports mddr-sdram 133 mhz i.mx37 processor designed portable media players launched 2008 supports mddr-sdram 133 mhz i.mx35 family replacement i.mx31 launched 2009 high-end member family i.mx357 integrates 532 mhz arm1136 cpu platform vector floating point unit l1 caches 128kb l2 cache 2.5d gpu openvg 1.1 ipu security block supports ddr2-sdram 133 mhz i.mx5x series based arm cortex a8 core comprises two families i.mx51 family high-end multimedia devices like smartbook automotive infotainment i.mx50 family ereaders designed cmos 65 nm process models imageon z460 gpu high-end member family i.mx515 integrates 800 mhz arm cortex a8 cpu platform neon co-processor vector floating point unit l1 caches 256kb l2 cache multi-format hd 720p decode d1 encode hardware video codecs vpu video processing unit imageon 3d gpu opengl es 2.0 2.5d gpu openvg 1.1 ipu security block especially supports ddr2 sdram 200 mhz imx51 family launched 2009 i.mx508 processor result freescale collaboration e ink dedicated ereaders launched 2010 integrates e ink display controller within silicon save bom cost space pcb especially supports lp-ddr2 sdram 400 mhz i.mx535 announced june 2010 shipped since first quarter 2011 i.mx 6 series based arm cortex a9 solo dual quad cores cases cortex a7 typically comes one vivante gpus designed cmos 40 nm process i.mx 6 solo dual quad announced january 2011 consumer electronics show las vegas i.mx 7 series based low-power arm cortex a7 cpu core secondary arm cortex m4 real-time co-processor designed 28 nm fully depleted silicon-on-insulator fdsoi process far low-powered single dual-core models designed iot applications released i.mx 7solo i.mx 7dual announced september 2013 i.mx 8 series suffers poor naming convention three major different series series differs significantly pin compatible within series versions pin compatible series also suffix quad dual plus max combination thereof example quadmax dualplus i.mx 8 series many variants clear name corresponds feature set previous cpu series naming convention clearly corresponds function feature set case i.mx 8 i.mx 8 series announced september 2013 based armv8-a 64-bit cpu architecture nxp written i.mx 8 series designed driver information systems car computers applications released may 2016 i.mx 8 became available multisensory enablement kit mek based i.mx 8 slides nxp ftf found web indicated initial total 5 variants main level categorization dual quad varying cpu gpu capabilities cpu suggested include varying counts cortex-a72 cortex-a53 cortex-m4 gpu either 1 2 units vivante gc7000vx publications supported general image even including photos evaluation kit named multisensory enablement kit mek got later promoted development support product nxp i.mx 8 announced q1 2017 based around 3 products two variants include four cortex-a53 versions includes one two cortex-a72 cpu cores versions includes two cortex-m4f cpu cores i.mx 8 socs include vivante gc7000 series gpus quadplus using gc7000lite cores 'quadmax includes two full gc7000 gpus standard key features advanced security ethernet avb usb 3.0 phy mmc/sdio uart spi i²c i²s timers secure rtc media processor engine neon™ integrated power management nowiki /nowiki pre-production main features i.mx 8m series announced january 4 ces 2017 main features i.mx 8m mini nxp ’ first embedded multi-core heterogeneous applications processors built using advanced 14lpc finfet process technology i.mx 8m mini family processors brings together high-performance computing power efficiency enhanced system reliability embedded security needed drive growth fast-growing edge node computing streaming multimedia machine learning applications heart scalable core complex four arm cortex-a53 cores running 2 ghz plus cortex-m4 based real-time processing domain 400+mhz i.mx 8m mini core options optimized low-power offer breadth processing power necessary consumer audio industrial machine learning training inferencing across range cloud providers i.mx 8m mini also packs-in hardware 1080p video acceleration enable two-way video applications 2d 3d graphics provide rich visual hmi experience advanced audio capabilities enable audio-rich applications extensive selection high-speed interfaces enabling broader system connectivity targeting industrial level qualification i.mx 8m mini family may used general embedded consumer industrial application features i.mx 8x series announced march 14 2017 main features automotive market similar series currently using arm cortex-a53 and/or arm cortex-m4 cores got presented mid-2015 using prefix s32 freescale proposes layered approach software selection software components optimized chips i.mx board support packages bsp common across i.mx nodes consists kernel optimization hardware drivers unit tests company also provides portfolio multimedia codecs arm video processing unit accelerated i.mx solution also includes middleware reuse open source frameworks like multimedia framework plugins power management security/drm graphics opengl/openvg software solutions i.mx publicly available company website freescale i.mx development kits include linux software stack gnome mobile environment i.mx51 family reference user interface ubuntu last ubuntu version supported 10.04.1 still available mirrors ubuntu dropped official i.mx51 family support since version 10.10 since ubuntu 11.10 support i.mx53 quickstart board available preinstalled desktop server sd card openembedded linux distribution supports several i.mx platforms commercial linux support available companies like lanedo timesys montavista wind river systems mentor graphics support freescale i.mx51 added freebsd 2013-03-20 support members i.mx5 family added since support freescale i.mx 6 family added freebsd 2013-10-31 netbsd 6.0 comes support freescale i.mx51 version 7.0 support i.mx 6 based boards added support freescale i.mx 6 series soc added openbsd head 2013-09-06. i.mx support risc-os available since 2019 freescale i.mx development kits include wince february 2010 freescale launched android platform i.mx5x family early 2010 freescale demoed chromium os running i.mx515 processor company disclosed plans chromium chrome freescale range partners providing real-time operating systems software solutions running i.mx processors trinity convergence adeneo thundersoft intrinsyc wind river systems qnx green hills mentor graphics wolfssl includes support i.mx6 following versions including wolfssl v3.14.0 wolfssl also provides additional support using cryptographic assistance assurance module caam i.mx6 january 2010 freescale announced first platform smart application blueprint rapid engineering sabre series smartbook tablet form factor 7 touch screen resistive running i.mx515 february 2010 freescale demoed sabre platform ereaders based i.mx515 many reference boards mentioned supported freescale i.mx community website include 1-hop neighbor's text information: stm32.stm32 stm32 family 32-bit microcontroller integrated circuits stmicroelectronics stm32 chips grouped related series based around 32-bit arm processor core cortex-m33f cortex-m7f cortex-m4f cortex-m3 cortex-m0+ cortex-m0 internally microcontroller consists processor core static ram flash memory debugging interface various peripherals stm32 family microcontroller ics based 32-bit risc arm cortex-m33f cortex-m7f cortex-m4f cortex-m3 cortex-m0+ cortex-m0 cores stmicroelectronics licenses arm processor ip arm holdings arm core designs numerous configurable options st chooses individual configuration use design st attaches peripherals core converting design silicon die following tables summarize stm32 microcontroller families stm32 third arm family stmicroelectronics follows earlier str9 family based arm9e core str7 family based arm7tdmi core following history stm32 family evolved stm32 family consists ten series microcontrollers h7 f7 f4 f3 f2 f1 f0 l4 l1 l0 stm32 microcontroller series based upon either cortex-m7f cortex-m4f cortex-m3 cortex-m0+ cortex-m0 arm processor core cortex-m4f conceptually cortex-m3 plus dsp single-precision floating point instructions stm32 h7-series group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m7f core stm32 f7-series group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m7f core many f7 series pin-to-pin compatible stm32 f4-series core stm32 f4-series first group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m4f core f4-series also first stm32 series dsp floating point instructions f4 pin-to-pin compatible stm32 f2-series adds higher clock speed 64 kb ccm static ram full duplex i²s improved real-time clock faster adcs summary series stm32 f3-series second group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m4f core f3 almost pin-to-pin compatible stm32 f1-series summary series distinguishing feature series presence four fast 12-bit simultaneous sampling adcs multiplexer 30 channels four matched 8 mhz bandwidth op-amps pins exposed additionally internal pga programmable gain array network exposed pads allow range analog signal conditioning circuits like band-pass filters anti-alias filters charge amplifiers integrators/differentiators 'instrumentation high-gain differential inputs eliminates need external op-amps many applications built-in two-channel dac arbitrary waveform well hardware-generated waveform sine triangle noise etc capability analog devices completely independent partially internally connected meaning one nearly everything needed advanced measurement sensor interfacing system single chip four adcs simultaneously sampled making wide range precision analog control equipment possible also possible use hardware scheduler multiplexer array allowing good timing accuracy sampling 4 channels independent main processor thread sampling multiplexing trigger controlled variety sources including timers built-in comparators allowing irregular sampling intervals needed op-amps inputs feature 2-to-1 analog multiplexer allowing total eight analog channels pre-processed using op-amp op-amp outputs internally connected adcs stm32 f2-series stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m3 core recent fastest cortex-m3 series f2 pin-to-pin compatible stm32 f4-series summary series stm32 f1-series first group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m3 core considered mainstream arm microcontrollers f1-series evolved time increasing cpu speed size internal memory variety peripherals five f1 lines connectivity stm32f105/107 performance stm32f103 usb access stm32f102 access stm32f101 value stm32f100 summary series stm32 f0-series first group arm cortex-m0 chips stm32 family summary series stm32 g0-series lower power alternative l0 series stm32 l5-series evolution stm32l-series ultra-low power microcontrollers stm32 l4-series evolution stm32l1-series ultra-low power microcontrollers example l4 mcu stm32l432kc ufqfpn32 package stm32 l1-series first group stm32 microcontrollers primary goal ultra-low power usage battery-powered applications summary series stm32 l0-series first group stm32 microcontrollers based arm cortex-m0+ core series targets low power applications summary series stm32 w-series arm chips primary feature targeting rf communication applications summary series stmicroelectronics provides selection stm32 microcontrollers ready used java programming language special series embeds required features execute java programs based existing stm32 f1 f2 f4 f0 l0 families two sets special part numbers enabled java production part numbers end letter j sample part numbers end letter u following arduino header-compatible boards stm32 microcontrollers nucleo boards see next section also arduino headers nucleo boards stmicroelectronics support mbed ide development additional onboard st-link/v2-1 host adapter chip supplies swd debugging virtual com port mass storage three nucleo board families supporting different microcontroller ic package footprint debugger embedded nucleo boards converted segger j-link debugger protocol following discovery evaluation boards sold stmicroelectronics provide quick easy way engineers evaluate microcontroller chips kits available various distributors less us 20 stmicroelectronics evaluation product licence agreement forbids use production system product offered sale board includes on-board st-link programming debugging via mini-b usb connector power board provided choice 5 v via usb cable external 5 v power supply used output power supplies 3 v 5 v current must less 100 discovery boards also include voltage regulator reset button user button multiple leds swd header top board rows header pins bottom open-source project created allow linux communicate st-link debugger chibios/rt free rtos ported run discovery boards. ref name= getting started stm32vl-discovery board chibios/rt getting started stm32vl-discovery board chibios/rt /ref ref name= getting started stm32l-discovery board chibios/rt getting started stm32l-discovery board chibios/rt /ref ref name= getting started stm32f4-discovery board chibios/rt getting started stm32f4-discovery board chibios/rt /ref following evaluation kits sold stmicroelectronics ready-to-use java development kits stm32 microcontrollers stm3220g-java starter kit combines evaluation version is2t microej® software development kit sdk stm32f2 series microcontroller evaluation board providing everything engineers need start projects microej provides extended features create simulate test deploy java applications embedded systems support graphical user interface gui development includes widget library design tools including storyboarding tools customizing fonts stm32 microcontrollers embed java part number ends j like stm32f205vgt6j following evaluation kits sold partners stmicroelectronics listed st website stm32 microcontrollers rom'ed bootloader supports loading binary image flash memory using one peripherals varies stm32 family since stm32 bootloaders support loading usart peripheral boards connect usart rs-232 usb-to-uart adapter ic thus universal method program stm32 microcontroller method requires target way enable/disable booting rom'ed bootloader i.e jumper switch button amount documentation arm chips daunting especially newcomers documentation microcontrollers past decades would easily inclusive single document chips evolved documentation grown total documentation especially hard grasp arm chips since consists documents ic manufacturer stmicroelectronics documents cpu core vendor arm holdings typical top-down documentation tree manufacturer website manufacturer marketing slides manufacturer datasheet exact physical chip manufacturer detailed reference manual describes common peripherals aspects physical chip family arm core generic user guide arm core technical reference manual arm architecture reference manual describes instruction set stmicroelectronics additional documents evaluation board user manuals application notes getting started guides software library documents errata see external links section links official stm32 arm documents stm32f051r8 br stm32xxwwyz Target text information: actel_smartfusion.actel smartfusion smartfusion family microcontrollers integrated fpga actel device includes arm cortex-m3 hard processor core 512kb flash 64kb ram analog peripherals multi-channel adc dacs addition flash-based fpga fabric actel also sells two development boards include smartfusion chip one smartfusion evaluation kit low cost board smartfusion a2f200 sold 99 another smartfusion development kit fully featured board smartfusion a2f500 sold 999 amount documentation arm chips daunting especially newcomers documentation microcontrollers past decades would easily inclusive single document chips evolved documentation grown total documentation especially hard grasp arm chips since consists documents ic manufacturer actel documents cpu core vendor arm holdings typical top-down documentation tree manufacturer website manufacturer marketing slides manufacturer datasheet exact physical chip manufacturer detailed reference manual describes common peripherals aspects physical chip family arm core generic user guide arm core technical reference manual arm architecture reference manual describes instruction set actel additional documents evaluation board user manuals application notes getting started guides software library documents errata see external links section links official stm32 arm documents I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,374	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: common_vulnerabilities_and_exposures.common vulnerabilities exposures common vulnerabilities exposures cve system provides reference-method publicly known information-security vulnerabilities exposures national cybersecurity ffrdc operated mitre corporation maintains system funding national cyber security division united states department homeland security security content automation protocol uses cve cve ids listed mitre system well us national vulnerability database mitre corporation documentation defines cve identifiers also called cve names cve numbers cve-ids cves unique common identifiers publicly known information-security vulnerabilities publicly released software packages historically cve identifiers status candidate can- could promoted entries cve- however practice ended time ago identifiers assigned cves assignment cve number guarantee become official cve entry e.g cve may improperly assigned issue security vulnerability duplicates existing entry cves assigned cve numbering authority cna three primary types cve number assignments investigating vulnerability potential vulnerability helps acquire cve number early cve numbers may appear mitre nvd cve databases time days weeks months potentially years due issues embargoed cve number assigned issue made public cases entry researched written mitre due resource issues benefit early cve candidacy future correspondence refer cve number information getting cve identifiers issues open source projects available red hat cves software publicly released include betas pre-release versions widely used commercial software included publicly released category however custom-built software distributed would generally given cve additionally services e.g web-based email provider assigned cves vulnerabilities found service e.g xss vulnerability unless issue exists underlying software product publicly distributed cve database contains several fields standardized text description issue one common entry means entry number reserved mitre issue cna reserved number case cna requests block cve numbers advance e.g red hat currently requests cves blocks 500 cve number marked reserved even though cve may assigned cna time cve assigned mitre made aware i.e. embargo passes issue made public mitre researched issue written description entries show reserved list urls information date entry created cves assigned directly mitre date mitre created cve entry cves assigned cnas e.g microsoft oracle hp red hat etc also date created mitre cna case cna requests block cve numbers advance e.g red hat currently requests cves blocks 500 entry date cve assigned cna following fields previously used older cve records longer used order support cve id beyond cve-year-9999 aka cve10k problem change made cve syntax 2014 took effect jan 13 2015 new cve-id syntax variable length includes cve prefix year arbitrary digits note variable length arbitrary digits begin four 4 fixed digits expand arbitrary digits needed calendar year example cve-yyyy-nnnn needed cve-yyyy-nnnnn cve-yyyy-nnnnnn also means changes needed previously assigned cve-ids include minimum 4 digits cve attempts assign one cve per security issue however many cases would lead extremely large number cves e.g several dozen cross-site scripting vulnerabilities found php application due lack use codice_1 insecure creation files codice_2 deal guidelines subject change cover splitting merging issues distinct cve numbers general guideline one first consider issues merged issues split type vulnerability e.g buffer overflow vs. stack overflow software version affected e.g one issue affects version 1.3.4 2.5.4 affects 1.3.4 2.5.8 would split reporter issue e.g alice reports one issue bob reports another issue issues would split separate cve numbers another example alice reports /tmp file creation vulnerability version 1.2.3 earlier examplesoft web browser addition issue several codice_2 file creation issues found cases may considered two reporters thus split two separate cves alice works examplesoft examplesoft internal team finds rest may merge'ed single cve conversely issues merged e.g bob finds 145 xss vulnerabilities exampleplugin exampleframework regardless versions affected may merged single cve mitre cve database searched cve list search nvd cve database searched search cve cce vulnerability database cve identifiers intended use respect identifying vulnerabilities common vulnerabilities exposures cve dictionary common names i.e. cve identifiers publicly known information security vulnerabilities cve ’ common identifiers make easier share data across separate network security databases tools provide baseline evaluating coverage organization ’ security tools report one security tools incorporates cve identifiers may quickly accurately access fix information one separate cve-compatible databases remediate problem users assigned cve identifier vulnerability encouraged ensure place identifier related security reports web pages emails 1-hop neighbor's text information: extensible_configuration_checklist_description_format.extensible configuration checklist description format extensible configuration checklist description format xccdf xml format specifying security checklists benchmarks configuration documentation xccdf development pursued nist nsa mitre corporation us department homeland security xccdf intended serve replacement security hardening analysis documentation written prose xccdf used security content automation protocol 1-hop neighbor's text information: federal_desktop_core_configuration.federal desktop core configuration federal desktop core configuration list security settings recommended national institute standards technology general-purpose microcomputers connected directly network united states government agency fdcc list agreed upon microsoft windows operating system common core system functions applications files services changed configuration around framework secure security-reliable ms windows operating system created standards made mandatory every federal government computer effective feb 1 2008 wanted connect federal office computer network system meet exceed fdcc standard denied access fdcc applied windows xp vista desktop laptop computers replaced united states government configuration baseline usgcb included settings windows 7 red hat enterprise linux 5 windows 7 nist changed naming convention us government computer baseline usgcb ver 2.0 addition un-classifying general windows settings guide nist also publishes guides specifically windows firewall internet explorer guide vista-energy example created capture settings adhere energy conservation policies 20 march 2007 office management budget issued memorandum instructing united states government agencies develop plans using microsoft windows xp vista security configurations united states air force common security configurations windows xp proposed early model standards could developed fdcc baseline developed maintained national institute standards technology collaboration omb dhs doi disa nsa usaf microsoft input public comment applies windows xp professional vista systems only—these security policies tested according nist work windows 9 x /me/nt/2000 windows server 2003 major version 1.1 released 31 october 2008 new changed settings expanded scap reporting options previous versions standard applicable general-purpose workstations laptops end users windows xp vista systems use servers exempt standard also exempt embedded computers special purpose systems defined specialized scientific medical process control experimental systems though still recommends fdcc security configuration considered feasible appropriate fdcc settings generally speaking block open connections operating systems disables functions disables rarely used applications soho environment disables unnecessary services changes permissions items changes way log files collected recorded affects group policy object gpo settings alters entries windows system registry infoweek introduced fdcc mostly administrators engineers article titled ‘ feds ’ allow ’ written kelly jackson higgins darkreading.com published february 4 2008 due complexity guidelines response initially slow implementation took time settings internally researched government enterprise implementation techs nist nsa published guidelines hundreds-of-page texts introduced called scap files applications see wikipedia scap page windows platform built easy interoperability networking therefore left opportunities within operating systems types auto- semi-automatic connections computers ’ flaws programming mistakes purposefully built way example found looking windows remote connection program enabled default typical windows operating system installation fdcc/usgcb configuration instance reverses setting manually re-enable allow remote connections organizations required document fdcc compliance using scap tools 600+ settings average fdcc/usgcb document – usable average small home office soho computer instance released 20 june 2008 fdcc major version 1.0 specifies 674 settings example wireless interfaces disabled recognition recommended settings practical every system exceptions authorized enterprise wireless networks made documented fdcc deviation report strict implementation recommended settings known cause usability issues nist publishes list known issues found nowiki https //usgcb.nist.gov/usgcb/microsoft_content.html /nowiki third-party software vendors emerged claim tested settings soho environment however time general public still remains relatively unaware fdcc usgcb security settings developed put forward nist Target text information: security_content_automation_protocol.security content automation protocol security content automation protocol scap method using specific standards enable automated vulnerability management measurement policy compliance evaluation systems deployed organization including e.g. fisma compliance national vulnerability database nvd u.s. government content repository scap example implementation scap openscap guard security threats organizations need continuously monitor computer systems applications deployed incorporate security upgrades software deploy updates configurations security content automation protocol scap pronounced ess-cap comprises number open standards widely used enumerate software flaws configuration issues related security applications conduct security monitoring use standards measuring systems find vulnerabilities offer methods score findings order evaluate possible impact scap suite specifications standardize nomenclature formats used automated vulnerability management measurement policy compliance products vendor computer system configuration scanner get product validated scap demonstrating interoperate scanners express scan results standardized way scap defines following standards referred scap 'components combined starting scap version 1.0 july 2010 starting scap version 1.1 february 2011 starting scap version 1.2 september 2011 security content automation protocol scap checklists standardize enable automation linkage computer security configurations nist special publication 800-53 sp 800-53 controls framework current version scap meant perform initial measurement continuous monitoring security settings corresponding sp 800-53 controls future versions likely standardize enable automation implementing changing security settings corresponding sp 800-53 controls way scap contributes implementation assessment monitoring steps nist risk management framework accordingly scap forms integral part nist fisma implementation project scap validation program tests ability products employ scap standards nist national voluntary laboratory accreditation program nvlap accredits independent laboratories program perform scap validations vendor seeking validation product contact nvlap accredited scap validation laboratory assistance validation process customer subject fisma requirements wants use security products tested validated scap standard independent third party laboratory visit scap validated products web page verify status product considered I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	635	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_power_instruction_set_architecture.ibm power instruction set architecture ibm power isa reduced instruction set computer risc instruction set architecture isa developed ibm name acronym performance optimization enhanced risc isa used base high end microprocessors ibm 1990s used many ibm servers minicomputers workstations supercomputers processors called power1 rios-1 rios.9 rsc rad6000 power2 power2 power2+ p2sc isa evolved powerpc instruction set architecture deprecated 1998 ibm introduced power3 processor mainly 32/64 bit powerpc processor included power isa backwards compatibility power isa abandoned ibm continues develop powerpc microprocessor cores use application-specific integrated circuit asic offerings many high volume applications embed powerpc cores 1974 ibm started project design objective creating large telephone-switching network potential capacity deal least 300 calls per second projected 20,000 machine instructions would required handle call maintaining real-time response processor performance 12 mips deemed necessary requirement extremely ambitious time realised much complexity contemporary cpus could dispensed since machine would need perform i/o branches add register-register move data registers memory would need special instructions perform heavy arithmetic simple design philosophy whereby step complex operation specified explicitly one machine instruction instructions required complete constant time would later come known risc 1975 telephone switch project canceled without prototype estimates simulations produced project first year however looked processor designed project could promising general-purpose processor work continued thomas j. watson research center building 801 801 project two years watson research center superscalar limits 801 design explored feasibility implementing design using multiple functional units improve performance similar done ibm system/360 model 91 cdc 6600 although model 91 based cisc design determine risc machine could maintain multiple instructions per cycle design changes need made 801 design allow multiple-execution-units increase performance cheetah separate branch fixed-point floating-point execution units many changes made 801 design allow multiple-execution-units cheetah originally planned manufactured using bipolar emitter-coupled logic ecl technology 1984 complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor cmos technology afforded increase level circuit integration improving transistor-logic performance 1985 research second-generation risc architecture started ibm thomas j. watson research center producing america architecture 1986 ibm austin started developing rs/6000 series based architecture february 1990 first computers ibm incorporate power instruction set called risc system/6000 rs/6000 rs/6000 computers divided two classes workstations servers hence introduced powerstation powerserver rs/6000 cpu 2 configurations called rios-1 rios.9 commonly power1 cpu rios-1 configuration total 10 discrete chips instruction cache chip fixed-point chip floating-point chip 4 data cache chips storage control chip input/output chips clock chip lower cost rios.9 configuration 8 discrete chips instruction cache chip fixed-point chip floating-point chip 2 data cache chips storage control chip input/output chip clock chip single-chip implementation rios rsc risc single chip developed lower-end rs/6000 first machines using rsc released 1992 ibm started power2 processor effort successor power1 two years creation 1991 apple/ibm/motorola alliance austin texas despite impacted diversion resources jump start apple/ibm/motorola effort power2 took five years start system shipment adding second fixed-point unit second floating point unit performance enhancements design power2 leadership performance announced november 1993 new instructions also added instruction set support rs/6000 rs/6000 sp2 product lines 1996 ibm design team implement single-chip version power2 p2sc power2 super chip outside apple/ibm/motorola alliance ibm advanced dense cmos-6s process p2sc combined separate power2 instruction cache fixed point floating point storage control data cache chips onto one huge die time introduction p2sc largest highest transistor count processor industry despite challenge size complexity advanced cmos process first tape-out version processor able shipped leadership floating point performance time announced p2sc processor used 1997 ibm deep blue chess playing supercomputer beat chess grandmaster garry kasparov twin sophisticated maf floating point units huge wide low latency memory interfaces p2sc primarily targeted engineering scientific applications p2sc eventually succeeded power3 included 64-bit smp capability full transition powerpc addition p2sc sophisticated twin maf floating point units power design descended directly 801 cpu widely considered first true risc processor design 801 used number applications inside ibm hardware time pc/rt released ibm started america project design powerful cpu market interested primarily fixing two problems 801 design floating point became focus america project ibm able use new algorithms developed early 1980s could support 64-bit double-precision multiplies divides single cycle fpu portion design separate instruction decoder integer parts allowing decoder send instructions fpu alu integer execution units time ibm complemented complex instruction decoder could fetching one instruction decoding another sending one alu fpu time resulting one first superscalar cpu designs use system used 32 32-bit integer registers another 32 64-bit floating point registers unit branch unit also included number private registers use including program counter another interesting feature architecture virtual address system maps addresses 52-bit space way applications share memory flat 32-bit space programs different blocks 32 bits appendix e book powerpc user instruction set architecture powerpc architecture book version 2.02 describes differences power power2 instruction set architectures version powerpc instruction set architecture implemented power5 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsequencer.microsequencer computer architecture engineering sequencer microsequencer generates addresses used step microprogram control store used part control unit cpu stand-alone generator address ranges usually addresses generated combination counter field microinstruction subset instruction register counter used typical case next microinstruction one execute field microinstruction used jumps logic since cpus implement instruction set useful able decode instruction bits directly sequencer select set microinstructions perform cpu instructions modern cisc processors use combination pipelined logic process lower complexity opcodes completed one clock cycle microcode implement ones take multiple clock cycles complete one first integrated microcoded processors ibm palm processor emulated processor instruction microcode used ibm 5100 one first personal computers recent examples similar microsequencer-based processors microcore labs mcl86 mcl51 mcl65 cores emulate intel 8086/8088 8051 mos 6502 instruction sets entirely microcode 1-hop neighbor's text information: datapath.datapath datapath collection functional units arithmetic logic units multipliers perform data processing operations registers buses along control unit composes central processing unit cpu larger datapath made joining one number datapaths using multiplexer late 1990s growing research area reconfigurable datapaths—datapaths may re-purposed run-time using programmable fabric—as designs may allow efficient processing well substantial power savings Target text information: arithmetic_logic_unit.arithmetic logic unit arithmetic logic unit alu combinational digital electronic circuit performs arithmetic bitwise operations integer binary numbers contrast floating-point unit fpu operates floating point numbers alu fundamental building block many types computing circuits including central processing unit cpu computers fpus graphics processing units gpus single cpu fpu gpu may contain multiple alus inputs alu data operated called operands code indicating operation performed alu output result performed operation many designs alu also status inputs outputs convey information previous operation current operation respectively alu external status registers alu variety input output nets electrical conductors used convey digital signals alu external circuitry alu operating external circuits apply signals alu inputs response alu produces conveys signals external circuitry via outputs basic alu three parallel data buses consisting two input operands b result output data bus group signals conveys one binary integer number typically b bus widths number signals comprising bus identical match native word size external circuitry e.g. encapsulating cpu processor opcode input parallel bus conveys alu operation selection code enumerated value specifies desired arithmetic logic operation performed alu opcode size bus width determines maximum number different operations alu perform example four-bit opcode specify sixteen different alu operations generally alu opcode machine language opcode though cases may directly encoded bit field within machine language opcode status outputs various individual signals convey supplemental information result current alu operation general-purpose alus commonly status signals end alu operation status output signals usually stored external registers make available future alu operations e.g. implement multiple-precision arithmetic controlling conditional branching collection bit registers store status outputs often treated single multi-bit register referred status register condition code register status inputs allow additional information made available alu performing operation typically single carry-in bit stored carry-out previous alu operation alu combinational logic circuit meaning outputs change asynchronously response input changes normal operation stable signals applied alu inputs enough time known propagation delay passed signals propagate alu circuitry result alu operation appears alu outputs external circuitry connected alu responsible ensuring stability alu input signals throughout operation allowing sufficient time signals propagate alu sampling alu result general external circuitry controls alu applying signals inputs typically external circuitry employs sequential logic control alu operation paced clock signal sufficiently low frequency ensure enough time alu outputs settle worst-case conditions example cpu begins alu addition operation routing operands sources usually registers alu operand inputs control unit simultaneously applies value alu opcode input configuring perform addition time cpu also routes alu result output destination register receive sum alu input signals held stable next clock allowed propagate alu destination register cpu waits next clock next clock arrives destination register stores alu result since alu operation completed alu inputs may set next alu operation number basic arithmetic bitwise logic functions commonly supported alus basic general purpose alus typically include operations repertoires alu shift operations cause operand b shift left right depending opcode shifted operand appears simple alus typically shift operand one bit position whereas complex alus employ barrel shifters allow shift operand arbitrary number bits one operation single-bit shift operations bit shifted operand appears carry-out value bit shifted operand depends type shift integer arithmetic computations multiple-precision arithmetic algorithm operates integers larger alu word size algorithm treats operand ordered collection alu-size fragments arranged most-significant ms least-significant ls vice versa example case 8-bit alu 24-bit integer codice_1 would treated collection three 8-bit fragments codice_2 ms codice_3 codice_4 ls since size fragment exactly matches alu word size alu directly operate piece operand algorithm uses alu directly operate particular operand fragments thus generate corresponding fragment partial multi-precision result partial generated written associated region storage designated multiple-precision result process repeated operand fragments generate complete collection partials result multiple-precision operation arithmetic operations e.g. addition subtraction algorithm starts invoking alu operation operands ls fragments thereby producing ls partial carry bit algorithm writes partial designated storage whereas processor state machine typically stores carry bit alu status register algorithm advances next fragment operand collection invokes alu operation fragments along stored carry bit previous alu operation thus producing another significant partial carry bit carry bit stored status register partial written designated storage process repeats operand fragments processed resulting complete collection partials storage comprise multi-precision arithmetic result multiple-precision shift operations order operand fragment processing depends shift direction left-shift operations fragments processed ls first ls bit partial—which conveyed via stored carry bit—must obtained ms bit previously left-shifted less-significant operand conversely operands processed ms first right-shift operations ms bit partial must obtained ls bit previously right-shifted more-significant operand bitwise logical operations e.g. logical logical operand fragments may processed arbitrary order partial depends corresponding operand fragments stored carry bit previous alu operation ignored although alu designed perform complex functions resulting higher circuit complexity cost power consumption larger size makes impractical many cases consequently alus often limited simple functions executed high speeds i.e. short propagation delays external processor circuitry responsible performing complex functions orchestrating sequence simpler alu operations example computing square root number might implemented various ways depending alu complexity implementations transition fastest expensive slowest least costly square root calculated cases processors simple alus take longer perform calculation multiple alu operations must performed alu usually implemented either stand-alone integrated circuit ic 74181 part complex ic latter case alu typically instantiated synthesizing description written vhdl verilog hardware description language example following vhdl code describes simple 8-bit alu mathematician john von neumann proposed alu concept 1945 report foundations new computer called edvac cost size power consumption electronic circuitry relatively high throughout infancy information age consequently serial computers many early computers pdp-8 simple alu operated one data bit time although often presented wider word size programmers one earliest computers multiple discrete single-bit alu circuits 1948 whirlwind employed sixteen math units enable operate 16-bit words 1967 fairchild introduced first alu implemented integrated circuit fairchild 3800 consisting eight-bit alu accumulator integrated-circuit alus soon emerged including four-bit alus am2901 74181 devices typically bit slice capable meaning carry look ahead signals facilitated use multiple interconnected alu chips create alu wider word size devices quickly became popular widely used bit-slice minicomputers microprocessors began appear early 1970s even though transistors become smaller often insufficient die space full-word-width alu result early microprocessors employed narrow alu required multiple cycles per machine language instruction examples includes popular zilog z80 performed eight-bit additions four-bit alu time transistor geometries shrank following moore law became feasible build wider alus microprocessors modern integrated circuit ic transistors orders magnitude smaller early microprocessors making possible fit highly complex alus ics today many modern alus wide word widths architectural enhancements barrel shifters binary multipliers allow perform single clock cycle operations would required multiple operations earlier alus I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	4,465	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: playstation_2_online_functionality.playstation 2 online functionality selected games sony playstation 2 video game console offer online gaming online capabilities games enable feature provide free online play use broadband internet connection playstation 2 network adaptor since service official name sometimes referred either ps2 network play ps2 network gaming ps2 online service launched july 2001 japan august 2002 north america june 2003 europe slimline models network adapter integrated hardware games also allowed online gameplay using dial-up connection available models lan play connecting two network adapters/slimline consoles together directly ethernet cable router network instead unified online service like seganet xbox live online multiplayer ps2 responsibility game publisher run third-party servers however later ps2 online games required console authorized sony dynamic network authentication system dnas connecting server unofficial servers also exist could connected setting dns settings connect unofficial dns server recent ps2 online games developed exclusively support broadband internet access last official online server final fantasy xi ultimately shut march 31 2016 dnas following couple days later april 4 indirectly shutting several remaining unofficial servers exception ones support non-dnas ps2 titles tony hawk pro skater 3 despite dnas shutdown several fan created servers still exist require dnas workaround connect exceptions call duty 3 older models non-slim playstation 2 console network adapter needed play online use hard drive versions network adapter provide ethernet port north american versions also featured phone-line port dial-up connection newer slimline versions however ethernet port built making network adapter unnecessary hard drive use nearly impossible well ruling need keep network adapter production playing online games requires users set system network connection configuration saved memory card done network startup disk came network adapter using one many games utility built resident evil outbreak set network settings new slimline playstation 2 came disk box default last version disk network startup disk 5.0 included newer scph 90004 model released 2009 however december 31 2012 playstation 2 discontinued servers games since shut released 2002 final fantasy xi first ever console game offer cross-platform play connecting playstation 2 personal computer released august year one first video games allowed voice chat console pal games supported online gaming display net play logo cover north american games feature online icon lower right corner cover games support dial-up connectivity broadband also found logo time game servers shut however computer programs xbslink svdl xlink kai allow users achieve online play ps2 games using network configuration simulates worldwide lan 1-hop neighbor's text information: playstation_4_system_software.playstation 4 system software playstation 4 system software updatable firmware operating system playstation 4 operating system orbis os based freebsd 9 native operating system playstation 4 orbis os fork freebsd version 9.0 released 12 january 2012 playstation 4 features two graphics apis low level api named gnm high level api named gnmx developers start gnmx wraps around gnm turn manages esoteric gpu details familiar way work developers used platforms like direct3d 11 another key area game programmable pixel shaders sony playstation shader language pssl introduced playstation 4 suggested playstation shader language similar hlsl standard directx 11 subtle differences could eliminated part preprocessor macros besides kernel related components components included worth mentioning cairo jquery lua mono openssl webkit pixman rendering library many open-source software although playstation 4 open console software development kit sdk based llvm clang sony chosen due conformant c c++ front-ends c++11 support compiler optimization diagnostics playstation 4 uses playstation dynamic menu graphical shell contrast xrossmediabar xmb used playstation portable playstation 3 well livearea used playstation vita playstation tv named dynamic menu options offers players context sensitive changing based player actually playstation 4 given time makes navigation simpler previous iteration dynamic menu alter little time possible users placing game disc drive actual gameplay beginning playstation 4 user interface attempts simplicity priority main place entertainment options content area prominently displayed large square icons horizontal line arranged recently used users scroll gamer newsfeed alternating brick-like formation reminiscent social media site pinterest many main objects display additional information cursor selected game may news updates advertisements downloadable content recently played games receive tiles along number mandatory items like live playstation internet browser applications content icon customization options sort would give players way mold display better suit needs augmented reality application playroom comes pre-installed playstation 4 console demonstrated e3 2013 utilizes sony playstation camera technology according sony fantastically fresh augmented reality entertainment experience created combining light bar located front dualshock 4 controller playstation camera players allowed produce small floating robot called asobi interacts players scans faces shoots fireballs playstation camera identifies player help light bar front flick touchpad dualshock 4 controller brings augmented reality bots function playroom creates illusion hundreds little bots inside controller released simply tap track pad functions like playstation vita ps4 owners view smartphone playstation vita drawing object flick anywhere augmented reality bots play remote play users operate ps4 uses playstation vita handheld game console allowing play ps4 games media small device via streaming games except exceptions require playstation move playstation camera compatible second screen used display unique content playing games support option confused split screen second screen may used show extra contents example maps alternate camera angles radar even playbooks sports games apart playstation vita mobile devices ipad android tablet also used second screen comes form official playstation app game companion apps knack quest heavy emphasis social features placed playstation 4 console loading ps4 number share-centric apps features new feature allows users check friends latest activities via landing page full pictures trophies recent events easy way find friends hand cross-chat feature dubbed party chat interesting way keep touch gives gamers ability chat users whether 're playing title ps4 sharing capabilities adds another layer console gaming ps4 owners able capture livestream gameplay simple button touch record 60 minutes latest gaming exploits quick press share button controller footage shared facebook twitter youtube also ability broadcast gameplay real time twitch ustream addition recording videos also social features community creation introduced via system updates favorite groups new section within friends app acts way quickly access people user plays feature aimed making easier faster get game session friends hand communities new hubs formed around shared interests like games activities play styles also exist smaller social features ps4 ability message friend request watch gameplay live playstation 4 console function without internet connection provide functionality connected internet example updates system software may downloaded internet users may play online internet properly connected online play main pillar playstation 4 playstation plus subscription required play majority ps4 titles online unlike playstation 3 titles according sony developing many new ways play connect ps4 requires large investment resources result sony claim keep service free maintain quality time considering cost thus decided would better charge fee order continue offer good service web browser included playstation 4 console based open source webkit layout engine unlike playstation 3 uses netfront browser using modern webkit core safari apple ps4 web browser receives high score html5 compliance testing however support adobe flash means websites require flash might display properly function intended also pdf format supported however one clear advantage gamers able cut gaming browsing back loss gameplay due multitasking feature web browser additionally ps4 web browser limited support usb keyboards seem support usb mice furthermore internet connection enabled playstation 4 allows users access variety playstation network psn services including playstation store playstation plus subscription service users may download buy games contents services also gamers able play selection ps3 titles via internet-based playstation gaming service playstation 4 supports playing 2d 3d blu-rays dvds. previously system software update required standard new consoles instead console needs go online activate player first time used system support audio cds internally year console launch sony partnered spotify bring music streaming service playstation 4 well predecessor february 2015 including ability stream music background game application plus ability control music playback via smartphone computers etc available free premium subscribers spotify sony later added blu-ray 3d support console via system update users also use media player application enjoy videos photos music saved usb storage devices media servers ps4 may serve good portable device video enjoyment addition game playing following multimedia file formats supported although according playstation support website ps4 could play mp4 videos support mp4 files encoded h.264/mpeg-4 avc high profile aac-lc playstation 4 backward compatible games previous playstation consoles launch though playstation 4 users play playstation 3 games directly 2014 playstation cloud-based streaming service allowed streaming selected ps3 games december 2015 sony added playstation 2 backward compatibility republished ps2 games dark cloud grand theft auto iii ps4 via playstation store americas europe supported ps2 games run via software emulation upscaled high definition ps4 systems instead remastered one updated access various ps4 features including trophies share play broadcasting remote play second-screen features however original ps2 game discs ps2 classics re-released ps3 compatible ps4 system arabic chinese simplified chinese traditional czech danish dutch english united kingdom english united states french canada french france finnish german greek hungarian indonesian italian japanese korean norwegian polish portuguese brazil portuguese portugal russian romanian spanish latin america spanish spain swedish thai turkish vietnamese initial version system software playstation 4 1.01 pre-installed original consoles support remote play second screen experiences added version 1.50 launched day playstation 4 console released north america november 15 2013 features accessible playstation vita console using ps4 link application second screen functionality also accessible smartphones tablets playstation mobile app also able record share video clips well broadcasting gameplay twitch.tv ustream supports blu-ray dvd-video playback version 1.60 released february 4 2014 improving dvd playback version 1.60 also adds support pulse elite wireless headsets version 1.70 released april 30 2014 adds number new features addition rich video editor called sharefactory offers users tools combine edit personalize captured video clips update also adds abilities share video clips screenshots streaming copy video clips screenshots usb storage version 1.75 released july 29 2014 adding support playback blu-ray 3d also improves sound quality 1.5-speed playback blu-ray dvd video version 1.76 released september 2 2014 came minor changes last update version 2.0 released october 28 2014 version 2.00 major upgrade playstation 4 system software among features introduced share play allows playstation plus users invite online friend join play session via streaming even copy game users pass control game entirely remote user partake cooperative multiplayer physically present version also adds youtube app ability upload video clips youtube users play music stored usb storage devices also support custom themes ability change background color users set themes home screens function screens user version version 2.50 released march 26 2015 adding suspend/resume feature allow players jump games ps button games suspended low-power rest mode instead closing completely version also allows console hard drive backed restored usb flash drive september 30 2015 sony released ps4 update 3.00 introduced entirely new features user-interface enhancements among new features ability share videos directly twitter dedicated playstation plus section tweaks interface streaming youtube improvements social features messages group creation ability save screenshots pngs increase online storage capacity 1 gb 10 gb also introduced playstation plus members sony states update create new ways connect friends players around world expanding social capabilities system even april 6 2016 sony released ps4 update 3.50 would enable ps4 use remote play functionality windows macos formerly named os x vg247 reported update allow remote play functionality computers running windows 8.1 windows 10 os x yosemite os x el capitan furthermore article explains remote play support resolution options 360p 540p 720p frame rate options 30 fps 60 fps one dualshock 4 controller connected via computer usb port september 13 2016 sony released ps4 update 4.00 added high dynamic range hdr home screen folder support 1080p streaming tweaks menus game info screens greater overview streamlined interfaces march 9 2017 sony released next major firmware update version 4.50 update includes support installing applications external hard drives custom wallpapers refined quick menu simplified notifications list custom status updates new 3d blu-ray support playstation vr includes support preloading game patches however developer make use first game take advantage feature littlebigplanet 3 october 3 2017 sony released ps4 update 5.00 overhauling master/sub-account system update allows customization accounts family members roles applying parental controls account groups system replaced new friends management system along support 5.1 7.1 surround sound configurations playstation vr new tournament bracket viewer made along tweaks broadcasting 1080p streaming 60 frames per second twitch possible changes ps message notifications quick menu lastly introduces localization czech greek hungarian indonesian romanian thai vietnamese languages 5.50 released march 8 2018 includes playtime restrictions child accounts ability hide applications library custom wallpapers via usb supersampling mode ps4 pro ability delete notifications september 13 2018 sony released ps4 update 6.00 major feature added ability use remote play ios devices minor improvements may 10 2019 sony interactive entertainment added ability remove purchased games download list playstation store delete games profile gaming platforms sony gaming platforms generation gaming platforms seventh generation 1-hop neighbor's text information: cell_(microprocessor).cell microprocessor cell multi-core microprocessor microarchitecture combines general-purpose powerpc core modest performance streamlined coprocessing elements greatly accelerate multimedia vector processing applications well many forms dedicated computation developed sony toshiba ibm alliance known sti architectural design first implementation carried sti design center austin texas four-year period beginning march 2001 budget reported sony approaching us 400 million cell shorthand cell broadband engine architecture commonly abbreviated cbea full cell part first major commercial application cell sony playstation 3 game console mercury computer systems dual cell server dual cell blade configuration rugged computer pci express accelerator board available different stages production toshiba announced plans incorporate cell high definition television sets seems abandoned idea exotic features xdr memory subsystem coherent element interconnect bus eib interconnect appear position cell future applications supercomputing space exploit cell processor prowess floating point kernels cell architecture includes memory coherence architecture emphasizes power efficiency prioritizes bandwidth low latency favors peak computational throughput simplicity program code reasons cell widely regarded challenging environment software development ibm provides linux-based development platform help developers program cell chips architecture widely used unless adopted software development community however cell strengths may make useful scientific computing regardless mainstream success mid-2000 sony computer entertainment toshiba corporation ibm formed alliance known sti design manufacture processor sti design center opened march 2001 cell designed period four years using enhanced versions design tools power4 processor 400 engineers three companies worked together austin critical support eleven ibm design centers period ibm filed many patents pertaining cell architecture manufacturing process software environment early patent version broadband engine shown chip package comprising four processing elements patent description known power processing element ppe processing element contained 8 apus referred spes current broadband engine chip chip package widely regarded run clock speed 4 ghz 32 apus providing 32 gigaflops fp8 quarter precision broadband engine shown 1 teraflops raw computing power design fabricated using 90 nm soi process march 2007 ibm announced 65 nm version cell production plant time globalfoundries east fishkill new york bandai namco entertainment used cell processor 357 arcade board well subsequent 369 february 2008 ibm announced begin fabricate cell processors 45 nm process may 2008 ibm introduced high-performance double-precision floating-point version cell processor powerxcell 8i 65 nm feature size may 2008 opteron- powerxcell 8i-based supercomputer ibm roadrunner system became world first system achieve one petaflops fastest computer world third quarter 2009 world three energy efficient supercomputers represented green500 list similarly based powerxcell 8i 45 nm cell processor introduced concert sony playstation 3 slim august 2009 november 2009 ibm discontinued development cell processor 32 apus still developing cell products may 17 2005 sony computer entertainment confirmed specifications cell processor would shipping then-forthcoming playstation 3 console cell configuration one ppe core eight physical spes silicon playstation 3 one spe locked-out test process practice helps improve manufacturing yields another one reserved os leaving 6 free spes used games code target clock-frequency introduction 3.2 ghz introductory design fabricated using 90 nm soi process initial volume production slated ibm facility east fishkill new york relationship cores threads common source confusion ppe core dual threaded manifests software two independent threads execution active spe manifests single thread playstation 3 configuration described sony cell processor provides nine independent threads execution june 28 2005 ibm mercury computer systems announced partnership agreement build cell-based computer systems embedded applications medical imaging industrial inspection aerospace defense seismic processing telecommunications mercury since released blades conventional rack servers pci express accelerator boards cell processors fall 2006 ibm released qs20 blade module using double cell processors tremendous performance certain applications reaching peak 410 gigaflops fp8 quarter precision per module qs22 based powerxcell 8i processor used ibm roadrunner supercomputer mercury ibm uses fully utilized cell processor eight active spes april 8 2008 fixstars corporation released pci express accelerator board based powerxcell 8i processor sony high performance media computing server zego uses 3.2 ghz cell/b.e processor cell broadband engine cell commonly known microprocessor intended hybrid conventional desktop processors athlon 64 core 2 families specialized high-performance processors nvidia ati graphics-processors gpus longer name indicates intended use namely component current future online distribution systems may utilized high-definition displays recording equipment well hdtv systems additionally processor may suited digital imaging systems medical scientific etc physical simulation e.g scientific structural engineering modeling simple analysis cell processor split four components external input output structures main processor called power processing element ppe two-way simultaneous-multithreaded powerpc 2.02 core eight fully functional co-processors called synergistic processing elements spes specialized high-bandwidth circular data bus connecting ppe input/output elements spes called element interconnect bus eib achieve high performance needed mathematically intensive tasks decoding/encoding mpeg streams generating transforming three-dimensional data undertaking fourier analysis data cell processor marries spes ppe via eib give access via fully cache coherent dma direct memory access main memory external data storage make best eib overlap computation data transfer nine processing elements ppe spes equipped dma engine since spe load/store instructions access local scratchpad memory spe entirely depends dmas transfer data main memory spes local memories dma operation transfer either single block area size 16kb list 2 2048 blocks one major design decisions architecture cell use dmas central means intra-chip data transfer view enabling maximal asynchrony concurrency data processing inside chip ppe capable running conventional operating system control spes start stop interrupt schedule processes running spes end ppe additional instructions relating control spes unlike spes ppe read write main memory local memories spes standard load/store instructions despite turing complete architectures spes fully autonomous require ppe prime useful work horsepower system comes synergistic processing elements use dma method data transfer limited local memory footprint spe pose major challenge software developers wish make horsepower demanding careful hand-tuning programs extract maximal performance cpu ppe bus architecture includes various modes operation giving different levels memory protection allowing areas memory protected access specific processes running spes ppe ppe spe risc architectures fixed-width 32-bit instruction format ppe contains 64-bit general purpose register set gpr 64-bit floating point register set fpr 128-bit altivec register set spe contains 128-bit registers used scalar data types ranging 8-bits 64-bits size simd computations variety integer floating point formats system memory addresses ppe spe expressed 64-bit values theoretic address range 2 bytes 16 exabytes 16,777,216 terabytes practice bits implemented hardware local store addresses internal spu synergistic processor unit processor expressed 32-bit word documentation relating cell word always taken mean 32 bits doubleword means 64 bits quadword means 128 bits 2008 ibm announced revised variant cell called powerxcell 8i available qs22 blade servers ibm powerxcell manufactured 65 nm process adds support 32 gb slotted ddr2 memory well dramatically improving double-precision floating-point performance spes peak 12.8 gflops 102.4 gflops total eight spes coincidentally peak performance nec sx-9 vector processor released around time ibm roadrunner supercomputer world fastest 2008-2009 consisted 12,240 powerxcell 8i processors along 6,562 amd opteron processors powerxcell 8i powered super computers also dominated top 6 greenest systems green500 list highest mflops/watt ratio supercomputers world beside qs22 supercomputers powerxcell processor also available accelerator pci express card used core processor qpace project since powerxcell 8i removed rambus memory interface added significantly larger ddr2 interfaces enhanced spes chip layout reworked resulted larger chip die packaging cell chip number different configurations basic configuration multi-core chip composed one power processor element ppe sometimes called processing element pe multiple synergistic processing elements spe ppe spes linked together internal high speed bus dubbed element interconnect bus eib ppe powerpc based dual-issue in-order two-way simultaneous-multithreaded core 23-stage pipeline acting controller eight spes handle computational workload ppe limited order execution capabilities perform loads order delayed execution pipelines ppe work conventional operating systems due similarity 64-bit powerpc processors spes designed vectorized floating point code execution ppe contains 64 kib level 1 cache 32 kib instruction 32 kib data 512 kib level 2 cache size cache line 128 bytes additionally ibm included altivec vmx unit fully pipelined single precision floating point altivec 1 support double precision floating-point vectors 32-bit fixed point unit fxu 64-bit register file per thread load store unit lsu 64-bit floating-point unit fpu branch unit bru branch execution unit bxu ppe consists three main units instruction unit iu execution unit xu vector/scalar execution unit vsu iu contains l1 instruction cache branch prediction hardware instruction buffers dependency checking login xu contains integer execution units fxu load-store unit lsu vsu contains execution resources fpu vmx ppe complete two double precision operations per clock cycle using scalar fused-multiply-add instruction translates 6.4 gflops 3.2 ghz eight single precision operations per clock cycle vector fused-multiply-add instruction translates 25.6 gflops 3.2 ghz ppe designed specifically cell processor development microsoft approached ibm wanting high performance processor core xbox 360 ibm complied made tri-core xenon processor based slightly modified version ppe added vmx128 extensions spe dual issue order processor composed synergistic processing unit spu memory flow controller mfc dma mmu bus interface spes n't branch prediction hardware hence heavy burden compiler spe 6 execution units divided among odd even pipelines spe spu runs specially developed instruction set isa 128-bit simd organization single double precision instructions current generation cell spe contains 256 kib embedded sram instruction data called local storage mistaken local memory sony documents refer vram visible ppe addressed directly software spe support 4 gib local store memory local store operate like conventional cpu cache since neither transparent software contain hardware structures predict data load spes contain 128-bit 128-entry register file measures 14.5 mm 90 nm process spe operate sixteen 8-bit integers eight 16-bit integers four 32-bit integers four single-precision floating-point numbers single clock cycle well memory operation note spu directly access system memory 64-bit virtual memory addresses formed spu must passed spu spe memory flow controller mfc set dma operation within system address space one typical usage scenario system load spes small programs similar threads chaining spes together handle step complex operation instance set-top box might load programs reading dvd video audio decoding display data would passed spe spe finally ending tv another possibility partition input data set several spes performing kind operation parallel 3.2 ghz spe gives theoretical 25.6 gflops single precision performance compared personal computer contemporaries relatively high overall floating point performance cell processor seemingly dwarfs abilities simd unit cpus like pentium 4 athlon 64 however comparing floating point abilities system one-dimensional application-specific metric unlike cell processor desktop cpus suited general purpose software usually run personal computers addition executing multiple instructions per clock processors intel amd feature branch predictors cell designed compensate compiler assistance prepare-to-branch instructions created double-precision floating point operations sometimes used personal computers often used scientific computing cell performance drops order magnitude still reaches 20.8 gflops 1.8 gflops per spe 6.4 gflops per ppe powerxcell 8i variant specifically designed double-precision reaches 102.4 gflops double-precision calculations tests ibm show spes reach 98 theoretical peak performance running optimized parallel matrix multiplication toshiba developed co-processor powered four spes ppe called spursengine designed accelerate 3d movie effects consumer electronics spe local memory 256 kb total spes 2 mb local memory eib communication bus internal cell processor connects various on-chip system elements ppe processor memory controller mic eight spe coprocessors two off-chip i/o interfaces total 12 participants ps3 number spu vary industrial applications eib also includes arbitration unit functions set traffic lights documents ibm refers eib participants 'units eib presently implemented circular ring consisting four 16 bytes wide unidirectional channels counter-rotate pairs traffic patterns permit channel convey three transactions concurrently eib runs half system clock rate effective channel rate 16 bytes every two system clocks maximum concurrency three active transactions four rings peak instantaneous eib bandwidth 96 bytes per clock 12 concurrent transactions 16 bytes wide 2 system clocks per transfer figure often quoted ibm literature unrealistic simply scale number processor clock speed arbitration unit imposes additional constraints discussed bandwidth assessment section ibm senior engineer david krolak eib lead designer explains concurrency model participant eib one 16 byte read port one 16 byte write port limit single participant read write rate 16 byte per eib clock simplicity often regarded 8 byte per system clock note spu processor contains dedicated dma management queue capable scheduling long sequences transactions various endpoints without interfering spu ongoing computations dma queues managed locally remotely well providing additional flexibility control model data flows eib channel stepwise around ring since twelve participants total number steps around channel back point origin twelve six steps longest distance pair participants eib channel permitted convey data requiring six steps data must take shorter route around circle direction number steps involved sending packet little impact transfer latency clock speed driving steps fast relative considerations however longer communication distances detrimental overall performance eib reduce available concurrency despite ibm original desire implement eib powerful cross-bar circular configuration adopted spare resources rarely represents limiting factor performance cell chip whole worst case programmer must take extra care schedule communication patterns eib able function high concurrency levels david krolak explained 3.2 ghz channel flows rate 25.6 gb/s viewing eib isolation system elements connects achieving twelve concurrent transactions flow rate works abstract eib bandwidth 307.2 gb/s based view many ibm publications depict available eib bandwidth greater 300 gb/s number reflects peak instantaneous eib bandwidth scaled processor frequency however technical restrictions involved arbitration mechanism packets accepted onto bus ibm systems performance group explained quote apparently represents full extent ibm public disclosure mechanism impact eib arbitration unit snooping mechanism interrupt generation segment page translation faults well described documentation set yet made public ibm practice effective eib bandwidth also limited ring participants involved nine processing cores sustain 25.6 gb/s read write concurrently memory interface controller mic tied pair xdr memory channels permitting maximum flow 25.6 gb/s reads writes combined two io controllers documented supporting peak combined input speed 25.6 gb/s peak combined output speed 35 gb/s add confusion older publications cite eib bandwidth assuming 4 ghz system clock reference frame results instantaneous eib bandwidth figure 384 gb/s arbitration-limited bandwidth figure 256 gb/s things considered theoretic 204.8 gb/s number often cited best one bear mind ibm systems performance group demonstrated spu-centric data flows achieving 197 gb/s cell processor running 3.2 ghz number fair reflection practice well cell contains dual channel rambus xio macro interfaces rambus xdr memory memory interface controller mic separate xio macro designed ibm xio-xdr link runs 3.2 gbit/s per pin two 32-bit channels provide theoretical maximum 25.6 gb/s i/o interface also rambus design known flexio flexio interface organized 12 lanes lane unidirectional 8-bit wide point-to-point path five 8-bit wide point-to-point paths inbound lanes cell remaining seven outbound provides theoretical peak bandwidth 62.4 gb/s 36.4 gb/s outbound 26 gb/s inbound 2.6 ghz flexio interface clocked independently typ 3.2 ghz 4 inbound 4 outbound lanes supporting memory coherency companies leadtek released pci-e cards based upon cell allow faster real time transcoding h.264 mpeg-2 mpeg-4 video august 29 2007 ibm announced bladecenter qs21 generating measured 1.05 giga–floating point operations per second gigaflops per watt peak performance approximately 460 gflops one power efficient computing platforms date single bladecenter chassis achieve 6.4 tera–floating point operations per second teraflops 25.8 teraflops standard 42u rack may 13 2008 ibm announced bladecenter qs22 qs22 introduces powerxcell 8i processor five times double-precision floating point performance qs21 capacity 32 gb ddr2 memory on-blade ibm discontinued blade server line based cell processors january 12 2012 several companies provide pci-e boards utilising ibm powerxcell 8i performance reported 179.2 gflops sp 89.6 gflops dp 2.8 ghz sony playstation 3 video game console first production application cell processor clocked 3.2 ghz containing seven eight operational spes allow sony increase yield processor manufacture six seven spes accessible developers one reserved os toshiba produced hdtvs using cell presented system decode 48 standard definition mpeg-2 streams simultaneously 1920×1080 screen enable viewer choose channel based dozens thumbnail videos displayed simultaneously screen ibm supercomputer ibm roadrunner hybrid general purpose x86-64 opteron well cell processors system assumed 1 spot june 2008 top 500 list first supercomputer run petaflops speeds gained sustained 1.026 petaflops speed using standard linpack benchmark ibm roadrunner used powerxcell 8i version cell processor manufactured using 65 nm technology enhanced spus handle double precision calculations 128-bit registers reaching double precision 102 gflops per chip clusters playstation 3 consoles attractive alternative high-end systems based cell blades innovative computing laboratory group led jack dongarra computer science department university tennessee investigated application depth terrasoft solutions selling 8-node 32-node ps3 clusters yellow dog linux pre-installed implementation dongarra research first reported wired october 17 2007 interesting application using playstation 3 cluster configuration implemented astrophysicist gaurav khanna physics department university massachusetts dartmouth replaced time used supercomputers cluster eight playstation 3s subsequently next generation machine called playstation 3 gravity grid uses network 16 machines exploits cell processor intended application binary black hole coalescence using perturbation theory particular cluster performs astrophysical simulations large supermassive black holes capturing smaller compact objects generated numerical data published multiple times relevant scientific research literature cell processor version used playstation 3 main cpu 6 spes available user giving gravity grid machine net 16 general-purpose processors 96 vector processors machine one-time cost 9,000 build adequate black-hole simulations would otherwise cost 6,000 per run conventional supercomputer black hole calculations memory-intensive highly localizable well-suited architecture khanna claims cluster performance exceeds 100+ intel xeon core based traditional linux cluster simulations ps3 gravity grid gathered significant media attention 2007 2008 2009 2010 computational biochemistry biophysics lab universitat pompeu fabra barcelona deployed 2007 boinc system called ps3grid collaborative computing based cellmd software first one designed specifically cell processor united states air force research laboratory deployed playstation 3 cluster 1700 units nicknamed condor cluster analyzing high-resolution satellite imagery air force claims condor cluster would 33rd largest supercomputer world terms capacity lab opened supercomputer use universities research help computing power half million playstation 3 consoles distributed computing project folding home recognized guinness world records powerful distributed network world first record achieved september 16 2007 project surpassed one petaflops never previously attained distributed computing network additionally collective efforts enabled ps3 alone reach petaflops mark september 23 2007 comparison world second-most powerful supercomputer time ibm bluegene/l performed around 478.2 teraflops means folding home computing power approximately twice bluegene/l although cpu interconnect bluegene/l one million times faster mean network speed folding home may 7 2011 folding home runs 9.3 x86 petaflops 1.6 petaflops generated 26,000 active ps3s alone late 2008 cluster 200 playstation 3 consoles used generate rogue ssl certificate effectively cracking encryption ibm announced april 25 2007 would begin integrating cell broadband engine architecture microprocessors company line mainframes led gameframe architecture processor makes better suited hardware-assisted cryptographic brute force attack applications conventional processors due flexible nature cell several possibilities utilization resources limited different computing paradigms ppe maintains job queue schedules jobs spes monitors progress spe runs mini kernel whose role fetch job execute synchronize ppe kernel scheduling distributed across spes tasks synchronized using mutexes semaphores conventional operating system ready-to-run tasks wait queue spe execute spes use shared memory tasks configuration spe runs distinct program data comes input stream sent spes spe terminated processing output data sent output stream provides flexible powerful architecture stream processing allows explicit scheduling spe separately processors also able perform streaming tasks limited kernel loaded 2005 patches enabling cell support linux kernel submitted inclusion ibm developers arnd bergmann one developers aforementioned patches also described linux-based cell architecture linuxtag 2005 release 2.6.16 march 20 2006 linux kernel officially supports cell processor ppe spes programmable c/c++ using common api provided libraries fixstars solutions provides yellow dog linux ibm mercury cell-based systems well playstation 3 terra soft strategically partnered mercury provide linux board support package cell support development software applications various cell platforms including ibm bladecenter js21 cell qs20 mercury cell-based solutions terra soft also maintains y-hpc high performance computing cluster construction management suite y-bio gene sequencing tools y-bio built upon rpm linux standard package management offers tools help bioinformatics researchers conduct work greater efficiency ibm developed pseudo-filesystem linux coined spufs simplifies access use spe resources ibm currently maintaining linux kernel gdb ports sony maintains gnu toolchain gcc binutils november 2005 ibm released cell broadband engine cbe software development kit version 1.0 consisting simulator assorted tools web site development versions latest kernel tools fedora core 4 maintained barcelona supercomputing center website august 2007 mercury computer systems released software development kit playstation r 3 high-performance computing november 2007 fixstars corporation released new cvcell module aiming accelerate several important opencv apis cell series software calculation tests recorded execution times 3.2 ghz cell processor 6x 27x faster compared software 2.4 ghz intel core 2 duo illustrations different generations cell/b.e processors powerxcell 8i images scale cell/b.e packages measures 42.5×42.5 mm powerxcell 8i measures 47.5×47.5 mm Target text information: playstation_2_technical_specifications.playstation 2 technical specifications playstation 2 technical specifications describe various components playstation 2 ps2 video game console sixth-generation hardware playstation 2 video game console consists various components heart console configuration central processing unit cpu custom risc processor known emotion engine operates 294 mhz 300 mhz later consoles cpu heavily relies integration two vector processing units known vpu0 vpu1 graphics synthesizer floating-point unit fpu order render 3d graphics components system dvd-rom optical drive dualshock 2 controller provide software user control input playstation 2 software distributed cd-rom dvd-rom addition console play audio cds dvd movies backwards compatible original playstation games accomplished inclusion original playstation cpu also serves ps2 i/o processor ps2 also supports limited functionality original playstation memory cards controllers ps2 dualshock 2 controller upgraded version playstation dualshock analog face shoulder d-pad buttons replacing digital buttons original like predecessor dualshock 2 controller features force feedback technology standard playstation 2 memory card 8 mb capacity uses sony magicgate encryption requirement prevented production memory cards third parties purchase magicgate license memory cards without encryption used store playstation game saves playstation games would unable read write card – card could used backup variety non-sony manufactured memory cards available playstation 2 allowing larger memory capacity standard 8 mb however use unsupported compatibility guaranteed memory cards 128 mb storage space console also features usb ieee 1394 expansion ports compatibility usb ieee 1394 devices dependent software supporting device example ps2 bios boot iso image usb flash drive operate usb printer machine operating system include functionality contrast gran turismo 4 tourist trophy programmed save screenshots usb mass storage device print images certain usb printers playstation 2 hdd installed via expansion bay back console required play certain games notably popular final fantasy xi replaced powerpc-based deckard iop 4 mb sdram starting scph-7500x I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,799	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cross-platform_software.cross-platform software computing cross-platform software also multi-platform software platform-independent software computer software implemented multiple computing platforms cross-platform software may divided two types one requires individual building compilation platform supports one directly run platform without special preparation e.g. software written interpreted language pre-compiled portable bytecode interpreters run-time packages common standard components platforms example cross-platform application may run microsoft windows linux macos cross-platform programs may run many existing platforms two platforms cross-platform frameworks qt flutter nativescript xamarin phonegap ionic react native exist aid cross-platform development platform refer type processor cpu hardware given operating system application runs type operating system computer combination type hardware type operating system running example common platform microsoft windows running x86 architecture well-known desktop computer platforms include linux/unix macos cross-platform however many devices smartphones also effectively computer platforms less commonly thought way application software written depend features particular platform—either hardware operating system virtual machine runs java platform virtual machine platform runs many operating systems hardware types common platform software written hardware platform refer instruction set architecture example x86 architecture variants ia-32 x86-64 machines often run one version microsoft windows though run operating systems well including linux openbsd netbsd macos freebsd 32-bit arm architectures newer 64-bit version common smartphones tablet computers run android ios mobile operating systems software platforms either operating system programming environment though commonly combination notable exception java uses operating system independent virtual machine compiled code known world java bytecode examples software platforms previously noted java platform exception general rule operating system software platform java language typically compiles virtual machine virtual cpu runs code written language enables executable binary run systems implement java virtual machine jvm java programs executed natively using java processor n't common mostly used embedded systems java code running jvm access os-related services like disk i/o network access appropriate privileges granted jvm makes system calls behalf java application setup allows users decide appropriate protection level depending acl example disk network access usually enabled desktop applications browser-based applets jni also used enable access operating system specific functions currently java standard edition programs run microsoft windows macos several unix-like operating systems several non-unix-like operating systems like embedded systems mobile applications browser plugins used windows mac based devices android built-in support java also subsets java java card java platform micro edition designed resource-constrained devices piece software considered cross-platform must able function one computer architecture operating system developing program time-consuming task different operating systems different application programming interfaces api example linux uses different api application software windows software written particular operating system automatically work architectures operating system supports one example august 2006 openoffice.org natively run amd64 intel 64 lines processors implementing x86-64 standards computers since changed openoffice.org suite software “ mostly ” ported 64-bit systems also means program written popular programming language c c++ mean run operating systems support programming language—or even operating system different architecture web applications typically described cross-platform ideally accessible various web browsers within different operating systems applications generally employ client–server system architecture vary widely complexity functionality wide variability significantly complicates goal cross-platform capability routinely odds goal advanced functionality basic web applications perform processing stateless server pass result client web browser user interaction application consists simple exchanges data requests server responses types applications norm early phases world wide web application development applications follow simple transaction model identical serving static web pages today still relatively common especially cross-platform compatibility simplicity deemed critical advanced functionalities prominent examples advanced web applications include web interface gmail a9.com google maps website live search service bing microsoft advanced applications routinely depend additional features found recent versions popular web browsers dependencies include ajax javascript dynamic html svg components rich internet applications older versions popular web browsers tend lack support certain features competing interests cross-platform compatibility advanced functionality numerous alternative web application design strategies emerged strategies include graceful degradation attempts provide similar functionality users platforms diminishing functionality least common denominator limited client browsers example user attempting use limited-feature browser access gmail may notice gmail switches basic mode reduced functionality differs cross-platform techniques attempt provide equivalent functionality adequate functionality across platforms multiple codebase applications maintain distinct codebases different hardware os platforms equivalent functionality obviously requires duplication effort maintaining code worthwhile amount platform-specific code high strategy relies one codebase may compiled multiple platform-specific formats one technique conditional compilation technique code common platforms repeated blocks code relevant certain platforms made conditional interpreted compiled needed another technique separation functionality disables functionality supported client browsers operating systems still delivering complete application user see also separation concerns technique used web development interpreted code scripting languages query platform running execute different blocks conditionally third-party libraries attempt simplify cross-platform capability hiding complexities client differentiation behind single unified api responsive web design rwd web design approach aimed crafting visual layout sites provide optimal viewing experience—easy reading navigation minimum resizing panning scrolling—across wide range devices mobile phones desktop computer monitors little platform-specific code used technique one complicated aspect cross-platform web application design need software testing addition complications mentioned previously additional restriction web browsers prohibit installation different versions browser operating system although several development approaches companies use target multiple platforms result software requires substantial manual effort testing maintenance across supported platforms techniques full virtualization sometimes used workaround problem using tools page object model cross platform tests scripted way one test case usable multiple versions app long different versions similar user interfaces versions tested one time one test case web applications becoming increasingly popular many computer users still use traditional application software rely client/web-server architecture distinction traditional web applications always clear features installation methods architectures web traditional applications overlap blur distinction nevertheless simplifying distinction common useful generalization traditionally modern computing application software distributed end-users binary file especially executable files executables support operating system computer architecture built for—which means making single cross-platform executable would something massive task generally replaced offering selection executables platforms supported software distributed binary executable software written c c++ programmer must build software different operating system computer architecture i.e must use toolset translates—transcompiles—a single codebase multiple binary executables example firefox open-source web browser available windows macos powerpc x86 apple inc. calls universal binary linux bsd multiple computer architectures four platforms case windows macos linux bsd separate executable distributions although come source code use different toolsets perform different builds may sufficient achieve variety working executables different platforms case software engineer must port i.e amend code suitable new computer architecture operating system example program firefox already runs windows x86 family modified re-built run linux x86 potentially architectures well multiple versions code may stored separate codebases merged one codebase conditional compilation see note porting must accompanied cross-platform building reverse case alternative porting cross-platform virtualization allows applications compiled one cpu operating system run system different cpu and/or operating system without modification source code binaries example apple rosetta built intel-based macintosh computers runs applications compiled previous generation macs used powerpc cpus another example ibm powervm lx86 allows linux/x86 applications run unmodified linux/power operating system script considered cross-platform interpreter available multiple platforms script uses facilities provided language script written python unix-like system likely run little modification windows python also runs windows also one implementation python run scripts e.g. ironpython .net framework goes many open-source programming languages available scripting languages unlike binary executable files script used computers software interpret script script generally stored plain text text file may issues however type new line character sits lines generally however little work done make script written one system run another quite popular cross-platform scripting interpreted languages cross-platform multi-platform term also apply video games released range video game consoles specialized computers dedicated task playing games examples cross-platform video games include miner 2049er fifa video game series nhl series minecraft released across variety gaming platforms wii playstation 3 xbox 360 personal computers pcs mobile devices characteristics particular system may lengthen time taken implement video game across multiple platforms video game may initially released platforms later released remaining platforms typically situation occurs new gaming system released video game developers need acquaint hardware software associated new console games may become cross-platform licensing agreements developers video game console manufacturers limit development game one particular console example disney could create game intention release latest nintendo sony game consoles disney license game sony first disney may exchange required release game solely sony ’ console short time indefinitely—effectively prohibiting cross-platform release duration several developers implemented means play games online using different platforms psyonix epic games microsoft valve corporation possess technology allows xbox 360 playstation 3 gamers play pc gamers leaving decision platform use consumers first game allow level interactivity pc console games quake 3 games feature cross-platform online play include rocket league street fighter v killer instinct paragon fable fortune minecraft better together update windows 10 vr editions pocket edition xbox one cross-platform programming practice actively writing software work one platform different ways approaching problem writing cross-platform application program one approach simply create multiple versions program different source trees —in words microsoft windows version program might one set source code files macintosh version might another foss nix system might another straightforward approach problem potential considerably expensive development cost development time especially corporate entities idea behind create two different programs ability behave similarly also possible means developing cross-platform application result problems bug tracking fixing two different source trees would different programmers thus different defects version another approach used depend pre-existing software hides differences platforms—called abstraction platform—such program unaware platform running could said programs platform agnostic programs run java virtual machine jvm built fashion applications mix various methods cross-platform programming create final application example firefox web browser uses abstraction build lower-level components separate source subtrees implementing platform-specific features like gui implementation one scripting language help facilitate ease portability firefox implements xul css javascript extending browser addition classic netscape-style browser plugins much browser written xul css javascript well number tools available help facilitate process cross-platform programming certain issues associated cross-platform development include 1-hop neighbor's text information: php.php php hypertext preprocessor simply php general-purpose programming language originally designed web development originally created rasmus lerdorf 1994 php reference implementation produced php group php originally stood personal home page stands recursive initialism php hypertext preprocessor php code may executed command line interface cli embedded html code used combination various web template systems web content management systems web frameworks php code usually processed php interpreter implemented module web server common gateway interface cgi executable web server outputs results interpreted executed php code may type data generated html code binary image data php used many programming tasks outside web context standalone graphical applications robotic drone control standard php interpreter powered zend engine free software released php license php widely ported deployed web servers almost every operating system platform free charge php language evolved without written formal specification standard 2014 original implementation acting de facto standard implementations aimed follow since 2014 work gone create formal php specification majority sites web using php still version 5.6 older versions prior 7.1 longer officially supported php development team security support provided longer third parties debian php development began 1994 rasmus lerdorf wrote several common gateway interface cgi programs c used maintain personal homepage extended work web forms communicate databases called implementation personal home page/forms interpreter php/fi php/fi could used build simple dynamic web applications accelerate bug reporting improve code lerdorf initially announced release php/fi personal home page tools php tools version 1.0 usenet discussion group comp.infosystems.www.authoring.cgi june 8 1995 release already basic functionality php today included perl-like variables form handling ability embed html syntax resembled perl simpler limited less consistent early php intended new programming language grew organically lerdorf noting retrospect n't know stop never intent write programming language ... absolutely idea write programming language kept adding next logical step way development team began form months work beta testing officially released php/fi 2 november 1997 fact php originally designed instead developed organically led inconsistent naming functions inconsistent ordering parameters cases function names chosen match lower-level libraries php wrapping early versions php length function names used internally hash function names chosen improve distribution hash values zeev suraski andi gutmans rewrote parser 1997 formed base php 3 changing language name recursive acronym php hypertext preprocessor afterwards public testing php 3 began official launch came june 1998 suraski gutmans started new rewrite php core producing zend engine 1999 also founded zend technologies ramat gan israel may 22 2000 php 4 powered zend engine 1.0 released august 2008 branch reached version 4.4.9 php 4 longer development security updates released july 14 2004 php 5 released powered new zend engine ii php 5 included new features improved support object-oriented programming php data objects pdo extension defines lightweight consistent interface accessing databases numerous performance enhancements 2008 php 5 became stable version development late static binding missing php added version 5.3 many high-profile open-source projects ceased support php 4 new code february 5 2008 gophp5 initiative provided consortium php developers promoting transition php 4 php 5 time php interpreters became available existing 32-bit 64-bit operating systems either building php source code using pre-built binaries php versions 5.3 5.4 available microsoft windows binary distributions 32-bit ia-32 builds requiring windows 32-bit compatibility mode using internet information services iis 64-bit windows platform php version 5.5 made 64-bit x86-64 builds available microsoft windows official security support php 5.6 ended 31 december 2018 debian 8.0 jessie extend support june 2020 php received mixed reviews due lacking native unicode support core language level 2005 project headed andrei zmievski initiated bring native unicode support throughout php embedding international components unicode icu library representing text strings utf-16 internally since would cause major changes internals language user code planned release version 6.0 language along major features development however shortage developers understood necessary changes performance problems arising conversion utf-16 rarely used web context led delays project result php 5.3 release created 2009 many non-unicode features back-ported php 6 notably namespaces march 2010 project current form officially abandoned php 5.4 release prepared containing remaining non-unicode features php 6 traits closure re-binding initial hopes new plan would formed unicode integration none adopted 2014 2015 new major php version developed numbered php 7 numbering version involved debate php 6 unicode experiment never released several articles book titles referenced php 6 name might caused confusion new release reuse name vote name php 7 chosen foundation php 7 php branch originally dubbed php next generation phpng authored dmitry stogov xinchen hui nikita popov aimed optimize php performance refactoring zend engine retaining near-complete language compatibility wordpress-based benchmarks served main benchmark suite phpng project showed almost 100 increase performance changes phpng also expected make easier improve performance future compact data structures changes seen better suited successful migration just-in-time jit compiler significant changes reworked zend engine called zend engine 3 succeeding zend engine 2 used php 5 major internal changes phpng must receive new major version number php rather minor php 5 release according php release process major versions php allowed break backward-compatibility code therefore php 7 presented opportunity improvements beyond phpng require backward-compatibility breaks particular involved following changes php 7 also included new language features notably introduces return type declarations functions complement existing parameter type declarations support scalar types integer float string boolean parameter return type declarations beginning june 28 2011 php development team implemented timeline release new versions php system least one release occur every month per year minor release occur may include new features every minor release least supported two years security bug fixes followed least one year security fixes total three-year release process every minor release new features unless small self-contained introduced minor release three-year release process mascot php project elephpant blue elephant php logo side designed vincent pontier 1998 php letters forming shape elephant viewed sideways angle elephpant sometimes differently colored plush toy form many variations mascot made years elephpants based original design vincent pontier considered official community highly collectible extremely rare different variations listed field guide elephpants following hello world program written php code embedded html document doctype html title php hello world program /title php echo p hello world /p however requirement exists php code embedded html simplest version hello world may written like closing tag omitted preferred files containing pure php code well requirement php file contain php code interpreter output data outside php tags unchanged simple text file containing codice_13 give output php interpreter executes php code within delimiters anything outside delimiters processed php although non-php text still subject control structures described php code common delimiters php open close php sections shortened form also exists short delimiter makes script files less portable since support disabled local php configuration therefore discouraged recommendation echo short tag prior php 5.4.0 short syntax echo works codice_14 configuration setting enabled php 5.4.0 later always available purpose delimiters separate php code non-php content javascript code html markup first form delimiters php xhtml xml documents creates correctly formed xml processing instructions means resulting mixture php code markup server-side file well-formed xml variables prefixed dollar symbol type need specified advance php 5 introduced type hinting allows functions force parameters objects specific class arrays interfaces callback functions however php 7.0 type hints could used scalar types integer string unlike function class names variable names case sensitive double-quoted heredoc strings provide ability interpolate variable value string php treats newlines whitespace manner free-form language statements terminated semicolon php three types comment syntax / */ marks block inline comments // used one-line comments codice_15 statement one several facilities php provides output text terms keywords language syntax php similar c style syntax conditions loops function returns similar syntax languages c c++ c java perl php stores integers platform-dependent range either 64-bit 32-bit 128-bit signed integer equivalent c-language long type unsigned integers converted signed values certain situations behavior different programming languages integer variables assigned using decimal positive negative octal hexadecimal binary notations floating point numbers also stored platform-specific range specified using floating point notation two forms scientific notation php native boolean type similar native boolean types java c++ using boolean type conversion rules non-zero values interpreted true zero false perl c++ null data type represents variable value codice_16 allowed value data type old versions interpreter allowed multiple copies value exist variables resource type represent references resources external sources typically created functions particular extension processed functions extension examples include file image database resources arrays contain elements type php handle including resources objects even arrays order preserved lists values hashes keys values two intermingled php also supports strings used single quotes double quotes nowdoc heredoc syntax standard php library spl attempts solve standard problems implements efficient data access interfaces classes php defines large array functions core language many also available various extensions functions well documented online php documentation however built-in library wide variety naming conventions associated inconsistencies described history custom functions may defined developer function myage int birthyear string echo currently myage 1995 old 2019 output sample program currently 24 years old lieu function pointers functions php referenced string containing name manner normal php functions used example callbacks within function tables user-defined functions may created time without prototyped functions may defined inside code blocks permitting run-time decision whether function defined codice_17 function determines whether function given name already defined function calls must use parentheses exception zero-argument class constructor functions called php operator codice_18 case parentheses optional php 5.3 support anonymous functions closures exist php codice_19 exists since php 4.0.1 merely thin wrapper around codice_20 allows normal php functions created program execution php 5.3 added syntax define anonymous function closure capture variables surrounding scope function getadder x adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 example codice_21 function creates closure using passed argument keyword codice_22 imports variable lexical context takes additional argument returns created closure caller function first-class object meaning stored variable passed parameter functions etc unusually dynamically typed language php supports type declarations function parameters enforced runtime supported classes interfaces since php 5.0 arrays since php 5.1 callables since php 5.4 scalar integer float string boolean types since php 7.0 php 7.0 also type declarations function return types expressed placing type name list parameters preceded colon example codice_23 function earlier example could annotated types like php 7 function getadder int x closure adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 echo adder null // throws exception incorrect type passed adder getadder // would also throw exception default scalar type declarations follow weak typing principles example parameter type codice_24 php would allow integers also convertible numeric strings floats booleans passed function would convert however php 7 strict typing mode used disallows conversions function calls returns within file basic object-oriented programming functionality added php 3 improved php 4 allowed php gain abstraction making creative tasks easier programmers using language object handling completely rewritten php 5 expanding feature set enhancing performance previous versions php objects handled like value types drawback method code make heavy use php reference variables wanted modify object passed rather creating copy new approach objects referenced handle value php 5 introduced private protected member variables methods along abstract classes final classes abstract methods final methods also introduced standard way declaring constructors destructors similar object-oriented languages c++ standard exception handling model furthermore php 5 added interfaces allowed multiple interfaces implemented special interfaces allow objects interact runtime system objects implementing arrayaccess used array syntax objects implementing iterator iteratoraggregate used codice_6 language construct virtual table feature engine static variables bound name instead reference compile time developer creates copy object using reserved word codice_26 zend engine check whether codice_27 method defined call default codice_27 copy object properties codice_27 method defined responsible setting necessary properties created object convenience engine supply function imports properties source object programmer start by-value replica source object override properties need changed following basic example object-oriented programming php php abstract class user class student extends user class teacher extends user students teachers echo students \n foreach students student echo teachers \n foreach teachers teacher // output program // students // hello name alice learn computer science // hello name bob learn computer science // hello name charlie learn business studies // teachers // hello name dan teach computer science information security // hello name erin teach computer science 3d graphics programming // hello name frankie teach online marketing business studies e-commerce visibility php properties methods defined using keywords codice_30 codice_31 codice_32 default public var used codice_33 synonym codice_30 items declared codice_30 accessed everywhere codice_32 limits access inherited classes class defines item codice_31 limits visibility class defines item objects type access private protected members even though instance original complete widely used php implementation powered zend engine known simply php disambiguate implementations sometimes unofficially called zend php zend engine compiles php source code on-the-fly internal format execute thus works interpreter also reference implementation php php formal specification semantics zend php define semantics php due complex nuanced semantics php defined zend works difficult competing implementations offer complete compatibility php single-request-per-script-execution model fact zend engine interpreter leads inefficiency result various products developed help improve php performance order speed execution time compile php source code every time web page accessed php scripts also deployed php engine internal format using opcode cache works caching compiled form php script opcodes shared memory avoid overhead parsing compiling code every time script runs opcode cache zend opcache built php since version 5.5 another example widely used opcode cache alternative php cache apc available pecl extension zend php still popular implementation several implementations developed compilers support jit compilation hence offer performance benefits zend php expense lacking full php compatibility alternative implementations include following php free software released php license stipulates restriction use php makes php license incompatible general public license gpl zend license incompatible due advertising clause similar original bsd license php includes various free open-source libraries source distribution uses resulting php binary builds php fundamentally internet-aware system built-in modules accessing file transfer protocol ftp servers many database servers including postgresql mysql microsoft sql server sqlite embedded database ldap servers others numerous functions familiar c programmers stdio family available standard php builds php allows developers write extensions c add functionality php language php extensions compiled statically php loaded dynamically runtime numerous extensions written add support windows api process management unix-like operating systems multibyte strings unicode curl several popular compression formats php features made available extensions include integration irc dynamic generation images adobe flash content php data objects pdo abstraction layer used accessing databases even speech synthesis language core functions dealing strings arrays also implemented extensions php extension community library pecl project repository extensions php language projects zephir provide ability php extensions created high-level language compiled native php extensions approach instead writing php extensions directly c simplifies development extensions reduces time required programming testing php group consisted ten people thies c. arntzen stig bakken shane caraveo andi gutmans rasmus lerdorf sam ruby sascha schumann zeev suraski jim winstead andrei zmievski zend technologies provides php certification based php 5.5 exam programmers become certified php developers two primary ways adding support php web server – native web server module cgi executable php direct module interface called server application programming interface sapi supported many web servers including apache http server microsoft iis netscape defunct iplanet web servers omnihttpd support internet server application programming interface isapi microsoft web server module interface php module support web server always used common gateway interface cgi fastcgi processor case web server configured use php cgi executable process requests php files php-fpm fastcgi process manager alternative fastcgi implementation php bundled official php distribution since version 5.3.3 compared older fastcgi implementation contains additional features mostly useful heavily loaded web servers using php command-line scripting php command-line interface cli executable needed php supports cli server application programming interface sapi php 4.3.0 main focus sapi developing shell applications using php quite differences cli sapi sapis although share many behaviors php direct module interface called sapi different web servers case php 5 apache 2.0 windows provided form dll file called module among functions provides interface php web server implemented form server understands form known sapi different kinds sapis various web server extensions example addition listed sapis php language include common gateway interface cgi command-line interface cli php also used writing desktop graphical user interface gui applications using php-gtk extension php-gtk included official php distribution extension used php versions 5.1.0 newer common way installing php-gtk compiling source code php installed used cloud environments software development kits sdks provided using cloud-specific features example numerous configuration options supported affecting core php features extensions configuration file codice_40 searched different locations depending way php used configuration file split various sections configuration options also set within web server configuration php general-purpose scripting language especially suited server-side web development case php generally runs web server php code requested file executed php runtime usually create dynamic web page content dynamic images used websites elsewhere also used command-line scripting client-side graphical user interface gui applications php deployed web servers many operating systems platforms used many relational database management systems rdbms web hosting providers support php use clients available free charge php group provides complete source code users build customize extend use originally designed create dynamic web pages php focuses mainly server-side scripting similar server-side scripting languages provide dynamic content web server client microsoft asp.net sun microsystems javaserver pages codice_41 php also attracted development many software frameworks provide building blocks design structure promote rapid application development rad include prado cakephp symfony codeigniter laravel yii framework phalcon zend framework offering features similar web frameworks lamp architecture become popular web industry way deploying web applications php commonly used p bundle alongside linux apache mysql although p may also refer python perl mix three similar packages wamp mamp also available windows macos first letter standing respective operating system although php apache provided part macos base install users packages seek simpler installation mechanism easily kept date 20 million internet domains web services hosted servers php installed codice_42 recorded popular apache http server module php used server-side programming language 79.1 websites 83.5 previously language could determined web content management systems written php include mediawiki joomla ez publish ez platform silverstripe wordpress drupal moodle websites written php back-end and/or user-facing portion include facebook digg tumblr dailymotion slack specific advanced usage scenarios php offers well defined documented way writing custom extensions c c++ besides extending language form additional libraries extensions providing way improving execution speed critical room improvements using true compiled language php also offers well defined ways embedding software projects way php easily used internal scripting language another project also providing tight interfacing project specific internal data structures php received mixed reviews due lacking support multithreading core language level though using threads made possible pthreads pecl extension php used 240 million websites 39 sampled installed 2.1 million web servers command line interface php-cli two activex windows script host scripting engines php produced php 5 used web last updated security updates january 2019 php 5.6.40 2017 3 vulnerabilities listed national vulnerability database linked php historically 30 vulnerabilities listed since 1996 database linked php technical security flaws language core libraries frequent 22 2009 1 total although php applies 20 programs listed recognizing programmers make mistakes languages include taint checking automatically detect lack input validation induces many issues feature developed php inclusion release rejected several times past advanced protection patches suhosin hardening-patch especially designed web hosting environments historically old versions php configuration parameters default values runtime settings made php applications prone security issues among codice_43 codice_44 configuration directives best known latter made url parameters become php variables opening path serious security vulnerabilities allowing attacker set value uninitialized global variable interfere execution php script support magic quotes register globals settings deprecated php 5.3.0 removed php 5.4.0 another example potential runtime-settings vulnerability comes failing disable php execution example using codice_45 configuration directive directory uploaded files stored enabling result execution malicious code embedded within uploaded files best practice either locate image directory outside document root available web server serve via intermediary script disable php execution directory stores uploaded files also enabling dynamic loading php extensions via codice_46 configuration directive shared web hosting environment lead security issues implied type conversions result different values treated equal sometimes programmer intent lead security issues example result comparison codice_47 first compared value treated scientific notation value zero errors like resulted authentication vulnerabilities simple machines forum typo3 phpbb md5 password hashes compared recommended way use hash_equals timing attack safety codice_48 identity operator codice_49 results codice_50 2013 analysis 170,000 website defacements published zone-h frequently 53 used technique exploitation file inclusion vulnerability mostly related insecure usage php functions codice_51 codice_52 codice_53 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_groovy.apache groovy apache groovy java-syntax-compatible object-oriented programming language java platform static dynamic language features similar python ruby perl smalltalk used programming language scripting language java platform compiled java virtual machine jvm bytecode interoperates seamlessly java code libraries groovy uses curly-bracket syntax similar java groovy supports closures multiline strings expressions embedded strings much groovy power lies ast transformations triggered annotations groovy 1.0 released january 2 2007 groovy 2.0 july 2012 since version 2 groovy compiled statically offering type inference performance near java groovy 2.4 last major release pivotal software sponsorship ended march 2015 groovy 2.5.8 latest stable version groovy groovy since changed governance structure project management committee apache software foundation james strachan first talked development groovy blog august 2003 march 2004 groovy submitted jcp jsr 241 accepted ballot several versions released 2004 2006 java community process jcp standardization effort began version numbering changed version called 1.0 released january 2 2007 various betas release candidates numbered 1.1 december 7 2007 groovy 1.1 final released immediately renumbered groovy 1.5 reflect many changes made 2007 groovy first prize jax 2007 innovation award 2008 grails groovy web framework second prize jax 2008 innovation award november 2008 springsource acquired groovy grails company g2one august 2009 vmware acquired springsource april 2012 eight years inactivity spec lead changed status jsr 241 dormant strachan left project silently year groovy 1.0 release 2007 oct 2016 strachan stated still love groovy jenkins pipelines groovy java go typescript kotlin july 2 2012 groovy 2.0 released among new features added static compiling static type checking pivotal software joint venture spun-off emc corporation emc vmware april 2013 groovy grails formed part product portfolio pivotal ceased sponsoring groovy grails april 2015 month groovy changed governance structure codehaus repository project management committee pmc apache software foundation via incubator groovy graduated apache incubator became top-level project november 2015 valid java files also valid groovy files although two languages similar groovy code compact need elements java needs makes possible java programmers learn groovy gradually starting familiar java syntax acquiring groovy programming idioms groovy features available java include static dynamic typing keyword codice_1 operator overloading native syntax lists associative arrays maps native support regular expressions polymorphic iteration string interpolation added helper methods safe navigation operator codice_2 check automatically null pointers example codice_3 codice_4 since version 2 groovy also supports modularity able ship needed jars according project needs thus reducing size groovy library type checking static compiling project coin syntax enhancements multicatch blocks ongoing performance enhancements using codice_5 instruction introduced java 7 groovy provides native support various markup languages xml html accomplished via inline document object model dom syntax feature enables definition manipulation many types heterogeneous data assets uniform concise syntax programming methodology unlike java groovy source code file executed uncompiled script contains code outside class definition class main method runnable groovytestcase groovy script fully parsed compiled generated executing similar perl ruby occurs hood compiled version saved artifact process groovybeans groovy version javabeans groovy implicitly generates getters setters following code codice_6 codice_7 implicitly generated last two lines appear access color directly actually calling implicitly generated methods groovy offers simple consistent syntax handling lists maps reminiscent java array syntax groovy offers support prototype extension codice_8 extension modules groovy 2 objective-c-like categories codice_9 codice_8 offers domain-specific language dsl express changes class easily similar ruby open class concept groovy changes code prototyping visible java since attribute/method invocation groovy goes metaclass registry changed code accessed java going metaclass registry groovy also allows overriding methods codice_11 codice_12 among others enabling developer intercept calls object specify action simplified aspect-oriented way following code enables class codice_13 respond codice_14 property grails framework uses metaprogramming extensively enable gorm dynamic finders like codice_15 others groovy syntax permits omitting parentheses dots situations following groovy code written enabling development domain-specific languages dsls look like plain english although groovy mostly object-oriented language also offers functional programming features according groovy documentation closures groovy work similar 'method pointer enabling code written run later point time groovy closures support free variables i.e variables explicitly passed parameter exist declaration context partial application terms 'currying delegation implicit typed untyped parameters working collections determined type closure passed operation collection inferred group expressions written closure block without reference implementation responding object assigned later point using delegation usually called partial application groovy feature allows closures parameters set default parameter arguments creating new closure bound value supplying one argument codice_16 method fix argument one supplying n arguments fix arguments 1 .. n. curry also used reverse direction fixing arguments n n 1 using codice_17 groovy also supports lazy evaluation reduce/fold infinite structures immutability among others javascript object notation json xml processing groovy employs builder pattern making production data structure less verbose example following xml generated via following groovy code also processed streaming way codice_18 change implementation json codice_19 swapped codice_20 parse search functional language groovy codice_21 method serve groovy strings interpolated variables expressions using gstrings gstrings containing variables expressions must declared using double quotes complex expression must enclosed curly brackets prevents parts interpreted belonging surrounding string instead expression expression evaluation deferred employing arrow syntax according groovy documentation groovy compiler compiles groovy scripts classes point process source code end represented memory form concrete syntax tree transformed abstract syntax tree purpose ast transformations let developers hook compilation process able modify ast turned bytecode run jvm ast transformations provides groovy improved compile-time metaprogramming capabilities allowing powerful flexibility language level without runtime performance penalty examples asts groovy among others according groovy documentation traits structural construct language allows composition behaviors runtime implementation interfaces behavior overriding compatibility static type checking/compilation traits seen interfaces carrying default implementations state trait defined using trait keyword used like normal interface using keyword codice_22 traits allow wide range abilities simple composition testing notable examples groovy adoption include many integrated development environments ides text editors support groovy one alternative implementation groovy Target text information: vibe.d.vibe.d vibe.d open-source software web framework asynchronous i/o toolkit written programming language vibe.d deal requests per second common platforms I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	7,987	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: bee_card.bee card rom cartridge developed hudson soft software distribution medium msx computers bee cards approximately size credit card thicker compared game cartridges bee card small compact card size atari corporation also adopted atari portfolio handheld pc released 1989 also used korg synthesizers workstations external storage user content like sound programs song data small number msx software titles published bee card order accept bee card cartridge slot msx fitted removable adapter hudson soft beepack first mass-produced bee cards however eeprom telephone cards manufactured mitsubishi plastics first sold japan 1985 trade names bee card bee pack derive hudson soft corporate logo features cartoon bee hudson soft software publishers distributed least eleven msx software titles bee card hudson soft later collaborated nec develop video game console called pc engine companies elected use hudson soft slim rom cartridge technology distribute pc engine software hudson soft adapted design needs produced hucard hucards slightly thicker bee cards also whereas bee card 32 pins hucard 38 1-hop neighbor's text information: star_force.star force released north america video ware arcades mega force vertically scrolling shooter released 1984 tehkan game player pilots starship called final star shooting various enemies destroying enemy structures points unlike later vertical scrolling shooters like toaplan twin cobra final star two levels weapon power secondary weapons like missiles and/or bombs stage game named letter greek alphabet certain versions game additional level called infinity represented infinity symbol occurs omega game repeats indefinitely nes version defeating omega target player see black screen tecmo logo announcing future release sequel super star force infinity target becomes available game repeats level boss without increasing difficulty star force ported published 1985 hudson soft msx home computer family computer famicom japan north american version nintendo entertainment system nes published 1987 tecmo although nes version hudson port released famicom japan tecmo made alterations graphics music control increased difficulty game also despite u.s. arcade version titled mega force tecmo decided release nes version original name star force star force also ported sg-1000 sega x68000 dempa shinbunsha mobile phones tecmo 1995 along two nes shooters famicom version star force remade hudson soft minimal upgrades super famicom part japan-only release caravan shooting collection version also included hudson compilation nes shooters 2006 hudson best collection vol 5 original arcade version later added compilation titled tecmo classic arcade released xbox 2009 arcade version made available download wii virtual console 500 wii points one four initial offerings virtual console arcade category wii shop channel three gaplus mappy tower druaga namco 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan Target text information: star_soldier_(video_game).star soldier video game mobile versions released january 26 2001 japan star soldier special+ 2004 star soldier sp arcade 2005 2008 're also released palm os november 2001 japan ios january 4 2012 united states star soldier spawned numerous sequels starting super star soldier pc engine ported game boy advance 2004 japan part famicom mini series wii virtual console japanese north american regions july 2007 enhanced remake game released playstation portable japan 2005 3ds virtual console re-released konami november 14 2012 japan august 15 2013 pal version september 24 2013 north america ios version titled june 20 2013 japan I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	7,079	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: mac_os_9.mac os 9 mac os 9 ninth major release apple classic mac os operating system introduced october 23 1999 promoted apple best internet operating system ever highlighting sherlock 2 internet search capabilities integration apple free online services known itools improved open transport networking mac os 9 lacks protected memory full pre-emptive multitasking lasting improvements include introduction automated software update engine support multiple users apple discontinued development mac os 9 2001 transitioning future development mac os x final updates mac os 9 addressed compatibility issues mac os x running classic environment compatibility carbon applications 2002 world wide developers conference steve jobs began keynote address staging mock funeral os 9 apple billed mac os 9 including 50 new features heavily marketed sherlock 2 software introduced channels feature searching different online resources introduced quicktime-like metallic appearance mac os 9 also featured integrated support apple ’ suite internet services known itools later re-branded .mac mobileme replaced icloud included improved tcp/ip functionality open transport 2.5 features new mac os 9 include powerpc versions os x prior 10.5 include compatibility layer shell called classic enabling users run applications hardware requiring mac os 9 within os x achieved running mac os 9 without access finder inside os x requires mac os 9 installed computer even though computers run classic environment necessarily able boot mac os 9 mac os 9 applications run well classic demonstrate screen redraw problems lagging performance addition drivers software directly interact hardware fail work properly may 2002 apple worldwide developers conference san jose california steve jobs accompanied coffin held mock funeral announce apple stopped development mac os 9 mac os 9.2.2 released december 2001 final version mac os 9 classic mac os june 2005 jobs announced macintosh platform would transitioning intel x86 microprocessors developer documentation rosetta powerpc emulation layer revealed applications written mac os 8 9 would run x86-based macs classic environment remains powerpc version os x 10.4 however x86 versions os x support classic environment workaround intel-based macs mac os 9 emulated version 9.0.4 using sheepshaver powerpc emulator emulate versions newer 9.0.4 sheepshaver emulate memory management unit pearpc powerpc emulator support mac os 9 recently qemu added support emulating mac os 9 powerpc versions os x however mac os 9 longer supported apple retail copies still available several internet businesses varying prices although classed abandonware development ended still use upgrade os x due hardware limitations prefer os x. mac os 9 also popular choice retrocomputing hobbyists mac gamers also sometimes revert classic often via emulation native os 9 order play games supported os x example bugdom nanosaur oregon trail civilization ii marathon trilogy aside apple-branded hardware still maintained operated mac os 9 operated environments windows unix example aforementioned sheepshaver software designed use x86 platforms required actual powerpc processor present machine running similar hypervisor although provides powerpc processor support run mac os 9.0.4 emulate memory management unit updates mac os 9 include 9.0.4 9.1 9.2.1 9.2.2 mac os 9.0.4 collection bug fixes primarily relating usb firewire support mac os 9.1 included integrated cd burning support macintosh finder added new window menu finder switching open windows mac os 9.2 increased performance noticeably improved classic environment support mac os 9.2 officially supported g3 power macs could still installed certain unsupported powerpc models use third-party software mac os 9 helper Target text information: openplay.openplay openplay name open-source cross-platform networking library created apple inc. openplay compiles runs classic mac os macos windows linux operating systems openplay high-level networking solution game applications known abstraction game player top automatically managed networking core version 2.0 includes netsprockets api mac os 9 netsprockets subset apple obsolete game sprockets I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,966	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: software_as_a_service.software service software service saas software licensing delivery model software licensed subscription basis centrally hosted sometimes referred on-demand software formerly referred software plus services microsoft saas typically accessed users using thin client e.g via web browser saas become common delivery model many business applications including office software messaging software payroll processing software dbms software management software cad software development software gamification virtualization accounting collaboration customer relationship management crm management information systems mis enterprise resource planning erp invoicing human resource management hrm talent acquisition learning management systems content management cm geographic information systems gis service desk management saas incorporated strategy nearly leading enterprise software companies according gartner estimate saas sales 2018 expected grow 23 72 billion saas applications also known web-based software on-demand software hosted software term software service saas considered part nomenclature cloud computing along infrastructure service iaas platform service paas desktop service daas managed software service msaas mobile backend service mbaas information technology management service itmaas centralized hosting business applications dates back 1960s starting decade ibm mainframe providers conducted service bureau business often referred time-sharing utility computing services included offering computing power database storage banks large organizations worldwide data centers expansion internet 1990s brought new class centralized computing called application service providers asp asps provided businesses service hosting managing specialized business applications goal reducing costs central administration solution provider specialization particular business application two world pioneers largest asps usi headquartered washington dc area futurelink corporation headquartered irvine california software service essentially extends idea asp model term software service saas however commonly used specific settings acronym first appeared goods services description uspto trademark filed september 23 1985 dbaas database service emerged sub-variety saas type cloud database cloud saas model physical need indirect distribution distributed physically deployed almost instantaneously thereby negating need traditional partners middlemen however market grown saas managed service players forced try redefine role unlike traditional software conventionally sold perpetual license up-front cost optional ongoing support fee saas providers generally price applications using subscription fee commonly monthly fee annual fee consequently initial setup cost saas typically lower equivalent enterprise software saas vendors typically price applications based usage parameters number users using application however saas environment customers data reside saas vendor opportunities also exist charge per transaction event unit value number processors required relatively low cost user provisioning i.e. setting new customer multitenant environment enables saas vendors offer applications using freemium model model free service made available limited functionality scope fees charged enhanced functionality larger scope saas applications completely free users revenue derived alternative sources advertising key driver saas growth saas vendors ability provide price competitive on-premises software consistent traditional rationale outsourcing systems involves applying economies scale application operation i.e. outside service provider may able offer better cheaper reliable applications vast majority saas solutions based multitenant architecture model single version application single configuration hardware network operating system used customers tenants support scalability application installed multiple machines called horizontal scaling cases second version application set offer select group customers access pre-release versions applications e.g. beta version testing purposes contrasted traditional software multiple physical copies software — potentially different version potentially different configuration often customized — installed across various customer sites traditional model version application based unique code although exception rather norm saas solutions use multitenancy use mechanisms—such virtualization—to cost-effectively manage large number customers place multitenancy whether multitenancy necessary component software service topic controversy two main varieties saas although software-as-a-service applications share traits characteristics common among many saas applications saas applications similarly support traditionally known application configuration words like traditional enterprise software single customer alter set configuration options a.k.a parameters affect functionality look-and-feel customer may settings parameter values configuration options application customized degree designed based set predefined configuration options example support customers common need change application look-and-feel application appears customer brand or—if desired—co-branded many saas applications let customers provide self service interface working application provider staff custom logo sometimes set custom colors customer however change page layout unless option designed saas applications often updated frequently traditional software many cases weekly monthly basis enabled several factors accelerated feature delivery enabled agile software development methodologies methodologies evolved mid-1990s provide set software development tools practices support frequent software releases saas applications access company internal systems databases internal services predominantly offer integration protocols application programming interfaces apis operate wide area network typically protocols based http rest soap ubiquity saas applications internet services standardization api technology spawned development mashups lightweight applications combine data presentation functionality multiple services creating compound service mashups differentiate saas applications on-premises software latter easily integrated outside company firewall inspired success online social networks so-called web 2.0 functionality many saas applications offer features let users collaborate share information example many project management applications delivered saas model offer—in addition traditional project planning functionality—collaboration features letting users comment tasks plans share documents within outside organization several saas applications let users vote offer new feature ideas although collaboration-related functionality also integrated on-premises software implicit explicit collaboration users different customers possible centrally hosted software opensaas refers software service saas based open source code similar saas applications open saas web-based application hosted supported maintained service provider roadmap open saas applications defined community users upgrades product enhancements managed central provider term coined 2011 dries buytaert creator drupal content management framework andrew hoppin former chief information officer new york state senate vocal advocate opensaas government calling future government innovation points wordpress unified successful example opensaas software delivery model gives customers best worlds options fact open source means start building websites self-hosting wordpress customizing website heart ’ content concurrently fact wordpress saas means ’ manage website -- simply pay wordpress.com host drupal gardens free web hosting platform based open source drupal content management system offers another example forbes contributor dan woods calls new open source model saas according woods open source provides escape hatch drupal gardens users able press button get source code version drupal code runs site along data database take code put one hosting companies anything would like several important changes software market technology landscape facilitated acceptance growth saas solutions limitations slow acceptance saas prohibit used cases standard model also limitations engineering simulation software traditionally delivered on-premises solution user desktop ideal candidate saas delivery market saas engineering simulation software infancy interest concept growing similar reasons interest saas growing industries main driver traditional engineering simulation software required large up-front investment order access simulation software large investment kept engineering simulation inaccessible many startups middle market companies reluctant unable risk large software expenditure unproven projects according survey himss analytics 83 us healthcare organizations using cloud services 9.3 planning whereas 67 healthcare organizations currently running saas-based applications software service data escrow process keeping copy critical software-as-a-service application data independent third party similar source code escrow critical software source code stored independent third party saas data escrow applies logic data within saas application allows companies protect insure data resides within saas applications protecting data loss many varied reasons considering saas data escrow including concerns vendor bankruptcy unplanned service outages potential data loss corruption many businesses also keen ensure complying data governance standards want improved reporting business analytics saas data research conducted clearpace software ltd. growth saas showed 85 percent participants wanted take copy saas data third participants wanted copy daily basis one notable criticism saas comes richard stallman free software foundation refers service software substitute saass considers use saass violation principles free software according stallman saas products face problem 2010 forbes contributor dan woods noted drupal gardens web hosting platform based open source drupal content management system new open source model saas added similarly mediawiki wordpress many extensions increasingly used wide variety internal applications well public web services obtaining code relatively simple integration existing extensions plug-ins templates etc actual customizations rare usually quickly replaced standard publicly available extensions additionally guarantee software source code obtained means accurately reflects software system claims reflect andrew hoppin former chief information officer new york state senate refers combination saas open source software opensaas points wordpress another successful example opensaas software delivery model gives customers best worlds options fact open source means start building websites self-hosting wordpress customizing website heart ’ content concurrently fact wordpress saas means ’ manage website – simply pay wordpress.com host cloud saas model physical need indirect distribution distributed physically deployed almost instantaneously thereby negating need traditional partners middlemen 1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process Target text information: tradegecko.tradegecko tradegecko singapore based software-as-a-service company develops online inventory order management software targeted smes company recognised one innovative business-to-business software providers red herring asia 100 tradegecko launched 2013 carl thompson brothers cameron bradley priest three new zealanders thompson ran label crowded elevator saw need solution managing inventory administration made decision create one “ running clothing label exciting enjoyed lot grew fast amount administration quickly overwhelmed us ’ find solution pull together spreadsheets manual data processing turned absolute nightmare said trio went jfdi.asia accelerate program going raise round financing singapore-based investors april 2015 tradegecko raised 6.5 million series round led nsi ventures jungle ventures tradegecko provides inventory management platform targeted wholesalers online retailers system also integrates cloud based software shopify e-commerce woocommerce e-commerce xero accounting software designed help businesses manage sales supply chains inventory control customer supplier tracking intelligence reports customers able generate sales purchase orders create reports track inventory multiple warehouses tradegecko also released mobile tablet apps system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	4,142	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu/linux_naming_controversy.gnu/linux naming controversy gnu/linux naming controversy dispute members free software community open-source software community whether refer computer operating systems use combination gnu software linux kernel gnu/linux linux proponents term linux argue far commonly used public media serves generic term systems combine kernel software multiple sources proponents term gnu/linux note gnu alone would good name gnu variants combine gnu operating system software software sources gnu/linux term promoted free software foundation fsf founder richard stallman proponents call correction extended term grounds n't give credit major contributor associated free software philosophy gnu longstanding project begun 1984 develop free operating system argued linux kernel independently created 1991 merely provided substantial missing piece several distributions employ fsf-endorsed name debian trisquel parabola gnu/linux-libre 1983 richard stallman founder free software foundation set forth plans complete unix-like operating system called gnu composed entirely free software september year stallman published manifesto dr. dobb journal detailing new project publicly outlining vision free software software development work began january 1984 1991 gnu mid-level portions operating system almost complete upper level could supplied x window system lower level kernel device drivers system-level utilities daemons still mostly lacking gnu kernel called gnu hurd hurd followed ambitious design proved unexpectedly difficult implement marginally usable independently 1991 linus torvalds released first version linux kernel early linux developers ported gnu code including gnu c compiler run linux free software community adopted use linux kernel missing kernel gnu operating system work filled remaining gaps providing completely free operating system next years several suggestions arose naming operating systems using linux kernel gnu components 1992 yggdrasil linux distribution adopted name linux/gnu/x usenet mailing-list discussions one find usages gnu/linux early 1992 gnu+linux early 1993 debian project one time sponsored free software foundation switched calling product debian gnu/linux early 1994 change followed request richard stallman initially proposed lignux suggested gnu/linux instead hearing complaints awkwardness former term gnu june 1994 bulletin describes linux free unix system 386 machines many utilities libraries gnu january 1995 bulletin switched term gnu/linux instead stallman fsf efforts include gnu name started around 1994 reportedly mostly via private communications above-mentioned request debian 1996 may 1996 stallman released emacs 19.31 autoconf system target linux changed lignux shortly thereafter changed linux-gnu emacs 19.32 included essay linux gnu system suggesting people use terms linux-based gnu system gnu/linux system lignux short later used gnu/linux exclusively essay superseded stallman 1997 essay linux gnu project modern free software open-source software systems composed software many different authors including linux kernel developers gnu project vendors behind x window system desktop- server-based distributions use gnu components gnu c library glibc gnu core utilities coreutils bash 2002 analysis source code red hat linux 7.1 typical linux distribution total size packages gnu project found much larger linux kernel later 2011 analysis ubuntu natty release popular linux distribution main repository found 8 13 consisted gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu 6 taken linux kernel 9 including direct dependencies determining exactly constitutes operating system per se matter continuing debate hand embedded systems handheld devices smartphones like google android residential gateways routers voice ip devices engineered space efficiency mind use linux kernel components gnu system running μclinux likely substitute uclibc glibc busybox coreutils google linux-based android operating system use gnu components libraries replacing glibc google bsd-based bionic c library fsf agrees gnu/linux appropriate name systems also systems use gnu userspace and/or c library top non-linux kernel example debian gnu/hurd gnu userland gnu kernel debian gnu/kfreebsd uses gnu coreutils c library kernel freebsd fsf justifies name gnu/linux primarily grounds gnu project specifically developing complete system argue linux kernel filled one final gaps large number gnu components gnu source code used systems secondary argument addition fsf also argues gnu/linux recognizes role idealism played building community helps public recognize practical importance ideals contrast focus technical advantage rather freedom linux kernel developers case linux kernel notable recurring examples focus technical advantage freedom come long-time inclusion linux kernel many non-free firmware files files non-free license terms ordinary understanding operating system includes kernel—the specific subsystem directly interfaces hardware—and userland software employed user application software control computer moreover name gnu name linux intentionally related name unix unix always conceptually included c library userland tools well kernel 1991 release notes versions 0.01 0.11 linux kernel released gnu general public license version 0.12 torvalds wrote torvalds also wrote 1992 tanenbaum-torvalds debate tanenbaum criticized torvalds developing linux monolithic kernel considered obsolete inferior microkernels mach believed linux would rejected favor gnu hurd microkernel stalled development years use word linux refer kernel operating system entire distributions often leads confusion distinctions among three many gnu packages key part almost every linux distribution particularly gnu toolchain present distros unless android included media sources sometimes make erroneous statements well claiming entire operating system rather simply kernel written torvalds confusion legal threats public relations campaigns apparently directed kernel launched sco group alexis de tocqueville institution adti misinterpreted many commentators assume whole operating system targeted sco adti even accused deliberately exploiting confusion regarding suggestions renaming efforts stem egotism personal pique stallman responded interest giving credit gnu project people think want ego fed course 'm asking call 'stallmanix stallman admitted irritation although believes justified response seeing idealistic project stymied made ineffective people n't usually give credit done concluding 're idealist like ruin whole decade response another common argument see fsf acknowledges many people contributed system short name credit argues justify calling system linux continuing speak subject 2010 stallman stated naming simply matter giving equal mention gnu project system widely referred linux people tend think linux started mr. torvalds 1991 think comes vision life really bad problem linux far widespread name eric s. raymond writes linux entry jargon file linus torvalds asked documentary revolution os whether name gnu/linux justified replied earlier comment torvalds naming controversy name gnu/linux particularly using stallman preferred pronunciation see criticized perceived clumsiness verbosity factor torvalds cited downfall operating systems 386bsd linux journal speculated stallman advocacy combined name stems frustration linus got glory stallman wanted others suggested regardless merits stallman persistence sometimes seems lost cause makes gnu look bad example larry mcvoy author bitkeeper used manage linux kernel development opined claiming credit makes one look foolish greedy many users vendors prefer name linux jim gettys one original developers x window system point inclusion non-gnu non-kernel tools kde libreoffice firefox end-user operating systems based linux kernel although gnu/linux often pronounced without slash stallman recommends explicitly saying word slash plus i.e gnu+linux order avoid mistaken suggestion linux kernel gnu package case gnu linux-libre 1-hop neighbor's text information: poul-henning_kamp.poul-henning kamp poul-henning kamp born 1966 danish computer software developer known work various projects currently resides slagelse denmark poul-henning kamp committing freebsd project duration responsible widely used md5crypt implementation md5 password hash algorithm vast quantity systems code including freebsd geom storage layer gbde cryptographic storage transform part ufs2 file system implementation freebsd jails malloc library ntp timecounters code lead architect developer open source varnish cache project http accelerator 2006 kamp dispute electronics manufacturer d-link claimed committing ntp vandalism embedding ip address ntp servers routers dispute resolved 27 april 2006 post poul-henning freebsd mailing lists responsible popularization term bike shed discussion derived term bikeshedding describe parkinson law triviality open source projects amount discussion subject receives inversely proportional importance poul-henning kamp known preference beerware license gnu general public license gpl poul-henning kamp made various anti-semitic comments blaming world jews collectively responsible actions israel may 8 2019 tweeted thought anti-semitism unfounded hatred jews hate something awful like implement apartheid anti-semitism perfectly justified critique people particular know better clarifying blog post later wrote readily admit probably skilled use twitter stand point kamp went say detests cowardice appaled sic arms atrocities uns human rights done name religion poul-henning kamp published substantial number articles years publications like communications acm acm queue mostly topics computing time keeping selection publications 1-hop neighbor's text information: tvos.tvos tvos operating system developed apple inc. 4th generation later apple tv digital media player tvos announced september 9 2015 apple september 2015 event alongside 4th generation apple tv october 29 2015 4th generation apple tv pre-orders began shipments began following week tvos initially based ios whereas system software 2nd 3rd generation apple tv based stripped-down versions ios 4th generation apple tv support third-party software via app store rumored prior apple september 2015 event held september 9 2015 october 30 2015 4th generation apple tv became available shipped tvos 9.0 november 9 2015 tvos 9.0.1 released primarily update address minor issues tvos 9.1 released december 8 2015 along os x 10.11.2 ios 9.2 watchos 2.1 along updates apple also updated remote apps ios watchos allowing basic remote functionality 4th generation apple tv previously said app worked past versions apple tv november 25 2015 facebook debuted sdk tvos allowing applications log facebook share facebook use facebook analytics way ios applications december 2 2015 twitter debuted login authentication service tvos – digits – allowing users log apps services simple unique code available online march 11 2016 pangu team announced twitter would creating new jailbreak tool apple tv 4 running tvos 9.0–9.0.1 would released following week june 13 2016 wwdc 2016 apple svp internet services eddy cue announced next major version tvos tvos 10. tvos 10 brings new functionality siri search enhancements single sign cable subscriptions dark mode new remote application controlling apple tv tvos 9 shipped several new features fourth generation apple tv one major features ability move interface new touchpad remote using multi-touch gestures introduced new app store users download install new applications apps games made available developers develop applications apple tv tvos tvos 9 adds support siri lets users multitude things cross-application search movie/tv show rewind fast forward name actor/director current movie skip back 15 seconds tvos added support application switcher apple tv application customization options cinematic screensavers control tv using included siri remote built-in support hdmi-cec tvos addition tvos allows user control apple tv many different ways include using included siri remote pairing third-party universal remote pairing mfi gamepad control games using remote app ios pairing bluetooth keyboard aid typing experience user tvos designed based ios tvos inherited many accessibility features ios macos tvos includes apple technologies voiceover zoom siri help blind impaired vision voiceover apple screen reader available 30 languages enables visually impaired users know visual display input responses on-screen prompts voiceover uses gestures similar apple products flicks taps rotor like apple products iphone three click sequence home button activate accessibility features apple tv tvos user activate voiceover without installation process one needs triple-click menu button siri remote apple tv guide user complete initial setup task non-trivial visually impaired comparable products market another accessibility feature increase contrast screen acts reducing transparency background elements movie tv show pages menu tabs parts operating system high-contrast also turned cursor better delineate focused content user also opt turn reduce motion screen actions moving app icons home screen launching apps visually simpler benefit reduce strain eyes tvos enables users watch movies audio descriptions shown screen movies audio descriptions displayed ad audio description icon itunes store tvos itunes macintosh windows pc pairing bluetooth keyboard tvos apple tv enables another accessibility feature also incorporation voiceover typing voiceover mirrors audio voice character pressed keyboard repeated entered apple tv designed work apple wireless keyboard apple magic keyboard work however almost brand bluetooth keyboard apple tv without tvos supports closed captioning deaf hard hearing experience tv episodes feature-length movies compatible episodes movies denoted cc closed captioning sdh subtitles deaf hard-of-hearing icon itunes store either apple tv itunes viewer customize captions episodes movies styles fonts conducive hearing and/or visual impairment touch surface siri remote customizable tracking set fast adjusts thumb movements made amplify distance relation far thumb moved glass touchpad conversely tracking set slow larger movements thumb touchpad tune distance traversed screen help people disabilities apple remote app ios devices allows control apple tv iphone ipad ipod touch ios remote app increases accessibility apple tv enabling switch control switch control unique apple technology enables navigation sequentially onscreen items perform specific actions selecting tapping dragging typing using third party bluetooth-enabled switch hardware made handicaps tvos ships all-new development tools developers tvos adds support all-new sdk developers build apps tv including apis included ios 9 metal also adds tvos app store allows users browse download install wide variety applications addition developers use interface inside application rather able use apple interface since tvos based ios easy port existing ios apps apple tv xcode making refinements app better suit larger screen apple provides xcode free charge registered apple developers develop new apple tv necessary make parallax image application icon order apple provides parallax exporter previewer development tools apple tv information new updates apple tv 2nd generation onwards published apple knowledge base ios 4.1 first version ios available apple tv 2nd generation included apple tv software 4.0 october 23 2011 apple tv 2nd generation received ios 5.0 software photo stream airplay mirroring iphone 4s ipad 2 nhl wall street journal slideshow themes netflix subtitles contrary rumors code found ios 5 release bring support bluetooth apps apple tv 2nd generation september 24 2012 apple tv 2nd generation onwards received ios 6.0 software update shared photo streams itunes account switching better airplay functionality trailers searching among smaller improvements september 20 2013 apple tv second generation onwards received ios 7.0 software update itunes radio airplay icloud september 18 2014 third generation apple tv received ios 8.0 software update redesigned ui family sharing peer-to-peer airplay tvos 9 operating system 95 based ios 9 adaptations made television interface announced september 9 2015 alongside new ipad pro iphone 6s tim cook took stage introduced tvos saying time apple tv gain modern os support apps future tv available apple tv 4th generation released october 2015 adds native sdk develop apps app store distribute support siri universal search across multiple apps operating systems developed apple inc Target text information: debian_gnu/kfreebsd.debian gnu/kfreebsd debian gnu/kfreebsd discontinued operating system released debian project used freebsd kernel gnu userland majority software debian gnu/kfreebsd built sources debian kernel packages freebsd k kfreebsd abbreviation kernel refers freebsd kernel discontinuing project debian maintained i386 amd64 ports last version debian kfreebsd debian 8 jessie rc3 debian gnu/kfreebsd created 2002 included debian 6.0 squeeze technology preview debian 7.0 wheezy official port debian gnu/kfreebsd discontinued officially supported platform debian 8.0 failed attract enough users justify burden rest project debian developers cited oss pf jails ndis zfs reasons interested freebsd kernel updated since debian 8 july 2019 however operating system continues maintained unofficially I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,027	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: variable_data_publishing.variable data publishing variable-data publishing vdp also known database publishing term referring output variable composition system systems produce electronically viewable hard-copy print output variable-data publishing term today often distinguishes output destined electronic viewing rather destined hard-copy print e.g variable data printing essentially techniques employed perform variable-data publishing utilized variable data printing difference interpretation output variable-data printing may interpreted produce various print streams page-description files e.g afp/ipds postscript pcl variable-data publishing produces electronically viewable files commonly seen forms pdf html xml variable-data composition involves use data conditionally variable-data may simple address block salutation however document textual content—including words sentences paragraphs pages entire document words make little much document composer desires variable data may also used exhibit various images logos products membership photos variable-data used build rule-based design schemes including fonts colors page formats possibilities vast variable-data tools available today make possible perform variable-data composition nearly every stage document production however level control achieved varies based upon far document production process variable-data tool deployed example variable-data insertion occurs prior output ... likely text flow layout altered nearly much control would available time initial document composition many organizations produce multiple forms output aka multi-channel output document ensures published content available recipients via form access method might require multi-channel output utilized integrity output channels often becomes important variable-data publishing may performed everything personal computer mainframe system however speed practical output volumes achieved directly affected computer power utilized term variable-data publishing likely offshoot term variable-data printing first introduced printing industry frank romano professor emeritus school print media college imaging arts sciences rochester institute technology however concept merging static document elements variable document elements predates term seen various implementations ranging simple desktop 'mail merge complex mainframe applications financial banking industry past term vdp closely associated digital printing machines however past 3 years application technology spread web pages emails mobile messaging 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_source_name.data source name computing data source name dsn sometimes known database source name though data sources comprise repositories apart databases string associated data structure used describe connection data source commonly used connection odbc dsns also exist jdbc data access mechanisms term often overlaps connection string systems make distinction dsns connection strings term often used interchangeably dsn attributes may include limited system administrator client machine generally creates separate dsn relevant data source standardizing dsns offers level indirection various applications example apache/php iis/asp take advantage accessing shared data sources two kinds dsn exist broken software e.g. crystal reports microsoft excel php perl python ruby users submit crud create read update delete queries data source establishing connection dsn asp vbscript code open dsn connection might look like following dim databaseobject1 set databaseobject1 server.createobject adodb.connection databaseobject1.open dsn=example php using pear :db package open connection without external dsn dsn-less connection i.e. using connection string code might resemble following require_once db.php // dsn driver // username password host port database dsn mysql //john pass localhost:3306/my_db db db :connect dsn php pdo dsn mysql host=localhost dbname=example dbh new pdo dsn username password perl using perl dbi module driver syntax dsn attributes requirement dbi makes information except username password supplied single string argument dsn dbi pg database=finance host=db.example.com port= port dbh dbi- connect dsn 'username 'password 1-hop neighbor's text information: database-centric_architecture.database-centric architecture database-centric architecture data-centric architecture several distinct meanings generally relating software architectures databases play crucial role often description meant contrast design alternative approach example characterization architecture database-centric may mean combination following Target text information: database_publishing.database publishing database publishing area automated media production specialized techniques used generate paginated documents source data residing traditional databases common examples mail order catalogues direct marketing report generation price lists telephone directories database content form text pictures also contain metadata related formatting special rules may apply document generation process database publishing incorporated larger workflows component documents created approved revised released basic idea using database contents like article price information fill pre-formatted template documents templates typically created normal desktop layout application certain boxes text designated placeholders placeholders targeted new content flows database allows quick generation final output case changes database quickly perform updates limited manual intervention another model database publishing found many web-to-print sites users browse templates online catalog business cards brochures personalize selected template filling form view rendered result case initial source data user input captured database user revisits site later resume editing left form pre-filled database-stored variables user entered main layout applications workflow datalogics pager adobe framemaker indesign quarkxpress xyvision arbortext advanced print publisher formerly 3b2 generally layout applications corresponding server version receives commands via web interfaces rather desktop interaction quarkxpress server adobe indesign server take full advantage design features available respective desktop versions applications make broad spectrum features available extension integration vertical products developed either internally form scripting e.g javascript applescript indesign externally api corresponding developer kits variants database publishing rendering content direct pdf output approach prevents manual intervention final output since pdf comfortably editable may perceived limitation situations like report generation manual editability needed desired I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	9,183	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: codexl.codexl codexl formerly amd codexl open-source software development tool suite includes gpu debugger gpu profiler cpu profiler graphics frame analyzer static shader/kernel analyzer codexl mainly developed amd version 2.0 codexl made part gpuopen free open-source software subject requirements mit license longer branded amd product cpu profiler power profiler included codexl version 2.5 profilers released part amd uprof tool codexl gpu debugger allows engineers debug opengl opencl api calls runtime objects debug opencl kernels set breakpoints step source code real-time view variables across different gpu cores kernel execution identify logic memory errors reduce memory transaction overhead visualize opencl/opengl buffers images opengl textures pictures spreadsheet data way improve general software quality optimize performance codexl gpu profiler collects visualizes hardware performance counters data application trace kernel occupancy offers hotspot analysis amd gpus apus profiler gathers data opencl runtime gpu/apu execution kernels used discover performance bottlenecks optimize kernel execution codexl cpu profiling suite used identify investigate improve performance applications drivers system software amd cpus codexl cpu profiler uses statistical sampling based approach various profiling techniques measures time-based profiling tbp event-based profiling ebp instruction-based sampling ibs cpu hardware performance monitors codexl cpu profiler replaces amd codeanalyst codexl static kernel analyzer allows engineers compile analyze disassemble code directx opengl vulkan shaders opencl kernels tool provides performance estimation shader/kernel different kinds amd chips without actually executing code way tool assists fine-tuning achieve best performance amd gpus q1 2017 amd codexl analyzer replaced radeon gpu analyzer rga maintaining backward compatibility radeon gpu analyzer cli offline compiler performance analysis tool directx shaders opengl shaders vulkan shaders opencl kernels version 2.0 codexl hsa profiler hsail kernel debugger support boltzmann initiative driver gcn 1.2 hardware i.e radeon r9 fury fury x fury nano carrizo apus frame analyzer collect display frame timeline applications use microsoft directx 12 vulkan analyzer view lists api call made cpu side corresponding command executed gpu side inter-linked unified timeline view well aggregated statistics user-selected specific time fragment – cumulative time type api number calls 20 longest calls codexl officially supports linux microsoft windows operating systems windows codexl available standalone application fully integrated microsoft visual studio extension codexl successfully used debug bullet latest version codexl freely available download codexl github releases page gpu perfstudio amd performance debugging tool graphics applications initially developed support direct3d opengl microsoft windows ported linux 2013 available linux since end q1 2014 suite tools considered useful developing games steam linux especially useful optimizing games amd gpus gpu perfstudio integrated frame profiles frame debugger api trace cpu timing information gpu perfstudio supports direct3d 10 direct3d 10.1 direct3d 11 opengl 4.2 described lightweight installer change game drag drop suite gpu tools run usb drive need visual studio integration runs game executables require special driver new compilation gpu perfstudio 3.6 supports direct3d 12 windows 10 vulkan windows linux gpu perfstudio available linux microsoft windows amd developer summit apu november 2013 gordon selley presented gpu perfstudio 2 steamdevdays february 2014 tony hosier gordon selley presented gpu perfstudio 2 43 minutes video gpuperfapi amd library accessing gpu performance counters amd radeon graphics cards apus used gpu perfstudio codexl also available third party developers wish incorporate within applications gpuperfapi supports directx11 opengl opencl applications gpuperfapi available linux microsoft windows 1-hop neighbor's text information: reduced_instruction_set_computer.reduced instruction set computer reduced instruction set computer risc one whose instruction set architecture isa allows fewer cycles per instruction cpi complex instruction set computer cisc various suggestions made regarding precise definition risc general concept computer small set simple general instructions rather large set complex specialized instructions another common risc trait load/store architecture memory accessed specific instructions rather part instructions although number computers 1960s 1970s identified forerunners riscs modern concept dates 1980s particular two projects stanford university university california berkeley associated popularization concept stanford mips would go commercialized successful mips architecture berkeley risc gave name entire concept commercialized sparc another success era ibm effort eventually led ibm power instruction set architecture powerpc power isa projects matured wide variety similar designs flourished late 1980s especially early 1990s representing major force unix workstation market well embedded processors laser printers routers similar products many varieties risc designs include arc alpha am29000 arm atmel avr blackfin i860 i960 m88000 mips pa-risc power isa including powerpc risc-v superh sparc use arm architecture processors smartphones tablet computers ipad android devices provided wide user base risc-based systems risc processors also used supercomputers summit world fastest supercomputer ranked top500 project alan turing 1946 automatic computing engine ace design many characteristics risc architecture number systems going back 1960s credited first risc architecture partly based use load/store approach term risc coined david patterson berkeley risc project although somewhat similar concepts appeared cdc 6600 designed seymour cray 1964 used load/store architecture two addressing modes register+register register+immediate constant 74 operation codes basic clock cycle 10 times faster memory access time partly due optimized load/store architecture cdc 6600 jack dongarra says considered forerunner modern risc systems although number technical barriers needed overcome development modern risc system michael j. flynn views first risc system ibm 801 design begun 1975 john cocke completed 1980 801 eventually produced single-chip form ibm romp 1981 stood 'research opd office products division micro processor name implies cpu designed mini tasks also used ibm rt pc 1986 turned commercial failure 801 inspired several research projects including new ones ibm would eventually lead ibm power instruction set architecture public risc designs however results university research programs run funding darpa vlsi program vlsi program practically unknown today led huge number advances chip design fabrication even computer graphics berkeley risc project started 1980 direction david patterson carlo h. sequin berkeley risc based gaining performance use pipelining aggressive use technique known register windowing traditional cpu one small number registers program use register time cpu register windows huge number registers e.g 128 programs use small number e.g eight one time program limits eight registers per procedure make fast procedure calls call simply moves window eight set eight registers used procedure return moves window back berkeley risc project delivered risc-i processor 1982 consisting 44,420 transistors compared averages 100,000 newer cisc designs era risc-i 32 instructions yet completely outperformed single-chip design followed 40,760 transistor 39 instruction risc-ii 1983 ran three times fast risc-i mips project grew graduate course john l. hennessy stanford university 1981 resulted functioning system 1983 could run simple programs 1984 mips approach emphasized aggressive clock cycle use pipeline making sure could run full possible mips system followed mips-x 1984 hennessy colleagues formed mips computer systems commercial venture resulted new architecture also called mips r2000 microprocessor 1985 early 1980s significant uncertainties surrounded risc concept uncertain could commercial future mid-1980s concepts matured enough seen commercially viable 1986 hewlett packard started using early implementation pa-risc computers meantime berkeley risc effort become well known eventually became name entire concept 1987 sun microsystems began shipping systems sparc processor directly based berkeley risc-ii system us government committee innovations computing communications credits acceptance viability risc concept success sparc system success sparc renewed interest within ibm released new risc systems 1990 1995 risc processors foundation 15 billion server industry since 2010 new open source instruction set architecture isa risc-v development university california berkeley research purposes free alternative proprietary isas 2014 version 2 user space isa fixed isa designed extensible barebones core sufficient small embedded processor supercomputer cloud computing use standard chip designer defined extensions coprocessors tested silicon design rocket soc also available open source processor generator chisel language common misunderstanding phrase reduced instruction set computer mistaken idea instructions simply eliminated resulting smaller set instructions fact years risc instruction sets grown size today many larger set instructions many cisc cpus risc processors powerpc instruction sets large cisc ibm system/370 example conversely dec pdp-8—clearly cisc cpu many instructions involve multiple memory accesses—has 8 basic instructions extended instructions term reduced phrase intended describe fact amount work single instruction accomplishes reduced—at single data memory cycle—compared complex instructions cisc cpus may require dozens data memory cycles order execute single instruction particular risc processors typically separate instructions i/o data processing term load/store architecture sometimes preferred risc architectures fixed-length instructions commonly 32 bits simple encoding simplifies fetch decode issue logic considerably one drawback 32-bit instructions reduced code density adverse characteristic embedded computing workstation server markets risc architectures originally designed serve address problem several architectures arm power isa mips risc-v adapteva epiphany optional short feature-reduced instruction format instruction compression feature sh5 also follows pattern albeit evolved opposite direction added longer media instructions original 16-bit encoding given level general performance risc chip typically far fewer transistors dedicated core logic originally allowed designers increase size register set increase internal parallelism features typically found risc architectures risc designs also likely feature harvard memory model instruction stream data stream conceptually separated means modifying memory code held might effect instructions executed processor cpu separate instruction data cache least special synchronization instruction issued upside allows caches accessed simultaneously often improve performance many early risc designs also shared characteristic branch delay slot branch delay slot instruction space immediately following jump branch instruction space executed whether branch taken words effect branch delayed instruction keeps alu cpu busy extra time normally needed perform branch nowadays branch delay slot considered unfortunate side effect particular strategy implementing risc designs modern risc designs generally away powerpc recent versions sparc mips aspects attributed first risc- labeled designs around 1975 include observations memory-restricted compilers time often unable take advantage features intended facilitate manual assembly coding complex addressing modes take many cycles perform due required additional memory accesses argued functions would better performed sequences simpler instructions could yield implementations small enough leave room many registers reducing number slow memory accesses simple designs instructions uniform length similar structure arithmetic operations restricted cpu registers separate load store instructions access memory properties enable better balancing pipeline stages making risc pipelines significantly efficient allowing higher clock frequencies early days computer industry programming done assembly language machine code encouraged powerful easy-to-use instructions cpu designers therefore tried make instructions would much work feasible advent higher level languages computer architects also started create dedicated instructions directly implement certain central mechanisms languages another general goal provide every possible addressing mode every instruction known orthogonality ease compiler implementation arithmetic operations could therefore often results well operands directly memory addition register immediate attitude time hardware design mature compiler design also reason implement parts functionality hardware microcode rather memory constrained compiler generated code alone advent risc philosophy became retroactively known complex instruction set computing cisc cpus also relatively registers several reasons important force encouraging complexity limited main memories order kilobytes therefore advantageous code density—the density information held computer programs—to high leading features highly encoded variable length instructions data loading well calculation mentioned issues higher priority ease decoding instructions equally important reason main memories quite slow common type ferrite core memory using dense information packing one could reduce frequency cpu access slow resource modern computers face similar limiting factors main memories slow compared cpu fast cache memories employed overcome limited size may partly explain highly encoded instruction sets proven useful risc designs modern computers risc developed alternative known cisc years strategies implemented alternatives risc cisc examples long instruction word vliw minimal instruction set computer misc mid-1970s researchers particularly john cocke ibm similar projects elsewhere demonstrated majority combinations orthogonal addressing modes instructions used programs generated compilers available time proved difficult many cases write compiler limited ability take advantage features provided conventional cpus also discovered microcoded implementations certain architectures complex operations tended slower sequence simpler operations thing part effect fact many designs rushed little time optimize tune every instruction used often optimized sequence instructions could faster less-tuned instruction performing equivalent operation sequence one infamous example vax codice_1 instruction mentioned elsewhere core memory long since slower many cpu designs advent semiconductor memory reduced difference still apparent registers later caches would allow higher cpu operating frequencies additional registers would require sizeable chip board areas time 1975 could made available complexity cpu logic reduced yet another impetus risc designs came practical measurements real-world programs andrew tanenbaum summed many demonstrating processors often oversized immediates instance showed 98 constants program would fit 13 bits yet many cpu designs dedicated 16 32 bits store suggests reduce number memory accesses fixed length machine could store constants unused bits instruction word would immediately ready cpu needs much like immediate addressing conventional design required small opcodes order leave room reasonably sized constant 32-bit instruction word since many real-world programs spend time executing simple operations researchers decided focus making operations fast possible clock rate cpu limited time takes execute slowest sub-operation instruction decreasing cycle-time often accelerates execution instructions focus reduced instructions led resulting machine called reduced instruction set computer risc goal make instructions simple could easily pipelined order achieve single clock throughput high frequencies later noted one significant characteristics risc processors external memory accessible load store instruction instructions limited internal registers simplified many aspects processor design allowing instructions fixed-length simplifying pipelines isolating logic dealing delay completing memory access cache miss etc two instructions led risc designs referred load/store architectures one issue complex instructions difficult restart e.g following page fault cases restarting beginning work although wasteful many cases would give incorrect results therefore machine needs hidden state remember parts went remains done load/store machine program counter sufficient describe state machine main distinguishing feature risc instruction set optimized highly regular instruction pipeline flow features associated risc—branch delay slots separate instruction data caches load/store architecture large register set etc.—may seem random assortment unrelated features helpful maintaining regular pipeline flow completes instruction every clock cycle cpus specifically designed small set instructions – designs different classic risc designs given names minimal instruction set computer misc transport triggered architecture tta etc risc architectures traditionally successes desktop pc commodity server markets x86 based platforms remain dominant processor architecture however may change arm architecture based processors developed higher performance systems manufacturers including cavium amd qualcomm released arm architecture based server processors arm partnered cray 2017 produce arm architecture based supercomputer desktop microsoft announced part partnership qualcomm planned support pc version windows 10 qualcomm snapdragon-based devices 2017 devices support x86 based win32 software via x86 processor emulator outside desktop arena however arm architecture risc widespread use smartphones tablets many forms embedded device also case since pentium pro p6 intel using internal risc processor core processors early risc designs differed significantly contemporary cisc designs 2000 highest performing cpus risc line almost indistinguishable highest performing cpus cisc line risc architectures used across wide range platforms cellular telephones tablet computers world fastest supercomputers summit fastest top500 list beginning 21st century majority low end mobile systems relied risc architectures examples include 1-hop neighbor's text information: graphics_core_next.graphics core next graphics core next gcn codename series microarchitectures well instruction set gcn developed amd gpus successor terascale microarchitecture/instruction set first product featuring gcn launched january 9 2012 gcn risc simd rather simt microarchitecture contrasting vliw simd architecture terascale gcn requires considerably transistors terascale offers advantages gpgpu computation makes compiler simpler also lead better utilization gcn graphics chips fabricated cmos 28 nm finfet 14 nm samsung electronics globalfoundries 7 nm tsmc available selected models radeon hd 7000 hd 8000 200 300 400 500 vega series amd radeon graphics cards including separately released radeon vii gcn also used graphics portion amd accelerated processing units apu playstation 4 xbox one apus gcn instruction set owned amd also owns x86-64 instruction set gcn instruction set developed specifically gpus gpgpu example micro-operation division documentation available llvm code generator compiler back-end available gcn instruction set used mesa 3d miaow open-source rtl implementation amd southern islands gpgpu instruction set aka graphics core next november 2015 amd announced boltzmann initiative amd boltzmann initiative shall enable porting cuda-based applications common c++ programming model super computing 15 amd showed heterogeneous compute compiler hcc headless linux driver hsa runtime infrastructure cluster-class high performance computing hpc heterogeneous-compute interface portability hip tool porting cuda-based applications common c++ programming model july 2017 family microarchitectures implementing identically called instruction set graphics core next seen five iterations differences instruction set rather minimal differentiate much one another exception fifth generation gcn architecture heavily modified stream processors improve performance support simultaneous processing two lower precision numbers place single higher precision number graphics command processor gcp functional unit gcn microarchitecture among tasks responsible asynchronous shaders short video amd asynchronous shaders visualizes differences multi thread preemption asynchronous shaders asynchronous compute engine ace distinct functional block serving computing purposes purpose similar graphics command processor since third iteration gcn hardware contains two schedulers one schedule wavefronts shader execution cu scheduler see new one schedule execution draw compute queues latter helps performance executing compute operations cus underutilized graphics commands limited fixed function pipeline speed bandwidth limited functionality known async compute given shader gpu drivers also need select good instruction order order minimize latency done cpu sometimes referred scheduling geometry processor contains geometry assembler tesselator vertex assembler gcn tesselator geometry processor capable tessellation hardware defined direct3d 11 opengl 4.5 see amd january 21 2017 gcn tesselator amd current sip block earlier units ati truform hardware tessellation terascale one compute unit combines 64 shader processors 4 tmus compute unit separate feed render output units rops compute unit consists cu scheduler branch message unit 4 simd vector units 16-lane wide 4 64kib vgpr files 1 scalar unit 4 kib gpr file local data share 64 kib 4 texture filter units 16 texture fetch load/store units 16 kib l1 cache four compute units wired share instruction cache 16 kib size scalar data cache 32kib size backed l2 cache simd-vu operates 16 elements time per cycle su operate one time one/cycle addition su handles operations like branching every simd-vu private memory stores registers two types registers scalar registers s0 s1 etc hold 4 bytes number vector registers v0 v1 etc represent set 64 4 bytes numbers operate vector registers every operation done parallel 64 numbers every time work actually work 64 inputs example work 64 different pixels time inputs slightly different thus get slightly different color end every simd-vu room 512 scalar registers 256 vector registers cu scheduler hardware functional block choosing simd-vu wavefronts execute picks one simd-vu per cycle scheduling confused schedulers hardware software gcn-gpus “ wavefront ” consists 64 threads nvidia gpus “ warp ” consists 32 threads amd solution attribute multiple wavefronts simd-vu hardware distributes registers different wavefronts one wavefront waiting result lies memory cu scheduler decides make simd-vu work another wavefront wavefronts attributed per simd-vu simd-vus exchange wavefronts max 10 wavefronts attributed per simd-vu thus 40 per cu amd codexl shows tables relationship number sgprs vgprs number wavefronts basically sgprs min 104 512/numwavefronts vgprs 256/numwavefronts note conjunction sse instructions concept basic level parallelism often called vector width vector width characterized total number bits simd vector unit simd-vu 10 wavefront instruction buffer takes 4 cycles execute one wavefront many implementations gcn typically accompanied several amd asic blocks including limited unified video decoder video coding engine amd trueaudio preview 2011 anandtech wrote unified virtual memory supported graphics core next specific hsa features implemented hardware need support operating system kernel subsystems and/or specific device drivers example july 2014 amd published set 83 patches merged linux kernel mainline 3.17 supporting graphics core next-based radeon graphics cards special driver titled hsa kernel driver resides directory /drivers/gpu/hsa drm-graphics device drivers reside /drivers/gpu/drm augments already existent drm driver radeon cards first implementation focuses single works alongside existing radeon kernel graphics driver kgd used perform scheduling offload assignment compute queues aces driver hardware buffering queues least one empty queue least one ace causing hws immediately assign buffered queues aces queues full queues safely assign part scheduling work performed includes prioritized queues allow critical tasks run higher priority tasks without requiring lower priority tasks preempted run high priority task therefore allowing tasks run concurrently high priority tasks scheduled hog gpu much possible letting tasks use resources high priority tasks using essentially asynchronous compute engines lack dispatch controllers first introduced fourth generation gcn microarchitecture present third generation gcn microarchitecture internal testing purposes driver update enabled hardware schedulers third generation gcn parts production use unit discards degenerate triangles enter vertex shader triangles cover fragments enter fragment shader unit introduced fourth generation gcn microarchitecture asynchronous compute engines controlling computation dispatching zerocore power long idle power saving technology shutting functional units gpu use amd zerocore power technology supplements amd powertune discrete gpus southern islands family gcn 2nd generation introduced radeon hd 7790 also found radeon hd 8770 r7 260/260x r9 290/290x r9 295x2 r7 360 r9 390/390x well steamroller-based desktop kaveri apus mobile kaveri apus puma-based beema mullins apus multiple advantages original gcn including freesync support amd trueaudio revised version amd powertune technology gcn 2nd generation introduced entity called shader engine se shader engine comprises one geometry processor 44 cus hawaii chip rasterizers rops l1 cache part shader engine graphics command processor 8 aces l2 cache memory controllers well audio video accelerators display controllers 2 dma controllers pcie interface a10-7850k kaveri contains 8 cus compute units 8 asynchronous compute engines independent scheduling work item dispatching amd developer summit apu november 2013 michael mantor presented radeon r9 290x discrete gpus sea islands family integrated apus gcn 3rd generation introduced 2014 radeon r9 285 r9 m295x tonga gpu features improved tessellation performance lossless delta color compression order reduce memory bandwidth usage updated efficient instruction set new high quality scaler video new multimedia engine video encoder/decoder delta color compression supported mesa however double precision performance worse compared previous generation discrete gpus integrated apus gpus arctic islands-family introduced q2 2016 amd radeon 400 series 3d-engine i.e gca graphics compute array gfx identical found tonga-chips polaris feature newer display controller engine uvd version 6.3 etc polaris-based chips polaris 30 produced 14 nm finfet process developed samsung electronics licensed globalfoundries slightly newer refreshed polaris 30 built 12 nm lp finfet process node developed samsung globalfoundries fourth generation gcn instruction set architecture compatible third generation optimization 14 nm finfet process enabling higher gpu clock speeds 3rd gcn generation architectural improvements include new hardware schedulers new primitive discard accelerator new display controller updated uvd decode hevc 4k resolutions 60 frames per second 10 bits per color channel discrete gpus fp64 performance gcn 4th generation gpus fp32 performance amd began releasing details next generation gcn architecture termed 'next-generation compute unit january 2017 new design expected increase instructions per clock higher clock speeds support hbm2 larger memory address space discrete graphics chipsets also include hbcc high bandwidth cache controller integrated apus additionally new chips expected include improvements rasterisation render output units stream processors heavily modified previous generations support packed math rapid pack math technology 8-bit 16-bit 32-bit numbers significant performance advantage lower precision acceptable example processing two half-precision numbers rate single single precision number nvidia introduced tile-based rasterization binning maxwell big reason maxwell efficiency increase january anandtech assumed vega would finally catch nvidia regarding energy efficiency optimizations due new dsbr draw stream binning rasterizer introduced vega also added support new shader stage – primitive shaders primitive shaders provide flexible geometry processing replace vertex geometry shaders rendering pipeline december 2018 primitive shaders ca n't used required api changes yet done vega 10 vega 12 use 14 nm finfet process developed samsung electronics licensed globalfoundries vega 20 uses 7 nm finfet process developed tsmc discrete gpus integrated apus double-precision floating-point fp64 performance gcn 5th generation gpus except vega 20 fp32 performance vega 20 fp32 performance gcn 5th generation gpus support half-precision floating-point fp16 calculations double fp32 performance Target text information: amd_rdna_architecture.amd rdna architecture radeon dna rdna codename gpu microarchitecture accompanying instruction set developed amd gpus successor gcn microarchitecture/instruction set first product lineup featuring rdna radeon rx 5000 series video card launched july 7 2019 architecture also planned used mobile products upcoming next generation game consoles sony microsoft likely risc simd rather simt microarchitecture going manufactured fabricated tsmc 7 nm finfet graphics chips used navi series amd radeon graphics cards architecture features new processor design although first details released amd computex keynote hints aspects previous graphics core next gcn architecture present feature multi-level cache hierarchy improved rendering pipeline support gddr6 memory completely redesigned non-hybrid architecture planned successor rumor starting architecture one biggest changes rdna width wavefront fundamental group work gcn iterations 64 threads wide meaning 64 threads bundled together single wavefront execution rdna drops native 32 threads wide time amd expanded width simds 16 slots 32 aka simd32 meaning size wavefront matches simd size rdna also introduces working primitive shaders feature present hardware vega architecture difficult get real-world performance boost thus amd never enabled primitive shaders rdna compiler-controlled display controller rdna updated support display stream compression 1.2a allowing output 4k 240 hz hdr 4k 120 hz hdr 8k 60 hz gpuopen hosts pdf-document aiming describe environment organization program state amd “ rdna ” generation devices details instruction set microcode formats native family processors accessible programmers compilers rdna instruction set owned amd also owns x86-64 instruction set rdna instruction set basically gcn instruction set several changes architectural changes affect code scheduled I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	876	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: yandex_disk.yandex disk yandex.disk cloud service created yandex lets users store files “ cloud ” servers share others online service based syncing data different devices yandex.disk launched english june 2012 storage — users upload save files restrictions length time files stored files uploaded encrypted connection checked antivirus syncing — files synced user internet-enabled devices either web interface yandex.disk mobile/desktop application sharing — users share file download links others preview — built-in flash player lets people preview songs integration yandex services — lets people manage files yandex services yandex.mail yandex.narod sent received mail attachments automatically placed one folder easily searched webdav support — means files managed application supporting webdav protocol yandex.disk api used software program supporting webdav web version located inside yandex.mail “ files ” tab applications available following operating systems mobile version included part yandex.mail mobile app lets users view files yandex.disk upload files mobile device download files use offline email file download links yandex.disk api also supports webdav protocol allows third-party applications upload files yandex cloud storage service yandex.disk api makes easier sync info smartphones tablet pcs laptops desktop computers api lets developers yandex.disk api documentation released april 28 2012 service provided completely free charge everyone starts free allowance 10gb easily increased 512 mb increments referring others additional maximum 10 gb 20 gb total also additional storage paid monthly yearly basis choose enable device auto-uploads using yandex.disk app android ios granted additional 32 gb free storage increases maximum storage 10 gb 42 gb april 5 2012 – beta version service launched may 3 2012 – first api open source client launched may 24 2012 – flash player introduced web interface “ save disk ” button added shared file page allows users share files published others account june 26 2012 – english turkish versions available 1-hop neighbor's text information: amazon_drive.amazon drive amazon drive formerly known amazon cloud drive cloud storage application managed amazon service offers secure cloud storage file backup file sharing photo printing using amazon account files folders transferred managed multiple devices including web browsers desktop applications mobiles tablets amazon drive also lets u.s. users order photo prints photo books using amazon prints service today amazon drive offers free unlimited photo storage amazon prime subscription kindle fire device paid limited storage service launched major countries including u.s canada european nations japan australia also functions china brazil free limited 5gb storage service amazon first announced storage service march 29 2011 initially offering pay-as-you-need tiered storage plans users users paid storage tier utilized expandable maximum 1 terabyte plan march 2015 unlimited storage plans intended non-business customer sections introduced plan offered free 3-month free trial customers wish try service entering annual subscription 2015 black friday plan became popular amazon offered 92 discounted unlimited storage plan 5 60 year purchase fine print stated unlimited storage private use restricted file type must substantially exceed differ normal use users amazon anytime may impose restrictions use service june 2017 amazon reverted unlimited storage plans us 15 november 2017 amazon removed unlimited storage plans canadian customers well july 2019 amazon offers two plans marketplaces prime photos since november 2014 free limited file storage china brazil prime photos plan offers unlimited storage photos raw files 5 gigabytes storage videos files photos uploaded amazon drive ios android apps kindle device cloud drive website additionally users kindle fire tablets also get plan benefits along purchase device photos videos automatically backup device amazon drive cloud storage according amazon prime photos available personal non-commercial use ca n't used conjunction photography business full resolution photo formats raw files uploaded raw formats wo n't viewable within service web interface apps china brazil amazon drive service limited 5gb storage storage counts space taken photos videos files types customers countries amazon drive n't offer expansion plan neither tier-based unlimited store media files exceeding limited 5gb service supported almost types devices ranging pcs mobiles web application supported common web browsers including internet explorer firefox safari google chrome one create folders organize files rename files move around forth application handle photos better files web app photos videos viewed played whereas files viewable default images sorted date taken photos include basic metadata filename capture date added date filesize pixel dimension amazon drive released desktop application supported mac windows designed drop panel allowing users drag drop files initiate uploading users install application pc mac use application supports one-touch button downloading files cloud restored notably files 2gb uploaded amazon drive desktop clients bulk upload files folders paused cancelled progress amazon drive offers free smartphone application ios android mobile devices mobile application everything web addition automatically backs upload media files mobile device cloud amazon proprietary devices kindle fire fire phone ship free unlimited photo storage similarly backs photos files tablet amazon drive files folders selected downloaded device generate randomized shareable link link directed e-mailed shared social media anyone link access shared files point time future application allow owner break shared link make files private september 2016 amazon drive launched amazon prints u.s. users edit photos order prints photo books application ordered amazon ship print orders customer address similar retail orders service available major amazon marketplaces applications supported multiple languages usage different countries popular languages supported regional variations english spanish french italian simplified chinese japanese amazon drive also built amazon fire tv amazon video application media players smart tvs devices users browse personal photos videos large tv screens view slideshow prime photo users upload unlimited number picture file formats rest formats including video formats counted additional 5gb storage plan additional files exceeding 5gb need stored one opt unlimited storage plan one paid plans depending country unlimited plans files 2gb restricted uploading application desktop application however exempted uploading files greater 2gb size amazon drive streaming available videos longer 20 minutes larger 2 gb stored amazon drive download watch offline unlike popular file hosting services amazon drive offer file-syncing automatic backup web users latest desktop version documents images also shared documents collaborated others downloaded editing however mobile applications support automatic backup capabilities service limits usage personal non-commercial use one may use store transfer distribute content behalf third parties operate file storage application service operate photography business commercial service 1-hop neighbor's text information: cloudme.cloudme cloudme file storage service operated cloudme ab offers cloud storage file synchronization client software features blue folder appears devices content files synchronized devices cloudme service offered freemium business model provides encrypted ssl connection ssl extended validation certificate cloudme provides client software microsoft windows macos linux android ios google tv samsung smart tv wd tv windows storage server nas web browsers cloud sync storage provider cloudme strong focus european market differentiates storage providers mobility media features like samsung smarttv support recently novell announced support cloudme service dynamic file services suite novosoft handy backup version 7.3 also announced support cloudme winzip also integrated cloudme many third party mobile apps software available cloudme many using webdav support cloudme cloudme founded daniel arthursson 2012 mainly owned xcerion company runs servers operates sweden european union 2012 cloudme received red herring top 100 global company alwayson global 250 award white bull 2012 yearling award white bull 2014 longhorn award previously cloudme.com called icloud.com service changed name apple acquired domain trademark rumoured 4.5 million dollars visitors icloud.com directed cloudme.com name change former icloud.com service split two companies services cloudme file sync storage cloudtop virtual cloud desktop previously main attraction icloud.com service included file storage xcerion major owner cloudme cloudtop initially gained investment 12 million build icloud service using saas model cloudme service provided free version 3 gb storage 19 gb referral program model often called freemium premium versions either 10 25 100 200 500 gb storage consumers 2 tb 5 tb business closest competitor cloudme dropbox cloudme features cloud storage sync solution allows users store access share content people outside service sharing done email text messaging facebook google files stored blue folder synchronized connected computers devices web desktop cloud os service called cloudtop.com available uses cloudme internet file system cloudme ab located drottninggatan 23 linköping sweden Target text information: accellion.accellion accellion inc. palo alto california-based private cloud solutions company focused secure file sharing collaboration users able access edit share enterprise content device maintaining compliance security accellion software supports deployment on-premises off-premises public private hybrid cloud fips 140-2 certified environment accellion founded 1999 singapore mohan nikhil jhingan originally focused providing distributed file storage management backup technology beginning 2001 company moved headquarters palo alto ca concentrated business file transfer technology 2009 2012 company grew increasingly focused security compliance aspects file sharing september 2000 accellion raised 33 million venture funding barings private equity later april 2012 raised additional 12 million riverwood capital bringing company total funding 45 million gartner 2014 magic quadrant report accellion named leader enterprise file synchronization sharing year accellion named leader mobile content management aragon research accellion positioned gartner leaders quadrant 2015 according wall street journal accellion valued 500 million 2014 accellion released first file transfer appliance may 2005 physical on-premises appliance ogilvy mather accellion ’ first enterprise customer computerworld ’ premier 100 leaders 2005 best class award implementation accellion file transfer march 2011 accellion released secure collaboration product industry research firm 451 group characterized accellion grown collaboration market file-transfer roots 2012 company introduced accellion mobile file sharing packages enterprise business individuals packages included synchronization feature called kitedrive early demand company file transfer applications came organizations needed transfer large files including advertising marketing firms healthcare universities accellion provided email attachment application reducing email storage improving email performance offloading file transfers email company also provided clients mobile product called accellion mobile productivity suite let users create edit collaborate microsoft word excel powerpoint files mobile devices january 2014 accellion launched kiteworks secure mobile file-sharing product enables users work files projects remotely software integrates sharepoint documentum open text home drive windows file shares dropbox box onedrive google drive november 2014 accellion introduced secure mobile platform kiteworks suite allows employees securely access share content third-party providers laptops smartphones tablets wearable devices I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	4,869	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: berkeley_software_distribution.berkeley software distribution berkeley software distribution bsd operating system based research unix developed distributed computer systems research group csrg university california berkeley today bsd often refers descendants freebsd openbsd netbsd dragonfly bsd bsd initially called berkeley unix based source code original unix developed bell labs 1980s bsd widely adopted workstation vendors form proprietary unix variants dec ultrix sun microsystems sunos due permissive licensing familiarity many technology company founders engineers although proprietary bsd derivatives largely superseded 1990s unix svr4 osf/1 later releases provided basis several open-source operating systems including freebsd openbsd netbsd dragonfly bsd darwin trueos turn used proprietary operating systems including apple macos ios derived microsoft windows used part tcp/ip code earliest distributions unix bell labs 1970s included source code operating system allowing researchers universities modify extend unix operating system arrived berkeley 1974 request computer science professor bob fabry program committee symposium operating systems principles unix first presented pdp-11/45 bought run system budgetary reasons machine shared mathematics statistics groups berkeley used rsts unix ran machine eight hours per day sometimes day sometimes night larger pdp-11/70 installed berkeley following year using money ingres database project 1975 ken thompson took sabbatical bell labs came berkeley visiting professor helped install version 6 unix started working pascal implementation system graduate students chuck haley bill joy improved thompson pascal implemented improved text editor ex universities became interested software berkeley 1977 joy started compiling first berkeley software distribution 1bsd released march 9 1978 1bsd add-on version 6 unix rather complete operating system right thirty copies sent second berkeley software distribution 2bsd released may 1979 included updated versions 1bsd software well two new programs joy persist unix systems day vi text editor visual version ex c shell 75 copies 2bsd sent bill joy vax computer installed berkeley 1978 port unix vax architecture unix/32v take advantage vax virtual memory capabilities kernel 32v largely rewritten berkeley students include virtual memory implementation complete operating system including new kernel ports 2bsd utilities vax utilities 32v released 3bsd end 1979 3bsd also alternatively called virtual vax/unix vmunix virtual memory unix bsd kernel images normally called codice_1 4.4bsd 4.3bsd released june 1986 determined bsd would move away aging vax platform power 6/32 platform codenamed tahoe developed computer consoles inc. seemed promising time abandoned developers shortly thereafter nonetheless 4.3bsd-tahoe port june 1988 proved valuable led separation machine-dependent machine-independent code bsd would improve system future portability addition portability csrg worked implementation osi network protocol stack improvements kernel virtual memory system van jacobson lbl new tcp/ip algorithms accommodate growth internet versions bsd used proprietary unix code therefore subject software license source code licenses become expensive several outside parties expressed interest separate release networking code developed entirely outside would subject licensing requirement led networking release 1 net/1 made available non-licensees code freely redistributable terms bsd license released june 1989 net/1 bsd developer keith bostic proposed non-at sections bsd system released license net/1 end started project reimplement standard unix utilities without using code within eighteen months utilities replaced determined files remained kernel files removed result june 1991 release networking release 2 net/2 nearly complete operating system freely distributable net/2 basis two separate ports bsd intel 80386 architecture free 386bsd william jolitz proprietary bsd/386 later renamed bsd/os berkeley software design bsdi 386bsd short-lived became initial code base netbsd freebsd projects started shortly thereafter bsdi soon found legal trouble unix system laboratories usl subsidiary owners system v copyright unix trademark usl v. bsdi lawsuit filed 1992 led injunction distribution net/2 validity usl copyright claims source could determined lawsuit slowed development free-software descendants bsd nearly two years legal status question result systems based linux kernel legal ambiguity gained greater support lawsuit settled january 1994 largely berkeley favor 18,000 files berkeley distribution three removed 70 modified show usl copyright notices condition settlement usl would file lawsuits users distributors berkeley-owned code upcoming 4.4bsd release final release berkeley 1995 4.4bsd-lite release 2 csrg dissolved development bsd berkeley ceased since several variants based directly indirectly 4.4bsd-lite freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd maintained permissive nature bsd license allowed many operating systems open-source proprietary incorporate bsd source code example microsoft windows used bsd code implementation tcp/ip bundles recompiled versions bsd command-line networking tools since windows 2000 darwin basis apple macos ios based 4.4bsd-lite2 freebsd various commercial unix operating systems solaris also incorporate bsd code starting 8th edition versions research unix bell labs close relationship bsd began 4.1cbsd vax used basis research unix 8th edition continued subsequent versions 9th edition incorporated source code improvements 4.3bsd result later versions research unix closer bsd system v. usenet posting 2000 dennis ritchie described relationship bsd research unix eric s. raymond summarizes longstanding relationship system v bsd stating divide roughly longhairs shorthairs programmers technical people tended line berkeley bsd business-oriented types system v. 1989 david a. curry wrote differences bsd system v. characterized system v often regarded standard unix however described bsd popular among university government computer centers due advanced features performance berkeley unix first unix include libraries supporting internet protocol stacks berkeley sockets unix implementation ip predecessor arpanet ncp ftp telnet clients produced university illinois 1975 available berkeley however memory scarcity pdp-11 forced complicated design performance problems integrating sockets unix operating system file descriptors became almost easy read write data across network access disk laboratory eventually released streams library incorporated much functionality software stack different architecture wide distribution existing sockets library reduced impact new api early versions bsd used form sun microsystems sunos founding first wave popular unix workstations bsd operating systems run much native software several operating systems architecture using binary compatibility layer much simpler faster emulation allows instance applications intended linux run effectively full speed makes bsds suitable server environments also workstation ones given increasing availability commercial closed-source software linux also allows administrators migrate legacy commercial applications may supported commercial unix variants modern operating system retaining functionality applications replaced better alternative current bsd operating system variants support many common ieee ansi iso posix standards retaining traditional bsd behavior like unix bsd kernel monolithic meaning device drivers kernel run privileged mode part core operating system several operating systems based bsd including freebsd openbsd netbsd midnightbsd dragonfly bsd netbsd freebsd created 1993 initially derived 386bsd also known jolix merged 4.4bsd-lite source code 1994 openbsd forked netbsd 1995 dragonfly bsd forked freebsd 2003 bsd also used basis several proprietary versions unix sun sunos sequent dynix next nextstep dec ultrix osf/1 axp tru64 unix nextstep later became foundation apple inc. macos 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include Target text information: kaldi_(software).kaldi software kaldi speech recognition toolkit freely available apache license kaldi aims provide software flexible extensible supports linear transforms mmi boosted mmi mce discriminative training feature-space discriminative training deep neural networks kaldi incorporated part chime speech separation recognition challenge several successive events software initially developed part 2009 workshop johns hopkins university I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	5,315	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux_range_of_use.linux range use linux kernel-based operating systems widely adopted wide range uses advantages benefits free open-source software apply linux kernel rest system software common human interface devices hids available desktop computers laptops similar devices determine design graphical human-computer interface implemented software software packages choose among building accordingly designed graphical user interface generic input driver linux kernel evdev several input methods implemented middleware i.e. atop part linux kernel adoption proving linux kernel suitable gaming platform course added software needed either augment typical desktop installation suitable gaming platform create linux-based operating system dedicated gaming platform abundance server software cf client–server model supporting various communications protocols http web server smtp mail transfer agents pop3 imap e-mail server lightweight directory access protocol ldap server message block smb-cifs samba simple network management protocol snmp system network monitoring session initiation protocol sip various routing protocols run partly exclusively linux kernel software bundles also called solution stacks widely adopted acronyms become well known examples include dynamic web pages cloud computing three types virtualization hardware-based software-based paravirtualization implemented projects run linux linux-exclusive linux kernel customized adapted hardened various scenarios especially operation bastion host already mainlined developed maintained out-of-tree linux kernel-based operating systems still employed routing servers server computers commodity hardware cases professional routing equipment cisco catalyst either overkill costly components linux kernel netfilter linux network scheduler along available free open-source routing daemons bird internet routing daemon bird b.a.t.m.a.n. quagga xorp fulfill task well low-cost low-performance routing performed wireless routers running openwrt anonymity routing solution tor cross-platform exclusive linux components linux kernel logical volume manager lvm well suited support computer clusters also software managing clusters e.g. pacemaker linux-ha drbd ovirt openqrm ganeti eucalyptus appscale opennebula single system image multi system image clusters least linuxpmi openssi open-sharedroot diskless shared-root cluster kerrighed available three solutions operating-system-level virtualization linux-vserver lxc openvz offer similarities freebsd jails solaris containers linux operating systems runs virtualized xen micro-kernel-type hypervisor published license linux kernel gnu gpl 2.0 kvm possible turn linux kernel hypervisor managing libvirt libguestfs several utilities building programs openstack controller nodes run exclusively linux compute nodes cross-platform software projects serving similar use-case openstack nimbus ganeti appscale opennebula eucalyptus openqrm one best known linux-based operating systems mobile devices smartphones android operating system android employs modified linux kernel combines libbionic instead glibc surfaceflinger display server replacements specifically written purpose many mobile devices touchscreen sole human interface device hid gui partly middleware operating system adapted enable software designers create according human-computer interface linux kernel gained wide use operating systems used embedded systems real-time non-real-time variants patches exist transform linux kernel real-time kernel termed real-time operating system rtos several actively maintained minimally operating system includes less modified linux kernel uclibc busybox non-rtos variants exist openwrt also linux distribution use customer-premises equipment cpe devices like wireless routers rockbox based μclinux operating system portable media players fastest supercomputers decade since earth simulator used linux linux also ran first teraflops supercomputer asci red 1997 ibm roadrunner 2008 first petascale computer 500 100 world fastest supercomputers run operating system based linux kernel world ’ fastest supercomputer china ’ sunway taihulight powered colossal 650,000+ cpus runs customised version linux called ‘ sunway raiseos ’ processing speed 93 petaflops 1-hop neighbor's text information: kernelcare.kernelcare kernelcare live kernel patching service provides security patches bugfixes range popular linux kernels installed without rebooting system kernelcare software released gpl2 first beta introduced march 2014 commercially launched may 2014 kernelcare supports centos/rhel 5.x 6.x 7.x cloudlinux 5.x 6.x 7.x parallels cloud server oracle linux/rhel 6.x 7.x amazon linux virtuozzo openvz rhel6/rhel proxmox 3.x 4.x 5.x virt-sig/xen4centos debian 6.x 7.x 8.x 9.x ubuntu 14.04 lts 16.04 lts 18.04 lts kernelcare agent resides user server periodically checks kernelcare distribution servers new patches available currently running kernel kernelcare agent downloads applies patches running kernel kernelcare patch piece code used substitute vulnerable buggy code kernel arbitrary code line modification missing security check set functions even modified data structures patch compiled usual generated code additional information changed code pieces caused original source code modification information apply code pieces resulting code modifications safely applied running kernel special kernelcare kernel module applies patches loads patches kernel address space sets relocations i.e. fixes references original kernel code data safely switches execution path original code updated code blocks code ensures patch applied safely cpu n't execute original code blocks moment switching new version 1-hop neighbor's text information: lxc.lxc lxc linux containers operating-system-level virtualization method running multiple isolated linux systems containers control host using single linux kernel linux kernel provides cgroups functionality allows limitation prioritization resources cpu memory block i/o network etc without need starting virtual machines also namespace isolation functionality allows complete isolation application view operating environment including process trees networking user ids mounted file systems lxc combines kernel cgroups support isolated namespaces provide isolated environment applications early versions docker used lxc container execution driver though lxc made optional v0.9 support dropped docker v1.10 lxc provides operating system-level virtualization virtual environment process network space instead creating full-fledged virtual machine lxc relies linux kernel cgroups functionality released version 2.6.24 also relies kinds namespace isolation functionality developed integrated mainline linux kernel originally lxc containers secure os-level virtualization methods openvz linux kernels 3.8 root user guest system could run arbitrary code host system root privileges much like chroot jails starting lxc 1.0 release possible run containers regular users host using unprivileged containers ref name= lxc-1-0-security-features/ /ref unprivileged containers limited access hardware directly however even privileged containers provide adequate isolation lxc 1.0 security model properly configured lxc similar os-level virtualization technologies linux openvz linux-vserver well operating systems freebsd jails aix workload partitions solaris containers contrast openvz lxc works vanilla linux kernel requiring additional patches applied kernel sources version 1 lxc released long-term supported version intended supported five years Target text information: systemtap.systemtap computing systemtap codice_1 scripting language tool dynamically instrumenting running production linux kernel-based operating systems system administrators use systemtap extract filter summarize data order enable diagnosis complex performance functional problems systemtap consists free open-source software includes contributions red hat ibm intel hitachi oracle community members systemtap debuted 2005 red hat enterprise linux 4 update 2 technology preview four years development systemtap 1.0 released 2009 tracepoints cpython vm jvm added systemtap 1.2 systemtap files written systemtap language saved codice_2 files run codice_1 command-line system carries number analysis passes script allowing run scripts may executed one three backends selected codice_4 option default loadable kernel module fullest capability inspect manipulate part system therefore requires privilege another backend based dynamic program analysis library dyninst instrument user user-space programs requires least privilege newest backend based ebpf byte-code limited linux kernel interpreter capabilities requires intermediate level privilege case module unloaded script finished running scripts generally focus events starting finishing script compiled-in probe points linux tracepoints execution functions statements kernel user-space guru mode scripts may also embedded c may run codice_5 command-line option however use guru mode discouraged systemtap release includes probe points designed remove need guru-mode scripts guru mode required order permit scripts modify state instrumented software apply types emergency security fixes systemtap release 1.7 software implements new stapsys group privilege level following script shows applications setting tcp socket options system options set whether option set successfully many examples shipped systemtap also real-world examples systemtap use war stories page systemtap attach dtrace markers compiled application using macros codice_6 header file I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,222	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: tempest_(codename).tempest codename tempest u.s. national security agency specification nato certification referring spying information systems leaking emanations including unintentional radio electrical signals sounds vibrations tempest covers methods spy upon others shield equipment spying protection efforts also known emission security emsec subset communications security comsec nsa methods spying computer emissions classified protection standards released either nsa department defense protecting equipment spying done distance shielding filtering masking tempest standards mandate elements equipment distance walls amount shielding buildings equipment distance separating wires carrying classified vs. unclassified materials filters cables even distance shielding wires equipment building pipes noise also protect information masking actual data much tempest leaking electromagnetic emanations also encompasses sounds mechanical vibrations example possible log user keystrokes using motion sensor inside smartphones compromising emissions defined unintentional intelligence-bearing signals intercepted analyzed side-channel attack may disclose information transmitted received handled otherwise processed information-processing equipment world war ii bell telephone supplied u.s. military device called 131-b2 mixer encrypted teleprinter signals xor ’ ing key material one-time tapes sigtot system rotor based key generator called sigcum used electromechanical relays operation later bell informed signal corps able detect electromagnetic spikes distance mixer recover plain text meeting skepticism phenomenon discovered laboratory could really dangerous demonstrated ability recover plain text signal corps ’ crypto center varick st lower manhattan alarmed signal corps asked bell investigate identified three problem areas radiated signals signals conducted wires coming facility magnetic fields suggested shielding filtering masking possible solutions bell developed modified mixer 131-a1 shielding filtering proved difficult maintain expensive deploy instead relevant commanders warned problem advised control 100 feet diameter zone around communications center prevent covert interception things left 1951 cia rediscovered problem 131-b2 mixer found could recover plain text line carrying encrypted signal quarter mile away filters signal power lines developed control zone extended 200 feet based commanders could expected accomplish technical criteria long process evaluating systems developing possible solutions followed compromising effects discovered fluctuations power line rotors stepped question exploiting noise electromechanical encryption systems raised late 1940 ’ re-evaluated possible threat acoustical emanations could reveal plain text pick device close source bad news even mediocre microphones would soundproofing room made problem worse removing reflections providing cleaner signal recorder 1956 naval research laboratory developed better mixer operated much lower voltages currents therefore radiated far less incorporated newer nsa encryption systems however many users needed higher signal levels drive teleprinters greater distances multiple teleprinters connected newer encryption devices included higher level signal option nsa began developing techniques specifications filtering shielding grounding separating conductors carried sensitive plain text lines might leave secure environment red/black separation dogma 1958 joint policy called nag-1 set radiation standards equipment installations based 50 foot limit control also specified classification levels various aspects tempest problem policy adopted canada uk next year six organizations navy army air force nsa cia state department bulk work difficulties implementation quickly emerged computer processing intelligence data becoming important computers peripherals evaluated many proved problematical friden flexowriter popular i/o typewriter time proved among strongest emitters readable far 3,200 feet field tests u.s. communications security board uscsb produced flexowriter policy banned use overseas classified information limited use confidential level u.s. within 400 foot security zone users found policy onerous impractical later nsa found similar problems introduction cathode ray tube crt displays also powerful radiators multi-year process moving policy recommendations strictly enforced tempest rules resulting directive coordinated 22 separate agencies 5200.19 signed secretary defense robert mcnamara december 1964 still took years fully implement nsa ’ formal implementation took effect june 1966 meanwhile problem acoustic emanations became critical discovery 900 microphones u.s. installations overseas behind iron curtain responses build room-within-a-room enclosures transparent nicknamed fish bowl units fully shielded contain electronic emanations unpopular personnel supposed work inside calling meat lockers sometimes left door open none less installed critical locations embassy moscow two one state department use one military attaches unit installed nsa key generation equipment cost 134,000 tempest standards continued evolve 1970s later newer testing methods nuanced guidelines took account risks specific locations situations security needs often met resistance according nsa david g. boak still hear today circles rigorous technical standards whittled interest money time frighteningly reminiscent arrogant third reich enigma cryptomachine many specifics tempest standards classified elements public current united states nato tempest standards define three levels protection requirements additional standards include nsa department defense declassified tempest elements freedom information act requests documents black many key values descriptions declassified version tempest test standard heavily redacted emanation limits test procedures blacked redacted version introductory tempest handbook nacsim 5000 publicly released december 2000 additionally current nato standard sdip-27 2006 known amsg 720b amsg 788a amsg 784 still classified despite declassified documents give information shielding required tempest standards example military handbook 1195 includes chart right showing electromagnetic shielding requirements different frequencies declassified nsa specification shielded enclosures offers similar shielding values requiring minimum 100 db insertion loss 1 khz 10 ghz since much current requirements still classified publicly available correlations 100 db shielding requirement newer zone-based shielding standards addition many separation distance requirements elements provided declassified nsa red-black installation guidance nstissam tempest/2-95 information-security agencies several nato countries publish lists accredited testing labs equipment passed tests united states army also tempest testing facility part u.s. army information systems engineering command fort huachuca arizona similar lists facilities exist nato countries tempest certification must apply entire systems individual components since connecting single unshielded component cable device otherwise secure system could dramatically alter system rf characteristics tempest standards require red/black separation i.e. maintaining distance installing shielding circuits equipment used handle plaintext classified sensitive information encrypted red secured circuits equipment black latter including carrying encrypted signals manufacture tempest-approved equipment must done careful quality control ensure additional units built exactly units tested changing even single wire invalidate tests one aspect tempest testing distinguishes limits spurious emissions e.g fcc part 15 requirement absolute minimal correlation radiated energy detectable emissions plaintext data processed 1985 wim van eck published first unclassified technical analysis security risks emanations computer monitors paper caused consternation security community previously believed monitoring highly sophisticated attack available governments van eck successfully eavesdropped real system range hundreds metres using 15 worth equipment plus television set consequence research emanations sometimes called van eck radiation eavesdropping technique van eck phreaking although government researchers already aware danger bell labs noted vulnerability secure teleprinter communications world war ii able produce 75 plaintext processed secure facility distance 80 feet 24 metres additionally nsa published tempest fundamentals nsa-82-89 nacsim 5000 national security agency classified february 1 1982 addition van eck technique successfully demonstrated non-tempest personnel korea korean war 1950s markus kuhn discovered several low-cost techniques reducing chances emanations computer displays monitored remotely crt displays analog video cables filtering high-frequency components fonts rendering computer screen attenuate energy text characters broadcast modern flat panel displays high-speed digital serial interface dvi cables graphics controller main source compromising emanations adding random noise least significant bits pixel values may render emanations flat-panel displays unintelligible eavesdroppers secure method since dvi uses certain bit code scheme tries transport balanced signal 0 bits 1 bits may much difference two pixel colors differ much color intensity emanations differ drastically even last bit pixel color changed signal received eavesdropper also depends frequency emanations detected signal received many frequencies frequency signal differs contrast brightness related certain color screen usually technique smothering red signal noise effective unless power noise sufficient drive eavesdropper receiver saturation thus overwhelming receiver input led indicators computer equipment source compromising optical emanations one technique involves monitoring lights dial-up modem almost modems flash led show activity common flashes directly taken data line fast optical system easily see changes flickers data transmitted wire recent research shown possible detect radiation corresponding keypress event wireless radio keyboards also traditional wired keyboards even laptop keyboards 1970s onward soviet bugging us embassy ibm selectric typewriters allowed keypress-derived mechanical motion bails attached magnets detected implanted magnetometers converted via hidden electronics digital radio frequency signal eight character transmission provided soviet access sensitive documents typed us facilities moscow leningrad 2014 researchers introduced airhopper bifurcated attack pattern showing feasibility data exfiltration isolated computer nearby mobile phone using fm frequency signals 2015 bitwhisper covert signaling channel air-gapped computers using thermal manipulations introduced bitwhisper supports bidirectional communication requires additional dedicated peripheral hardware later 2015 researchers introduced gsmem method exfiltrating data air-gapped computers cellular frequencies transmission generated standard internal bus renders computer small cellular transmitter antenna february 2018 research published describing low frequency magnetic fields used escape sensitive data faraday-caged air-gapped computers malware code-named ’ odini ’ control low frequency magnetic fields emitted infected computers regulating load cpu cores 1-hop neighbor's text information: wireless_security.wireless security wireless security prevention unauthorized access damage computers data using wireless networks include wi-fi networks common type wi-fi security includes wired equivalent privacy wep wi-fi protected access wpa wep notoriously weak security standard password uses often cracked minutes basic laptop computer widely available software tools wep old ieee 802.11 standard 1997 superseded 2003 wpa wi-fi protected access wpa quick alternative improve security wep current standard wpa2 hardware support wpa2 without firmware upgrade replacement wpa2 uses encryption device encrypts network 256-bit key longer key length improves security wep enterprises often enforce security using certificate-based system authenticate connecting device following standard 802.1x many laptop computers wireless cards pre-installed ability enter network mobile great benefits however wireless networking prone security issues hackers found wireless networks relatively easy break even use wireless technology hack wired networks result important enterprises define effective wireless security policies guard unauthorized access important resources wireless intrusion prevention systems wips wireless intrusion detection systems wids commonly used enforce wireless security policies risks users wireless technology increased service become popular relatively dangers wireless technology first introduced hackers yet time latch new technology wireless networks commonly found work place however many security risks associated current wireless protocols encryption methods carelessness ignorance exists user corporate level hacking methods become much sophisticated innovative wireless access hacking also become much easier accessible easy-to-use windows- linux-based tools made available web charge organizations wireless access points installed feel need address wireless security concerns in-stat mdr meta group estimated 95 corporate laptop computers planned purchased 2005 equipped wireless cards issues arise supposedly non-wireless organization wireless laptop plugged corporate network hacker could sit parking lot gather information laptops and/or devices even break wireless card–equipped laptop gain access wired network anyone within geographical network range open unencrypted wireless network sniff capture record traffic gain unauthorized access internal network resources well internet use information resources perform disruptive illegal acts security breaches become important concerns enterprise home networks router security activated owner deactivates convenience creates free hotspot since 21st-century laptop pcs wireless networking built see intel centrino technology n't need third-party adapter pcmcia card usb dongle built-in wireless networking might enabled default without owner realizing thus broadcasting laptop accessibility computer nearby modern operating systems linux macos microsoft windows make fairly easy set pc wireless lan base station using internet connection sharing thus allowing pcs home access internet base pc however lack knowledge among users security issues inherent setting systems often may allow others nearby access connection piggybacking usually achieved without wireless network operator knowledge may even without knowledge intruding user computer automatically selects nearby unsecured wireless network use access point wireless security aspect computer security however organizations may particularly vulnerable security breaches caused rogue access points employee trusted entity brings wireless router plugs unsecured switchport entire network exposed anyone within range signals similarly employee adds wireless interface networked computer using open usb port may create breach network security would allow access confidential materials however effective countermeasures like disabling open switchports switch configuration vlan configuration limit network access available protect network information contains countermeasures must applied uniformly network devices due availability low cost use wireless communication technologies increases domains beyond originally intended usage areas e.g m2m communication industrial applications industrial applications often specific security requirements hence important understand characteristics applications evaluate vulnerabilities bearing highest risk context evaluation vulnerabilities resulting vulnerability catalogs industrial context considering wlan nfc zigbee available wireless networks common organizations individuals many laptop computers wireless cards pre-installed ability enter network mobile great benefits however wireless networking prone security issues hackers found wireless networks relatively easy break even use wireless technology hack wired networks result important enterprises define effective wireless security policies guard unauthorized access important resources wireless intrusion prevention systems wips wireless intrusion detection systems wids commonly used enforce wireless security policies relatively dangers wireless technology first introduced effort maintain communication high effort intrude always higher variety risks users wireless technology increased service become popular technology commonly available today great number security risks associated current wireless protocols encryption methods carelessness ignorance exists user corporate level hacking methods become much sophisticated innovative wireless modes unauthorised access links functions data variable respective entities make use program code exist full scope model threat extent prevention relies known modes methods attack relevant methods suppression applied methods however new mode operation create new options threatening hence prevention requires steady drive improvement described modes attack snapshot typical methods scenarios apply violation security perimeter corporate network come number different methods intents one methods referred “ accidental association ” user turns computer latches wireless access point neighboring company overlapping network user may even know occurred however security breach proprietary company information exposed could exist link one company especially true laptop also hooked wired network accidental association case wireless vulnerability called mis-association mis-association accidental deliberate example done bypass corporate firewall result deliberate attempts wireless clients lure connecting attacker aps “ malicious associations ” wireless devices actively made attackers connect company network laptop instead company access point ap types laptops known “ soft aps ” created cyber criminal runs software makes his/her wireless network card look like legitimate access point thief gained access he/she steal passwords launch attacks wired network plant trojans since wireless networks operate layer 2 level layer 3 protections network authentication virtual private networks vpns offer barrier wireless 802.1x authentications help protection still vulnerable hacking idea behind type attack may break vpn security measures likely criminal trying take client layer 2 level ad hoc networks pose security threat ad hoc networks defined peer peer networks wireless computers access point types networks usually little protection encryption methods used provide security security hole provided ad hoc networking ad hoc network bridge provides networks usually corporate environment unfortunate default settings versions microsoft windows feature turned unless explicitly disabled thus user may even know unsecured ad hoc network operation computer also using wired wireless infrastructure network time providing bridge secured organizational network unsecured ad hoc connection bridging two forms direct bridge requires user actually configure bridge two connections thus unlikely initiated unless explicitly desired indirect bridge shared resources user computer indirect bridge may expose private data shared user computer lan connections shared folders private network attached storage making distinction authenticated private connections unauthenticated ad-hoc networks presents threats already familiar open/public unsecured wifi access points firewall rules may circumvented case poorly configured operating systems local settings non-traditional networks personal network bluetooth devices safe hacking regarded security risk even barcode readers handheld pdas wireless printers copiers secured non-traditional networks easily overlooked personnel narrowly focused laptops access points identity theft mac spoofing occurs hacker able listen network traffic identify mac address computer network privileges wireless systems allow kind mac filtering allow authorized computers specific mac ids gain access utilize network however programs exist network “ sniffing ” capabilities combine programs software allow computer pretend mac address hacker desires hacker easily get around hurdle mac filtering effective small residential soho networks since provides protection wireless device air 802.11 device air freely transmits unencrypted mac address 802.11 headers requires special equipment software detect anyone 802.11 receiver laptop wireless adapter freeware wireless packet analyzer obtain mac address transmitting 802.11 within range organizational environment wireless devices air throughout active working shift mac filtering provides false sense security since prevents casual unintended connections organizational infrastructure nothing prevent directed attack man-in-the-middle attacker entices computers log computer set soft ap access point done hacker connects real access point another wireless card offering steady flow traffic transparent hacking computer real network hacker sniff traffic one type man-in-the-middle attack relies security faults challenge handshake protocols execute “ de-authentication attack ” attack forces ap-connected computers drop connections reconnect hacker soft ap disconnects user modem connect using password one extract recording event man-in-the-middle attacks enhanced software lanjack airjack automate multiple steps process meaning required skill done script kiddies hotspots particularly vulnerable attack since little security networks denial-of-service attack dos occurs attacker continually bombards targeted ap access point network bogus requests premature successful connection messages failure messages and/or commands cause legitimate users able get network may even cause network crash attacks rely abuse protocols extensible authentication protocol eap dos attack little expose organizational data malicious attacker since interruption network prevents flow data actually indirectly protects data preventing transmitted usual reason performing dos attack observe recovery wireless network initial handshake codes re-transmitted devices providing opportunity malicious attacker record codes use various cracking tools analyze security weaknesses exploit gain unauthorized access system works best weakly encrypted systems wep number tools available launch dictionary style attack possibly accepted security keys based model security key captured network recovery network injection attack hacker make use access points exposed non-filtered network traffic specifically broadcasting network traffic “ spanning tree ” 802.1d ospf rip hsrp hacker injects bogus networking re-configuration commands affect routers switches intelligent hubs whole network brought manner require rebooting even reprogramming intelligent networking devices caffe latte attack another way defeat wep necessary attacker area network using exploit using process targets windows wireless stack possible obtain wep key remote client sending flood encrypted arp requests assailant takes advantage shared key authentication message modification flaws 802.11 wep attacker uses arp responses obtain wep key less 6 minutes three principal ways secure wireless network ready designed system prevent fraudulent usage wireless communication protect data functions wirelessly communicating computers entities however system qualifying taken measures whole according common understanding shall seen state art system qualifying international consensus specified iso/iec 15408 wireless intrusion prevention system wips concept robust way counteract wireless security risks however wips exist ready designed solution implement software package wips typically implemented overlay existing wireless lan infrastructure although may deployed standalone enforce no-wireless policies within organization wips considered important wireless security july 2009 payment card industry security standards council published wireless guidelines pci dss recommending use wips automate wireless scanning protection large organizations range wireless security measures varying effectiveness practicality simple ineffective method attempt secure wireless network hide ssid service set identifier provides little protection anything casual intrusion efforts one simplest techniques allow access known pre-approved mac addresses wireless access points contain type mac id filtering however attacker simply sniff mac address authorized client spoof address typical wireless access points provide ip addresses clients via dhcp requiring clients set addresses makes difficult casual unsophisticated intruder log onto network provides little protection sophisticated attacker ieee 802.1x ieee standard authentication mechanisms devices wishing attach wireless lan wired equivalent privacy wep encryption standard original encryption standard wireless since 2004 ratification wpa2 ieee declared deprecated often supported seldom never default modern equipment concerns raised security early 2001 dramatically demonstrated 2005 fbi yet 2007 t.j. maxx admitted massive security breach due part reliance wep payment card industry took 2008 prohibit use even allowed existing use continue june 2010 wi-fi protected access wpa wpa2 security protocols later created address problems wep weak password dictionary word short character string used wpa wpa2 cracked using long enough random password e.g 14 random letters passphrase e.g 5 randomly chosen words makes pre-shared key wpa virtually uncrackable second generation wpa security protocol wpa2 based final ieee 802.11i amendment 802.11 standard eligible fips 140-2 compliance encryption schemes client network knows keys read traffic wi-fi protected access wpa software/firmware improvement wep regular wlan-equipment worked wep able simply upgraded new equipment needs bought wpa trimmed-down version 802.11i security standard developed ieee 802.11 replace wep tkip encryption algorithm developed wpa provide improvements wep could fielded firmware upgrades existing 802.11 devices wpa profile also provides optional support aes-ccmp algorithm preferred algorithm 802.11i wpa2 wpa enterprise provides radius based authentication using 802.1x wpa personal uses pre-shared shared key psk establish security using 8 63 character passphrase psk may also entered 64 character hexadecimal string weak psk passphrases broken using off-line dictionary attacks capturing messages four-way exchange client reconnects deauthenticated wireless suites aircrack-ng crack weak passphrase less minute wep/wpa crackers airsnort auditor security collection still wpa personal secure used ‘ good ’ passphrases full 64-character hexadecimal key information however erik tews man created fragmentation attack wep going reveal way breaking wpa tkip implementation tokyo pacsec security conference november 2008 cracking encryption packet 12–15 minutes still announcement 'crack somewhat overblown media august 2009 best attack wpa beck-tews attack partially successful works short data packets decipher wpa key requires specific wpa implementations order work addition wpav1 tkip wids eap may added alongside also vpn-networks non-continuous secure network connections may set 802.11-standard vpn implementations include pptp l2tp ipsec ssh however extra layer security may also cracked tools anger deceit ettercap pptp ike-scan ikeprobe ipsectrace ikecrack ipsec-connections stands temporal key integrity protocol acronym pronounced tee-kip part ieee 802.11i standard tkip implements per-packet key mixing re-keying system also provides message integrity check avoid problems wep wpa-improvement ieee 802.1x standard already improved authentication authorization access wireless wired lans addition extra measures extensible authentication protocol eap initiated even greater amount security eap uses central authentication server unfortunately 2002 maryland professor discovered shortcomings next years shortcomings addressed use tls enhancements new version eap called extended eap available several versions include eap-md5 peapv0 peapv1 eap-mschapv2 leap eap-fast eap-tls eap-ttls mschapv2 eap-sim eap-versions include leap peap eap leap stands lightweight extensible authentication protocol protocol based 802.1x helps minimize original security flaws using wep sophisticated key management system eap-version safer eap-md5 also uses mac address authentication leap secure thc-leapcracker used break cisco ’ version leap used computers connected access point form dictionary attack anwrap asleap finally crackers capable breaking leap peap stands protected extensible authentication protocol protocol allows secure transport data passwords encryption keys without need certificate server developed cisco microsoft rsa security eaps types extensible authentication protocol implementations based eap framework framework established supports existing eap types well future authentication methods eap-tls offers good protection mutual authentication client network authenticated using certificates per-session wep keys eap-fast also offers good protection eap-ttls another alternative made certicom funk software convenient one need distribute certificates users yet offers slightly less protection eap-tls solutions include newer system authentication ieee 802.1x promises enhance security wired wireless networks wireless access points incorporate technologies like often also routers built thus becoming wireless gateways one argue layer 2 layer 3 encryption methods good enough protecting valuable data like passwords personal emails technologies add encryption parts communication path still allowing people spy traffic gained access wired network somehow solution may encryption authorization application layer using technologies like ssl ssh gnupg pgp similar disadvantage end-to-end method may fail cover traffic encryption router level vpn single switch encrypts traffic even udp dns lookups end-to-end encryption hand service secured must encryption turned often every connection must also turned separately sending emails every recipient must support encryption method must exchange keys correctly web web sites offer https even browser sends ip addresses clear text prized resource often access internet office lan owner seeking restrict access face nontrivial enforcement task user authenticate router newest rigorous security implement wlan today 802.11i rsn-standard full-fledged 802.11i standard uses wpav2 however require newest hardware unlike wpav1 thus potentially requiring purchase new equipment new hardware required may either aes-wrap early version 802.11i newer better aes-ccmp-equipment one make sure one needs wrap ccmp-equipment 2 hardware standards compatible wpa2 wifi alliance branded version final 802.11i standard primary enhancement wpa inclusion aes-ccmp algorithm mandatory feature wpa wpa2 support eap authentication methods using radius servers preshared key psk number wpa wpa2 networks increasing number wep networks decreasing security vulnerabilities wep wpa2 found least one security vulnerability nicknamed hole196 vulnerability uses wpa2 group temporal key gtk shared key among users bssid launch attacks users bssid named page 196 ieee 802.11i specification vulnerability discussed order exploit performed gtk must known attacker unlike 802.1x 802.11i already additional security-services tkip wpav1 wpav2 may work cooperation eap wids stands wlan authentication privacy infrastructure wireless security standard defined chinese government strong form security combined server software hardware software card token use internal identity code combined user entered pin create powerful algorithm frequently generate new encryption code server time synced card token secure way conduct wireless transmissions companies area make usb tokens software tokens smart cards even make hardware versions double employee picture badge currently safest security measures smart cards usb tokens however expensive next safest methods wpa2 wpa radius server one three provide good base foundation security third item list educate employees contractors security risks personal preventive measures also task keep company workers knowledge base up-to-date new dangers cautious employees educated much lower chance anyone accidentally cause breach security locking laptop bring wide open home access point extend mobile range employees need made aware company laptop security extends outside site walls well includes places coffee houses workers vulnerable last item list deals 24/7 active defense measures ensure company network secure compliant take form regularly looking access point server firewall logs try detect unusual activity instance large files went access point early hours morning serious investigation incident would called number software hardware devices used supplement usual logs usual safety measures practical cases apply specialized wall paint window film room building significantly attenuate wireless signals keeps signals propagating outside facility significantly improve wireless security difficult hackers receive signals beyond controlled area enterprise within parking lots dos attacks easy detect however lot difficult stop even detection three common ways stop dos attack black holing one possible way stopping dos attack situation drop ip packets attacker good long-term strategy attackers change source address quickly may negative effects done automatically attacker could knowingly spoof attack packets ip address corporate partner automated defenses could block legitimate traffic partner cause additional problems validating handshake involves creating false opens setting aside resources sender acknowledges firewalls address syn floods pre-validating tcp handshake done creating false opens whenever syn segment arrives firewall sends back syn/ack segment without passing syn segment target server firewall gets back ack would happen legitimate connection would firewall send original syn segment server originally intended firewall n't set aside resources connection syn segment arrives handling large number false syn segments small burden rate limiting used reduce certain type traffic amount reasonably dealt broadcasting internal network could still used limited rate example subtle dos attacks good attack aimed single server keeps transmission lines least partially open communication rate limiting frustrates attacker legitimate users helps fully solve problem dos traffic clogs access line going internet nothing border firewall help situation dos attacks problems community stopped help isp organizations whose computers taken bots used attack firms increasing number mobile devices 802.1x interfaces security mobile devices becomes concern open standards kismet targeted towards securing laptops access points solutions extend towards covering mobile devices also host based solutions mobile handsets pda 802.1x interface security within mobile devices fall three categories wireless ips solutions offer wireless security mobile devices mobile patient monitoring devices becoming integral part healthcare industry devices eventually become method choice accessing implementing health checks patients located remote areas types patient monitoring systems security reliability critical influence condition patients could leave medical professionals dark condition patient compromised order implement 802.11i one must first make sure router/access point well client devices indeed equipped support network encryption done server radius ads nds ldap needs integrated server computer local network access point router integrated authentication server remote server ap's/routers integrated authentication servers often expensive specifically option commercial usage like hot spots hosted 802.1x servers via internet require monthly fee running private server free yet disadvantage one must set server needs continuously set server server client software must installed server software required enterprise authentication server radius ads nds ldap required software picked various suppliers microsoft cisco funk software meetinghouse data open-source projects software includes client software comes built-in windows xp may integrated os using following software remote authentication dial user service radius aaa authentication authorization accounting protocol used remote network access radius originally proprietary later published isoc documents rfc 2138 rfc 2139 idea inside server act gatekeeper verifying identities username password already pre-determined user radius server also configured enforce user policies restrictions well record accounting information connection time purposes billing today almost full wireless network coverage many urban areas infrastructure wireless community network consider future internet already place one could roam around always connected internet nodes open public due security concerns nodes encrypted users n't know disable encryption many people consider proper etiquette leave access points open public allowing free access internet others think default encryption provides substantial protection small inconvenience dangers open access fear may substantial even home dsl router density access points even problem limited number channels available partly overlap channel handle multiple networks places many private wireless networks example apartment complexes limited number wi-fi radio channels might cause slowness problems according advocates open access points n't involve significant risks open wireless networks public hand countries including germany persons providing open access point may made partially liable illegal activity conducted via access point also many contracts isps specify connection may shared persons Target text information: stealth_wallpaper.stealth wallpaper stealth wallpaper material designed prevent indoor wi-fi network extending leaking outside building malicious persons may attempt eavesdrop attack network simple prevent electronic signals passing building covering interior metal stealth wallpaper accomplishes difficult task blocking wi-fi signals still allowing cellphone signals pass first stealth wallpaper originally designed uk defense contractor bae systems 2012 register reported commercial wallpaper developed institut polytechnique grenoble centre technique du papier planned sale 2013 wallpaper blocks three selected wi-fi frequencies nevertheless allow gsm 4g signals pass network therefore allowing cell phone use remain unaffected wallpaper I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: lisp_(programming_language).lisp programming language lisp historically lisp family computer programming languages long history distinctive fully parenthesized prefix notation originally specified 1958 lisp second-oldest high-level programming language widespread use today fortran older one year lisp changed since early days many dialects existed history today best-known general-purpose lisp dialects clojure common lisp scheme lisp originally created practical mathematical notation computer programs influenced notation alonzo church lambda calculus quickly became favored programming language artificial intelligence ai research one earliest programming languages lisp pioneered many ideas computer science including tree data structures automatic storage management dynamic typing conditionals higher-order functions recursion self-hosting compiler read–eval–print loop name lisp derives list processor linked lists one lisp major data structures lisp source code made lists thus lisp programs manipulate source code data structure giving rise macro systems allow programmers create new syntax new domain-specific languages embedded lisp interchangeability code data gives lisp instantly recognizable syntax program code written s-expressions parenthesized lists function call syntactic form written list function operator name first arguments following instance function takes three arguments would called john mccarthy developed lisp 1958 massachusetts institute technology mit mccarthy published design paper communications acm 1960 entitled recursive functions symbolic expressions computation machine part showed simple operators notation functions one build turing-complete language algorithms information processing language first ai language 1955 1956 already included many concepts list-processing recursion came used lisp mccarthy original notation used bracketed m-expressions would translated s-expressions example m-expression equivalent s-expression lisp implemented programmers rapidly chose use s-expressions m-expressions abandoned m-expressions surfaced short-lived attempts mlisp horace enea cgol vaughan pratt lisp first implemented steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions two assembly language macros ibm 704 became primitive operations decomposing lists contents address part register number contents decrement part register number register used refer registers computer central processing unit cpu lisp dialects still use operations return first item list rest list respectively first complete lisp compiler written lisp implemented 1962 tim hart mike levin mit compiler introduced lisp model incremental compilation compiled interpreted functions intermix freely language used hart levin memo much closer modern lisp style mccarthy earlier code lisp difficult system implement compiler techniques stock hardware 1970s garbage collection routines developed mit graduate student daniel edwards made practical run lisp general-purpose computing systems efficiency still problem led creation lisp machines dedicated hardware running lisp environments programs 1980s 1990s great effort made unify work new lisp dialects mostly successors maclisp zetalisp nil new implementation lisp single language new language common lisp somewhat compatible dialects replaced book common lisp language notes compatibility various constructs 1994 ansi published common lisp standard ansi x3.226-1994 information technology programming language common lisp since inception lisp closely connected artificial intelligence research community especially pdp-10 systems lisp used implementation programming language micro planner used famous ai system shrdlu 1970s ai research spawned commercial offshoots performance existing lisp systems became growing issue sixty-year history lisp spawned many variations core theme s-expression language moreover given dialect may several implementations—for instance dozen implementations common lisp differences dialects may quite visible—for instance common lisp uses keyword codice_1 name function scheme uses codice_2 within dialect standardized however conforming implementations support core language different extensions libraries declined somewhat 1990s lisp experienced resurgence interest 2000 new activity focused around implementations common lisp scheme emacs lisp clojure racket includes development new portable libraries applications many new lisp programmers inspired writers paul graham eric s. raymond pursue language others considered antiquated new lisp programmers often describe language eye-opening experience claim substantially productive languages increase awareness may contrasted ai winter lisp brief gain mid-1990s dan weinreb lists survey common lisp implementations eleven actively maintained common lisp implementations scieneer common lisp new commercial implementation forked cmucl first release 2002 open source community created new supporting infrastructure cliki wiki collects common lisp related information common lisp directory lists resources lisp popular irc channel allows sharing commenting code snippets support lisppaste irc bot written lisp planet lisp collects contents various lisp-related blogs lispforum users discuss lisp topics lispjobs service announcing job offers weekly news service weekly lisp news common-lisp.net hosting site open source common lisp projects quicklisp library manager common lisp fifty years lisp 1958–2008 celebrated lisp50 oopsla regular local user meetings boston vancouver hamburg events include european common lisp meeting european lisp symposium international lisp conference scheme community actively maintains twenty implementations several significant new implementations chicken gambit gauche ikarus larceny ypsilon developed 2000s decade revised report algorithmic language scheme standard scheme widely accepted scheme community scheme requests implementation process created lot quasi standard libraries extensions scheme user communities individual scheme implementations continue grow new language standardization process started 2003 led rrs scheme standard 2007 academic use scheme teaching computer science seems declined somewhat universities longer using scheme computer science introductory courses mit uses python instead scheme undergraduate computer science program mitx massive open online course several new dialects lisp arc hy nu liskell lfe lisp flavored erlang parser julia implemented femtolisp dialect scheme julia inspired scheme often considered lisp common lisp scheme represent two major streams lisp development languages embody significantly different design choices common lisp successor maclisp primary influences lisp machine lisp maclisp nil s-1 lisp spice lisp scheme many features lisp machine lisp large lisp dialect used program lisp machines designed efficiently implementable personal computer workstation common lisp general-purpose programming language thus large language standard including many built-in data types functions macros language elements object system common lisp object system common lisp also borrowed certain features scheme lexical scoping lexical closures common lisp implementations available targeting different platforms llvm java virtual machine x86-64 powerpc alpha arm motorola 68000 mips operating systems windows macos linux solaris freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd heroku scheme statically scoped properly tail-recursive dialect lisp programming language invented guy l. steele jr. gerald jay sussman designed exceptionally clear simple semantics different ways form expressions designed decade earlier common lisp scheme minimalist design much smaller set standard features certain implementation features tail-call optimization full continuations specified common lisp wide variety programming paradigms including imperative functional message passing styles find convenient expression scheme scheme continues evolve series standards revised report algorithmic language scheme series scheme requests implementation clojure recent dialect lisp targets mainly java virtual machine common language runtime clr python vm ruby vm yarv compiling javascript designed pragmatic general-purpose language clojure draws considerable influences haskell places strong emphasis immutability clojure provides access java frameworks libraries optional type hints type inference calls java avoid reflection enable fast primitive operations lisp dialects used scripting languages many applications best-known emacs lisp emacs editor autolisp later visual lisp autocad nyquist audacity scheme lilypond potential small size useful scheme interpreter makes particularly popular embedded scripting examples include siod tinyscheme successfully embedded gimp image processor generic name script-fu librep lisp interpreter john harper originally based emacs lisp language embedded sawfish window manager lisp first language structure program code represented faithfully directly standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed homoiconicity thus lisp functions manipulated altered even created within lisp program without lower-level manipulations generally considered one main advantages language regard expressive power makes language suitable syntactic macros metacircular evaluation conditional using if–then–else syntax invented mccarthy fortran context proposed inclusion algol made part algol 58 specification lisp mccarthy used general cond -structure algol 60 took if–then–else popularized lisp deeply influenced alan kay leader research team developed smalltalk xerox parc turn lisp influenced smalltalk later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features inheritance classes encapsulating instances message passing etc 1970s flavors object system introduced concept multiple inheritance mixin common lisp object system provides multiple inheritance multimethods multiple dispatch first-class generic functions yielding flexible powerful form dynamic dispatch served template many subsequent lisp including scheme object systems often implemented via metaobject protocol reflective metacircular design object system defined terms lisp second language smalltalk still one languages possess metaobject system many years later alan kay suggested result confluence features smalltalk lisp could regarded properly conceived object-oriented programming systems lisp introduced concept automatic garbage collection system walks heap looking unused memory progress modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms generational garbage collection stimulated use lisp edsger w. dijkstra 1972 turing award lecture said largely resource requirements respect early computing hardware including early microprocessors lisp become popular outside ai community fortran algol-descended c language suitability complex dynamic applications lisp enjoying resurgence popular interest 2010s lisp expression oriented language unlike languages distinction made expressions statements code data written expressions expression evaluated produces value common lisp possibly multiple values embedded expressions value data type mccarthy 1958 paper introduced two types syntax symbolic expressions s-expressions sexps mirror internal representation code data meta expressions m-expressions express functions s-expressions m-expressions never found favor almost lisps today use s-expressions manipulate code data use parentheses lisp immediately obvious difference programming language families result students long given lisp nicknames lost stupid parentheses lots irritating superfluous parentheses however s-expression syntax also responsible much lisp power syntax extremely regular facilitates manipulation computer however syntax lisp limited traditional parentheses notation extended include alternative notations example xmlisp common lisp extension employs metaobject protocol integrate s-expressions extensible markup language xml reliance expressions gives language great flexibility lisp functions written lists processed exactly like data allows easy writing programs manipulate programs metaprogramming many lisp dialects exploit feature using macro systems enables extension language almost without limit lisp list written elements separated whitespace surrounded parentheses example list whose elements three atoms values implicitly typed respectively two integers lisp-specific data type called symbol declared empty list also represented special atom entity lisp atom list expressions written lists using prefix notation first element list name function name macro lambda expression name special operator see remainder list arguments example function returns arguments list expression evaluates list quote preceding example special operator returns argument without evaluating unquoted expressions recursively evaluated enclosing expression evaluated example evaluates list note third argument list lists nested arithmetic operators treated similarly expression evaluates 10 equivalent infix notation would lisp notion operators implemented algol-derived languages arithmetic operators lisp variadic functions n-ary able take number arguments c-style '++ increment operator sometimes implemented name incf giving syntax equivalent setq x x 1 returning new value x special operators sometimes called special forms provide lisp control structure example special operator takes three arguments first argument non-nil evaluates second argument otherwise evaluates third argument thus expression evaluates course would useful non-trivial expression substituted place lisp also provides logical operators operators short circuit evaluation return first nil non-nil argument respectively evaluate james another special operator used bind variables values evaluated within expression operator also used create functions arguments list arguments expression expressions function evaluates returned value value last expression evaluated expression evaluates function applied takes one argument binds returns number one greater argument lambda expressions treated differently named functions invoked way therefore expression evaluates 're function application execute anonymous function passing value 5 named functions created storing lambda expression symbol using defun macro original lisp two fundamental data types atoms lists list finite ordered sequence elements element either atom list atom number symbol symbol essentially unique named item written alphanumeric string source code used either variable name data item symbolic processing example list contains three elements symbol list number 2 essential difference atoms lists atoms immutable unique two atoms appeared different places source code written exactly way represented object whereas list separate object could altered independently lists could distinguished lists comparison operators data types introduced later lisp dialects programming styles evolved concept atom lost importance many dialects still retained predicate atom legacy compatibility defining true object cons lisp list implemented singly linked list cell list called cons scheme pair composed two pointers called car cdr respectively equivalent fields discussed article linked list many data structures built cons cells one basic called proper list proper list either special empty list symbol cons points datum may another cons structure list points another proper list given cons taken head linked list car points first element list cdr points rest list reason functions also called referring conses part linked list rather say tree thus lisp list atomic object instance container class c++ java would list nothing aggregate linked conses variable refers given list simply pointer first cons list traversal list done cdring list taking successive cdrs visit cons list using several higher-order functions map function list conses lists universal lisp systems common misconception lisp data structures fact simplistic lisps data structures vectors arrays hash tables structures forth parenthesized s-expressions represent linked list structures several ways represent list s-expression cons written dotted-pair notation car cdr longer proper list might written dotted-pair notation conventionally abbreviated list notation improper list may written combination two – list three conses whose last cdr i.e. list fully specified form lisp provides many built-in procedures accessing controlling lists lists created directly procedure takes number arguments returns list arguments way lists constructed cons pairs procedure used add element front list note procedure asymmetric handles list arguments lists constructed procedure appends two lists one another lisp lists linked lists appending two lists asymptotic time complexity formula_1 lisp lists simple linked lists share structure one another say two lists tail final sequence conses instance execution following common lisp code lists respectively however tail structure lists copy cons cells pointing memory locations lists sharing structure rather copying give dramatic performance improvement however technique interact undesired ways functions alter lists passed arguments altering one list replacing affect changes thereby also changes – possibly unexpected result source bugs functions alter arguments documented destructive reason aficionados functional programming avoid destructive functions scheme dialect favors functional style names destructive functions marked cautionary exclamation point bang —such read set car bang replaces car cons common lisp dialect destructive functions commonplace equivalent named replace car function rarely seen however common lisp includes special facility make easier define use destructive functions frequent style common lisp write code functionally without destructive calls prototyping add destructive calls optimization safe lisp evaluates expressions entered user symbols lists evaluate usually simpler expression – instance symbol evaluates value variable names evaluates however forms evaluate entering lisp returns expression also marked prevent evaluated necessary symbols lists role special operator abbreviation one quotation mark instance usually entering symbol returns value corresponding variable error variable refer literal symbol enter usually common lisp scheme also support backquote operator termed quasiquote scheme entered character grave accent almost plain quote except allows expressions evaluated values interpolated quoted list comma unquote comma-at splice operators variable value evaluates evaluates backquote often used defining macro expansions self-evaluating forms quoted forms lisp equivalent literals may possible modify values mutable literals program code instance function returns quoted form code calls function modifies form may alter behavior function subsequent iterations modifying quoted form like generally considered bad style defined ansi common lisp erroneous resulting undefined behavior compiled files file-compiler coalesce similar constants put write-protected memory etc. lisp formalization quotation noted douglas hofstadter gödel escher bach others example philosophical idea self-reference lisp family splits use dynamic static a.k.a lexical scope clojure common lisp scheme make use static scoping default newlisp picolisp embedded languages emacs autocad use dynamic scoping since version 24.1 emacs uses dynamic lexical scoping fundamental distinction lisp languages lisp textual representation program simply human-readable description internal data structures linked lists symbols number characters etc would used underlying lisp system lisp uses implement powerful macro system like macro languages c macro returns code compiled however unlike c macros macros lisp functions exploit full power lisp lisp code structure lists macros built list-processing functions language short anything lisp data structure lisp macros code contrast languages parser output purely internal language implementation manipulated programmer feature makes easy develop efficient languages within languages example common lisp object system implemented cleanly language extension using macros means application needs different inheritance mechanism use different object system stark contrast languages example java support multiple inheritance reasonable way add simplistic lisp implementations list structure directly interpreted run program function literally piece list structure traversed interpreter executing however substantial lisp systems also include compiler compiler translates list structure machine code bytecode execution code run fast code compiled conventional languages c. macros expand compilation step thus offer interesting options program needs precomputed table macro might create table compile time compiler need output table need call code create table run time lisp implementations even mechanism codice_3 allows code present compile time macro would need present emitted module lisp languages often used interactive command line may combined integrated development environment ide user types expressions command line directs ide transmit lisp system lisp reads entered expressions evaluates prints result reason lisp command line called read–eval–print loop repl basic operation repl follows simplistic description omits many elements real lisp quoting macros function accepts textual s-expressions input parses internal data structure instance type text prompt translates linked list three elements symbol number 1 number 2 happens list also valid piece lisp code evaluated car list names function—the addition operation note read single symbol read number one hundred twenty-three read string 123 function evaluates data returning zero lisp data result evaluation mean interpretation lisp systems compile every expression native machine code simple however describe evaluation interpretation evaluate list whose car names function first evaluates arguments given cdr applies function arguments case function addition applying argument list yields answer result evaluation symbol evaluates value symbol foo data like string 123 evaluates string list evaluates list 1 2 3 job function represent output user simple result trivial expression evaluated piece list structure would require traverse list print s-expression implement lisp repl necessary implement three functions infinite-loop function naturally implementation complex since must also implement special operators like done basic repl one line code lisp repl typically also provides input editing input history error handling interface debugger lisp usually evaluated eagerly common lisp arguments evaluated applicative order 'leftmost innermost scheme order arguments undefined leaving room optimization compiler lisp originally control structures many added language evolution lisp original conditional operator precursor later structures programmers scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion scheme commonality academic computer science led students believe tail recursion common way write iterations lisp incorrect oft-seen lisp dialects imperative-style iteration constructs scheme loop common lisp complex expressions moreover key issue makes objective rather subjective matter scheme makes specific requirements handling tail calls thus reason use tail recursion generally encouraged scheme practice expressly supported language definition contrast ansi common lisp require optimization commonly termed tail call elimination thus fact tail recursive style casual replacement use traditional iteration constructs discouraged common lisp matter stylistic preference potentially one efficiency since apparent tail call common lisp may compile simple jump program correctness since tail recursion may increase stack use common lisp risking stack overflow lisp control structures special operators equivalent languages syntactic keywords expressions using operators surface appearance function calls differ arguments necessarily evaluated—or case iteration expression may evaluated contrast major programming languages lisp allows implementing control structures using language several control structures implemented lisp macros even macro-expanded programmer wants know work common lisp scheme operators non-local control flow differences operators deepest differences two dialects scheme supports re-entrant continuations using procedure allows program save later restore particular place execution common lisp support re-entrant continuations support several ways handling escape continuations often algorithm expressed lisp either imperative functional style noted scheme tends favor functional style using tail recursion continuations express control flow however imperative style still quite possible style preferred many common lisp programmers may seem familiar programmers used structured languages c preferred schemers closely resembles pure-functional languages haskell lisp early heritage list processing wide array higher-order functions relating iteration sequences many cases explicit loop would needed languages like loop c lisp task accomplished higher-order function true many functional programming languages good example function scheme called common lisp called given function one lists applies function successively lists elements order collecting results new list applies function corresponding pair list elements yielding result examples common lisp code basic hello world program lisp syntax lends naturally recursion mathematical problems enumeration recursively defined sets simple express notation evaluate number factorial alternative implementation takes less stack space previous version underlying lisp system optimizes tail recursion contrast iterative version uses common lisp macro following function reverses list lisp built-in reverse function thing various object systems models built top alongside lisp including 1-hop neighbor's text information: rpl_(programming_language).rpl programming language /ref rpl derived reverse polish lisp according original developers whilst short 1987 hp marketing attempted coin backronym rom-based procedural language handheld calculator operating system application programming language used hewlett-packard scientific graphing rpn reverse polish notation calculators hp 28 48 49 50 series also usable non-rpn calculators 38 39 40 series rpl structured programming language based rpn equally capable processing algebraic expressions formulae implemented threaded interpreter rpl many similarities forth languages stack-based well list-based lisp contrary previous hp rpn calculators fixed four-level stack stack used rpl limited available calculator ram rpl originated hp corvallis oregon development facility 1984 replacement previous practice implementing operating systems calculators assembly language last pocket calculator supporting rpl hp 50g discontinued 2015 however multiple emulators emulate hp rpl calculators exist run range operating systems devices including ios android smartphones internal low- medium-level variant rpl called system rpl sysrpl used earlier hp calculators well aforementioned ones part operating system implementation language hp 48 series variant rpl accessible calculator user without use external tools hp 49/50 series compiler built rom use sysrpl possible cause serious crash coding sysrpl caution must used using high-level user rpl userrpl version language available said graphing calculators developing textual well graphical application programs userrpl programs internally represented sysrpl programs use safe subset available sysrpl commands error checking part userrpl commands however makes userrpl programs noticeably slower equivalent sysrpl programs userrpl command syseval tells calculator process designated parts userrpl program sysrpl code rpl control blocks strictly postfix although notable exceptions control block structures appear would standard infix language calculator manages allowing implementation blocks skip ahead program stream necessary rpl supports basic conditional testing if/then/else structure basic syntax block following example tests see number bottom stack 1 replaces equal one construct evaluates condition tests bottom stack result result rpl optionally support forth-style blocks allowing condition determined block leaving condition empty statement make changes stack condition execution use existing result bottom stack test postfix conditional testing may accomplished using ift if-then ifte if-then-else functions ift ifte pop two three commands stack respectively topmost value evaluated boolean true second topmost value pushed back stack ifte allows third else value pushed back stack boolean false following example uses ift function pop object bottom stack equal 1 replaces one following example uses ifte function pop object bottom stack equal 1 replaces one equal 1 replaces string one ift ifte evaluate program block given one arguments allowing compact form conditional logic if/then/else/end structure following example pops object bottom stack replaces one less depending whether equal less greater 1 support complex conditional logic rpl provides case/then/end structure handling multiple exclusive tests one branches within case statement executed basic syntax block following code illustrates use case/then/end block given letter bottom stack replaces string equivalent unknown letter code identical following nested if/then/else/end block equivalent rpl provides for/next statement looping one index another index loop stored temporary local variable accessed loop syntax for/next block following example uses loop sum numbers 1 10 index variable loop start/next block used simple block runs start index end index unlike for/next loop looping variable available syntax start/next block for/next start/next support user-defined step increment replacing terminating next keyword increment step keyword loop variable incremented decremented different value default +1 instance following loop steps back 10 2 decrementing loop index 2 while/repeat/end block rpl supports indefinite loop condition test start loop syntax while/repeat/end block do/until/end block rpl supports indefinite loop condition test end loop syntax do/until/end block 1-hop neighbor's text information: game_oriented_assembly_lisp.game oriented assembly lisp game oriented assembly lisp goal programming language dialect language lisp made video games developed andy gavin jak daxter team company naughty dog written using allegro common lisp used development entire jak daxter series games syntactically goal resembles lisp dialect scheme though many idiosyncratic object-oriented programming features classes inheritance virtual functions goal encourages imperative programming style programs tend consist sequence events executed rather functional programming style functions evaluated recursively diversion scheme allows side effects encourage imperative style goal run interpreter instead compiled directly playstation 2 machine code execute offers limited facilities garbage collection relying extensively runtime support offers dynamic memory allocation primitives designed make well-suited running constant memory video game console goal extensive support inlined assembly language code using special codice_1 form allowing programs freely mix assembly higher-level constructs within one function goal compiler implemented allegro common lisp supports long term compiling listener session gives compiler knowledge state compiled thus running program including symbol table addition dynamic linking allows function edited recompiled uploaded inserted running game without restart process similar edit continue feature offered c++ compilers allows programs replace arbitrary amounts code even entire object files interrupt running game debugger feature used implement code level streaming jak daxter games goal first use game predecessor language game oriented object lisp gool also developed andy gavin crash bandicoot game since naughty dog longer employs goal primary development maintenance engineer pressure new parent company sony share technology studios naughty dog transitioned away lisp however since resumed using scripting playstation 3 games including last us Target text information: dylan_(programming_language).dylan programming language dylan multi-paradigm programming language includes support functional object-oriented programming oop dynamic reflective providing programming model designed support generating efficient machine code including fine-grained control dynamic static behaviors created early 1990s group led apple computer concise thorough overview language may found dylan reference manual dylan derives scheme common lisp adds integrated object system derived common lisp object system clos dylan values including numbers characters functions classes first-class objects dylan supports multiple inheritance polymorphism multiple dispatch keyword arguments object introspection pattern-based syntax extension macros many advanced features programs express fine-grained control dynamism admitting programs occupy continuum dynamic static programming supporting evolutionary development allowing rapid prototyping followed incremental refinement optimization dylan main design goal dynamic language well-suited developing commercial software dylan attempts address potential performance issues introducing natural limits full flexibility lisp systems allowing compiler clearly understand compilable units libraries dylan derives much semantics scheme lisps dylan implementations initially built within extant lisp systems however dylan algol-like syntax instead lisp-like prefix syntax dylan created early 1990s group led apple computer one time development intended use apple newton computer dylan implementation reach sufficient maturity time newton instead used mix c newtonscript developed walter smith apple ended dylan development effort 1995 though made technology release version available apple dylan tr1 included advanced integrated development environment ide two groups contributed design language developed implementations harlequin released commercial ide microsoft windows carnegie mellon university released open source compiler unix systems called gwydion dylan implementations open source harlequin implementation named open dylan maintained group volunteers dylan hackers dylan language code-named ralph james joaquin chose name dylan dynamic language many dylan syntax features come lisp heritage originally dylan used lisp-like prefix syntax based s-expressions time language design completed syntax changed algol-like syntax expectation would familiar wider audience programmers syntax designed michael kahl described great detail dylan reference manual dylan case sensitive dylan lexical syntax allows use naming convention hyphen-minus signs used connect parts multiple-word identifiers sometimes called lisp-case kebab case convention common lisp languages used programming languages treat hyphen-minus part numeric literal single lexical token even surrounded whitespace characters identifiers dylan may contain special characters languages besides alphanumeric characters hyphen-minus signs dylan allows following non-alphanumerical characters part identifiers underscore codice_1 asterisk codice_2 ampersand codice_3 less-than sign codice_4 equals sign codice_5 greater-than sign codice_6 vertical bar codice_7 caret codice_8 dollar sign codice_9 percent sign codice_10 sign codice_11 identifiers may consist non-alphanumeric characters numeric characters alone ambiguity whitespace used simple class several slots convention classes named less-than greater-than signs used angle brackets e.g class named codice_12 code example codice_13 codice_14 codice_12 optional true codice_16 clauses example may write codice_17 codice_16 terminate codice_19 statement class rewritten minimal way possible slots typed codice_20 slots must initialized manually convention constant names begin factorial function codice_21 codice_22 normal identifiers explicit return statement result method function last expression evaluated common style leave semicolon expression return position many object-oriented languages classes main means encapsulation modularity class defines namespace controls definitions externally visible classes many languages define indivisible unit must used whole example using codice_23 concatenation function requires importing compiling codice_23 languages including dylan also include separate explicit namespace module system performs encapsulation general way dylan concepts compile-unit import-unit separated classes nothing specifically either library defines items compiled handled together module defines namespace classes placed together modules cut across programmer wishes often complete definition class exist single module spread across several optionally collected together different programs different definitions class including need example consider add-on library regex support codice_23 languages functionality included strings functionality must added codice_23 namespace soon occurs codice_23 class becomes larger functions n't need use regex still must pay increased library size reason sorts add-ons typically placed namespaces objects downside approach new functions longer part codice_23 instead isolated set functions must called separately instead codice_29 would natural organization oo viewpoint something like codice_30 used effectively reverses ordering dylan many interfaces defined code instance string concatenation method could placed string interface concat interface collects together different concatenation functions various classes commonly used math libraries functions tend applicable widely differing object types practical use interface construct build public private versions module something languages include bolt feature invariably causes problems adds syntax dylan every function call simply places private development interface collect publicly accessible functions codice_31 java c++ visibility object defined code meaning support similar change programmer would forced rewrite definitions fully could two versions time classes dylan describe codice_32 data members fields ivars etc objects fashion similar oo languages access slots via methods smalltalk default getter setter methods automatically generated based slot names contrast oo languages methods applicable class often defined outside class thus class definitions dylan typically include definition storage instance define class window view end class example class codice_33 defined class name syntax convention make class names stand out—the angle brackets merely part class name contrast languages convention capitalize first letter class name prefix name c example codice_33 inherits single class codice_35 contains two slots codice_36 holding string window title codice_37 holding x-y point corner window example title given default value position optional init-keyword syntax allows programmer specify initial value slot instantiating object class languages c++ java class would also define interface case definition explicit instructions languages access slots methods considered codice_38 meaning used subclasses allow unrelated code use window instances must declared codice_39 dylan sorts visibility rules considered part code module/interface system adds considerable flexibility instance one interface used early development could declare everything public whereas one used testing deployment could limit c++ java changes would require changes source code people wo n't whereas dylan fully unrelated concept although example use dylan also supports multiple inheritance dylan methods intrinsically associated specific class methods thought existing outside classes like clos dylan based multiple dispatch multimethods specific method called chosen based types arguments method need known compile time understanding required function may available based user preferences java methods would isolated specific class use functionality programmer forced import class refer explicitly call method class unavailable unknown compile time application simply wo n't compile dylan code isolated storage functions many classes methods call functions thereby looking feeling like oo languages however code may also located generic functions meaning attached specific class called natively anyone linking specific generic function method class accomplished thusly define method turn-blue w window end method definition similar languages would likely encapsulated within codice_33 class note setter call syntactic sugar codice_41 utility generic methods comes consider generic examples instance one common function languages codice_42 returns human-readable form object instance window might return title position parens string would return dylan methods could collected single module called codice_42 thereby removing code definition class specific object support codice_42 could easily added codice_42 module whole concept might strike readers odd code handle codice_42 window n't defined codice_33 might make sense consider dylan handles call codice_42 languages program compiled codice_42 codice_33 looked replaced pointer less method dylan occurs program first run runtime builds table method-name/parameters details looks methods dynamically via table means function specific method located anywhere compile-time unit end programmer given considerable flexibility terms place code collecting along class lines appropriate functional lines implication programmer add functionality existing classes defining functions separate file instance might wish add spell checking codice_51s languages would require access source code string class—and basic classes rarely given source form dylan extensible languages spell checking method could added codice_52 module defining classes applied via codice_53 construct case actual functionality might defined single generic function takes string returns errors codice_52 module compiled program strings objects get added functionality apple dylan implementation dylan produced apple computer originally developed apple newton product I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	3,051	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: stored_procedure.stored procedure stored procedure also termed proc storp sproc stopro storedproc storeproc sp sp subroutine available applications access relational database management system rdbms procedures stored database data dictionary uses stored procedures include data-validation integrated database access-control mechanisms furthermore stored procedures consolidate centralize logic originally implemented applications save time memory extensive complex processing requires execution several sql statements saved stored procedures applications call procedures one use nested stored procedures executing one stored procedure within another stored procedures may return result sets i.e. results codice_1 statement result sets processed using cursors stored procedures associating result-set locator applications stored procedures may also contain declared variables processing data cursors allow loop multiple rows table stored-procedure flow-control statements typically include codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 statements stored procedures receive variables return results modify variables return depending variable declared stored procedures similar user-defined functions udfs major difference udfs used like expression within sql statements whereas stored procedures must invoked using codice_7 statement exact correct implementation stored procedures varies one database system major database vendors support form depending database system stored procedures implemented variety programming languages example sql java c c++ stored procedures written non-sql languages may may execute sql statements increasing adoption stored procedures led introduction procedural elements sql language standards part sql/psm made sql imperative programming language database systems offer proprietary vendor-specific extensions exceeding sql/psm standard specification java stored procedures exists well sql/jrt systems stored procedures used control transaction management others stored procedures run inside transaction transactions effectively transparent stored procedures also invoked database trigger condition handler example stored procedure may triggered insert specific table update specific field table code inside stored procedure would executed writing stored procedures condition handlers also allows database administrators track errors system greater detail using stored procedures catch errors record audit information database external resource like file prepared statements take ordinary statement query parameterize different literal values used later time like stored procedures stored server efficiency provide protection sql injection attacks although simpler declarative prepared statements ordinarily written use procedural logic operate variables simple interface client-side implementations prepared statements widely reusable dbms 1-hop neighbor's text information: postgresql.postgresql postgresql also known postgres free open-source relational database management system rdbms emphasizing extensibility technical standards compliance designed handle range workloads single machines data warehouses web services many concurrent users default database macos server also available linux freebsd openbsd windows postgresql features transactions atomicity consistency isolation durability acid properties automatically updatable views materialized views triggers foreign keys stored procedures postgresql developed postgresql global development group diverse group many companies individual contributors postgresql developers pronounce postgresql abbreviated postgres ubiquitous support sql standard among relational databases originally named postgres name post ingres refers project origins rdbms originated university california berkeley review postgresql core team announced 2007 product would continue use name postgresql postgresql evolved ingres project university california berkeley 1982 leader ingres team michael stonebraker left berkeley make proprietary version ingres returned berkeley 1985 began post-ingres project address problems contemporary database systems become increasingly clear early 1980s turing award 2014 projects techniques pioneered new project postgres aimed add fewest features needed completely support data types features included ability define types fully describe relationships – something used widely maintained entirely user postgres database understood relationships could retrieve information related tables natural way using rules postgres used many ideas ingres code starting 1986 published papers described basis system prototype version shown 1988 acm sigmod conference team released version 1 small number users june 1989 followed version 2 re-written rules system june 1990 version 3 released 1991 re-wrote rules system added support multiple storage managers improved query engine 1993 number users began overwhelm project requests support features releasing version 4.2 june 30 1994 – primarily cleanup – project ended berkeley released postgres mit license variant enabled developers use code use time postgres used ingres-influenced postquel query language interpreter could interactively used console application named monitor 1994 berkeley graduate students andrew yu jolly chen replaced postquel query language interpreter one sql query language creating postgres95 monitor also replaced psql yu chen announced first version 0.01 beta testers may 5 1995 version 1.0 postgres95 announced september 5 1995 liberal license enabled software freely modifiable july 8 1996 marc fournier hub.org networking services provided first non-university development server open-source development effort participation bruce momjian vadim b. mikheev work began stabilize code inherited berkeley 1996 project renamed postgresql reflect support sql online presence website postgresql.org began october 22 1996 first postgresql release formed version 6.0 january 29 1997 since developers volunteers around world maintained software postgresql global development group project continues make releases available free open-source software postgresql license code comes contributions proprietary vendors support companies open-source programmers postgresql manages concurrency multiversion concurrency control mvcc gives transaction snapshot database allowing changes made without affecting transactions largely eliminates need read locks ensures database maintains acid principles postgresql offers three levels transaction isolation read committed repeatable read serializable postgresql immune dirty reads requesting read uncommitted transaction isolation level provides read committed instead postgresql supports full serializability via serializable snapshot isolation ssi method postgresql includes built-in binary replication based shipping changes write-ahead logs wal replica nodes asynchronously ability run read-only queries replicated nodes allows splitting read traffic among multiple nodes efficiently earlier replication software allowed similar read scaling normally relied adding replication triggers master increasing load postgresql includes built-in synchronous replication ensures write transaction master waits least one replica node written data transaction log unlike database systems durability transaction whether asynchronous synchronous specified per-database per-user per-session even per-transaction useful workloads require guarantees may wanted data slow performance due requirement confirmation transaction reaching synchronous standby standby servers synchronous asynchronous synchronous standby servers specified configuration determines servers candidates synchronous replication first list actively streaming used current synchronous server fails system fails next line synchronous multi-master replication included postgresql core postgres-xc based postgresql provides scalable synchronous multi-master replication licensed license postgresql related project called postgres-xl postgres-r yet another fork bidirectional replication bdr asynchronous multi-master replication system postgresql tools repmgr make managing replication clusters easier several asynchronous trigger-based replication packages available remain useful even introduction expanded core abilities situations binary replication full database cluster inappropriate postgresql includes built-in support regular b-tree hash table indexes four index access methods generalized search trees gist generalized inverted indexes gin space-partitioned gist sp-gist block range indexes brin addition user-defined index methods created although quite involved process indexes postgresql also support following features postgresql schema holds objects except roles tablespaces schemas effectively act like namespaces allowing objects name co-exist database default newly created databases schema called public schemas added public schema n't mandatory setting determines order postgresql checks schemas unqualified objects without prefixed schema default set refers currently connected database user default set database role level session parameter freely changed even multiple times client session affecting session non-existent schemas listed search_path silently skipped objects lookup new objects created whichever valid schema one presently exists appears first search_path.schema outline database wide variety native data types supported including addition users create data types usually made fully indexable via postgresql indexing infrastructures – gist gin sp-gist examples include geographic information system gis data types postgis project postgresql also data type called domain data type optional constraints defined creator domain means data entered column using domain conform whichever constraints defined part domain data type represents range data used called range types discrete ranges e.g integer values 1 10 continuous ranges e.g. time 10:00 11:00 built-in range types available include ranges integers big integers decimal numbers time stamps without time zone dates custom range types created make new types ranges available ip address ranges using inet type base float ranges using float data type base range types support inclusive exclusive range boundaries using characters respectively e.g. represents integers starting including 4 including 9 range types also compatible existing operators used check overlap containment right etc new types almost objects inside database created including tables set inherit characteristics parent table data child tables appear exist parent tables unless data selected parent table using keyword i.e adding column parent table cause column appear child table inheritance used implement table partitioning using either triggers rules direct inserts parent table proper child tables feature fully supported yet – particular table constraints currently inheritable check constraints not-null constraints parent table automatically inherited children types constraints unique primary key foreign key constraints inherited inheritance provides way map features generalization hierarchies depicted entity relationship diagrams erds directly postgresql database postgresql link systems retrieve data via foreign data wrappers fdws take form data source file system another relational database management system rdbms web service means regular database queries use data sources like regular tables even join multiple data-sources together postgresql several interfaces available also widely supported among programming language libraries built-in interfaces include libpq postgresql official c application interface ecpg embedded c system external interfaces include procedural languages allow developers extend database custom subroutines functions often called stored procedures functions used build database triggers functions invoked modification certain data custom data types aggregate functions procedural languages also invoked without defining function using command sql level languages divided two groups procedures written safe languages sandboxed safely created used user procedures written unsafe languages created superusers allow bypassing database security restrictions also access sources external database languages like perl provide safe unsafe versions postgresql built-in support three procedural languages addition postgresql allows procedural languages loaded database extensions three language extensions included postgresql support perl python tcl external projects add support many languages including java javascript pl/v8 r ruby others triggers events triggered action sql data manipulation language dml statements example insert statement might activate trigger checks values statement valid triggers activated either insert update statements triggers fully supported attached tables triggers per-column conditional update triggers target specific columns table triggers told execute set conditions specified trigger clause triggers attached views using instead condition multiple triggers fired alphabetical order addition calling functions written native pl/pgsql triggers also invoke functions written languages like pl/python pl/perl postgresql provides asynchronous messaging system accessed notify listen unlisten commands session issue notify command along user-specified channel optional payload mark particular event occurring sessions able detect events issuing listen command listen particular channel functionality used wide variety purposes letting sessions know table updated separate applications detect particular action performed system prevents need continuous polling applications see anything yet changed reducing unnecessary overhead notifications fully transactional messages sent transaction sent committed eliminates problem messages sent action performed rolled back many connectors postgresql provide support notification system including libpq jdbc npgsql psycopg node.js used external applications rules allow query tree incoming query rewritten query re-write rules attached table/class re-write incoming dml select insert update and/or delete one queries either replace original dml statement execute addition query re-write occurs dml statement parsing query planning postgresql server process-based threaded uses one operating system process per database session multiple sessions automatically spread across available cpus operating system starting postgresql 9.6 many types queries also parallelized across multiple background worker processes taking advantage multiple cpus cores client applications use threads create multiple database connections thread postgresql manages internal security per-role basis role generally regarded user role log group role roles members permissions granted revoked object column level also allow/prevent creation new objects database schema table levels postgresql security label feature extension sql standards allows additional security bundled loadable module supports label-based mandatory access control mac based security-enhanced linux selinux security policy postgresql natively supports broad number external authentication mechanisms including gssapi sspi kerberos peer ident certificate methods also use specified map file lists users matched authentication system allowed connect specific database user methods specified cluster host-based authentication configuration file pg_hba.conf determines connections allowed allows control user connect database connect ip address ip address range domain socket authentication system enforced whether connection must use transport layer security tls postgresql claims high complete conformance sql standard one exception handling unquoted identifiers like table column names postgresql folded – internal – lower case characters whereas standard says unquoted identifiers folded upper case thus equivalent according standard many informal performance studies postgresql done performance improvements aimed improving scalability began heavily version 8.1 simple benchmarks version 8.0 version 8.4 showed latter 10 times faster read-only workloads least 7.5 times faster read write workloads first industry-standard peer-validated benchmark completed june 2007 using sun java system application server proprietary version glassfish 9.0 platform edition ultrasparc t1-based sun fire server postgresql 8.2 result 778.14 specjappserver2004 jops standard compares favourably 874 jops standard oracle 10 itanium-based hp-ux system august 2007 sun submitted improved benchmark score 813.73 specjappserver2004 jops standard system test reduced price price/performance improved 84.98/jops 70.57/jops default configuration postgresql uses small amount dedicated memory performance-critical purposes caching database blocks sorting limitation primarily older operating systems required kernel changes allow allocating large blocks shared memory postgresql.org provides advice basic recommended performance practice wiki april 2012 robert haas enterprisedb demonstrated postgresql 9.2 linear cpu scalability using server 64 cores matloob khushi performed benchmarking postgresql 9.0 mysql 5.6.15 ability process genomic data performance analysis found postgresql extracts overlapping genomic regions eight times faster mysql using two datasets 80,000 forming random human dna regions insertion data uploads postgresql also better although general searching ability databases almost equivalent postgresql available following operating systems linux recent distributions windows windows 2000 sp4 later compilable e.g visual studio recent 2017 version freebsd openbsd netbsd macos os x aix hp-ux solaris unixware officially tested dragonfly bsd bsd/os irix openindiana opensolaris openserver tru64 unix unix-like systems could also work modern support postgresql works following instruction set architectures x86 x86-64 windows operating systems supported windows ia-64 itanium external support hp-ux powerpc powerpc 64 s/390 s/390x sparc sparc 64 armv8-a 64-bit older arm 32-bit including older armv6 raspberry pi mips mipsel pa-risc also known work alpha dropped 9.5 m68k m32r ns32k vax beyond possible build postgresql unsupported cpu disabling spinlocks open source front-ends tools administering postgresql include number companies offer proprietary tools postgresql often consist universal core adapted various specific database products tools mostly share administration features open source tools offer improvements data modeling importing exporting reporting notable organizations products use postgresql primary database include notable vendors offer postgresql software service 1-hop neighbor's text information: table_(database).table database table collection related data held table format within database consists columns rows relational databases flat file databases table set data elements values using model vertical columns identifiable name horizontal rows cell unit row column intersect table specified number columns number rows row identified one values appearing particular column subset specific choice columns uniquely identify rows called primary key table another term relation although difference table usually multiset bag rows relation set allow duplicates besides actual data rows tables generally associated metadata constraints table values within particular columns data table physically stored database views also function relational tables data calculated query time external tables informix oracle example also thought views terms relational model databases table considered convenient representation relation two strictly equivalent instance sql table potentially contain duplicate rows whereas true relation contain duplicate rows call tuples similarly representation table implies particular ordering rows columns whereas relation explicitly unordered however database system guarantee ordering rows unless codice_1 clause specified codice_2 statement queries table equally valid representation relation n -dimensional chart n number attributes table columns example relation two attributes three values represented table two columns three rows two-dimensional graph three points table graph representations equivalent ordering rows significant table duplicate rows non-relational systems hierarchical databases distant counterpart table structured file representing rows table row file column row structure implies row repeating information generally child data segments data stored sequence physical records unlike spreadsheet datatype column ordinarily defined schema describing table sql systems sqlite less strict column datatype definitions Target text information: information_schema.information schema relational databases information schema information_schema ansi-standard set read-only views provide information tables views columns procedures database used source information databases make available non-standard commands notable exception among major database systems oracle implement information schema open-source project exists address rdbmss support information_schema include rdbmss support information_schema include I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	5,691	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: wear_leveling.wear leveling wear leveling also written wear levelling technique prolonging service life kinds erasable computer storage media flash memory used solid-state drives ssds usb flash drives phase-change memory several wear leveling mechanisms provide varying levels longevity enhancement memory systems term preemptive wear leveling pwl used western digital describe preservation technique used hard disk drives hdds designed storing audio video data however hdds generally wear-leveled devices context article eeprom flash memory media individually erasable segments put limited number erase cycles becoming unreliable usually around 3,000/5,000 cycles many flash devices one block specially extended life 100,000+ cycles used flash memory controller track wear movement data across segments erasable optical media cd-rw dvd-rw rated 1,000 cycles 100,000 cycles dvd-ram media wear leveling attempts work around limitations arranging data erasures re-writes distributed evenly across medium way single erase block prematurely fails due high concentration write cycles flash memory single block chip designed longer life others memory controller store operational data less chance corruption conventional file systems fat ufs hfs ext2 ntfs originally designed magnetic disks rewrite many data structures directories repeatedly area systems used flash memory media becomes problem problem aggravated fact file systems track last-access times lead file metadata constantly rewritten in-place three basic types wear leveling mechanisms used flash memory storage devices flash memory storage system wear leveling last long data written flash without wear leveling underlying flash controller must permanently assign logical addresses operating system os physical addresses flash memory means every write previously written block must first read erased modified re-written location approach time-consuming frequently written locations wear quickly locations used blocks reach end life device becomes inoperable first type wear leveling called dynamic wear leveling uses map link logical block addresses lbas os physical flash memory time os writes replacement data map updated original physical block marked invalid data new block linked map entry time block data re-written flash memory written new location however flash memory blocks never get replacement data would sustain additional wear thus name comes dynamic data recycled device may last longer one wear leveling blocks still remaining active even though device longer operable type wear leveling called static wear leveling also uses map link lba physical memory addresses static wear leveling works dynamic wear leveling except static blocks change periodically moved low usage cells able used data rotational effect enables ssd continue operate blocks near end life also sometimes referred global wear leveling entire image leveled following table compares static dynamic wear leveling several techniques extending media life specialist secure digital cards techniques implemented hardware built-in microcontroller devices wear leveling transparent conventional file systems used as-is wear leveling also implemented software special-purpose file systems jffs2 yaffs flash media udf optical media three log-structured file systems treat media circular logs write sequential passes file systems implement copy-on-write strategies zfs also implement form wear leveling 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_data_storage.computer data storage digvijay singh computer data storage often called storage memory technology consisting computer components recording media used retain digital data core function fundamental component computers central processing unit cpu computer manipulates data performing computations practice almost computers use storage hierarchy puts fast expensive small storage options close cpu slower larger cheaper options farther away generally fast volatile technologies lose data power referred memory slower persistent technologies referred storage even first computer designs charles babbage analytical engine percy ludgate analytical machine clearly distinguished processing memory babbage stored numbers rotations gears ludgate stored numbers displacements rods shuttles distinction extended von neumann architecture cpu consists two main parts control unit arithmetic logic unit alu former controls flow data cpu memory latter performs arithmetic logical operations data without significant amount memory computer would merely able perform fixed operations immediately output result would reconfigured change behavior acceptable devices desk calculators digital signal processors specialized devices von neumann machines differ memory store operating instructions data computers versatile need hardware reconfigured new program simply reprogrammed new in-memory instructions also tend simpler design relatively simple processor may keep state successive computations build complex procedural results modern computers von neumann machines modern digital computer represents data using binary numeral system text numbers pictures audio nearly form information converted string bits binary digits value 1 0 common unit storage byte equal 8 bits piece information handled computer device whose storage space large enough accommodate binary representation piece information simply data example complete works shakespeare 1250 pages print stored five megabytes 40 million bits one byte per character data encoded assigning bit pattern character digit multimedia object many standards exist encoding e.g. character encodings like ascii image encodings like jpeg video encodings like mpeg-4 adding bits encoded unit redundancy allows computer detect errors coded data correct based mathematical algorithms errors generally occur low probabilities due random bit value flipping physical bit fatigue loss physical bit storage ability maintain distinguishable value 0 1 due errors inter intra-computer communication random bit flip e.g. due random radiation typically corrected upon detection bit group malfunctioning physical bits always specific defective bit known group definition depends specific storage device typically automatically fenced-out taken use device replaced another functioning equivalent group device corrected bit values restored possible cyclic redundancy check crc method typically used communications storage error detection detected error retried data compression methods allow many cases database represent string bits shorter bit string compress reconstruct original string decompress needed utilizes substantially less storage tens percents many types data cost computation compress decompress needed analysis trade-off storage cost saving costs related computations possible delays data availability done deciding whether keep certain data compressed security reasons certain types data e.g. credit-card information may kept encrypted storage prevent possibility unauthorized information reconstruction chunks storage snapshots generally lower storage hierarchy lesser bandwidth greater access latency cpu traditional division storage primary secondary tertiary off-line storage also guided cost per bit contemporary usage memory usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory typically dram dynamic ram forms fast temporary storage storage consists storage devices media directly accessible cpu secondary tertiary storage typically hard disk drives optical disc drives devices slower ram non-volatile retaining contents powered historically memory called core memory main memory real storage internal memory meanwhile non-volatile storage devices referred secondary storage external memory auxiliary/peripheral storage primary storage also known main memory internal memory prime memory often referred simply memory one directly accessible cpu cpu continuously reads instructions stored executes required data actively operated also stored uniform manner historically early computers used delay lines williams tubes rotating magnetic drums primary storage 1954 unreliable methods mostly replaced magnetic core memory core memory remained dominant 1970s advances integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory become economically competitive led modern random-access memory ram small-sized light quite expensive time particular types ram used primary storage also volatile i.e lose information powered shown diagram traditionally two sub-layers primary storage besides main large-capacity ram main memory directly indirectly connected central processing unit via memory bus actually two buses diagram address bus data bus cpu firstly sends number address bus number called memory address indicates desired location data reads writes data memory cells using data bus additionally memory management unit mmu small device cpu ram recalculating actual memory address example provide abstraction virtual memory tasks ram types used primary storage volatile uninitialized start computer containing storage would source read instructions order start computer hence non-volatile primary storage containing small startup program bios used bootstrap computer read larger program non-volatile secondary storage ram start execute non-volatile technology used purpose called rom read-only memory terminology may somewhat confusing rom types also capable random access many types rom literally read updates possible however slow memory must erased large portions re-written embedded systems run programs directly rom similar programs rarely changed standard computers store non-rudimentary programs rom rather use large capacities secondary storage non-volatile well costly recently primary storage secondary storage uses refer historically called respectively secondary storage tertiary storage secondary storage also known external memory auxiliary storage differs primary storage directly accessible cpu computer usually uses input/output channels access secondary storage transfer desired data primary storage secondary storage non-volatile retaining data power shut modern computer systems typically two orders magnitude secondary storage primary storage secondary storage less expensive modern computers hard disk drives hdds solid-state drives ssds usually used secondary storage access time per byte hdds ssds typically measured milliseconds one thousandth seconds access time per byte primary storage measured nanoseconds one billionth seconds thus secondary storage significantly slower primary storage rotating optical storage devices cd dvd drives even longer access times examples secondary storage technologies include usb flash drives floppy disks magnetic tape paper tape punched cards ram disks disk read/write head hdds reaches proper placement data subsequent data track fast access reduce seek time rotational latency data transferred disks large contiguous blocks sequential block access disks orders magnitude faster random access many sophisticated paradigms developed design efficient algorithms based upon sequential block access another way reduce i/o bottleneck use multiple disks parallel order increase bandwidth primary secondary memory secondary storage often formatted according file system format provides abstraction necessary organize data files directories also providing metadata describing owner certain file access time access permissions information computer operating systems use concept virtual memory allowing utilization primary storage capacity physically available system primary memory fills system moves least-used chunks pages swap file page file secondary storage retrieving later needed lot pages moved slower secondary storage system performance degraded tertiary storage tertiary memory level secondary storage typically involves robotic mechanism mount insert dismount removable mass storage media storage device according system demands data often copied secondary storage use primarily used archiving rarely accessed information since much slower secondary storage e.g 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds primarily useful extraordinarily large data stores accessed without human operators typical examples include tape libraries optical jukeboxes computer needs read information tertiary storage first consult catalog database determine tape disc contains information next computer instruct robotic arm fetch medium place drive computer finished reading information robotic arm return medium place library tertiary storage also known nearline storage near online formal distinction online nearline offline storage example always-on spinning hard disk drives online storage spinning drives spin automatically massive arrays idle disks maid nearline storage removable media tape cartridges automatically loaded tape libraries nearline storage tape cartridges must manually loaded offline storage off-line storage computer data storage medium device control processing unit medium recorded usually secondary tertiary storage device physically removed disconnected must inserted connected human operator computer access unlike tertiary storage accessed without human interaction off-line storage used transfer information since detached medium easily physically transported additionally case disaster example fire destroys original data medium remote location probably unaffected enabling disaster recovery off-line storage increases general information security since physically inaccessible computer data confidentiality integrity affected computer-based attack techniques also information stored archival purposes rarely accessed off-line storage less expensive tertiary storage modern personal computers secondary tertiary storage media also used off-line storage optical discs flash memory devices popular much lesser extent removable hard disk drives enterprise uses magnetic tape predominant older examples floppy disks zip disks punched cards storage technologies levels storage hierarchy differentiated evaluating certain core characteristics well measuring characteristics specific particular implementation core characteristics volatility mutability accessibility addressability particular implementation storage technology characteristics worth measuring capacity performance non-volatile memory retains stored information even constantly supplied electric power suitable long-term storage information volatile memory requires constant power maintain stored information fastest memory technologies volatile ones although universal rule since primary storage required fast predominantly uses volatile memory dynamic random-access memory form volatile memory also requires stored information periodically reread rewritten refreshed otherwise would vanish static random-access memory form volatile memory similar dram exception never needs refreshed long power applied loses content power supply lost uninterruptible power supply ups used give computer brief window time move information primary volatile storage non-volatile storage batteries exhausted systems example emc symmetrix integrated batteries maintain volatile storage several minutes utilities hdparm sar used measure io performance linux full disk encryption volume virtual disk encryption andor file/folder encryption readily available storage devices hardware memory encryption available intel architecture supporting total memory encryption tme page granular memory encryption multiple keys mktme sparc m7 generation since october 2015.. commonly used data storage media semiconductor magnetic optical paper still sees limited usage fundamental storage technologies all-flash arrays afas proposed development semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits store information semiconductor memory chip may contain millions tiny transistors capacitors volatile non-volatile forms semiconductor memory exist modern computers primary storage almost exclusively consists dynamic volatile semiconductor memory dynamic random-access memory since turn century type non-volatile semiconductor memory known flash memory steadily gained share off-line storage home computers non-volatile semiconductor memory also used secondary storage various advanced electronic devices specialized computers designed early 2006 notebook desktop computer manufacturers started using flash-based solid-state drives ssds default configuration options secondary storage either addition instead traditional hdd magnetic storage uses different patterns magnetization magnetically coated surface store information magnetic storage non-volatile information accessed using one read/write heads may contain one recording transducers read/write head covers part surface head medium must moved relative another order access data modern computers magnetic storage take forms early computers magnetic storage also used optical storage typical optical disc stores information deformities surface circular disc reads information illuminating surface laser diode observing reflection optical disc storage non-volatile deformities may permanent read media formed write media reversible recordable read/write media following forms currently common use magneto-optical disc storage optical disc storage magnetic state ferromagnetic surface stores information information read optically written combining magnetic optical methods magneto-optical disc storage non-volatile sequential access slow write fast read storage used tertiary off-line storage 3d optical data storage also proposed light induced magnetization melting magnetic photoconductors also proposed high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage paper data storage typically form paper tape punched cards long used store information automatic processing particularly general-purpose computers existed information recorded punching holes paper cardboard medium read mechanically later optically determine whether particular location medium solid contained hole technologies allow people make marks paper easily read machine—these widely used tabulating votes grading standardized tests barcodes made possible object sold transported computer readable information securely attached group bits malfunction may resolved error detection correction mechanisms see storage device malfunction requires different solutions following solutions commonly used valid storage devices device mirroring typical raid designed handle single device failure raid group devices however second failure occurs raid group completely repaired first failure data lost probability single failure typically small thus probability two failures raid group time proximity much smaller approximately probability squared i.e. multiplied database tolerate even smaller probability data loss raid group replicated mirrored many cases mirroring done geographically remotely different storage array handle also recovery disasters see disaster recovery secondary tertiary storage may connect computer utilizing computer networks concept pertain primary storage shared multiple processors lesser degree large quantities individual magnetic tapes optical magneto-optical discs may stored robotic tertiary storage devices tape storage field known tape libraries optical storage field optical jukeboxes optical disk libraries per analogy smallest forms either technology containing one drive device referred autoloaders autochangers robotic-access storage devices may number slots holding individual media usually one picking robots traverse slots load media built-in drives arrangement slots picking devices affects performance important characteristics storage possible expansion options adding slots modules drives robots tape libraries may 10 100,000 slots provide terabytes petabytes near-line information optical jukeboxes somewhat smaller solutions 1,000 slots robotic storage used backups high-capacity archives imaging medical video industries hierarchical storage management known archiving strategy automatically migrating long-unused files fast hard disk storage libraries jukeboxes files needed retrieved back disk Target text information: fusion_file_system.fusion file system fusion flash file system file system computers using embedded flash memory written ansi c targeted embedded system uses flash ram rom used file storage media uses layered device driver architecture using simple binding model allow operating system agnostic independent portability meaning file system compatible operating systems thus bound one rtos embedded file systems typically require low memory usage fusion compact memory also fully dynamic read rom-style file system according vendor web site multithread capable fat12/fat16/fat32 compatible also features wear leveling post error correction data compression many commercial file systems fusion file system accompanied full suite supporting software modules include error correction file compression fusion standard c lib driver model i/o manager I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	3,124	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: tribe_flood_network.tribe flood network tribe flood network tfn set computer programs conduct various ddos attacks icmp flood syn flood udp flood smurf attack first tfn initiated attacks described cert incident note 99-04 tfn2k written mixter security professional hacker based germany 1-hop neighbor's text information: high_orbit_ion_cannon.high orbit ion cannon high orbit ion cannon hoic open-source network stress testing denial-of-service attack application designed attack many 256 urls time designed replace low orbit ion cannon developed praetox technologies later released public domain security advisory hoic released prolexic technologies february 2012 hoic developed conclusion operation payback hacktivist collective anonymous operation payback concluded massive pressure group law enforcement agencies captured prosecuted 13 individuals connected group forced many members group rethink strategies subsequently part group launched operation leakspin however large part anonymous remained focused launching opt-in ddos attacks however low orbit ion cannon powerful enough launch attacks limited number users therefore hoic designed remedy ability cause http flood low number user agents 50 users required successfully launch attack co-ordination multiple users leading exponential increase damage hoic first tool kind support so-called booster files configurable vbscript modules randomize http headers attacking computers allowing thousands upon thousands highly randomized combinations user agents apart allowing user agents implement form randomization countermeasures booster files used increase magnitude attack hoic predecessor loic named ion cannon fictional directed-energy weapon described firing beams ions space-based platform onto earth-based targets although ion cannons appear many movies television shows video games science fiction-based setting ones depicted command conquer series video games considered inspiration graphics software gui website simply described hoic program sending http post get requests computer attack uses lulz-inspired graphical interface hoic primarily performs denial-of-service dos attack ddos attack co-ordinated multiple individuals denial-of-service dos attack target url accomplished sending excessive traffic attempt overload site bring basic version attack customized using booster files follow vb 6 mixed vb .net syntax addition hoic simultaneously attack 256 domains making one versatile tools hackers attempting co-ordinate ddos attacks group minimalist gui tool makes user friendly easy control basic routine attack input url website attacked set power option low medium high power option sets request velocity low two requests per second medium four high eight requests per second booster file added uses .hoic extension define dynamic request attributes launch attacks multiple pages within website help evade defense filters attack launched pressing red button gui labelled fire teh lazer basic limitation hoic requires coordinated group users ensure attacks successful even though allowed attacks launched far fewer users older low orbit ion cannon hoic still requires minimum 50 users launch effective attack required sustain target website protection another limiting factor lack anonymizing randomizing capability even though hoic theory offer anonymizing use booster files actual protection provided enough furthermore anonymizing networks tor capable handling bandwidth attacks generated hoic attempt launch attack using tor network actually harm network however anonymous members routinely use proxy servers based sweden launch attacks speculated due notion sweden may stricter internet privacy laws rest world primarily hoic designed stress testing tool lawfully used stress test local networks servers provided person initiating test authorization test long networks servers clients networking equipment urls disrupted hoic also used perform distributed denial-of-service attacks illegal various statutes police justice act 2006 united kingdom amended computer misuse act 1990 specifically outlawed denial-of-service attacks set maximum penalty 10 years prison united states denial-of-service attacks may considered federal crime computer fraud abuse act penalties include ten years imprisonment 2013 criminal charges brought 13 members anonymous participating ddos attack various websites organizations including recording industry association america motion picture association america united states copyright office library congress visa mastercard bank america charged one count conspiracy intentionally cause damage protected computer events occurred september 16 2010 january 2 2011 ddos attacks federal offenses united states prosecuted department justice usc title 18 section 1030 2013 anonymous petitioned united states government via people demanding ddos attacks recognized form virtual protest similar occupy protests ddos mitigation usually works principle distribution basically intelligent routing traffic avoid congestion prevent overload single url methods counter ddos include installation intrusion prevention system ips intrusion detection system ids anonymous first group utilize high orbit ion cannon publicly megaupload file-sharing website shut federal agents raided premises anonymous launched attack website us department justice doj website went offline anonymous claimed success via twitter saying one thing certain expect us megaupload course next hours several websites knocked offline kept offline included websites belonging recording industry association america riaa motion picture association america mpaa bmi finally day drew close website belonging fbi hit repeatedly ultimately succumbed attacks acquired “ tango ” status anonymous claimed single largest internet attack history reported many 27,000 user agents taking part attack 1-hop neighbor's text information: redos.redos regular expression denial service redos algorithmic complexity attack produces denial-of-service providing regular expression takes long time evaluate attack exploits fact regular expression implementations exponential time worst case complexity time taken grow exponentially relation input size attacker thus cause program spend unbounded amount time processing providing regular expression either slowing becoming unresponsive regular expression matching done building finite-state automaton regular expressions easily converted nondeterministic automata nfas state input symbol may several possible next states building automaton several possibilities exist algorithms first two problematic first problematic deterministic automaton could formula_1 states formula_2 number states nondeterministic automaton thus conversion nfa dfa may take exponential time second problematic nondeterministic automaton could exponential number paths length formula_3 walking input length formula_3 also take exponential time last two algorithms however exhibit pathological behavior note non-pathological regular expressions problematic algorithms usually fast practice one expect compile regular expression time match n time instead simulation nfa lazy computation dfa mn worst-case complexity regular expression denial service occurs expectations applied regular expressions provided user malicious regular expressions provided user trigger worst-case complexity regular expression matcher regex algorithms written efficient way regular expression engines existence extend regular expression languages additional constructs always solved efficiently extended patterns essentially force implementation regular expression programming languages use backtracking malicious regexes get stuck crafted input different depending regular expression matcher attack backtracking matchers occur whenever factors occur second condition best explained example regular expression codice_1 match repeated subexpression codice_2 therefore matching nondeterministic automaton may try new match codice_2 new match input many consecutive double number possible paths automaton examples malicious regexes include following susceptible input minimum input length might change slightly using faster slower machines patterns may cause exponential behavior long enough inputs hundreds characters usually could still cause long elaboration times example pattern codice_9 input arbitrarily long sequence s. pattern may also cause backtracking matchers hang so-called evil malicious regexes found online regular expression repositories note enough find evil sub expression order attack full regex two examples also susceptible input regex affected user input attacker inject malicious regex make system vulnerable therefore cases regular expression denial service avoided removing possibility user execute arbitrary patterns server case web applications databases main vulnerable applications alternatively malicious page could hang user web browser cause use arbitrary amounts memory however examples paragraphs considerably less artificial others thus demonstrate vulnerable regexes may used result programming mistakes case e-mail scanners intrusion detection systems could also vulnerable fortunately cases problematic regular expressions rewritten non-evil patterns example codice_8 rewritten codice_13 case web application programmer may use regular expression validate input client server side system attacker could inspect client code looking evil regular expressions send crafted input directly web server order hang Target text information: stacheldraht.stacheldraht stacheldraht german barbed wire malware written mixter linux solaris systems acts distributed denial-of-service ddos agent tool detects automatically enables source address forgery stacheldraht uses number different denial-of-service dos attacks including user datagram protocol udp flood internet control message protocol icmp flood transmission control protocol tcp syn flood smurf attack combines features trinoo tribe flood network tfn adds encryption I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,852	none
[''] Target text information: reach_authorisation_procedure.reach authorisation procedure authorisation procedure one regulatory tools european regulation ec reach n°1907/2006 aiming ban use substances high concern svhc included annex xiv reach substitute technically economically feasible alternatives process concerns manufacturers importers downstream users substances representatives foreign manufacturers also apply authorisation authorisation today impacts many industries including aerospace electronics automotive energy paint industries moreover defence applications de facto exempted authorisation process member states must decide case case basis whether company benefit procedure outlined article 2.3 reach reach regulation relies four main procedures registration evaluation restriction authorisation chemical substances eu member states european chemicals agency request european commission submit propositions identify substances high concern based criteria laid article 57 reach work supported expert groups echa eu member states based various criteria screening methodologies order identify relevant svhcs annex xiv last step prioritisation process lists svhcs exhibit particularly high risk human health environment based inherent properties quantities uses order forbid use eu market recommendations include svhcs annex xiv made echa debated relevant stakeholders member states companies ngos etc. final decision inclusion substance annex xiv taken european commission listed annex xiv reach regulation substance therefore assigned “ sunset date ” use banned unless authorisation granted definite period time today 2015/05/26 161 substances listed candidate list 31 substances listed annex xiv candidate list usually updated every 6 months annex xiv updated every 12 18 months authorisation procedure complex concerns manufacturers importers downstream users representatives substances banning use takes effect sunset date date use substance possible companies granted authorisation submitted dossier latest application date latter indeed benefit transitional period pending eu commission final decision exception made downstream users case upstream stakeholder within supply chain granted authorisation substance use point view supply chain substance matters instance subcontractors authorised importers covered annex xiv substance use supplied via supply chain authorisation application made granted finally downstream users need apply authorisation nevertheless obligation notify use echa art 66 reach check compliance risk management measures concerned companies thus invited take measures soon substance use enters candidate list enquiring impacted actors strategies authorisation applications made one several specific uses article 3 reach thus defines “ use ” “ processing formulation consumption storage keeping treatment filling containers transfer one container another mixing production article use ” framework authorisation dossier description use applied specify market supply chain processes type articles concerned use applied consistent enough cover exposure scenario also analysis alternatives use applied mistaken identified use corresponds reach registration process identified use focuses process consider performances markets questions exceptions exist application authorisation required production article may require authorisation point finished articles require authorisation put market even though still contain substance subject authorisation consequently articles requiring use annex xiv substance still produced outside eu imported particular case future restrictions procedure could however limit placing market articles risk remains art 58.6 reach review period duration eu commission authorises use substance sunset date following durations considered review periods end review period application authorisation reassessed evaluate progress made terms research development substitution applications extend review period made latest 18 months expiry date european commission may also reduce duration new circumstances appear terms risks impacts court european union qualified rule appeals applications authorisation member states turn responsible controlling decision implementation application authorisation afa made three main parts chemical safety report csr analysis alternatives aoa socio-economic analysis sea goal dossier demonstrate alternative substance immediately available risks controlled social economic advantages use substance outweigh risks human health environment dossier usually takes 6 18 months preparation echa guidelines available assist drafting application authorisation filed latest application date lad set 18 months sunset date lad enables benefit transitional period pending european commission decision afa made one several substances case grouping need demonstrated basis annex xi reach one several uses applied one several companies latter case called joint application requires appointing main applicant contact point echa two submission routes planned reach regulation adequate control route goal chemical safety report prove threshold values respected socio-economic route goal chemical safety report demonstrate risks reduced minimum chemical safety report contains aoa aims demonstrate alternative appropriate i.e technically economically feasible less risky available analysis alternatives therefore presents substance alternative solutions contains socio-economic analysis compulsory document socio-economic route also complete application justified adequate control route aims demonstrate advantages use substance outweigh risks human health environment purpose applicants must compare two scenarios ‘ use scenario ’ continued use substance one hand ‘ non-use scenario ’ cease use substance hand discuss impacts contains dossiers submitted submission windows february may august november echa strongly advise follow windows plenary sessions two committees rac seac organised march june september december year submitting plenary sessions submission windows therefore helps efficient assessment application applications deemed received business rules check successfully passed provided echa fees paid time examination dossier carried risk assessment committee rac socio-economic analysis committee seac opens public consultation alternatives 8 weeks companies ngos interested party possibility comment possibly challenge alternatives proposed applicant consultation followed additional discussions two committees order clarify application process called trialogue stakeholders invited participate duration examination varies according complexity clarity dossier committees however obligation deliver first opinion dossier 10 months submission latest dossier committee opinion sent commission whole process take 2 years may 4 2015 28 applications authorisation filed total 56 uses dossier requires implementing specific strategy define uses analysis industrial processes associated risks alternatives socio-economic impacts banning substance committees expect dossier contain precise description industrial process operational conditions representative dossier well risk management measures implemented applicant main issue application authorisation process duration review period granted therefore critical bring necessary precisions dossiers justify requested review period duration justification weak argumentation generic may induce granting shorter-than-requested review period beyond simple drafting application authorisation dossier whole process implies expertise deep analysis company activity multiple aspects analysis therefore requires extensive collection information also possibly contacts customers strengthen analysis alternatives public consultation one core mechanisms authorisation process stakeholders ’ competing companies universities laboratories ngos member states etc involvement consultation process growing last years reach 400 comments single dossier influence comments particular concerning alternatives makes major step authorisation process order streamline process templates comments instructions available echa website consulting costs application authorisation estimated echa amounts average around 230,000 eur single use I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,491	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: predication_(computer_architecture).predication computer architecture computer science predication architectural feature provides alternative conditional transfer control implemented machine instructions conditional branch conditional call conditional return branch tables predication works executing instructions paths branch permitting instructions taken path modify architectural state instructions taken path permitted modify architectural state associated predicated predicate boolean value used instruction control whether instruction allowed modify architectural state computer programs contain conditional code executed specific conditions depending factors determined beforehand example depending user input majority processors simply execute next instruction sequence traditional solution insert branch instructions allow program conditionally branch different section code thus changing next step sequence sufficient designers began improving performance implementing instruction pipelining method slowed branches thorough description problems arose popular solution see branch predictor luckily one common patterns code normally relies branching elegant solution consider following pseudocode system uses conditional branching might translate machine instructions looking similar predication possible branch paths coded inline instructions execute others basic idea instruction associated predicate word used similarly usage predicate logic instruction executed predicate true machine code example using predication might look something like besides eliminating branches less code needed total provided architecture provides predicated instructions guarantee faster execution general dosomething dosomethingelse blocks code short enough predication simplest form partial predication architecture conditional move conditional select instructions conditional move instructions write contents one register another predicate value true whereas conditional select instructions choose two registers contents written third based predicate value generalized capable form full predication full predication set predicate registers storing predicates allows multiple nested sequential branches simultaneously eliminated instructions architecture register specifier field specify predicate register supplies predicate main purpose predication avoid jumps small sections program code increasing effectiveness pipelined execution avoiding problems cache also number subtle benefits predication primary drawback increased encoding space typical implementations every instruction reserves bitfield predicate specifying conditions instruction effect available memory limited embedded devices space cost prohibitive however architectures thumb-2 able avoid issue see detriments following predication effective paths balanced longest path frequently executed determining path difficult compile time even presence profiling information predicated instructions popular european computer designs 1950s including mailüfterl 1955 zuse z22 1955 zebra 1958 electrologica x1 1958 ibm acs-1 design 1967 allocated skip bit instruction formats cdc flexible processor 1976 allocated three conditional execution bits microinstruction formats hewlett-packard pa-risc architecture 1986 feature called nullification allowed instructions predicated previous instruction ibm power architecture 1990 featured conditional move instructions power successor powerpc 1993 dropped instructions digital equipment corporation alpha architecture 1992 also featured conditional move instructions mips gained conditional move instructions 1994 mips iv version sparc extended version 9 1994 conditional move instructions integer floating-point registers hewlett-packard/intel ia-64 architecture instructions predicated predicates stored 64 special-purpose predicate registers one predicate registers always true unpredicated instructions simply instructions predicated value true use predication essential ia-64 implementation software pipelining avoids need writing separated code prologs epilogs x86 architecture family conditional move instructions codice_1 codice_2 added architecture intel pentium pro 1995 processor codice_1 instructions copied contents source register destination register depending predicate supplied value flag register arm architecture original 32-bit instruction set provides feature called conditional execution allows instructions predicated one 13 predicates based combination four condition codes set previous instruction arm thumb instruction set 1994 dropped conditional execution reduce size instructions could fit 16 bits successor thumb-2 2003 overcame problem using special instruction effect supply predicates following four instructions 64-bit instruction set introduced armv8-a 2011 replaced conditional execution conditional selection instructions predication used cuda warps given cuda core executes code branch unmet condition commit results computed execution path 1-hop neighbor's text information: basic_block.basic block compiler construction basic block straight-line code sequence branches except entry branches except exit restricted form makes basic block highly amenable analysis compilers usually decompose programs basic blocks first step analysis process basic blocks form vertices nodes control flow graph code basic block circumstances whenever first instruction basic block executed rest instructions necessarily executed exactly order code may source code assembly code sequence instructions formally sequence instructions forms basic block definition general intuitive one ways example allows unconditional jumps labels targeted jumps definition embodies properties make basic blocks easy work constructing algorithm blocks control may transfer reaching end block called block successors blocks control may come entering block called block predecessors start basic block may jumped one location algorithm generating basic blocks listing code simple analyser scans code marking block boundaries instructions may either begin end block either transfer control accept control another point listing simply cut points basic blocks remain note method always generate maximal basic blocks formal definition usually sufficient maximal basic blocks basic blocks extended including adjacent blocks without violating definition basic block input sequence instructions mostly three-address code output list basic blocks three-address statement exactly one block step 1 identify leaders code leaders instructions come following 3 categories step 2 starting leader set following instructions including next leader basic block corresponding starting leader thus every basic block leader instructions end basic block include following instructions begin new basic block include following note control never pass end basic block block boundaries may modified finding basic blocks particular fall-through conditional branches must changed two-way branches function calls throwing exceptions must unconditional jumps added may require adding labels beginning blocks 1-hop neighbor's text information: spidermonkey.spidermonkey spidermonkey code name first javascript engine written brendan eich netscape communications later released open-source currently maintained mozilla foundation eich wrote javascript ten days 1995 recruited netscape promise 'doing scheme browser idea using scheme abandoned engineering management decided language must ‘ look like java ’ fall 1996 eich needing pay substantial technical debt left first year stayed home two weeks rewrite mocha codebase became known spidermonkey mocha original working name language name spidermonkey may chosen reference movie beavis butt-head america character tom anderson mentions title characters whacking like couple spider monkeys 2011 eich transferred management spidermonkey code dave mandelin spidermonkey implements ecma-262 edition 5.1 ecmascript several added features ecma-357 ecmascript xml e4x dropped early 2013 even though spidermonkey used firefox provide host environments document object model dom mozilla projects support dom gecko provides host environment spidermonkey written c/c++ contains interpreter ionmonkey jit compiler garbage collector tracemonkey first jit compiler written javascript language compiler first released part spidermonkey firefox 3.5 providing performance improvements ranging 20 40 times faster baseline interpreter firefox 3 instead compiling whole functions tracemonkey tracing jit operates recording control flow data types interpreter execution data informed construction trace trees highly specialized paths native code improvements jägermonkey eventually made tracemonkey obsolete especially development spidermonkey type inference engine tracemonkey absent spidermonkey firefox 11 onward jägermonkey internally named methodjit whole-method jit compiler designed improve performance cases tracemonkey could generate stable native code first released firefox 4 eventually entirely supplanted tracemonkey replaced ionmonkey jägermonkey operated differently compilers class typical compilers worked constructing optimizing control flow graph representing function jägermonkey instead operated iterating linearly forward spidermonkey bytecode internal function representation although prohibits optimizations require instruction reordering jägermonkey compiling advantage fast useful javascript since recompiling due changing variable types frequent mozilla implemented number critical optimizations jägermonkey importantly polymorphic inline caches type inference difference tracemonkey jägermonkey jit techniques need explained hacks.mozilla.org article in-depth explanation technical details provided chris leary one spidermonkey developers blog post technical information found developer blogs dvander dmandelin ionmonkey name mozilla current javascript jit compiler aims enable many new optimizations impossible prior jägermonkey architecture ionmonkey traditional compiler translates spidermonkey bytecode control flow graph using static single assignment form ssa intermediate representation architecture enables well-known optimizations programming languages used javascript including type specialization function inlining linear-scan register allocation dead code elimination loop-invariant code motion compiler emit fast native code translations javascript functions arm x86 x86-64 platforms default engine since firefox 18 odinmonkey name mozilla new optimization module asm.js easily compilable subset javascript odinmonkey jit compiler uses current jit compiler included firefox release 22 spidermonkey intended embedded applications provide host environments javascript incomplete list follows spidermonkey includes javascript shell interactive javascript development command-line invocation javascript program files Target text information: control-flow_graph.control-flow graph computer science control-flow graph cfg representation using graph notation paths might traversed program execution control-flow graph due frances e. allen notes reese t. prosser used boolean connectivity matrices flow analysis cfg essential many compiler optimizations static-analysis tools control-flow graph node graph represents basic block i.e straight-line piece code without jumps jump targets jump targets start block jumps end block directed edges used represent jumps control flow presentations two specially designated blocks entry block control enters flow graph exit block control flow leaves construction procedure cfg every edge a→b property cfg thus obtained least conceptually starting program full flow graph—i.e graph every node represents individual instruction—and performing edge contraction every edge falsifies predicate i.e contracting every edge whose source single exit whose destination single entry contraction-based algorithm practical importance except visualization aid understanding cfg construction cfg efficiently constructed directly program scanning basic blocks consider following fragment code 4 basic blocks 0 1 b 2 3 c 4 5 particular case entry block exit block lines 4 5 jump targets graph fragment edges b c b c d. reachability graph property useful optimization subgraph connected subgraph containing entry block subgraph unreachable execution unreachable code normal conditions safely removed exit block unreachable entry block infinite loop may exist infinite loops detectable see halting problem halting order may also exist unreachable code infinite loops possible even programmer explicitly code optimizations like constant propagation constant folding followed jump threading collapse multiple basic blocks one cause edges removed cfg etc. thus possibly disconnecting parts graph block dominates block n every path entry reaches block n pass block m. entry block dominates blocks reverse direction block postdominates block n every path n exit pass block m. exit block postdominates blocks said block immediately dominates block n dominates n intervening block p dominates p p dominates n. words last dominator paths entry n. block unique immediate dominator similarly notion immediate postdominator analogous immediate dominator dominator tree ancillary data structure depicting dominator relationships arc block block n immediate dominator n. graph tree since block unique immediate dominator tree rooted entry block dominator tree calculated efficiently using lengauer–tarjan algorithm postdominator tree analogous dominator tree tree rooted exit block back edge edge points block already met depth-first dfs traversal graph back edges typical loops critical edge edge neither edge leaving source block edge entering destination block edges must split new block must created middle edge order insert computations edge without affecting edges abnormal edge edge whose destination unknown exception handling constructs produce edges tend inhibit optimization impossible edge also known fake edge edge added graph solely preserve property exit block postdominates blocks ever traversed loop header sometimes called entry point loop dominator target loop-forming back edge loop header dominates blocks loop body block may loop header one loop loop may multiple entry points case loop header suppose block dominator several incoming edges back edges loop header advantageous several optimization passes break two blocks m. contents back edges moved rest edges moved point new edge inserted immediate dominator beginning would empty passes like loop-invariant code motion could populate called loop pre-header would loop header reducible cfg one edges partitioned two disjoint sets forward edges back edges structured programming languages often designed cfgs produce reducible common structured programming statements break continue produce reducible graphs produce irreducible graphs statements goto needed irreducible graphs may also produced compiler optimizations loop connectedness cfg defined respect given depth-first search tree dfst cfg dfst rooted start node cover every node cfg edges cfg run node one dfst ancestors including called back edges loop connectedness largest number back edges found cycle-free path cfg reducible cfg loop connectedness independent dfst chosen loop connectedness used reason time complexity data-flow analysis I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	3,854	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: scope_(computer_science).scope computer science computer programming scope name binding – association name entity variable – region computer program binding valid name used refer entity region referred parts program name may refer different entity may different binding nothing may unbound scope binding also known visibility entity particularly older technical literature – perspective referenced entity referencing name scope part program scope set bindings – precise definition tricky casual use practice largely corresponds block function file depending language type entity term scope also used refer set entities visible names valid within portion program given point program correctly referred context environment strictly speaking practice programming languages part program refers portion source code area text known lexical scope languages however part program refers portion run time time period execution known dynamic scope terms somewhat misleading – misuse technical terms discussed definition – distinction accurate precise standard respective terms lexical scope main focus article dynamic scope understood contrast lexical scope cases name resolution based lexical scope relatively straightforward use implement use one read backwards source code determine entity name refers implementation one maintain list names contexts compiling interpreting program difficulties arise name masking forward declarations hoisting considerably subtler ones arise non-local variables particularly closures strict definition lexical scope name identifier unambiguous – portion source code binding name entity applies – virtually unchanged 1960 definition specification algol 60 representative language specification follow commonly scope refers given name refer given variable – declaration effect – also apply entities functions types classes labels constants enumerations fundamental distinction scoping part program means languages lexical scope also called static scope name resolution depends location source code lexical context defined named variable function defined contrast languages dynamic scope name resolution depends upon program state name encountered determined execution context calling context practice lexical scope variable definition resolved searching containing block function fails searching outer containing block whereas dynamic scope calling function searched function called calling function progressing call stack course rules first look local definition variable modern languages use lexical scoping variables functions though dynamic scoping used languages notably dialects lisp scripting languages template languages perl 5 offers lexical dynamic scoping even lexically scoped languages scope closures confusing uninitiated depend lexical context closure defined called lexical resolution determined compile time also known early binding dynamic resolution general determined run time thus known late binding object-oriented programming dynamic dispatch selects object method runtime though whether actual name binding done compile time run time depends language de facto dynamic scoping common macro languages directly name resolution instead expand place programming frameworks like angularjs use term scope mean something entirely different used article frameworks scope object programming language use javascript case angularjs used certain ways framework emulate dynamic scope language uses lexical scope variables angularjs scopes scope scope using usual meaning term given part program following usual rules variable scope language like object using inheritance transclusion rules context angularjs sometimes term scope dollar sign used avoid confusion using dollar sign variable names often discouraged style guides scope important component name resolution turn fundamental language semantics name resolution including scope varies programming languages within programming language varies type entity rules scope called scope rules scoping rules together namespaces scoping rules crucial modular programming change one part program break unrelated part discussing scope three basic concepts scope extent context scope context particular frequently confused scope property identifier fixed context property program varies position precisely context property position program either position source code lexical context point run time execution context runtime context calling context execution context consists lexical context current execution point plus additional runtime state call stack thus execution point program variable name scope variable name context meaning context point execution point exits variable name scope returning function variable name goes context narrowly speaking execution program enters exits various scopes point execution identifiers context context hence identifiers come context go context program enters exits scope – however practice usage much looser scope source-code level concept property identifiers particularly variable function names – identifiers source code references entities program – part behavior compiler interpreter language issues scope similar pointers type reference used programs generally using value variable name context variable uninitialized analogous dereferencing accessing value wild pointer undefined however variables destroyed go context analog dangling pointer exist entities variables scope subset lifetime also known extent – name refer variable exists possibly undefined value variables exist necessarily visible variable may exist inaccessible value stored referred within given context accessible via given name case context program scope name cases lifetime irrelevant – label named position source code lifetime identical program statically compiled languages may context given point program likewise static variables – static global variable context entire program static local variable context within function local context lifetime entire run program determining entity identifier refers known name resolution name binding particularly object-oriented programming varies languages given identifier language properly compiler interpreter checks entities context matches case ambiguity two entities name global local variable name name resolution rules used distinguish frequently name resolution relies inner-to-outer rule python legb local enclosing global built-in rule names implicitly resolves narrowest relevant context cases name resolution explicitly specified codice_1 codice_2 keywords python cases default rules overridden two identical identifiers context time referring different entities one says name masking occurring higher-priority name usually innermost masking lower-priority name level variables known variable shadowing due potential logic errors masking languages disallow discourage masking raising error warning compile time run time various programming languages various different scoping rules different kinds declarations identifiers scoping rules large effect language semantics consequently behavior correctness programs languages like c++ accessing unbound variable well-defined semantics may result undefined behavior similar referring dangling pointer declarations identifiers used outside scope generate syntax errors scopes frequently tied language constructs determined implicitly many languages also offer constructs specifically controlling scope scope vary little single expression much entire program many possible gradations simplest scoping rule global scope – entities visible throughout entire program basic modular scoping rule two-level scoping global scope anywhere program local scope within function sophisticated modular programming allows separate module scope names visible within module private module visible outside within function languages c allow block scope restrict scope subset function others notably functional languages allow expression scope restrict scope single expression scopes include file scope notably c functions similarly module scope block scope outside functions notably perl subtle issue exactly scope begins ends languages c scope starts declaration thus different names declared within given block different scopes requires declaring functions use though necessarily defining requires forward declaration cases notably mutual recursion languages javascript python name scope begins start relevant block start function regardless defined names within given block scope javascript known variable hoisting however name bound value varies behavior in-context names undefined value differs python use undefined variables yields runtime error javascript undefined variables usable undefined value function declarations also hoisted top containing function usable throughout function many languages especially functional languages offer feature called let-expressions allow declaration scope single expression convenient example intermediate value needed computation example standard ml codice_3 returns 12 codice_4 expression evaluates 144 using temporary variable named x avoid calling codice_3 twice languages block scope approximate functionality offering syntax block embedded expression example aforementioned standard ml expression could written perl gnu c python auxiliary variables generator expressions list comprehensions python 3 expression scope c variable names function prototype expression scope known context function protocol scope variable names prototype referred may different actual definition – dummies – often omitted though may used generating documentation instance many block-structured programming languages allow scope restricted block known block scope began algol 60 e declaration ... valid block today particularly associated languages pascal c families traditions often block contained within function thus restricting scope part function cases perl block may within function representative example use block scope c code shown two variables scoped loop loop variable n initialized incremented iteration loop auxiliary variable n_squared initialized iteration purpose avoid adding variables function scope relevant particular block – example prevents errors generic loop variable accidentally already set another value example expression codice_6 would generally assigned auxiliary variable body loop would simply written codice_7 complicated examples auxiliary variables useful blocks primarily used control flow loops cases block scope means scope variable depends structure function flow execution however languages block scope typically also allow use naked blocks whose sole purpose allow fine-grained control variable scope example auxiliary variable may defined block used say added variable function scope discarded block ends loop might enclosed block initializes variables used inside loop initialized subtlety several programming languages algol 68 c demonstrated example standardized since c99 block-scope variables declared within body block also within control statement analogous function parameters declared function declaration block function body starts scope whole function body primarily used loops initialization statement separate loop condition unlike loops common idiom block scope used shadowing example inside block auxiliary variable could also called n shadowing parameter name considered poor style due potential errors furthermore descendants c java c despite support block scope local variable made go scope end function allow one local variable hide another languages attempted declaration second n would result syntax error one n variables would renamed block used set value variable block scope requires variable declared outside block complicates use conditional statements single assignment example python use block scope one may initialize variable codice_8 accessible codice_9 statement perl block scope instead requires declaring variable prior block often instead rewritten using multiple assignment initializing variable default value python necessary would perl would case single variable assignment alternative use ternary operator avoid block general possible multiple variable assignments difficult read complex logic significant issue c notably string assignment string initialization automatically allocate memory string assignment already initialized variable requires allocating memory string copy checking successful languages allow concept block scope applied varying extents outside function example perl snippet right counter variable name block scope due use keyword increment_counter function name global scope call increment_counter increase value counter one return new value code outside block call increment_counter otherwise obtain alter value counter idiom allows one define closures perl commonly used programming languages offer way create local variable function subroutine variable whose scope ends goes context function returns cases lifetime variable duration function call – automatic variable created function starts variable declared destroyed function returns – scope variable within function though meaning within depends whether scoping lexical dynamic however languages c also provide static local variables lifetime variable entire lifetime program variable context inside function case static local variables variable created program initializes destroyed program terminates static global variable context within function like automatic local variable importantly lexical scoping variable function scope scope within lexical context function moves context another function called within function moves back context function returns – called functions access local variables calling functions local variables context within body function declared contrast dynamic scoping scope extends runtime context function local variables stay context another function called moving context defining function ends thus local variables context function defined called functions languages lexical scoping nested functions local variables context nested functions since within lexical context functions lexically nested local variable enclosing function known non-local variable nested function function scope also applicable anonymous functions example snippet python code right two functions defined square sum_of_squares square computes square number sum_of_squares computes sum squares number example square 4 4 16 sum_of_squares 4 0 1 2 3 4 30 functions variable named n represents argument function two n variables completely separate unrelated despite name lexically scoped local variables function scope one scope lexically separate function thus n't overlap therefore sum_of_squares call square without n altered similarly sum_of_squares variables named total variables limited scope interfere variables named total might belong function words risk name collision identifiers unrelated identifiers even identical note also name masking occurring one variable named n context given time scopes overlap contrast similar fragment written language dynamic scope n calling function would remain context called function – scopes would overlap – would masked shadowed new n called function function scope significantly complicated functions first-class objects created locally function returned case variables nested function local unbound variables function definition resolve variables enclosing context create closure function also environment variables must returned potentially called different context requires significantly support compiler complicate program analysis scoping rule largely particular c c++ file scope scope variables functions declared top level file within function entire file – rather c declaration end source file precisely translation unit internal linking seen form module scope modules identified files modern languages replaced explicit module scope due presence include statements add variables functions internal context may call include statements difficult determine context body file c code snippet function name sum_of_squares file scope modular programming scope name entire module however may structured across various files paradigm modules basic unit complex program allow information hiding exposing limited interface module scope pioneered modula family languages python influenced modula representative contemporary example object-oriented programming languages lack direct support modules c++ similar structure instead provided class hierarchy classes basic unit program class private methods properly understood context dynamic dispatch rather name resolution scope though often play analogous roles cases facilities available python modules classes code organization module-level function conventionally private method choice programmer declaration global scope effect throughout entire program variable names global scope — called global variables — frequently considered bad practice least languages due possibility name collisions unintentional masking together poor modularity function scope block scope considered preferable however global scope typically used depending language various sorts identifiers names functions names classes data types cases mechanisms namespaces used avoid collisions use local variables — variable names limited scope exist within specific function — helps avoid risk name collision two identically named variables however two different approaches answering question mean within function lexical scoping lexical scope also called static scoping static scope variable name scope certain function scope program text function definition within text variable name exists bound variable value outside text variable name exist contrast dynamic scoping dynamic scope variable name scope certain function scope time-period function executing function running variable name exists bound value function returns variable name exist means function f invokes separately defined function g lexical scoping function g access f local variables assuming text g inside text f dynamic scoping function g access f local variables since g invoked invocation f consider example program right first line creates global variable x initializes 1 second line defines function g prints echoes current value x sets x 2 overwriting previous value third line defines function f creates local variable x hiding identically named global variable initializes 3 calls g. fourth line calls f. fifth line prints current value x exactly program print depends scoping rules language program one uses lexical scoping g prints modifies global variable x g defined outside f program prints 1 2 contrast language uses dynamic scoping g prints modifies f local variable x g called within f program prints 3 1 happens language program bash uses dynamic scoping program prints 3 1 lexical scope name always refers less local lexical environment property program text made independent runtime call stack language implementation matching requires analysis static program text type scoping also called static scoping lexical scoping standard algol-based languages pascal modula-2 ada well modern functional languages ml haskell also used c language syntactic semantic relatives although different kinds limitations static scoping allows programmer reason object references parameters variables constants types functions etc simple name substitutions makes much easier make modular code reason since local naming structure understood isolation contrast dynamic scope forces programmer anticipate possible dynamic contexts module code may invoked example consider pascal program fragment right variable codice_10 visible points never hidden another variable name codice_11 variable codice_12 visible main program hidden codice_13 variable codice_12 visible procedure codice_15 codice_16 variable codice_17 also visible procedure codice_15 codice_16 hide variable variable codice_20 visible procedure codice_16 therefore accessible either procedure codice_15 main program also procedure codice_16 visible procedure codice_15 therefore called main program could another procedure codice_16 declared program outside procedure codice_15 place program codice_16 mentioned determines two procedures named codice_16 represents thus precisely analogous scope variables correct implementation static scope languages first-class nested functions trivial requires function value carry record values variables depends pair function environment called closure depending implementation computer architecture variable lookup may become slightly inefficient deeply lexically nested functions used although well-known techniques mitigate also nested functions refer arguments immediately local variables relative locations known compile time overhead therefore incurred using type nested function applies particular parts program nested functions used naturally programs written language nested functions available c language lexical scoping used algol picked languages since deep binding approximates static lexical scoping introduced lisp 1.5 via funarg device developed steve russell working john mccarthy original lisp interpreter 1960 early lisps used dynamic scoping descendants dynamically scoped languages often adopt static scoping common lisp scheme srfi 15 dynamic static scoping perl another language dynamic scoping added static scoping afterwards languages like pascal c always lexical scoping since influenced ideas went algol 60 although c include lexically nested functions term lexical scope dates least 1967 term lexical scoping dates least 1970 used project mac describe scoping rules lisp dialect mdl known muddle dynamic scope global identifier refers identifier associated recent environment uncommon modern languages technical terms means identifier global stack bindings introducing local variable name codice_29 pushes binding onto global codice_29 stack may empty popped control flow leaves scope evaluating codice_29 context always yields top binding note done compile-time binding stack exists run-time type scoping called dynamic scoping generally certain blocks defined create bindings whose lifetime execution time block adds features static scoping dynamic scoping process however since section code called many different locations situations difficult determine outset bindings apply variable used one exists beneficial application principle least knowledge suggests code avoid depending reasons circumstances variable value simply use value according variable definition narrow interpretation shared data provide flexible system adapting behavior function current state policy system however benefit relies careful documentation variables used way well careful avoidance assumptions variable behavior provide mechanism detect interference different parts program dynamic scoping also voids benefits referential transparency dynamic scoping dangerous modern languages use languages like perl common lisp allow programmer choose static dynamic scoping defining redefining variable examples languages use dynamic scoping include logo emacs lisp latex shell languages bash dash powershell dynamic scoping fairly easy implement find identifier value program could traverse runtime stack checking activation record function stack frame value identifier practice made efficient via use association list stack name/value pairs pairs pushed onto stack whenever declarations made popped whenever variables go scope shallow binding alternative strategy considerably faster making use central reference table associates name stack meanings avoids linear search run-time find particular name care taken properly maintain table note strategies assume last-in-first-out lifo ordering bindings one variable practice bindings ordered even simpler implementation representation dynamic variables simple global variables local binding performed saving original value anonymous location stack invisible program binding scope terminates original value restored location fact dynamic scope originated manner early implementations lisp used obvious strategy implementing local variables practice survives dialects still use gnu emacs lisp lexical scope introduced lisp later equivalent shallow binding scheme except central reference table simply global variable binding environment current meaning variable global value maintaining global variables n't complex instance symbol object dedicated slot global value dynamic scoping provides excellent abstraction thread local storage used way based saving restoring global variable possible implementation strategy variable thread-local key variable accessed thread-local key used access thread-local memory location code generated compiler knows variables dynamic lexical thread-local key exist calling thread global location used variable locally bound prior value stored hidden location stack thread-local storage created variable key new value stored nested overrides variable within thread simply save restore thread-local location initial outer-most override scope terminates thread-local key deleted exposing global version variable thread modern languages macro expansion preprocessor key example de facto dynamic scope macro language transforms source code without resolving names since expansion done place names expanded text resolved notably free variables resolved based expanded loosely called dynamic scoping occurring c preprocessor used macro expansion de facto dynamic scope name resolution example macro expand add codice_8 passed variable identifier later resolved compiler based macro codice_33 called properly expanded dynamic scope independent macro defined properly c preprocessor lexical analysis expanding macro tokenization stage parsing syntax tree name resolution example following code codice_8 macro resolved expansion local variable expansion site seen one key reasons scope helps prevent name collisions allowing identical identifiers refer distinct things restriction identifiers must separate scopes sometimes restriction inconvenient many different things need accessible throughout program generally need identifiers global scope different techniques required avoid name collisions address many languages offer mechanisms organizing global identifiers details mechanisms terms used depend language general idea group identifiers given name — prefix — necessary entity referred qualified identifier consisting identifier plus prefix normally identifiers sense two sets scopes scope usually global scope qualified identifier visible one narrower scopes unqualified identifier without prefix visible well normally groups organized groups nested although many languages support concept details vary greatly languages mechanisms namespaces c++ c serve almost exclusively enable global identifiers organized groups languages mechanisms packages ada structures standard ml combine additional purpose allowing identifiers visible members group object-oriented languages often allow classes singleton objects fulfill purpose whether also mechanism primary purpose furthermore languages often meld approaches example perl packages largely similar c++ namespaces optionally double classes object-oriented programming java organizes variables functions classes organizes classes ada-like packages scoping rules representative languages follow c scope traditionally known linkage visibility particularly variables c lexically scoped language global scope known external linkage form module scope file scope known internal linkage local scope within function within function scopes nested via block scope however standard c support nested functions lifetime visibility variable determined storage class three types lifetimes c static program execution automatic block execution allocated stack manual allocated heap static automatic supported variables handled compiler manually allocated memory must tracked manually across different variables three levels visibility c external linkage global internal linkage roughly file block scope includes functions block scopes nested different levels internal linkage possible use includes internal linkage c visibility translation unit level namely source file processed c preprocessor notably including relevant includes c programs compiled separate object files linked executable library via linker thus name resolution split across compiler resolves names within translation unit loosely compilation unit properly different concept linker resolves names across translation units see linkage discussion c variables block scope enter scope declared top block move scope non-nested function called within block move back scope function returns move scope end block case automatic local variables also allocated declaration deallocated end block static local variables allocated program initialization deallocated program termination following program demonstrates variable block scope coming scope partway block exiting scope fact deallocated block ends program outputs levels scope c. variable names used function prototype function prototype visibility exit scope end function prototype since name used useful compilation may useful documentation label names goto statement function scope case label names switch statements block scope block switch variables intend use program must declared type specifier earlier point code like previous code beginning body function main declared b result type int variable either global local scope global variable variable declared main body source code outside functions local variable one declared within body function block modern versions allow nested lexical scoping go lexically scoped using blocks java lexically scoped java class contain three types variables local variables defined inside method particular block variables local defined lower levels example loop inside method use method local variables way around loop variables local loop destroyed soon loop ends member variables also called fields variables declared within class outside method default variables available methods within class also classes package parameters variables method declarations general set brackets defines particular scope variables top level within class differ behavior depending modifier keywords used definition following table shows access members permitted modifier javascript simple scoping rules variable initialization name resolution rules cause problems widespread use closures callbacks means lexical environment function defined used name resolution different lexical environment called irrelevant name resolution javascript objects name resolution properties separate topic javascript lexical scoping nested function level global scope outermost scope scoping used variables functions meaning function declarations opposed variables function type block scoping codice_35 codice_36 keywords standard since ecmascript 6 block scoping produced wrapping entire block function executing known immediately-invoked function expression iife pattern javascript scoping simple – lexical function-level – associated initialization name resolution rules cause confusion firstly assignment name scope defaults creating new global variable local one secondly create new local variable one must use codice_37 keyword variable created top function value codice_38 variable assigned value assignment expression reached known variable hoisting – declaration initialization hoisted top function thirdly accessing variables initialization yields codice_38 rather syntax error fourthly function declarations declaration initialization hoisted top function unlike variable initialization example following code produces dialog output samp undefined /samp local variable declaration hoisted shadowing global variable initialization variable undefined used functions first-class objects javascript frequently assigned callbacks returned functions function executed name resolution depends originally defined lexical environment definition lexical environment execution environment called nested scopes particular function global local javascript particularly closure used callback sometimes referred scope chain analogy prototype chain object closures produced javascript using nested functions functions first-class objects returning nested function enclosing function includes local variables enclosing function non-local lexical environment returned function yielding closure example closures frequently used javascript due used callbacks indeed hooking function local environment callback returning function creates closure unbound variables function body environment closure based nested scopes current lexical environment scope chain may accidental creating callback based parameters parameters must stored closure otherwise accidentally create closure refers variables enclosing environment may change name resolution properties javascript objects based inheritance prototype tree – path root tree called prototype chain – separate name resolution variables functions lisp dialects various rules scoping original lisp used dynamic scoping scheme inspired algol introduced static lexical scoping lisp family maclisp used dynamic scope default interpreter lexical scope default compiled code though compiled code could access dynamic bindings use codice_40 declarations particular variables however maclisp treated lexical binding optimization one would expect modern languages come closure feature one might expect lexical scoping modern lisps separate operation codice_41 available somewhat clumsily work around issue common lisp adopted lexical scoping scheme clojure islisp lexical scoping ordinary variables also dynamic variables cases explicitly marked must defined codice_42 special form bound codice_43 special form accessed explicit codice_44 special form dialects lisp like emacs lisp still use dynamic scoping default emacs lisp lexical scoping available per-buffer basis variables python function scope module scope global scope names enter scope start context function module globally exit scope non-nested function called context ends name used prior variable initialization raises runtime exception variable simply accessed assigned context name resolution follows legb rule local enclosing global built-in however variable assigned defaults creating local variable scope entire context rules overridden codice_1 codice_2 python 3 declaration prior use allows accessing global variables even intervening nonlocal variable assigning global nonlocal variables simple example function resolves variable global scope note x initialized codice_47 called error raised even though declared codice_47 declared lexically forward reference allowed python assignment creates new local variable change value global variable assignment variable within function causes declared local function hence local variable scope entire function thus using prior assignment raises error differs c local variable scope declaration entire function code raises error default name resolution rules overridden codice_1 codice_2 python 3 keywords code codice_51 declaration codice_52 means x resolves global variable thus accessed already initialized assignment assigns global variable rather declaring new local variable note codice_1 declaration needed codice_47 – since assign variable defaults resolving global variable codice_1 also used nested functions addition allowing assignment global variable unnested function also used access global variable presence nonlocal variable nested functions also codice_2 declaration assigning nonlocal variable similar using codice_1 unnested function r lexically scoped language unlike implementations values free variables determined set global variables r determined environment function created scoping environments may accessed using variety features codice_58 simulate experience dynamic scoping programmer desire block scoping functions access environment scope created variables created modified within function stay variables created modified within function stay unless assignment enclosing environment scope explicitly requested although r lexical scoping default function scopes changed 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_groovy.apache groovy apache groovy java-syntax-compatible object-oriented programming language java platform static dynamic language features similar python ruby perl smalltalk used programming language scripting language java platform compiled java virtual machine jvm bytecode interoperates seamlessly java code libraries groovy uses curly-bracket syntax similar java groovy supports closures multiline strings expressions embedded strings much groovy power lies ast transformations triggered annotations groovy 1.0 released january 2 2007 groovy 2.0 july 2012 since version 2 groovy compiled statically offering type inference performance near java groovy 2.4 last major release pivotal software sponsorship ended march 2015 groovy 2.5.8 latest stable version groovy groovy since changed governance structure project management committee apache software foundation james strachan first talked development groovy blog august 2003 march 2004 groovy submitted jcp jsr 241 accepted ballot several versions released 2004 2006 java community process jcp standardization effort began version numbering changed version called 1.0 released january 2 2007 various betas release candidates numbered 1.1 december 7 2007 groovy 1.1 final released immediately renumbered groovy 1.5 reflect many changes made 2007 groovy first prize jax 2007 innovation award 2008 grails groovy web framework second prize jax 2008 innovation award november 2008 springsource acquired groovy grails company g2one august 2009 vmware acquired springsource april 2012 eight years inactivity spec lead changed status jsr 241 dormant strachan left project silently year groovy 1.0 release 2007 oct 2016 strachan stated still love groovy jenkins pipelines groovy java go typescript kotlin july 2 2012 groovy 2.0 released among new features added static compiling static type checking pivotal software joint venture spun-off emc corporation emc vmware april 2013 groovy grails formed part product portfolio pivotal ceased sponsoring groovy grails april 2015 month groovy changed governance structure codehaus repository project management committee pmc apache software foundation via incubator groovy graduated apache incubator became top-level project november 2015 valid java files also valid groovy files although two languages similar groovy code compact need elements java needs makes possible java programmers learn groovy gradually starting familiar java syntax acquiring groovy programming idioms groovy features available java include static dynamic typing keyword codice_1 operator overloading native syntax lists associative arrays maps native support regular expressions polymorphic iteration string interpolation added helper methods safe navigation operator codice_2 check automatically null pointers example codice_3 codice_4 since version 2 groovy also supports modularity able ship needed jars according project needs thus reducing size groovy library type checking static compiling project coin syntax enhancements multicatch blocks ongoing performance enhancements using codice_5 instruction introduced java 7 groovy provides native support various markup languages xml html accomplished via inline document object model dom syntax feature enables definition manipulation many types heterogeneous data assets uniform concise syntax programming methodology unlike java groovy source code file executed uncompiled script contains code outside class definition class main method runnable groovytestcase groovy script fully parsed compiled generated executing similar perl ruby occurs hood compiled version saved artifact process groovybeans groovy version javabeans groovy implicitly generates getters setters following code codice_6 codice_7 implicitly generated last two lines appear access color directly actually calling implicitly generated methods groovy offers simple consistent syntax handling lists maps reminiscent java array syntax groovy offers support prototype extension codice_8 extension modules groovy 2 objective-c-like categories codice_9 codice_8 offers domain-specific language dsl express changes class easily similar ruby open class concept groovy changes code prototyping visible java since attribute/method invocation groovy goes metaclass registry changed code accessed java going metaclass registry groovy also allows overriding methods codice_11 codice_12 among others enabling developer intercept calls object specify action simplified aspect-oriented way following code enables class codice_13 respond codice_14 property grails framework uses metaprogramming extensively enable gorm dynamic finders like codice_15 others groovy syntax permits omitting parentheses dots situations following groovy code written enabling development domain-specific languages dsls look like plain english although groovy mostly object-oriented language also offers functional programming features according groovy documentation closures groovy work similar 'method pointer enabling code written run later point time groovy closures support free variables i.e variables explicitly passed parameter exist declaration context partial application terms 'currying delegation implicit typed untyped parameters working collections determined type closure passed operation collection inferred group expressions written closure block without reference implementation responding object assigned later point using delegation usually called partial application groovy feature allows closures parameters set default parameter arguments creating new closure bound value supplying one argument codice_16 method fix argument one supplying n arguments fix arguments 1 .. n. curry also used reverse direction fixing arguments n n 1 using codice_17 groovy also supports lazy evaluation reduce/fold infinite structures immutability among others javascript object notation json xml processing groovy employs builder pattern making production data structure less verbose example following xml generated via following groovy code also processed streaming way codice_18 change implementation json codice_19 swapped codice_20 parse search functional language groovy codice_21 method serve groovy strings interpolated variables expressions using gstrings gstrings containing variables expressions must declared using double quotes complex expression must enclosed curly brackets prevents parts interpreted belonging surrounding string instead expression expression evaluation deferred employing arrow syntax according groovy documentation groovy compiler compiles groovy scripts classes point process source code end represented memory form concrete syntax tree transformed abstract syntax tree purpose ast transformations let developers hook compilation process able modify ast turned bytecode run jvm ast transformations provides groovy improved compile-time metaprogramming capabilities allowing powerful flexibility language level without runtime performance penalty examples asts groovy among others according groovy documentation traits structural construct language allows composition behaviors runtime implementation interfaces behavior overriding compatibility static type checking/compilation traits seen interfaces carrying default implementations state trait defined using trait keyword used like normal interface using keyword codice_22 traits allow wide range abilities simple composition testing notable examples groovy adoption include many integrated development environments ides text editors support groovy one alternative implementation groovy 1-hop neighbor's text information: squirrel_(programming_language).squirrel programming language squirrel high level imperative object-oriented programming language designed lightweight scripting language fits size memory bandwidth real-time requirements applications like video games hardware electric imp mirthkit simple toolkit making distributing open source cross-platform 2d games uses squirrel platform used extensively scripting also used also used left 4 dead 2 portal 2 thimbleweed park scripted events squirrel uses c-like syntax language made public 2003 zlib/libpng license november 2010 license changed mit license enable project hosted google code developed maintained alberto demichelis Target text information: lua_(programming_language).lua programming language lua meaning moon lightweight high-level multi-paradigm programming language designed primarily embedded use applications lua cross-platform since interpreter compiled bytecode written ansi c lua relatively simple c api embed applications lua originally designed 1993 language extending software applications meet increasing demand customization time provided basic facilities procedural programming languages complicated domain-specific features included rather included mechanisms extending language allowing programmers implement features lua intended general embeddable extension language designers lua focused improving speed portability extensibility ease-of-use development lua created 1993 roberto ierusalimschy luiz henrique de figueiredo waldemar celes members computer graphics technology group tecgraf pontifical catholic university rio de janeiro brazil 1977 1992 brazil policy strong trade barriers called market reserve computer hardware software atmosphere tecgraf clients could afford either politically financially buy customized software abroad reasons led tecgraf implement basic tools needed scratch lua predecessors data-description/configuration languages sol simple object language del data-entry language independently developed tecgraf 1992–1993 add flexibility two different projects interactive graphical programs engineering applications petrobras company lack flow-control structures sol del petrobras felt growing need add full programming power evolution lua language authors wrote lua 1.0 designed way object constructors slightly different current light flexible style incorporated data-description syntax sol hence name lua sol also portuguese word sun lua word moon lua syntax control structures mostly borrowed modula codice_1 codice_2 codice_3/codice_4 also taken influence clu multiple assignments multiple returns function calls simpler alternative reference parameters explicit pointers c++ neat idea allowing local variable declared need snobol awk associative arrays article published dr. dobb journal lua creators also state lisp scheme single ubiquitous data-structure mechanism list major influence decision develop table primary data structure lua lua semantics increasingly influenced scheme time especially introduction anonymous functions full lexical scoping several features added new lua versions versions lua prior version 5.0 released license similar bsd license version 5.0 onwards lua licensed mit license permissive free software licences almost identical lua commonly described multi-paradigm language providing small set general features extended fit different problem types lua contain explicit support inheritance allows implemented metatables similarly lua allows programmers implement namespaces classes related features using single table implementation first-class functions allow employment many techniques functional programming full lexical scoping allows fine-grained information hiding enforce principle least privilege general lua strives provide simple flexible meta-features extended needed rather supply feature-set specific one programming paradigm result base language light—the full reference interpreter 247 kb compiled—and easily adaptable broad range applications lua dynamically typed language intended use extension scripting language compact enough fit variety host platforms supports small number atomic data structures boolean values numbers double-precision floating point 64-bit integers default strings typical data structures arrays sets lists records represented using lua single native data structure table essentially heterogeneous associative array lua implements small set advanced features first-class functions garbage collection closures proper tail calls coercion automatic conversion string number values run time coroutines cooperative multitasking dynamic module loading classic hello world program written follows print hello world print 'hello world comment lua starts double-hyphen runs end line similar ada eiffel haskell sql vhdl multi-line strings comments adorned double square brackets factorial function implemented function example function factorial n end lua four types loops codice_2 loop codice_3 loop similar codice_7 loop numeric codice_8 loop generic codice_8 loop -- condition true condition end repeat condition first last delta -- delta may negative allowing loop count end generic codice_8 loop key value pairs _g end would iterate table codice_11 using standard iterator function codice_12 returns codice_13 also nested loop loop inside another loop local grid row ipairs grid end lua treatment functions first-class values shown following example print function behavior modified end future calls codice_14 routed new function lua lexical scoping old print function accessible new modified print lua also supports closures demonstrated function addto x end fourplus addto 4 print fourplus 3 -- prints 7 -- also achieved calling function following way print addto 4 3 -- calling returned function 'addto 4 argument 3 directly new closure variable codice_15 created every time codice_16 called new anonymous function returned always access codice_15 parameter closure managed lua garbage collector like object tables important data structures design built-in composite data type lua foundation user-created types conceptually similar associative arrays php dictionaries python hashes ruby perl table collection key data pairs data referenced key words hashed heterogeneous associative array tables created using codice_18 constructor syntax tables always passed reference see call sharing key index value except codice_13 nan including functions table often used structure record using strings keys use common lua features special syntax accessing fields using table store related functions act namespace tables automatically assigned numerical key enabling used array data type first automatic index 1 rather 0 many programming languages though explicit index 0 allowed numeric key codice_20 distinct string key codice_21 length table codice_22 defined integer index codice_23 codice_24 codice_13 codice_26 codice_13 moreover codice_28 codice_13 codice_23 zero regular array non-nil values 1 given codice_23 length exactly codice_23 index last value array holes nil values non-nil values codice_33 indices directly precedes codice_13 value may consider nil value end array table array objects using hash map emulate array normally slower using actual array however lua tables optimized use arrays help avoid issue extensible semantics key feature lua metatable concept allows lua tables customized powerful ways following example demonstrates infinite table codice_23 codice_36 give codice_23-th fibonacci number using dynamic programming memoization fibs 1 1 -- initial values fibs 1 fibs 2 setmetatable fibs although lua built-in concept classes object-oriented programming achieved using two language features first-class functions tables placing functions related data table object formed inheritance single multiple implemented using metatable mechanism telling object look nonexistent methods fields parent object concept class techniques rather prototypes used similar self javascript new objects created either factory method constructs new objects scratch cloning existing object lua provides syntactic sugar facilitate object orientation declare member functions inside prototype table one use equivalent calling class methods also makes use colon equivalent creating basic vector object vector.__index vector function vector new x z -- constructor end function vector magnitude -- another method end local vec vector new 0 1 0 -- create vector print vec magnitude -- call method output 1 print vec.x -- access member variable output 0 lua programs interpreted directly textual lua file compiled bytecode run lua virtual machine compilation process typically invisible user performed run-time done offline order increase loading performance reduce memory footprint host environment leaving compiler lua bytecode also produced executed within lua using codice_38 function string library codice_39 functions lua version 5.3.4 implemented approximately 24,000 lines c code like cpus unlike virtual machines stack-based lua vm register-based therefore closely resembles actual hardware design register architecture avoids excessive copying values reduces total number instructions per function virtual machine lua 5 one first register-based pure vms wide use perl's parrot android dalvik two well-known register-based vms example bytecode listing factorial function defined shown codice_40 5.1 compiler lua intended embedded applications provides c api purpose api divided two parts lua core lua auxiliary library lua api design eliminates need manual reference management c code unlike python api api like language minimalistic advanced functionality provided auxiliary library consists largely preprocessor macros assist complex table operations lua c api stack based lua provides functions push pop simple c data types integers floats etc stack well functions manipulating tables stack lua stack somewhat different traditional stack stack indexed directly example negative indices indicate offsets top stack example −1 top recently pushed value positive indices indicate offsets bottom oldest value marshalling data c lua functions also done using stack call lua function arguments pushed onto stack codice_41 used call actual function writing c function directly called lua arguments read stack example calling lua function c int main void running example gives c api also provides special tables located various pseudo-indices lua stack codice_42 prior lua 5.2 globals table codice_11 within lua main namespace also registry located codice_44 c programs store lua values later retrieval possible write extension modules using lua api extension modules shared objects used extend functionality interpreter providing native facilities lua scripts lua side module appears namespace table holding functions variables lua scripts may load extension modules using codice_45 like modules written lua growing collection modules known rocks available package management system called luarocks spirit cpan rubygems python eggs prewritten lua bindings exist popular programming languages including scripting languages c++ number template-based approaches automatic binding generators video game development lua widely used scripting language game programmers perhaps due perceived easiness embed fast execution short learning curve 2003 poll conducted gamedev.net showed lua popular scripting language game programming 12 january 2012 lua announced winner front line award 2011 magazine game developer category programming tools large number non-game applications also use lua extensibility luatex implementation tex type-setting language redis key-value database nginx web server scribunto extension lua available scripting language mediawiki software powers wikipedia wikis among uses allowing integration data wikidata articles powering I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	4,777	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: exokernel.exokernel exokernel operating system kernel developed mit parallel distributed operating systems group also class similar operating systems operating systems generally present hardware resources applications high-level abstractions virtual file systems idea behind exokernels force abstractions possible application developers enabling make many decisions possible hardware abstractions exokernels tiny since functionality limited ensuring protection multiplexing resources considerably simpler conventional microkernels implementation message passing monolithic kernels implementation high-level abstractions implemented applications called library operating systems may request specific memory addresses disk blocks etc kernel ensures requested resource free application allowed access low-level hardware access allows programmer implement custom abstractions omit unnecessary ones commonly improve program performance also allows programmers choose level abstraction want high low exokernels seen application end-to-end principle operating systems force application program layer abstractions top abstractions designed different requirements mind example mit exokernel project cheetah web server stores preformatted internet protocol packets disk kernel provides safe access disk preventing unauthorized reading writing disk abstracted application libraries application uses traditionally kernel designers sought make individual hardware resources invisible application programs requiring programs interact hardware via abstraction model models include file systems disk storage virtual address spaces memory schedulers task management sockets network communication abstractions hardware make easier write programs general limit performance stifle experimentation new abstractions security-oriented application might need file system leave old data disk reliability-oriented application might need file system keeps data failure recovery one option remove kernel completely program directly hardware entire machine would dedicated application written conversely entire application codebase would dedicated machine exokernel concept compromise let kernel allocate basic physical resources machine e.g disk blocks memory pages processor time multiple application programs let program decide resources program link support library implements abstractions needs implement mit developed two exokernel-based operating systems using two kernels aegis proof concept limited support storage xok applied exokernel concept thoroughly essential idea mit exokernel system operating system act executive small programs provided application software constrained requirement exokernel must able guarantee use hardware safely mit exokernel manages hardware resources follows available library operating systems exokernel include custom exos system emulator bsd addition exokernel team created cheetah web server uses kernel directly exokernel concept around since least 1994 exokernels still research effort used major commercial operating systems concept operating exokernel system nemesis written university cambridge university glasgow citrix systems swedish institute computer science mit also built several exokernel-based systems including exos 1-hop neighbor's text information: file_attribute.file attribute file attributes metadata associated computer files define file system behavior attribute one two states set cleared attributes considered distinct metadata dates times filename extensions file system permissions addition files folders volumes file system objects may attributes traditionally ms-dos microsoft windows four attributes archive hidden read-only system windows added new ones systems derived 4.4bsd-lite freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd macos sets system user attributes newer versions linux kernel also support set file attributes traditionally dos microsoft windows files folders accepted four attributes new versions windows came microsoft added inventory available attributes ntfs file system including limited attributes displayed attributes column windows explorer include 4.4bsd 4.4bsd-lite files directories folders accepted four attributes could set owner file superuser user attributes two attributes could set superuser system attributes freebsd added additional attributes also supported dragonfly bsd freebsd also supports whereas dragonfly bsd supports netbsd added another attribute also supported openbsd macos added three attributes dos os/2 windows codice_3 command cmd.exe command.com used change display four traditional file attributes file explorer windows show seven mentioned attributes set clear system attribute windows powershell become component windows 7 later features two commands read write attributes codice_4 codice_5 change attribute file windows nt user must appropriate file system permissions known write attributes write extended attributes 4.4bsd 4.4bsd-lite derivatives codice_6 codice_7 commands used change display file attributes change user attribute file 4.4bsd-derived operating systems user must owner file superuser change system attribute user must superuser linux codice_8 codice_9 commands used change display file attributes 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_architecture.computer architecture computer engineering computer architecture set rules methods describe functionality organization implementation computer systems definitions architecture define describing capabilities programming model computer particular implementation definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design microarchitecture design logic design implementation first documented computer architecture correspondence charles babbage ada lovelace describing analytical engine building computer z1 1936 konrad zuse described two patent applications future projects machine instructions could stored storage used data i.e stored-program concept two early important examples term “ architecture ” computer literature traced work lyle r. johnson frederick p. brooks jr. members machine organization department ibm ’ main research center 1959 johnson opportunity write proprietary research communication stretch ibm-developed supercomputer los alamos national laboratory time known los alamos scientific laboratory describe level detail discussing luxuriously embellished computer noted description formats instruction types hardware parameters speed enhancements level “ system architecture ” – term seemed useful “ machine organization. ” subsequently brooks stretch designer started chapter 2 book planning computer system project stretch ed w. buchholz 1962 writing brooks went help develop ibm system/360 called ibm zseries line computers “ architecture ” became noun defining “ user needs know ” later computer users came use term many less-explicit ways earliest computer architectures designed paper directly built final hardware form later computer architecture prototypes physically built form transistor–transistor logic ttl computer—such prototypes 6800 pa-risc—tested tweaked committing final hardware form 1990s new computer architectures typically built tested tweaked—inside computer architecture computer architecture simulator inside fpga soft microprocessor both—before committing final hardware form discipline computer architecture three main subcategories types computer architecture following types used bigger companies like intel count 1 computer architecture purpose design computer maximizes performance keeping power consumption check costs low relative amount expected performance also reliable many aspects considered includes instruction set design functional organization logic design implementation implementation involves integrated circuit design packaging power cooling optimization design requires familiarity compilers operating systems logic design packaging instruction set architecture isa interface computer software hardware also viewed programmer view machine computers understand high-level programming languages java c++ programming languages used processor understands instructions encoded numerical fashion usually binary numbers software tools compilers translate high level languages instructions processor understand besides instructions isa defines items computer available program—e.g data types registers addressing modes memory instructions locate available items register indexes names memory addressing modes isa computer usually described small instruction manual describes instructions encoded also may define short vaguely mnemonic names instructions names recognized software development tool called assembler assembler computer program translates human-readable form isa computer-readable form disassemblers also widely available usually debuggers software programs isolate correct malfunctions binary computer programs isas vary quality completeness good isa compromises programmer convenience easy code understand size code much code required specific action cost computer interpret instructions complexity means hardware needed decode execute instructions speed computer complex decoding hardware comes longer decode time memory organization defines instructions interact memory memory interacts design emulation software emulators run programs written proposed instruction set modern emulators measure size cost speed determine particular isa meeting goals computer organization helps optimize performance-based products example software engineers need know processing power processors may need optimize software order gain performance lowest price require quite detailed analysis computer organization example sd card designers might need arrange card data processed fastest possible way computer organization also helps plan selection processor particular project multimedia projects may need rapid data access virtual machines may need fast interrupts sometimes certain tasks need additional components well example computer capable running virtual machine needs virtual memory hardware memory different virtual computers kept separated computer organization features also affect power consumption processor cost instruction set micro-architecture designed practical machine must developed design process called implementation implementation usually considered architectural design rather hardware design engineering implementation broken several steps cpus entire implementation process organized differently often referred cpu design exact form computer system depends constraints goals computer architectures usually trade standards power versus performance cost memory capacity latency latency amount time takes information one node travel source throughput sometimes considerations features size weight reliability expandability also factors common scheme depth power analysis figures keep power consumption low maintaining adequate performance modern computer performance often described ipc instructions per cycle measures efficiency architecture clock frequency since faster rate make faster computer useful measurement older computers ipc counts low 0.1 instructions per cycle simple modern processors easily reach near 1 superscalar processors may reach three five ipc executing several instructions per clock cycle counting machine language instructions would misleading varying amounts work different isas instruction standard measurements count isa actual machine language instructions unit measurement usually based speed vax computer architecture many people used measure computer speed clock rate usually mhz ghz refers cycles per second main clock cpu however metric somewhat misleading machine higher clock rate may necessarily greater performance result manufacturers moved away clock speed measure performance factors influence speed mix functional units bus speeds available memory type order instructions programs two main types speed latency throughput latency time start process completion throughput amount work done per unit time interrupt latency guaranteed maximum response time system electronic event like disk drive finishes moving data performance affected wide range design choices — example pipelining processor usually makes latency worse makes throughput better computers control machinery usually need low interrupt latencies computers operate real-time environment fail operation completed specified amount time example computer-controlled anti-lock brakes must begin braking within predictable short time brake pedal sensed else failure brake occur benchmarking takes factors account measuring time computer takes run series test programs although benchmarking shows strengths n't choose computer often measured machines split different measures example one system might handle scientific applications quickly another might render video games smoothly furthermore designers may target add special features products hardware software permit specific benchmark execute quickly n't offer similar advantages general tasks power efficiency another important measurement modern computers higher power efficiency often traded lower speed higher cost typical measurement referring power consumption computer architecture mips/w millions instructions per second per watt modern circuits less power required per transistor number transistors per chip grows transistor put new chip requires power supply requires new pathways built power however number transistors per chip starting increase slower rate therefore power efficiency starting become important important fitting transistors single chip recent processor designs shown emphasis put focus power efficiency rather cramming many transistors single chip possible world embedded computers power efficiency long important goal next throughput latency increases clock frequency grown slowly past years compared power reduction improvements driven end moore law demand longer battery life reductions size mobile technology change focus higher clock rates power consumption miniaturization shown significant reductions power consumption much 50 reported intel release haswell microarchitecture dropped power consumption benchmark 30-40 watts 10-20 watts comparing processing speed increase 3 ghz 4 ghz 2002 2006 seen focus research development shifting away clock frequency moving towards consuming less power taking less space Target text information: 86-dos.86-dos 86-dos discontinued operating system developed marketed seattle computer products scp intel 8086-based computer kit initially known qdos quick dirty operating system name changed 86-dos scp started licensing operating system 1980 86-dos command structure application programming interface imitated digital research cp/m operating system made easy port programs latter system licensed purchased microsoft developed ms-dos pc dos 86-dos created sales seattle computer products 8086 computer kit demonstrated june 1979 shipped november languishing due absence operating system software scp could sell board microsoft standalone disk basic-86 microsoft developed prototype scp hardware scp wanted offer 8086-version cp/m digital research announced release date uncertain first time digital research lagged behind hardware developments two years earlier slow adapt cp/m new floppy disk formats hard disk drives april 1980 scp assigned 24-year-old tim paterson develop substitute cp/m-86 using cp/m-80 manual reference paterson modeled 86-dos architecture interfaces adapted meet requirements intel 8086 16-bit processor easy partially automated source-level translatability many existing 8-bit cp/m programs porting either dos cp/m-86 equally difficult eased fact intel already published method could used automatically translate software intel 8080 processor cp/m designed new 8086 instruction set time made number changes enhancements address saw cp/m shortcomings cp/m cached file system information memory speed required user force update disk removing user forgot disk would become corrupt paterson took safer slower approach updating disk operation cp/m pip command copied files supported several special file names referred hardware devices printers communication ports paterson built names operating system device files program could use gave copying program intuitive name copy rather implementing cp/m file system drew microsoft standalone disk basic-86 file allocation table fat file system mid-1980 scp advertised 86-dos priced 95 owners 1290 8086 board 195 others touted software ability read zilog z80 source code cp/m disk translate 8086 source code promised minor hand correction optimization needed produce 8086 binaries october 1980 ibm developing would become original ibm personal computer cp/m far popular operating system use time ibm felt needed cp/m order compete ibm representatives visited digital research discussed licensing digital research licensing representative dorothy kildall née mcewen hesitated sign ibm non-disclosure agreement although nda later accepted digital research would accept ibm proposal 250,000 exchange many copies ibm could sell insisting usual royalty-based plan later discussions ibm bill gates gates mentioned existence 86-dos ibm representative jack sams told get license microsoft purchased non-exclusive license 86-dos seattle computer products december 1980 25,000 may 1981 hired tim paterson port system ibm pc used slower less expensive intel 8088 processor specific family peripherals ibm watched developments daily submitting 300 change requests accepted product wrote user manual july 1981 month pc release microsoft purchased rights 86-dos scp 50,000 met ibm main criteria looked like cp/m easy adapt existing 8-bit cp/m programs run notably thanks trans command would translate source files 8080 8086 machine instructions microsoft licensed 86-dos ibm became pc dos 1.0 license also permitted microsoft sell dos companies deal spectacularly successful scp later claimed court microsoft concealed relationship ibm order purchase operating system cheaply scp ultimately received 1 million settlement payment digital research founder gary kildall examined pc dos found duplicated cp/m programming interface wanted sue ibm time claimed pc dos product however digital research attorney believe relevant law clear enough sue nonetheless kildall confronted ibm persuaded offer cp/m-86 pc exchange release liability controversy continued surround similarity two systems perhaps sensational claim came jerry pournelle said kildall personally demonstrated dos contained cp/m code entering command dos displayed kildall name pournelle never revealed command nobody come forward corroborate story 2004 book kildall says used encrypted message demonstrate manufacturers copied cp/m say found message dos instead kildall memoir source book pointed well-known interface similarity paterson insists 86-dos software original work denied referring otherwise using cp/m code writing 2004 book appeared sued authors publishers defamation court ruled summary judgment defamation occurred book claims opinions based research provably false following list commands supported 86-dos 1982 ibm asked microsoft release version dos compatible hard disk drive pc dos 2.0 almost complete rewrite dos march 1983 little 86-dos remained enduring element 86-dos primitive line editor edlin remained editor supplied microsoft versions dos june 1991 release ms-dos 5.0 included text-based user interface editor called ms-dos editor based qbasic edlin still used contemporary machines since emulated dos environment windows 10 32 bit seattle computer products 86-dos supported fat12 filesystem range 8-inch 5.25-inch floppy disk drives s-100 floppy disk controller hardware manufactured cromemco tarbell electronics north star computers western digital fd1771-based cromemco tarbell boards supported one-sided single-density soft-sectored drives tarbell double-density board utilizing fd1791 supported well later scp offered advanced floppy disk controllers like disk master series 86-dos take advantage fat id byte bios parameter block bpb later dos versions distinguish different media formats instead different drive letters hard-coded time compilation associated different physical floppy drives sides densities meant depending type disk addressed certain drive letter recognized correctly concept later emulated flexibility driver.sys dos 3.x later versions two logical format variants 86-dos 12-bit fat format existed — original format 16-byte directory entries later format since 86-dos 0.42 32-byte directory entries second one logically compatible fat12 format known since release ms-dos pc dos ms-dos still mount volumes absence bpb falls back retrieve fat id fat entry design fat file system clust 0cluster 0 choose among hard-coded disk geometry profiles formats volume formatted ms-dos would otherwise supported systems typically also formats id located first byte logical sector 1 — volume second sector physical cylinder-head-sector chs address 0/0/2 logical block addressing lba address 1 — since ms-dos assumes single reserved sector boot sector 86-dos reserved sectors area significantly larger whole tracks therefore prototypical fat id located elsewhere disk making impossible ms-dos retrieve even would hard-coded disk profile associated would take larger reserved sectors region 86-dos account cp/m 2 floppy media readable rdcpm 86-dos offer specific support fixed disks third-party solutions form hard disk controllers corresponding i/o system extensions 86-dos available companies like tallgrass technologies making hard disks accessible similar superfloppies within size limits fat12 file system various oem versions ms-dos 1.2x 2.x supported number similar 8.0 fat12 floppy disk formats well although identical supported 86-dos disk formats supported one last versions developed tim paterson microsoft ms-dos 1.25 march 1982 scp gazelle computer scp controller cromemco 16fdc controller default version supported ms-dos-compatible variants 8.0 formats single reserved sector could built provide two extra drive letters read write floppies previous scp 86-dos 8.0 disk formats since 0.42 well 1984 seattle computer products released oem version ms-dos 2.0 scp s-100 computer scp-500 disk master floppy controller added support 5.25 dd/1s 180 kb dd/2s 360 kb fat12 formats supported older formats well although possibly parameters modified compared ms-dos 1.25 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,907	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: alsamixer.alsamixer alsamixer graphical mixer program advanced linux sound architecture alsa used configure sound settings adjust volume ncurses user interface require x window system supports multiple sound cards multiple devices top-left corner alsamixer area show basic information card name mixer chip name current view mode currently selected mixer item mixer item switched displayed name volume bars located basic information area scroll left/right controls put single screen name control shown bottom volume bars currently selected item drawn red and/or emphasized mixer control volume capability shows box current volume filled box volume percentages displayed volume bar left right channels mono control one value shown mixer control turned mute appears volume bar turned green appears instead toggle switch via key mixer control capture capability capture flag appears volume bar capture turned -- -- -- shown capture red appears capture switch turned addition l r letters appear left right side indicate left right channels turned controls enumeration list n't show boxes texts indicate currently active item change item via up/down keys alsamixer three view modes playback capture playback view controls related playback shown similarly controls capture recording shown capture view view mode shows controls current view mode displayed top-left position together mixer name etc default view mode playback view changed via -v option also view mode switched via keyboard commands alsamixer comes tui started different keys used configure sound cards tui recognizes following keyboard commands configure available soundcards commands shown upper case also given lower case reminded keystrokes hit key press open list available sound cards precise list cards advanced linux sound architecture alsa device driver successfully loaded either boot-up per codice_1 command command codice_2 print list currently loaded device drivers arrow keys used select channel device depending preferred terminology also use n next p previous keys control volume currently selected device also use purpose left right signals affected control independently use increase decrease volume left channel increases volume right channel decreases function keys used change view modes switch help mode proc info mode via f1 f2 keys respectively terminals ca n't use function keys like gnome terminal keys used alternatively help proc modes keys used switch playback capture view mode respectively tab key toggles current view mode circularly quit program alt+q hitting esc key please note might need hit esc twice terminals since regarded prefix key 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: aplay.aplay aplay command-line audio file player alsa sound card driver supports several file formats multiple sound cards multiple devices supported soundfile formats sampling rate bit depth forth automatically determined soundfile header play raw file foobar 22050-hz mono 8-bit mu-law .au file I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,509	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: unix-like.unix-like unix-like sometimes referred unx nix operating system one behaves manner similar unix system necessarily conforming certified version single unix specification unix-like application one behaves like corresponding unix command shell standard defining term difference opinion possible degree given operating system application unix-like term include free open-source operating systems inspired bell labs unix designed emulate features commercial proprietary work-alikes even versions based licensed unix source code may sufficiently unix-like pass certification bear unix trademark open group owns unix trademark administers single unix specification unix name used certification mark approve construction unix-like consider misuse trademark guidelines require unix presented uppercase otherwise distinguished surrounding text strongly encourage using branding adjective generic word system discourage use hyphenated phrases parties frequently treat unix genericized trademark add wildcard character name make abbreviation like unx nix since unix-like systems often unix-like names aix a/ux hp-ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix xinu xnu patterns literally match many system names still generally recognized refer unix descendant work-alike system even completely dissimilar names darwin/macos illumos/solaris freebsd 2007 wayne r. gray sued dispute status unix trademark lost case lost appeal court upholding trademark ownership unix-like systems started appear late 1970s early 1980s many proprietary versions idris 1978 unos 1982 coherent 1983 uniflex 1985 aimed provide businesses functionality available academic users unix allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing unix 1979 variety proprietary systems developed based including aix hp-ux irix sunos tru64 ultrix xenix largely displaced proprietary clones growing incompatibility among systems led creation interoperability standards including posix single unix specification various free low-cost unrestricted substitutes unix emerged 1980s 1990s including 4.4bsd linux minix turn basis commercial unix-like systems bsd/os macos several versions mac os x/macos running intel-based mac computers certified single unix specification bsd variants descendants unix developed university california berkeley unix source code bell labs however bsd code base evolved since replacing code since bsd variants certified compliant single unix specification referred unix-like rather unix dennis ritchie one original creators unix expressed opinion unix-like systems linux de facto unix systems eric s. raymond rob landley suggested three kinds unix-like systems systems historical connection codebase commercial unix systems fall category bsd systems descendants work done university california berkeley late 1970s early 1980s systems original code still trace ancestry designs systemslargely commercial naturehave determined open group meet single unix specification allowed carry unix name systems commercial derivatives system v code base one form another although apple macos 10.5 later bsd variant certified systems ibm z/os earned trademark posix compatibility layer otherwise inherently unix systems many ancient unix systems longer meet definition broadly unix-like system behaves manner roughly consistent unix specification including program manages login command line sessions specifically refer systems linux minix behave similarly unix system genetic trademark connection code base free/open-source implementations unix design whether genetic unix fall restricted definition third category due expense obtaining open group certification costs thousands dollars commercial closed source systems around 2001 linux given opportunity get certification including free help posix chair andrew josey symbolic price one dollar activities make linux posix-compliant josey prepared list differences posix standard linux standard base specification august 2005 project shut missing interest lsb work group non-unix-like operating systems provide unix-like compatibility layer variable degrees unix-like functionality means windows-unix interoperability include 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_real-time_operating_systems.comparison real-time operating systems list real-time operating systems rtos operating system time taken process input stimulus less time lapsed next input stimulus type 1-hop neighbor's text information: kernel_(operating_system).kernel operating system kernel computer program core computer operating system complete control everything system systems one first programs loaded start-up bootloader handles rest start-up well input/output requests software translating data-processing instructions central processing unit handles memory peripherals like keyboards monitors printers speakers critical code kernel usually loaded separate area memory protected access application programs less critical parts operating system kernel performs tasks running processes managing hardware devices hard disk handling interrupts protected kernel space contrast application programs like browsers word processors audio video players use separate area memory user space separation prevents user data kernel data interfering causing instability slowness well preventing malfunctioning application programs crashing entire operating system kernel interface low-level abstraction layer process makes requests kernel called system call kernel designs differ manage system calls resources monolithic kernel runs operating system instructions address space speed microkernel runs processes user space modularity kernel primary function mediate access computer resources including key aspects necessary resource management definition execution domain address space protection mechanism used mediate access resources within domain kernels also provide methods synchronization inter-process communication ipc implementations may within kernel kernel also rely processes running although kernel must provide inter-process communication order provide access facilities provided kernels must also provide running programs method make requests access facilities kernel full access system memory must allow processes safely access memory require often first step virtual addressing usually achieved paging and/or segmentation virtual addressing allows kernel make given physical address appear another address virtual address virtual address spaces may different different processes memory one process accesses particular virtual address may different memory another process accesses address allows every program behave one apart kernel running thus prevents applications crashing many systems program virtual address may refer data currently memory layer indirection provided virtual addressing allows operating system use data stores like hard drive store would otherwise remain main memory ram result operating systems allow programs use memory system physically available program needs data currently ram cpu signals kernel happened kernel responds writing contents inactive memory block disk necessary replacing data requested program program resumed point stopped scheme generally known demand paging virtual addressing also allows creation virtual partitions memory two disjointed areas one reserved kernel kernel space applications user space applications permitted processor address kernel memory thus preventing application damaging running kernel fundamental partition memory space contributed much current designs actual general-purpose kernels almost universal systems although research kernels e.g singularity take approaches perform useful functions processes need access peripherals connected computer controlled kernel device drivers device driver computer program enables operating system interact hardware device provides operating system information control communicate certain piece hardware driver important vital piece program application design goal driver abstraction function driver translate os-mandated abstract function calls programming calls device-specific calls theory device work correctly suitable driver device drivers used things video cards sound cards printers scanners modems lan cards common levels abstraction device drivers 1 hardware side 2 software side example show user something screen application would make request kernel would forward request display driver responsible actually plotting character/pixel kernel must maintain list available devices list may known advance e.g embedded system kernel rewritten available hardware changes configured user typical older pcs systems designed personal use detected operating system run time normally called plug play plug play system device manager first performs scan different hardware buses peripheral component interconnect pci universal serial bus usb detect installed devices searches appropriate drivers device management os-specific topic drivers handled differently kind kernel design every case kernel provide i/o allow drivers physically access devices port memory location important decisions made designing device management system designs accesses may involve context switches making operation cpu-intensive easily causing significant performance overhead computing system call process requests service operating system kernel normally permission run system calls provide interface process operating system operations interacting system require permissions available user level process e.g i/o performed device present system form communication processes requires use system calls system call mechanism used application program request service operating system use machine-code instruction causes processor change mode example would supervisor mode protected mode operating system performs actions like accessing hardware devices memory management unit generally operating system provides library sits operating system normal programs usually c library glibc windows api library handles low-level details passing information kernel switching supervisor mode system calls include close open read wait write actually perform useful work process must able access services provided kernel implemented differently kernel provide c library api turn invokes related kernel functions method invoking kernel function varies kernel kernel memory isolation use impossible user process call kernel directly would violation processor access control rules possibilities important consideration design kernel support provides protection faults fault tolerance malicious behaviours security two aspects usually clearly distinguished adoption distinction kernel design leads rejection hierarchical structure protection mechanisms policies provided kernel classified according several criteria including static enforced compile time dynamic enforced run time pre-emptive post-detection according protection principles satisfy e.g denning whether hardware supported language based whether open mechanism binding policy many support hierarchical protection domains typically implemented using cpu modes many kernels provide implementation capabilities i.e objects provided user code allow limited access underlying object managed kernel common example occurs file handling file representation information stored permanent storage device kernel may able perform many different operations e.g read write delete execute file contents user level application may permitted perform operations e.g may allowed read file common implementation kernel provide object application typically called file handle application may invoke operations validity kernel checks time operation requested system may extended cover objects kernel manages indeed objects provided user applications efficient simple way provide hardware support capabilities delegate mmu responsibility checking access-rights every memory access mechanism called capability-based addressing commercial computer architectures lack mmu support capabilities alternative approach simulate capabilities using commonly supported hierarchical domains approach protected object must reside address space application access kernel also maintains list capabilities memory application needs access object protected capability performs system call kernel checks whether application capability grants permission perform requested action permitted performs access either directly delegating request another user-level process performance cost address space switching limits practicality approach systems complex interactions objects used current operating systems objects accessed frequently expected perform quickly approaches protection mechanism firmware supported instead simulated higher levels e.g simulating capabilities manipulating page tables hardware direct support possible performance implications lack hardware support may issue however systems choose use language-based protection important kernel design decision choice abstraction levels security mechanisms policies implemented kernel security mechanisms play critical role supporting security higher levels one approach use firmware kernel support fault tolerance see build security policy malicious behavior top adding features cryptography mechanisms necessary delegating responsibility compiler approaches delegate enforcement security policy compiler and/or application level often called language-based security lack many critical security mechanisms current mainstream operating systems impedes implementation adequate security policies application abstraction level fact common misconception computer security security policy implemented application regardless kernel support typical computer systems today use hardware-enforced rules programs allowed access data processor monitors execution stops program violates rule e.g. user process read write kernel memory systems lack support capabilities processes isolated using separate address spaces calls user processes kernel regulated requiring use one above-described system call methods alternative approach use language-based protection language-based protection system kernel allow code execute produced trusted language compiler language may designed impossible programmer instruct something violate security requirement advantages approach include disadvantages include examples systems language-based protection include jx microsoft singularity edsger dijkstra proved logical point view atomic lock unlock operations operating binary semaphores sufficient primitives express functionality process cooperation however approach generally held lacking terms safety efficiency whereas message passing approach flexible number approaches either lower- higher-level available well many modern kernels providing support systems shared memory remote procedure calls idea kernel i/o devices handled uniformly processes parallel co-operating processes first proposed implemented brinch hansen although similar ideas suggested 1967 hansen description common processes called internal processes i/o devices called external processes similar physical memory allowing applications direct access controller ports registers cause controller malfunction system crash depending complexity device devices get surprisingly complex program use several different controllers providing abstract interface manage device important interface normally done device driver hardware abstraction layer frequently applications require access devices kernel must maintain list devices querying system way done bios one various system buses pci/pcie usb application requests operation device displaying character kernel needs send request current active video driver video driver turn needs carry request example inter process communication ipc naturally listed tasks features provided many ways differ design implementation principle separation mechanism policy substantial difference philosophy micro monolithic kernels mechanism support allows implementation many different policies policy particular mode operation instance mechanism may provide user log-in attempts call authorization server determine whether access granted policy may authorization server request password check encrypted password stored database mechanism generic policy could easily changed e.g requiring use security token mechanism policy integrated module minimal microkernel basic policies included mechanisms allows running top kernel remaining part operating system applications decide policies adopt memory management high level process scheduling file system management etc. monolithic kernel instead tends include many policies therefore restricting rest system rely per brinch hansen presented arguments favour separation mechanism policy failure properly fulfill separation one major causes lack substantial innovation existing operating systems problem common computer architecture monolithic design induced kernel mode user mode architectural approach protection technically called hierarchical protection domains common conventional commercial systems fact every module needing protection therefore preferably included kernel link monolithic design privileged mode reconducted key issue mechanism-policy separation fact privileged mode architectural approach melds together protection mechanism security policies major alternative architectural approach capability-based addressing clearly distinguishes two leading naturally microkernel design see separation protection security monolithic kernels execute code address space kernel space microkernels try run services user space aiming improve maintainability modularity codebase kernels fit exactly one categories rather found two designs called hybrid kernels exotic designs nanokernels exokernels available seldom used production systems xen hypervisor example exokernel monolithic kernel os services run along main kernel thread thus also residing memory area approach provides rich powerful hardware access developers unix developer ken thompson maintain easier implement monolithic kernel microkernels main disadvantages monolithic kernels dependencies system components bug device driver might crash entire system fact large kernels become difficult maintain monolithic kernels traditionally used unix-like operating systems contain operating system core functions device drivers traditional design unix systems monolithic kernel one single program contains code necessary perform every kernel-related task every part accessed programs put library kernel space device drivers scheduler memory handling file systems network stacks many system calls provided applications allow access services monolithic kernel initially loaded subsystems may needed tuned point fast faster one specifically designed hardware although relevant general sense modern monolithic kernels linux freebsd fall category unix-like operating systems feature ability load modules runtime thereby allowing easy extension kernel capabilities required helping minimize amount code running kernel space monolithic kernel advantages hinge points work monolithic kernel done via system calls interfaces usually kept tabular structure access subsystem within kernel disk operations essentially calls made within programs checked copy request passed system call hence far travel monolithic linux kernel made extremely small ability dynamically load modules also ease customization fact versions small enough fit together large number utilities programs single floppy disk still provide fully functional operating system one popular mulinux ability miniaturize kernel also led rapid growth use linux embedded systems types kernels consist core functions operating system device drivers ability load modules runtime provide rich powerful abstractions underlying hardware provide small set simple hardware abstractions use applications called servers provide functionality particular approach defines high-level virtual interface hardware set system calls implement operating system services process management concurrency memory management several modules run supervisor mode design several flaws limitations microkernel also abbreviated μk uk term describing approach operating system design functionality system moved traditional kernel set servers communicate minimal kernel leaving little possible system space much possible user space microkernel designed specific platform device ever going needs operate microkernel approach consists defining simple abstraction hardware set primitives system calls implement minimal os services memory management multitasking inter-process communication services including normally provided kernel networking implemented user-space programs referred servers microkernels easier maintain monolithic kernels large number system calls context switches might slow system typically generate overhead plain function calls parts really require privileged mode kernel space ipc inter-process communication basic scheduler scheduling primitives basic memory handling basic i/o primitives many critical parts running user space complete scheduler memory handling file systems network stacks micro kernels invented reaction traditional monolithic kernel design whereby system functionality put one static program running special system mode processor microkernel fundamental tasks performed able access necessarily hardware manage memory coordinate message passing processes systems use micro kernels qnx hurd case qnx hurd user sessions entire snapshots system views referred essence microkernel architecture illustrates advantages micro kernels use message passing system sort handle requests one server another message passing system generally operates port basis microkernel example request memory sent port opened microkernel request sent within microkernel steps similar system calls rationale would bring modularity system architecture would entail cleaner system easier debug dynamically modify customizable users needs performing part operating systems like gnu hurd minix mklinux qnx redox os although micro kernels small combination required auxiliary code fact often larger monolithic kernels advocates monolithic kernels also point two-tiered structure microkernel systems operating system interact directly hardware creates not-insignificant cost terms system efficiency types kernels normally provide minimal services defining memory address spaces inter-process communication ipc process management functions running hardware processes handled directly micro kernels proponents micro kernels point monolithic kernels disadvantage error kernel cause entire system crash however microkernel kernel process crashes still possible prevent crash system whole merely restarting service caused error services provided kernel networking implemented user-space programs referred servers servers allow operating system modified simply starting stopping programs machine without networking support instance networking server started task moving kernel move data various applications servers creates overhead detrimental efficiency micro kernels comparison monolithic kernels disadvantages microkernel exist however disadvantages micro kernels extremely context based example work well small single purpose critical systems many processes need run complications process management effectively mitigated microkernel allows implementation remaining part operating system normal application program written high-level language use different operating systems top unchanged kernel also possible dynamically switch among operating systems one active simultaneously computer kernel grows grows size vulnerability trusted computing base besides reducing security problem enlarging memory footprint mitigated degree perfecting virtual memory system computer architectures virtual memory support reduce kernel footprint extensive editing performed carefully remove unneeded code difficult non-obvious interdependencies parts kernel millions lines code early 1990s due various shortcomings monolithic kernels versus microkernels monolithic kernels considered obsolete virtually operating system researchers result design linux monolithic kernel rather microkernel topic famous debate linus torvalds andrew tanenbaum merit sides argument presented tanenbaum–torvalds debate monolithic kernels designed code address space kernel space developers argue necessary increase performance system developers also maintain monolithic systems extremely efficient well written monolithic model tends efficient use shared kernel memory rather slower ipc system microkernel designs typically based message passing performance microkernels poor 1980s early 1990s however studies empirically measured performance microkernels analyze reasons inefficiency explanations data left folklore assumption due increased frequency switches kernel-mode user-mode increased frequency inter-process communication increased frequency context switches fact guessed 1995 reasons poor performance microkernels might well 1 actual inefficiency whole microkernel approach 2 particular concepts implemented microkernels 3 particular implementation concepts therefore remained studied solution build efficient microkernel unlike previous attempts apply correct construction techniques end hierarchical protection domains architecture leads design monolithic kernel significant performance drawback time interaction different levels protection i.e process manipulate data structure 'user mode 'supervisor mode since requires message copying value mid-1990s researchers abandoned belief careful tuning could reduce overhead dramatically recently newer microkernels optimized performance l4 k42 addressed problems hybrid kernels used commercial operating systems microsoft windows nt 3.1 nt 3.5 nt 3.51 nt 4.0 2000 xp vista 7 8 8.1 10 apple inc macos uses hybrid kernel called xnu based upon code osf/1 mach kernel osfmk 7.3 freebsd monolithic kernel similar micro kernels except include additional code kernel-space increase performance kernels represent compromise implemented developers demonstrated pure micro kernels provide high performance types kernels extensions micro kernels properties monolithic kernels unlike monolithic kernels types kernels unable load modules runtime hybrid kernels micro kernels non-essential code kernel-space order code run quickly would user-space hybrid kernels compromise monolithic microkernel designs implies running services network stack filesystem kernel space reduce performance overhead traditional microkernel still running kernel code device drivers servers user space many traditionally monolithic kernels least adding actively exploiting module capability well known kernels linux kernel modular kernel essentially parts built core kernel binary binaries load memory demand important note code tainted module potential destabilize running kernel many people become confused point discussing micro kernels possible write driver microkernel completely separate memory space test going live kernel module loaded accesses monolithic portion memory space adding needs therefore opening doorway possible pollution advantages modular hybrid kernel modules generally communicate kernel using module interface sort interface generalized although particular given operating system always possible use modules often device drivers may need flexibility module interface affords essentially two system calls often safety checks done monolithic kernel may done twice disadvantages modular approach nanokernel delegates virtually services including even basic ones like interrupt controllers timer device drivers make kernel memory requirement even smaller traditional microkernel exokernels still-experimental approach operating system design differ types kernels functionality limited protection multiplexing raw hardware providing hardware abstractions top develop applications separation hardware protection hardware management enables application developers determine make efficient use available hardware specific program exokernels extremely small however accompanied library operating systems see also unikernel providing application developers functionalities conventional operating system major advantage exokernel-based systems incorporate multiple library operating systems exporting different api example one high level ui development one real-time control strictly speaking operating system thus kernel required run computer programs directly loaded executed bare metal machine provided authors programs willing work without hardware abstraction operating system support early computers operated way 1950s early 1960s reset reloaded execution different programs eventually small ancillary programs program loaders debuggers left memory runs loaded rom developed formed basis became early operating system kernels bare metal approach still used today video game consoles embedded systems general newer computers use modern operating systems kernels 1969 rc 4000 multiprogramming system introduced system design philosophy small nucleus upon operating systems different purposes could built orderly manner would called microkernel approach decade preceding unix computers grown enormously power point computer operators looking new ways get people use spare time machines one major developments era time-sharing whereby number users would get small slices computer time rate appeared connected slower machine development time-sharing systems led number problems one users particularly universities systems developed seemed want hack system get cpu time reason security access control became major focus multics project 1965 another ongoing issue properly handling computing resources users spent time staring terminal thinking input instead actually using resources computer time-sharing system give cpu time active user periods finally systems typically offered memory hierarchy several layers deep partitioning expensive resource led major developments virtual memory systems commodore amiga released 1985 among first certainly successful home computers feature advanced kernel architecture amigaos kernel executive component exec.library uses microkernel message-passing design kernel components like graphics.library direct access hardware memory protection kernel almost always running user mode special actions executed kernel mode user-mode applications ask operating system execute code kernel mode design phase unix programmers decided model every high-level device file believed purpose computation data transformation instance printers represented file known location data copied file printed systems provide similar functionality tended virtualize devices lower level devices files would instances lower level concept virtualizing system file level allowed users manipulate entire system using existing file management utilities concepts dramatically simplifying operation extension paradigm unix allows programmers manipulate files using series small programs using concept pipes allowed users complete operations stages feeding file chain single-purpose tools although end result using smaller programs way dramatically increased flexibility well ease development use allowing user modify workflow adding removing program chain unix model operating system consists two parts first huge collection utility programs drive operations second kernel runs programs unix programming standpoint distinction two fairly thin kernel program running supervisor mode acts program loader supervisor small utility programs making rest system provide locking i/o services programs beyond kernel n't intervene user space years computing model changed unix treatment everything file byte stream longer universally applicable although terminal could treated file byte stream printed read seem true graphical user interface networking posed another problem even network communication compared file access low-level packet-oriented architecture dealt discrete chunks data whole files capability computers grew unix became increasingly cluttered code also modularity unix kernel extensively scalable kernels might 100,000 lines code seventies eighties kernels modern unix successors like linux 13 million lines modern unix-derivatives generally based module-loading monolithic kernels examples linux kernel many distributions well berkeley software distribution variant kernels freebsd dragonflybsd openbsd netbsd macos apart alternatives amateur developers maintain active operating system development community populated self-written hobby kernels mostly end sharing many features linux freebsd dragonflybsd openbsd netbsd kernels and/or compatible apple first launched classic mac os 1984 bundled macintosh personal computer apple moved nanokernel design mac os 8.6 modern macos originally named mac os x based darwin uses hybrid kernel called xnu created combining 4.3bsd kernel mach kernel microsoft windows first released 1985 add-on ms-dos dependence another operating system initial releases windows prior windows 95 considered operating environment confused operating system product line continued evolve 1980s 1990s windows 9x series adding 32-bit addressing pre-emptive multitasking ended release windows 2000 microsoft also developed windows nt operating system similar interface intended high-end business users line started release windows nt 3.1 1993 introduced general users release windows xp october 2001—replacing windows 9x completely different much sophisticated operating system line continues windows 10 architecture windows nt kernel considered hybrid kernel kernel contains tasks window manager ipc managers client/server layered subsystem model supervisory program supervisor computer program usually part operating system controls execution routines regulates work scheduling input/output operations error actions similar functions regulates flow work data processing system historically term essentially associated ibm line mainframe operating systems starting os/360 operating systems supervisor generally called kernel 1970s ibm abstracted supervisor state hardware resulting hypervisor enabled full virtualization i.e capacity run multiple operating systems machine totally independently hence first system called virtual machine vm although mach developed carnegie mellon university 1985 1994 best-known general-purpose microkernel microkernels developed specific aims l4 microkernel family mainly l3 l4 kernel created demonstrate microkernels necessarily slow newer implementations fiasco pistachio able run linux next l4 processes separate address spaces additionally qnx microkernel principally used embedded systems open-source software minix originally created educational purposes focussed highly reliable self-healing microkernel os Target text information: soft_hard_real-time_kernel.soft hard real-time kernel s.ha.r.k acronym stands soft hard real-time kernel completely configurable kernel architecture designed supporting hard soft non real-time applications interchangeable scheduling algorithms kernel architecture main benefit application developed independently particular system configuration allows new modules added replaced application specific scheduling policies evaluated predictability overhead performance s.ha.r.k developed retis lab research facility sant'anna school advanced studies university pavia tool teaching testing developing real-time software systems used teaching many universities including sant'anna school advanced studies malardalens university sweden unlike kernels traditional operating systems s.ha.r.k fully modular terms scheduling policies aperiodic servers concurrency control protocols modularity achieved partitioning system activities generic kernel set modules registered initialization configure kernel according specific application requirements s.ha.r.k evolution hartik kernel based oslib project I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,457	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: softvol.softvol softvol advanced linux sound architecture alsa plugin adds software based volume control alsa audio mixer alsamixer helpful sound card hardware volume control softvol plugin built alsa require separate installation another use case softvol hardware volume control unable amplify sound beyond certain threshold thus renders audio file quiet case software amplifiers created order boost volume level price sacrificing quality many modern software pieces able play audio files alsa sound system -independent softvol controls 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: alsamixer.alsamixer alsamixer graphical mixer program advanced linux sound architecture alsa used configure sound settings adjust volume ncurses user interface require x window system supports multiple sound cards multiple devices top-left corner alsamixer area show basic information card name mixer chip name current view mode currently selected mixer item mixer item switched displayed name volume bars located basic information area scroll left/right controls put single screen name control shown bottom volume bars currently selected item drawn red and/or emphasized mixer control volume capability shows box current volume filled box volume percentages displayed volume bar left right channels mono control one value shown mixer control turned mute appears volume bar turned green appears instead toggle switch via key mixer control capture capability capture flag appears volume bar capture turned -- -- -- shown capture red appears capture switch turned addition l r letters appear left right side indicate left right channels turned controls enumeration list n't show boxes texts indicate currently active item change item via up/down keys alsamixer three view modes playback capture playback view controls related playback shown similarly controls capture recording shown capture view view mode shows controls current view mode displayed top-left position together mixer name etc default view mode playback view changed via -v option also view mode switched via keyboard commands alsamixer comes tui started different keys used configure sound cards tui recognizes following keyboard commands configure available soundcards commands shown upper case also given lower case reminded keystrokes hit key press open list available sound cards precise list cards advanced linux sound architecture alsa device driver successfully loaded either boot-up per codice_1 command command codice_2 print list currently loaded device drivers arrow keys used select channel device depending preferred terminology also use n next p previous keys control volume currently selected device also use purpose left right signals affected control independently use increase decrease volume left channel increases volume right channel decreases function keys used change view modes switch help mode proc info mode via f1 f2 keys respectively terminals ca n't use function keys like gnome terminal keys used alternatively help proc modes keys used switch playback capture view mode respectively tab key toggles current view mode circularly quit program alt+q hitting esc key please note might need hit esc twice terminals since regarded prefix key I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,293	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: nintendo_3ds_system_software.nintendo 3ds system software nintendo 3ds system software set updatable firmware versions software frontend nintendo 3ds family video game consoles updates downloaded via system internet connection allow nintendo add remove features software updates also include changes previous updates home menu graphical shell similar nintendo dsi menu wii u menu nintendo 3ds nintendo 2ds systems used launch software stored nintendo ds nintendo 3ds game cards applications installed sd card dsiware titles installed system ’ internal memory application icons set grid navigable touchscreen d-pad may re-arranged via drag-and-drop amount icons per column also changed 1 icon 6 menu display 120 application tiles upper screen special 3d animated logo displayed individual app well system information wireless signal strength date time battery life bottom screen application icons displayed also possible change screen brightness menu using home button users suspend current software running bring home menu allowing user launch certain multitasking applications internet browser miiverse similarly nintendo dsi menu upgradeable firmware game cards also hot-swapped menu power button prompts user either put console sleep mode shut april 25 2012 system update brought introduction folder system 60 folders created applications dragged top folder order move apps added folder using procedure 60 apps per folder title folder automatically created order creation 1 60 name also edited user first character title displayed folder icon apps inside folders receive streetpass spotpass notifications notification icon appear top folder june 20 2013 system update brought introduction save data backup feature feature allows user back save data downloadable nintendo 3ds software virtual console games creating backup save data allows users delete software sd card without losing save data backup created automatically restored user re-downloads software nintendo eshop total 30 save data backups stored time possible back save data retail versions nintendo 3ds software dsiware game boy advance software october 6 2014 9.0 system update brought revamp entire home menu exception multitasking applications also adding support themes allowing users customize home menu theme adds new backgrounds changes folder icons background music sound effects match theme new application called nintendo badge arcade released december 2014 japan november 2015 america europe allows yet customizing menu using badges pay-to-play crane game badges accessed/used via additional menu within home menu installed upon loading game placed removed like normal software icons/folders badges act shortcuts access specific pre-installed applications streetpass mii plaza nintendo 3ds camera built-in photo video recorder integrated media gallery photo editing functionality app uses system ’ two front-facing cameras take 3-d photos user-facing camera take regular 2-d photos photographs taken resolution 640 × 480 px vga 0.3 megapixels addition manual recording controls timers set take photo three ten seconds pressing take button means voice commands saying ok wishing take photo sd cards hold 3,000 photos photo data size vary number may reduced two may decrease various options filters available taking photos recording video addition normal mode low-light option useful taking photos recording video dark lighting conditions options include manual controls color type normal black white sepia negative solarize sharpness contrast brightness real-time photo filters also available including sparkle adds moving stars photo dream adds dream-like bright light photo pinhole lightens center screen darkens edges mystery adds random finish photo also special mode called merge takes photo user facing inner camera merges photo someone facing outer cameras december 7 2011 system update added ability record 3-d video along three special recording options interval shot allows sequences images recorded short-timed intervals create time-lapse photography frame pick edits still images together create stop motion animation montage lets user pause resume recording seamlessly videos recorded 10 minutes sd card ’ enough space available shooting time reduced however recording modes allow single video ten minutes long despite advanced predecessor software fewer features predecessor nintendo dsi camera even ’ enough free space sd card hold maximum combined total 3,000 photos videos nintendo 3ds sound built-in music player sound recorder supported audio codecs include mp3 audio .mp3 filename extensions aac audio .mp4 .m4a .3gp filename extensions audio files played sd card visualizations displayed upper screen music played console sleep mode using system ’ headphone jack using headphones included mic button button toggle play/pause skip next previous track set sound manipulation options available well several audio filters ten-second voice recordings also recorded edited audio filters manipulated modulation playback speed users may save modify 18 console ’ memory 180 sd card used throughout applications swapnote ’ streetpass function built-into app user streetpass ’ someone also streetpass enabled users exchange song data song ’ name artist album release year many times ’ played also compatibility chart users involved depending amount matching songs users score displayed ranging 0 100 latter compatible despite advanced predecessor software features fewer filters themes predecessor nintendo dsi sound nintendo 3ds uses friend code system much like original wii connect network exception one code necessary console makes much easier flexible players interact internet regardless nintendo network services require nintendo network id account order accessed nintendo eshop miiverse account shared wii u nintendo switch nintendo network administration team moderators staff remove inappropriate content services miiverse streetpass close proximity data exchange functionality allows game content exchanged nintendo 3ds systems using console background connectivity sleep mode nintendo 3ds automatically discover nintendo 3ds systems within range establish connection exchange content mutually played games transparently without requiring user input example user passes someone software initiate battle collect trophies application streetpass content stored one twelve data slots console using data slot nintendo 3ds users readily share exchange content multiple games time whenever connected regardless game card currently console spotpass always background network connectivity system automatically seek connect wireless network nodes wi-fi hotspots sending downloading information background sleep mode playing game spotpass also makes uses certified hotspots partners north america cloud united kingdom users able connect hotspots automatically free charge content downloaded via spotpass include full game application downloads firmware updates patches specific in-game content customized fit user preferences including opting altogether selected software application similar e-book reader considered use functionality automatically acquire magazine newspaper articles august 5 2013 system update introduced new feature called streetpass relay feature allows users exchange streetpass data passing certified nintendo zone hotspot last nintendo 3ds user pass hotspot streetpass enabled united states 29,000 street pass relay points europe set see approximately 30,000 day later feature also became available japan date streetpass relay points updated north america europe allow six users stored exchange instead one streetpass mii plaza streetpass application comes pre-installed every nintendo 3ds system players meet players miis streetpass online nintendo network interact application player mii customized hats earned mini games along short customizable message information new mii characters encountered system appear plaza gate player use play various mini games encountering mii characters meeting mii characters multiple times adds extra functionality personalized messages ability rate application comes three minigames minigames purchased optionally nintendo zone viewer built-in application detects makes use certified spotpass hotspots hotspot detected notification would appear system home menu application users could see game trailers game screenshots download game demos view information current upcoming nintendo 3ds titles player leaves hotspot app remains nintendo 3ds system although content accessed nintendo 3ds firmware run four different modes native_firm native running firmware nintendo 3ds software including home menu safe_mode_firm used safe mode applications system settings system updater twl_firm nintendo dsi native firmware used nintendo ds/dsi backward compatibility finally agb_firm game boy advance native firmware used run game boy advance virtual console games native_firm different new nintendo 3ds nomenclature firmware version shown 3ds system settings divided three parts first three numbers separated periods represent firmware version without eshop features one stored retail cartridges number dash represents improvements related eshop obtained via online update finally letter end represents region console possible letters china c europe australia e japan j south korea k taiwan americas u six regions exclusive firmware releases gaming platforms nintendo gaming platforms generation gaming platforms seventh generation 1-hop neighbor's text information: xenix.xenix xenix discontinued version unix operating system various microcomputer platforms licensed microsoft corporation late 1970s santa cruz operation sco later acquired exclusive rights software eventually replaced sco unix known sco openserver mid-to-late 1980s xenix common unix variant measured according number machines installed microsoft chairman bill gates said 1996 long time microsoft highest-volume unix license bell labs developer unix part regulated bell system could sell unix directly end customers instead licensed software others microsoft expected unix would operating system future personal computers became powerful enough purchased license version 7 unix 1978 announced august 25 1980 would make available 16-bit microcomputer market microsoft able license unix name company gave original name microsoft called xenix universal operating environment sell xenix directly end users licensed software oems ibm intel management systems development tandy altos sco siemens sinix ported proprietary computer architectures 1981 microsoft said first version xenix close original unix version 7 source pdp-11 later versions incorporate fixes improvements company stated intended port operating system zilog z8000 series digital lsi-11 intel 8086 80286 motorola 68000 possibly numerous processors provide microsoft full line system software products including basic languages first port z8001 16-bit processor first customer ship january 1981 central data corporation illinois followed march 1981 paradyne corporation z8001 product first 8086 port altos computer systems non-pc-compatible 8600-series computers first customer ship date q1 1982 intel sold complete computers xenix intel system 86 brand specific models 86/330 86/380x also offered individual boards made computers isbc brand included processor boards like isbc 86/12 also mmu boards isbc 309 first intel xenix systems shipped july 1982 tandy doubled xenix installed base made trs-xenix default operating system trs-80 model 16 68000-based computer early 1983 largest unix vendor 1984 seattle computer products also made pc-incompatible 8086 computers bundled xenix like gazelle ii used s-100 bus available late 1983 early 1984 also port ibm system 9000 sco initially worked pdp-11 port v7 called dynix struck agreement microsoft joint development technology exchange xenix 1982 1984 port 68000-based apple lisa 2 jointly developed sco microsoft first shrink-wrapped binary product sold sco 1983 oem directory microsoft said difficulty porting various 8086 z8000-based machines lack standardized memory management unit protection facilities hardware manufacturers compensated designing hardware ensuing complexity made extremely difficult impossible small manufacturer develop computer capable supporting system xenix scratch xenix kernel must custom-tailored new hardware environment generally available port unmapped intel 8086/8088 architecture done santa cruz operation around 1983 sco xenix pc xt shipped sometime 1984 contained enhancement 4.2bsd also supported micnet local area networking later 286 version xenix leveraged integrated mmu present chip running 286 protected mode 286 xenix accompanied new hardware xenix oems example sperry pc/it ibm pc clone advertised capable supporting eight simultaneous dumb terminal users version xenix 2.0 still based version 7 unix version 3.0 upgraded unix system iii code base 1984 intel manual xenix 286 noted xenix kernel 10,000 lines time followed system v.2 codebase xenix 5.0 a.k.a xenix system v microsoft hopes xenix become preferred choice software production exchange company stated 1981 microsoft referred ms-dos single-user single-tasking operating system advised customers wanted multiuser multitasking support buy xenix planned time improve ms-dos would almost indistinguishable single-user xenix xedos would also run 68000 z8000 lsi-11 would upwardly compatible xenix byte 1983 described multi-user ms-dos future microsoft chris larson described ms-dos 2.0 xenix compatibility second important feature company advertised dos xenix together listing shared features single-user os multi-user multi-tasking unix-derived operating system promising easy porting started selling system v however breakup bell system microsoft believing could compete unix developer decided abandon xenix decision immediately transparent led term vaporware agreed ibm develop os/2 xenix team together best ms-dos developers assigned project 1987 microsoft transferred ownership xenix sco agreement left microsoft owning slightly less 20 sco amount prevented companies disclose exact amount event sco ipo microsoft eventually lost interest os/2 well company based high-end strategy windows nt 1987 sco ported xenix 386 processor 32-bit chip securing knowledge microsoft insiders microsoft longer developing xenix xenix system v release 2.3.1 introduced support i386 scsi tcp/ip sco xenix system v/386 first 32-bit operating system available market x86 cpu architecture microsoft continued use xenix internally submitting patch support functionality unix 1987 trickled code base xenix sco unix microsoft said used xenix sun workstations vax minicomputers extensively within company late 1988 internal microsoft email transport done xenix-based 68000 systems 1995–1996 company moved exchange server product sco released sco unix higher-end product based system v.3 offering number technical advances xenix xenix remained product line meantime sun microsystems completed merge xenix bsd sunos system v.3 system v release 4 last version sco xenix/386 system v.2.3.4 released 1991 aside unix base xenix incorporated elements bsd notably vi text editor supporting libraries termcap curses kernel featured original extensions microsoft notably file locking semaphores userland microsoft added visual shell menu-driven operation instead traditional unix shell limited form local networking serial lines rs-232 ports possible micnet software supported file transfer electronic mail although uucp still used networking via modems oems often added modifications xenix system trusted xenix variant initially developed ibm name secure xenix later versions trusted xenix name developed trusted information systems incorporated bell-lapadula model multilevel security multilevel secure interface stu-iii secure communications device stu-iii connection would made available applications running privilege level key loaded stu-iii evaluated formal methods achieved b2 security rating dod trusted computer system evaluation criteria—the second highest rating ever achieved evaluated operating system version 2.0 released january 1991 version 3.0 april 1992 version 4.0 september 1993 still use late 1995 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: xbox_360_system_software.xbox 360 system software xbox 360 system software xbox 360 dashboard updateable software operating system xbox 360 formerly resided 16 mb file system however starting nxe update storage became requirement rectified either hard drive installed one later revisions console adequate flash storage embedded within console system software access maximum 32 mb system memory otherwise known random access memory updates downloaded xbox live service directly xbox 360 subsequently installed microsoft also provided ability download system software updates respective official xbox website pcs storage media update installed system xbox 360 game system allows users download applications add functionality dashboard apps required user signed valid xbox live gold account order use features advertised given app 2.0.16756.0 update apps require xbox live gold subscription access although app may subscription able use exception early apps microsoft added partners develop apps xbox 360 system since new xbox experience nxe dashboard update 2008 following success xbox one preview program launched 2014 march 2015 microsoft announced xbox 360 preview program public microsoft released xbox 360 console november 22 2005 whole year earlier sony playstation 3 nintendo wii advantage lead microsoft able experiment various customization options consumer ’ individual consoles ability customize way console looked various themes fit front sides something different home console users system xbox 360 dashboard ability multiple profiles password console user able customize dashboard exactly fit unique style premium themes available purchase xbox live marketplace apart default styles originally five tabs sections known blades xbox 360 menu namely marketplace xbox live games media system scrolling left right section would different-colored background signifying unique area users also option change sections one background color well 2008 however gaming scene changed dramatically competitions playstation 3 wii new xbox dashboard titled new xbox experience nxe launched features major changes user interface functionalities new user interface navigation system similar windows media center contained new pop-up/in-game live guide using redesigned version blades interface tabbed interface featured five blades also users able create personalized avatars essentially mini characters furthermore selecting avatar required xbox live service two years later microsoft launched new dashboard set release microsoft kinect adding fresh new user interface touch silver late 2011 system update came complete new user interface metro-style design inspired windows phone many enhancements included update pushed system modernized interface improved features pushed envelope social gaming media xbox 360 console primarily designed play games like video game consoles used media player similar playstation 3 sony xbox 360 media center capabilities built relatively easy set xbox 360 users also copy videos directly hard drive play via usb stick two ways watch videos xbox 360 first download videos xbox live marketplace videos available free others paid microsoft control videos available xbox live marketplace second stream videos windows media center pc using xbox 360 media center extender way users control videos want watch however restrictions kind video playback specifically supports playback dvr-ms mpeg-1 mpeg-2 wmv videos every xbox 360 play dvd movies box using built-in dvd drive additional parts necessary although user may control everything optional remote improvements experience xbox 360 original xbox including ability upscale image look better progressive scan another feature dvd output xbox 360 produces smoother output playing movies televisions support high definition although using dedicated dvd player would offer even features sound quality xbox 360 system software includes built software emulation support original xbox game system software emulation achieved downloadable emulation profiles require hard drive original xbox games supported last reported update compatibility list 2007 support since discontinued adding new titles 400 titles list covers big name titles requirement backwards compatibility users hard drive xbox 360 specifically official microsoft-brand xbox 360 hard drive contrast xbox 360 successor xbox one console backward compatible launch applying november 2015 new xbox one experience system update also supports select group xbox 360 games using software emulator similar xbox 360 backward compatibility feature however also notable differences ways emulations—unlike xbox 360 emulation original xbox xbox one emulation xbox 360 games specifically patched instead need repackaged xbox one format starting nxe dashboard november 2008 larry hryb known xbox live major nelson team members hosted new segment using microsoft connect allow members xbox live community get chance preview next dashboard small bug fixes minor improvements included preview program limited major releases nxe kinect metro released november years 2009 preview program returned august rather november summer update preview program incentive enrollment started either march/april august/september depending major dashboard release planned applicants notified later 2 weeks enrollment date new preview program dashboard launching consoles early 24 hours acceptance preview program invitation users invited friends using invite friends page xbox preview dashboard app friends already program xbox preview dashboard app place preview participants give feedback program get latest news change console enrollment settings report problems users decide n't want get preview updates anymore opt xbox preview dashboard app details preview program located xbox official website first version xbox 360 system software 2.0.1888.0 released november 22 2005 shipped original xbox 360 consoles although version numbered 2.0 available product launch course next years saw continuous updates system software early updates version 2.0.4532.0 released october 31 2006 added supports 1080p video output external hd dvd drive attachment version 2.0.7357.0 released november 19 2008 first major upgrade system software titled new xbox experience added many new features including completely redesigned gui included changes menu system featuring 3d style vibe options sections new sound effects menus notification sounds remain support 1440×900 1680×1050 16:10 resolutions letterboxed vga hdmi using dvi well abilities preview themes setting disable notifications new messages chat requests etc mute notification sound change qwerty keyboard place alphabetical keyboard subsequent system software updates major upgrade continued add although usually numerically smaller new features make changes including bugfixes example new features introduced version 2.0.8498.0 released august 11 2009 addition display discovery allow console override factory settings hdtv resolutions refresh rates well discovering best possible resolution refresh rates hdtv capable displaying selected hdtvs version 2.0.12611.0 released november 1 2010 also added features ability install game updates hdd select games visual refresh incorporate elements microsoft metro design style also featured new boot screen animation redesigned xbox 360 orb ribbons new anti-piracy 2.5 scheme newly released games also added version later updated anti-piracy 2.6 version 2.0.13599.0 released july 19 2011 version 2.0.14699.0 released december 6 2011 introduced redesigned interface fresh new take platform half decade changes enhancements releases version 2.0.16197.0 released october 16 2012 typically minor usually bugfixes mandatory update prepared subsequent growth service system software still constantly updated gaming platforms next generation gaming platforms generation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,148	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: php.php php hypertext preprocessor simply php general-purpose programming language originally designed web development originally created rasmus lerdorf 1994 php reference implementation produced php group php originally stood personal home page stands recursive initialism php hypertext preprocessor php code may executed command line interface cli embedded html code used combination various web template systems web content management systems web frameworks php code usually processed php interpreter implemented module web server common gateway interface cgi executable web server outputs results interpreted executed php code may type data generated html code binary image data php used many programming tasks outside web context standalone graphical applications robotic drone control standard php interpreter powered zend engine free software released php license php widely ported deployed web servers almost every operating system platform free charge php language evolved without written formal specification standard 2014 original implementation acting de facto standard implementations aimed follow since 2014 work gone create formal php specification majority sites web using php still version 5.6 older versions prior 7.1 longer officially supported php development team security support provided longer third parties debian php development began 1994 rasmus lerdorf wrote several common gateway interface cgi programs c used maintain personal homepage extended work web forms communicate databases called implementation personal home page/forms interpreter php/fi php/fi could used build simple dynamic web applications accelerate bug reporting improve code lerdorf initially announced release php/fi personal home page tools php tools version 1.0 usenet discussion group comp.infosystems.www.authoring.cgi june 8 1995 release already basic functionality php today included perl-like variables form handling ability embed html syntax resembled perl simpler limited less consistent early php intended new programming language grew organically lerdorf noting retrospect n't know stop never intent write programming language ... absolutely idea write programming language kept adding next logical step way development team began form months work beta testing officially released php/fi 2 november 1997 fact php originally designed instead developed organically led inconsistent naming functions inconsistent ordering parameters cases function names chosen match lower-level libraries php wrapping early versions php length function names used internally hash function names chosen improve distribution hash values zeev suraski andi gutmans rewrote parser 1997 formed base php 3 changing language name recursive acronym php hypertext preprocessor afterwards public testing php 3 began official launch came june 1998 suraski gutmans started new rewrite php core producing zend engine 1999 also founded zend technologies ramat gan israel may 22 2000 php 4 powered zend engine 1.0 released august 2008 branch reached version 4.4.9 php 4 longer development security updates released july 14 2004 php 5 released powered new zend engine ii php 5 included new features improved support object-oriented programming php data objects pdo extension defines lightweight consistent interface accessing databases numerous performance enhancements 2008 php 5 became stable version development late static binding missing php added version 5.3 many high-profile open-source projects ceased support php 4 new code february 5 2008 gophp5 initiative provided consortium php developers promoting transition php 4 php 5 time php interpreters became available existing 32-bit 64-bit operating systems either building php source code using pre-built binaries php versions 5.3 5.4 available microsoft windows binary distributions 32-bit ia-32 builds requiring windows 32-bit compatibility mode using internet information services iis 64-bit windows platform php version 5.5 made 64-bit x86-64 builds available microsoft windows official security support php 5.6 ended 31 december 2018 debian 8.0 jessie extend support june 2020 php received mixed reviews due lacking native unicode support core language level 2005 project headed andrei zmievski initiated bring native unicode support throughout php embedding international components unicode icu library representing text strings utf-16 internally since would cause major changes internals language user code planned release version 6.0 language along major features development however shortage developers understood necessary changes performance problems arising conversion utf-16 rarely used web context led delays project result php 5.3 release created 2009 many non-unicode features back-ported php 6 notably namespaces march 2010 project current form officially abandoned php 5.4 release prepared containing remaining non-unicode features php 6 traits closure re-binding initial hopes new plan would formed unicode integration none adopted 2014 2015 new major php version developed numbered php 7 numbering version involved debate php 6 unicode experiment never released several articles book titles referenced php 6 name might caused confusion new release reuse name vote name php 7 chosen foundation php 7 php branch originally dubbed php next generation phpng authored dmitry stogov xinchen hui nikita popov aimed optimize php performance refactoring zend engine retaining near-complete language compatibility wordpress-based benchmarks served main benchmark suite phpng project showed almost 100 increase performance changes phpng also expected make easier improve performance future compact data structures changes seen better suited successful migration just-in-time jit compiler significant changes reworked zend engine called zend engine 3 succeeding zend engine 2 used php 5 major internal changes phpng must receive new major version number php rather minor php 5 release according php release process major versions php allowed break backward-compatibility code therefore php 7 presented opportunity improvements beyond phpng require backward-compatibility breaks particular involved following changes php 7 also included new language features notably introduces return type declarations functions complement existing parameter type declarations support scalar types integer float string boolean parameter return type declarations beginning june 28 2011 php development team implemented timeline release new versions php system least one release occur every month per year minor release occur may include new features every minor release least supported two years security bug fixes followed least one year security fixes total three-year release process every minor release new features unless small self-contained introduced minor release three-year release process mascot php project elephpant blue elephant php logo side designed vincent pontier 1998 php letters forming shape elephant viewed sideways angle elephpant sometimes differently colored plush toy form many variations mascot made years elephpants based original design vincent pontier considered official community highly collectible extremely rare different variations listed field guide elephpants following hello world program written php code embedded html document doctype html title php hello world program /title php echo p hello world /p however requirement exists php code embedded html simplest version hello world may written like closing tag omitted preferred files containing pure php code well requirement php file contain php code interpreter output data outside php tags unchanged simple text file containing codice_13 give output php interpreter executes php code within delimiters anything outside delimiters processed php although non-php text still subject control structures described php code common delimiters php open close php sections shortened form also exists short delimiter makes script files less portable since support disabled local php configuration therefore discouraged recommendation echo short tag prior php 5.4.0 short syntax echo works codice_14 configuration setting enabled php 5.4.0 later always available purpose delimiters separate php code non-php content javascript code html markup first form delimiters php xhtml xml documents creates correctly formed xml processing instructions means resulting mixture php code markup server-side file well-formed xml variables prefixed dollar symbol type need specified advance php 5 introduced type hinting allows functions force parameters objects specific class arrays interfaces callback functions however php 7.0 type hints could used scalar types integer string unlike function class names variable names case sensitive double-quoted heredoc strings provide ability interpolate variable value string php treats newlines whitespace manner free-form language statements terminated semicolon php three types comment syntax /* */ marks block inline comments // used one-line comments codice_15 statement one several facilities php provides output text terms keywords language syntax php similar c style syntax conditions loops function returns similar syntax languages c c++ c java perl php stores integers platform-dependent range either 64-bit 32-bit 128-bit signed integer equivalent c-language long type unsigned integers converted signed values certain situations behavior different programming languages integer variables assigned using decimal positive negative octal hexadecimal binary notations floating point numbers also stored platform-specific range specified using floating point notation two forms scientific notation php native boolean type similar native boolean types java c++ using boolean type conversion rules non-zero values interpreted true zero false perl c++ null data type represents variable value codice_16 allowed value data type old versions interpreter allowed multiple copies value exist variables resource type represent references resources external sources typically created functions particular extension processed functions extension examples include file image database resources arrays contain elements type php handle including resources objects even arrays order preserved lists values hashes keys values two intermingled php also supports strings used single quotes double quotes nowdoc heredoc syntax standard php library spl attempts solve standard problems implements efficient data access interfaces classes php defines large array functions core language many also available various extensions functions well documented online php documentation however built-in library wide variety naming conventions associated inconsistencies described history custom functions may defined developer function myage int birthyear string echo currently myage 1995 old 2019 output sample program currently 24 years old lieu function pointers functions php referenced string containing name manner normal php functions used example callbacks within function tables user-defined functions may created time without prototyped functions may defined inside code blocks permitting run-time decision whether function defined codice_17 function determines whether function given name already defined function calls must use parentheses exception zero-argument class constructor functions called php operator codice_18 case parentheses optional php 5.3 support anonymous functions closures exist php codice_19 exists since php 4.0.1 merely thin wrapper around codice_20 allows normal php functions created program execution php 5.3 added syntax define anonymous function closure capture variables surrounding scope function getadder x adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 example codice_21 function creates closure using passed argument keyword codice_22 imports variable lexical context takes additional argument returns created closure caller function first-class object meaning stored variable passed parameter functions etc unusually dynamically typed language php supports type declarations function parameters enforced runtime supported classes interfaces since php 5.0 arrays since php 5.1 callables since php 5.4 scalar integer float string boolean types since php 7.0 php 7.0 also type declarations function return types expressed placing type name list parameters preceded colon example codice_23 function earlier example could annotated types like php 7 function getadder int x closure adder getadder 8 echo adder 2 // prints 10 echo adder null // throws exception incorrect type passed adder getadder // would also throw exception default scalar type declarations follow weak typing principles example parameter type codice_24 php would allow integers also convertible numeric strings floats booleans passed function would convert however php 7 strict typing mode used disallows conversions function calls returns within file basic object-oriented programming functionality added php 3 improved php 4 allowed php gain abstraction making creative tasks easier programmers using language object handling completely rewritten php 5 expanding feature set enhancing performance previous versions php objects handled like value types drawback method code make heavy use php reference variables wanted modify object passed rather creating copy new approach objects referenced handle value php 5 introduced private protected member variables methods along abstract classes final classes abstract methods final methods also introduced standard way declaring constructors destructors similar object-oriented languages c++ standard exception handling model furthermore php 5 added interfaces allowed multiple interfaces implemented special interfaces allow objects interact runtime system objects implementing arrayaccess used array syntax objects implementing iterator iteratoraggregate used codice_6 language construct virtual table feature engine static variables bound name instead reference compile time developer creates copy object using reserved word codice_26 zend engine check whether codice_27 method defined call default codice_27 copy object properties codice_27 method defined responsible setting necessary properties created object convenience engine supply function imports properties source object programmer start by-value replica source object override properties need changed following basic example object-oriented programming php php abstract class user class student extends user class teacher extends user students teachers echo students \n foreach students student echo teachers \n foreach teachers teacher // output program // students // hello name alice learn computer science // hello name bob learn computer science // hello name charlie learn business studies // teachers // hello name dan teach computer science information security // hello name erin teach computer science 3d graphics programming // hello name frankie teach online marketing business studies e-commerce visibility php properties methods defined using keywords codice_30 codice_31 codice_32 default public var used codice_33 synonym codice_30 items declared codice_30 accessed everywhere codice_32 limits access inherited classes class defines item codice_31 limits visibility class defines item objects type access private protected members even though instance original complete widely used php implementation powered zend engine known simply php disambiguate implementations sometimes unofficially called zend php zend engine compiles php source code on-the-fly internal format execute thus works interpreter also reference implementation php php formal specification semantics zend php define semantics php due complex nuanced semantics php defined zend works difficult competing implementations offer complete compatibility php single-request-per-script-execution model fact zend engine interpreter leads inefficiency result various products developed help improve php performance order speed execution time compile php source code every time web page accessed php scripts also deployed php engine internal format using opcode cache works caching compiled form php script opcodes shared memory avoid overhead parsing compiling code every time script runs opcode cache zend opcache built php since version 5.5 another example widely used opcode cache alternative php cache apc available pecl extension zend php still popular implementation several implementations developed compilers support jit compilation hence offer performance benefits zend php expense lacking full php compatibility alternative implementations include following php free software released php license stipulates restriction use php makes php license incompatible general public license gpl zend license incompatible due advertising clause similar original bsd license php includes various free open-source libraries source distribution uses resulting php binary builds php fundamentally internet-aware system built-in modules accessing file transfer protocol ftp servers many database servers including postgresql mysql microsoft sql server sqlite embedded database ldap servers others numerous functions familiar c programmers stdio family available standard php builds php allows developers write extensions c add functionality php language php extensions compiled statically php loaded dynamically runtime numerous extensions written add support windows api process management unix-like operating systems multibyte strings unicode curl several popular compression formats php features made available extensions include integration irc dynamic generation images adobe flash content php data objects pdo abstraction layer used accessing databases even speech synthesis language core functions dealing strings arrays also implemented extensions php extension community library pecl project repository extensions php language projects zephir provide ability php extensions created high-level language compiled native php extensions approach instead writing php extensions directly c simplifies development extensions reduces time required programming testing php group consisted ten people thies c. arntzen stig bakken shane caraveo andi gutmans rasmus lerdorf sam ruby sascha schumann zeev suraski jim winstead andrei zmievski zend technologies provides php certification based php 5.5 exam programmers become certified php developers two primary ways adding support php web server – native web server module cgi executable php direct module interface called server application programming interface sapi supported many web servers including apache http server microsoft iis netscape defunct iplanet web servers omnihttpd support internet server application programming interface isapi microsoft web server module interface php module support web server always used common gateway interface cgi fastcgi processor case web server configured use php cgi executable process requests php files php-fpm fastcgi process manager alternative fastcgi implementation php bundled official php distribution since version 5.3.3 compared older fastcgi implementation contains additional features mostly useful heavily loaded web servers using php command-line scripting php command-line interface cli executable needed php supports cli server application programming interface sapi php 4.3.0 main focus sapi developing shell applications using php quite differences cli sapi sapis although share many behaviors php direct module interface called sapi different web servers case php 5 apache 2.0 windows provided form dll file called module among functions provides interface php web server implemented form server understands form known sapi different kinds sapis various web server extensions example addition listed sapis php language include common gateway interface cgi command-line interface cli php also used writing desktop graphical user interface gui applications using php-gtk extension php-gtk included official php distribution extension used php versions 5.1.0 newer common way installing php-gtk compiling source code php installed used cloud environments software development kits sdks provided using cloud-specific features example numerous configuration options supported affecting core php features extensions configuration file codice_40 searched different locations depending way php used configuration file split various sections configuration options also set within web server configuration php general-purpose scripting language especially suited server-side web development case php generally runs web server php code requested file executed php runtime usually create dynamic web page content dynamic images used websites elsewhere also used command-line scripting client-side graphical user interface gui applications php deployed web servers many operating systems platforms used many relational database management systems rdbms web hosting providers support php use clients available free charge php group provides complete source code users build customize extend use originally designed create dynamic web pages php focuses mainly server-side scripting similar server-side scripting languages provide dynamic content web server client microsoft asp.net sun microsystems javaserver pages codice_41 php also attracted development many software frameworks provide building blocks design structure promote rapid application development rad include prado cakephp symfony codeigniter laravel yii framework phalcon zend framework offering features similar web frameworks lamp architecture become popular web industry way deploying web applications php commonly used p bundle alongside linux apache mysql although p may also refer python perl mix three similar packages wamp mamp also available windows macos first letter standing respective operating system although php apache provided part macos base install users packages seek simpler installation mechanism easily kept date 20 million internet domains web services hosted servers php installed codice_42 recorded popular apache http server module php used server-side programming language 79.1 websites 83.5 previously language could determined web content management systems written php include mediawiki joomla ez publish ez platform silverstripe wordpress drupal moodle websites written php back-end and/or user-facing portion include facebook digg tumblr dailymotion slack specific advanced usage scenarios php offers well defined documented way writing custom extensions c c++ besides extending language form additional libraries extensions providing way improving execution speed critical room improvements using true compiled language php also offers well defined ways embedding software projects way php easily used internal scripting language another project also providing tight interfacing project specific internal data structures php received mixed reviews due lacking support multithreading core language level though using threads made possible pthreads pecl extension php used 240 million websites 39 sampled installed 2.1 million web servers command line interface php-cli two activex windows script host scripting engines php produced php 5 used web last updated security updates january 2019 php 5.6.40 2017 3 vulnerabilities listed national vulnerability database linked php historically 30 vulnerabilities listed since 1996 database linked php technical security flaws language core libraries frequent 22 2009 1 total although php applies 20 programs listed recognizing programmers make mistakes languages include taint checking automatically detect lack input validation induces many issues feature developed php inclusion release rejected several times past advanced protection patches suhosin hardening-patch especially designed web hosting environments historically old versions php configuration parameters default values runtime settings made php applications prone security issues among codice_43 codice_44 configuration directives best known latter made url parameters become php variables opening path serious security vulnerabilities allowing attacker set value uninitialized global variable interfere execution php script support magic quotes register globals settings deprecated php 5.3.0 removed php 5.4.0 another example potential runtime-settings vulnerability comes failing disable php execution example using codice_45 configuration directive directory uploaded files stored enabling result execution malicious code embedded within uploaded files best practice either locate image directory outside document root available web server serve via intermediary script disable php execution directory stores uploaded files also enabling dynamic loading php extensions via codice_46 configuration directive shared web hosting environment lead security issues implied type conversions result different values treated equal sometimes programmer intent lead security issues example result comparison codice_47 first compared value treated scientific notation value zero errors like resulted authentication vulnerabilities simple machines forum typo3 phpbb md5 password hashes compared recommended way use hash_equals timing attack safety codice_48 identity operator codice_49 results codice_50 2013 analysis 170,000 website defacements published zone-h frequently 53 used technique exploitation file inclusion vulnerability mostly related insecure usage php functions codice_51 codice_52 codice_53 1-hop neighbor's text information: ruby_(programming_language).ruby programming language ruby interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language designed developed mid-1990s yukihiro matz matsumoto japan ruby dynamically typed uses garbage collection supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming according creator ruby influenced perl smalltalk eiffel ada basic lisp matsumoto said ruby conceived 1993 1999 post ruby-talk mailing list describes early ideas language matsumoto describes design ruby like simple lisp language core object system like smalltalk blocks inspired higher-order functions practical utility like perl name ruby originated online chat session matsumoto keiju ishitsuka february 24 1993 code written language initially two names proposed coral ruby matsumoto chose latter later e-mail ishitsuka matsumoto later noted factor choosing name ruby – birthstone one colleagues first public release ruby 0.95 announced japanese domestic newsgroups december 21 1995 subsequently three versions ruby released two days release coincided launch japanese-language ruby-list mailing list first mailing list new language already present stage development many features familiar later releases ruby including object-oriented design classes inheritance mixins iterators closures exception handling garbage collection following release ruby 0.95 1995 several stable versions ruby released following years 1997 first article ruby published web year matsumoto hired netlab.jp work ruby full-time developer 1998 ruby application archive launched matsumoto along simple english-language homepage ruby 1999 first english language mailing list ruby-talk began signaled growing interest language outside japan year matsumoto keiju ishitsuka wrote first book ruby object-oriented scripting language ruby オブジェクト指向スクリプト言語 ruby published japan october 1999 would followed early 2000s around 20 books ruby published japanese 2000 ruby popular python japan september 2000 first english language book programming ruby printed later freely released public widening adoption ruby amongst english speakers early 2002 english-language ruby-talk mailing list receiving messages japanese-language ruby-list demonstrating ruby increasing popularity non-japanese speaking world ruby 1.8 initially released august 2003 stable long time retired june 2013 although deprecated still code based ruby 1.8 partially compatible ruby 1.9 ruby 1.8 subject several industry standards language specifications ruby developed open standards promotion center information-technology promotion agency japanese government agency submission japanese industrial standards committee jisc international organization standardization iso accepted japanese industrial standard jis x 3017 2011 international standard iso/iec 30170 2012 around 2005 interest ruby language surged tandem ruby rails web framework written ruby rails frequently credited increasing awareness ruby ruby 1.9 released christmas day 2007 effective ruby 1.9.3 released october 31 2011 ruby switched dual-licensed ruby license gpl dual-licensed ruby license two-clause bsd license adoption 1.9 slowed changes 1.8 required many popular third party gems rewritten ruby 1.9 introduces many significant changes 1.8 series examples ruby 1.9 obsolete since february 23 2015 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.0 added several new features including ruby 2.0 intended fully backward compatible ruby 1.9.3 official 2.0.0 release february 24 2013 five known minor incompatibilities obsolete since february 22 2016 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.1.0 released christmas day 2013 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates starting 2.1.0 ruby versioning policy like semantic versioning although similar ruby versioning policy compatible semantic versioning semantic versioning also provides additional labels pre-release build metadata available extensions major.minor.patch format available ruby ruby 2.1 obsolete since april 1 2017 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.2.0 released christmas day 2014 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates removes deprecated apis notably ruby 2.2.0 introduces changes memory handling incremental garbage collector support garbage collection symbols option compile directly jemalloc also contains experimental support using vfork 2 system spawn added support unicode 7.0 specification features made obsolete removed include callcc dl library digest :hmac lib/rational.rb lib/complex.rb gserver logger :application well various c api functions ruby 2.3.0 released christmas day 2015 notable changes include 2.3 branch also includes many performance improvements updates bugfixes including changes proc call socket io use exception keywords thread name handling default passive net :ftp connections rake removed stdlib ruby 2.4.0 released christmas day 2016 notable changes include 2.4 branch also includes performance improvements hash table array max array min instance variable access ruby 2.5.0 released christmas day 2017 notable changes include top come lot performance improvements like faster block passing 3 times faster faster mutexes faster erb templates improvements concatenation methods ruby 2.6.0 released christmas day 2018 notable changes include matsumoto said ruby designed programmer productivity fun following principles good user interface design google tech talk 2008 matsumoto stated hope see ruby help every programmer world productive enjoy programming happy primary purpose ruby language stresses systems design needs emphasize human rather computer needs ruby said follow principle least astonishment pola meaning language behave way minimize confusion experienced users matsumoto said primary design goal make language enjoyed using minimizing programmer work possible confusion said applied principle least astonishment design ruby nevertheless phrase come closely associated ruby programming language phrase source surprise novice users may take mean ruby behaviors try closely match behaviors familiar languages may 2005 discussion newsgroup comp.lang.ruby matsumoto attempted distance ruby pola explaining design choice surprising someone uses personal standard evaluating surprise personal standard remains consistent would surprises familiar standard matsumoto defined way interview ruby object-oriented every value object including classes instances types many languages designate primitives integers booleans null variables always hold references objects every function method methods always called object methods defined top level scope become methods object class since class ancestor every class methods called object also visible scopes effectively serving global procedures ruby supports inheritance dynamic dispatch mixins singleton methods belonging defined single instance rather defined class though ruby support multiple inheritance classes import modules mixins ruby described multi-paradigm programming language allows procedural programming defining functions/variables outside classes makes part root 'self object object orientation everything object functional programming anonymous functions closures continuations statements values functions return last evaluation support introspection reflection metaprogramming well support interpreter-based threads ruby features dynamic typing supports parametric polymorphism according ruby faq syntax similar perl semantics similar smalltalk differs greatly python syntax ruby broadly similar perl python class method definitions signaled keywords whereas code blocks defined keywords braces contrast perl variables obligatorily prefixed sigil used sigil changes semantics scope variable practical purposes distinction expressions statements line breaks significant taken end statement semicolon may equivalently used unlike python indentation significant one differences python perl ruby keeps instance variables completely private class exposes accessor methods codice_11 codice_12 etc. unlike getter setter methods languages like c++ java accessor methods ruby created single line code via metaprogramming however accessor methods also created traditional fashion c++ java invocation methods require use parentheses trivial change instance variable full function without modifying single line calling code refactoring achieving similar functionality c vb.net property members python property descriptors similar come tradeoff development process one begins python using publicly exposed instance variable later changes implementation use private instance variable exposed property descriptor code internal class may need adjusted use private variable rather public property ruby ’ design forces instance variables private also provides simple way declare codice_13 codice_14 methods keeping idea ruby one never directly accesses internal members class outside class rather one passes message class receives response see examples section samples code demonstrating ruby syntax ruby official distribution also includes codice_15 interactive command-line interpreter used test code quickly following code fragment represents sample session using codice_15 following examples run ruby shell interactive ruby shell saved file run command line typing codice_17 classic hello world example basic ruby code input conversions variety ways define strings ruby following assignments equivalent strings support variable interpolation following assignments equivalent produce raw strings constructing using array constructing using associative array ruby called hash statement two syntaxes creating code block code block passed method optional block argument many built-in methods arguments parameter-passing block closure computer science \|closure creating anonymous function returning closure computer science \|closures method yielding flow program control block provided calling time iterating enumerations arrays using blocks method codice_18 accept parameter block codice_18 method iterates member list performing function retaining aggregate analogous codice_20 function functional programming languages example first pass block receives 10 argument inject codice_21 1 first element array codice_22 returns 11 becomes codice_21 next pass added 3 get 14 added 5 third pass finally return 19 using enumeration block square numbers 1 10 using range invoke method item codice_24 synonym codice_25 following code defines class named codice_26 addition codice_27 usual constructor create new objects two methods one override codice_28 comparison operator codice_29 sort age override codice_30 method codice_31 format output codice_12 example metaprogramming ruby codice_33 defines getter setter methods instance variables codice_12 getter methods last evaluated statement method return value allowing omission explicit codice_35 statement preceding code prints three names reverse age order codice_26 constant reference codice_37 object ruby classes never closed methods always added existing class applies classes including standard built-in classes needed open class definition existing class new contents specified added existing contents simple example adding new method standard library codice_38 class adding methods previously defined classes often called monkey patch\|monkey-patching performed recklessly practice lead behavior collisions subsequent unexpected results code scalability problems since ruby 2.0 possible use refinements reduce potentially negative consequences monkey-patching limiting scope patch particular areas code base exception raised codice_39 call optional message added exception exceptions also specified programmer alternatively exception instance passed codice_39 method last construct useful raising instance custom exception class featuring constructor takes one argument exceptions handled codice_41 clause clause catch exceptions inherit codice_42 flow control keywords used handling exceptions codice_43 codice_44 common mistake attempt catch exceptions simple rescue clause catch exceptions one must write catch particular exceptions also possible specify exception object made available handler clause alternatively recent exception stored magic global codice_45 several exceptions also caught ruby code programmatically modify run time program lifecycle phase \|runtime aspects structure would fixed rigid languages class method definitions sort metaprogramming used write concise code effectively extend language example following ruby code generates new methods built-in codice_46 class based list colors methods wrap contents string html tag styled respective color generated methods could used like implement equivalent many languages programmer would write method codice_47 codice_48 codice_49 etc separately possible uses ruby metaprogramming include original ruby interpreter computer software \|interpreter often referred ruby mri\|matz ruby interpreter mri implementation written c uses ruby-specific virtual machine standardized retired ruby 1.8 ruby mri\|implementation written c programming language \|c single-pass interpreted language starting ruby 1.9 continuing ruby 2.x official ruby interpreter yarv yet another ruby vm implementation superseded slower virtual machine used previous releases mri number alternative implementations ruby including jruby rubinius mruby takes different approach jruby rubinius providing just-in-time compilation mruby also providing ahead-of-time compilation ruby three major alternate implementations ruby implementations include defunct ruby implementations maturity ruby implementations tends measured ability run ruby rails rails framework complex implement uses many ruby-specific features point particular implementation achieves goal called rails singularity reference implementation jruby rubinius able run rails unmodified production environment matsumoto originally ruby development bsd\|4.3bsd -based sony news\|sony news-os 3.x later migrated work sunos 4.x finally linux 1999 ruby known work across many different operating system including news-os sunos aix svr4 solaris operating system \|solaris nec up-ux nextstep bsd linux classic mac os\|mac os dos windows operating system \|windows beos modern ruby versions implementations available many operating systems linux bsd solaris aix macos windows windows phone windows ce symbian os beos ibm rubygems ruby package manager ruby package called gem easily installed via command line gems libraries though exist applications integrated development environment\|ides 10,000 ruby gems hosted rubygems.org many new existing ruby libraries hosted github service offers revision control\|version control repository hosting git software \|git ruby application archive hosted applications documentation libraries ruby programming maintained 2013 function transferred rubygems category ruby programming language category articles example ruby code category class-based programming languages category dynamic programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category free software programmed c category iso standards category object-oriented programming languages category programming languages created 1995 category programming languages iso standard category scripting languages category software using bsd license category text-oriented programming languages category free compilers interpreters 1-hop neighbor's text information: finger_protocol.finger protocol computer networking name/finger protocol finger user information protocol simple network protocols exchange human-oriented status user information name/finger protocol based request comments document december 1977 interface codice_1 codice_2 programs provide status reports particular computer system particular person network sites finger program written 1971 les earnest created program solve need users wanted information users network information logged-in useful check availability person meet probably earliest form presence information remote network users prior finger program way get information codice_3 program showed ids terminal line numbers server internal number communication line user terminal connected logged-in users earnest named program idea people would run fingers codice_3 list find looking term finger 1970s connotation snitch made finger good reminder/mnemonic semantic unix codice_2 command client protocol context finger daemon runs tcp port 79 client case remote hosts open connection port 79 ruip remote user information program started remote end connection process request local host sends ruip one line query based upon finger query specification waits ruip respond ruip receives processes query returns answer initiates close connection local host receives answer close signal proceeds close end connection finger user information protocol based finger user information protocol december 1991 typically server side protocol implemented program codice_6 finger daemon client side implemented codice_1 codice_2 programs supposed return friendly human-oriented status report either system moment particular person depth required format protocol consists mostly specifying single command line program would supply information whether user currently logged-on e-mail address full name etc well standard user information finger displays contents codice_9 codice_10 files user home directory often file maintained user contains either useful information user current activities similar micro-blogging alternatively manner humor supplying detailed information e-mail addresses full names considered acceptable convenient early days networking later considered questionable privacy security reasons finger information used hackers way initiate social engineering attack company computer security system using finger client get list company employee names email addresses phone numbers hacker call email someone company requesting information posing another employee finger daemon also several exploitable security holes crackers used break systems example 1988 morris worm exploited overflow vulnerability codice_6 among others spread finger protocol also incompatible network address translation nat private network address ranges e.g 192.168.0.0/16 used majority home office workstations connect internet routers firewalls nowadays reasons finger widely used early days internet late 1990s vast majority sites internet longer offered service implemented unix unix-like systems current versions windows finger.exe command software finger support Target text information: comparison_of_software_and_protocols_for_distributed_social_networking.comparison software protocols distributed social networking distributed social network projects generally develop software protocols I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	574	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: industry_standard_architecture.industry standard architecture industry standard architecture isa 16-bit internal bus ibm pc/at similar computers based intel 80286 immediate successors 1980s bus largely backward compatible 8-bit bus 8088-based ibm pc including ibm pc/xt well ibm pc compatibles originally referred pc/at-bus also termed i/o channel ibm isa term coined retronym competing pc-clone manufacturers late 1980s early 1990s reaction ibm attempts replace at-bus new incompatible micro channel architecture 16-bit isa bus also used 32-bit processors several years attempt extend 32 bits called extended industry standard architecture eisa successful however later buses vesa local bus pci used instead often along isa slots mainboard derivatives bus structure still used ata/ide pcmcia standard compact flash pc/104 bus internally within super i/o chips isa bus developed team led mark dean ibm part ibm pc project 1981 compaq created term industry standard architecture isa replace pc compatible isa originated 8-bit system 16-bit version ibm bus introduced release ibm pc/at 1984 1988 32-bit extended industry standard architecture eisa standard proposed gang nine group pc-compatible manufacturers included compaq process retroactively renamed bus isa avoid infringing ibm trademark pc/at computer ibm designed 8-bit version buffered interface motherboard buses intel 8088 16/8 bit cpu ibm pc pc/xt 16-bit version upgrade motherboard buses intel 80286 cpu used ibm isa bus therefore synchronous cpu clock sophisticated buffering methods implemented chipsets interface isa much faster cpus isa designed connect peripheral cards motherboard allows bus mastering first 16 mb main memory addressable original 8-bit bus ran 4.77 mhz clock 8088 cpu ibm pc pc/xt original 16-bit bus ran cpu clock 80286 ibm pc/at computers 6 mhz first models 8 mhz later models ibm rt pc also used 16-bit bus isa also used non-ibm compatible machines motorola 68k-based apollo 68020 amiga 3000 68030 workstations short-lived hobbit later powerpc-based bebox companies like dell improved bus performance 1987 ibm replaced bus proprietary micro channel architecture mca mca overcame many limitations apparent isa also effort ibm regain control pc architecture pc market mca far advanced isa many features would later appear pci however mca also closed standard whereas ibm released full specifications circuit schematics isa computer manufacturers responded mca developing extended industry standard architecture eisa later vesa local bus vlb vlb used electronic parts originally intended mca component manufacturers already equipped manufacture eisa vlb backwards-compatible expansions isa bus users isa-based machines know special information hardware adding system handful devices essentially plug-n-play rare users frequently configure parameters adding new device irq line i/o address dma channel mca done away complication pci actually incorporated many ideas first explored mca though directly descended eisa trouble configuration eventually led creation isa pnp plug-n-play system used combination modifications hardware system bios operating system software automatically manage resource allocations reality isa pnp could troublesome become well-supported architecture final days pci slots first physically-incompatible expansion ports directly squeeze isa motherboard first motherboards largely isa including pci slots mid-1990s two slot types roughly balanced isa slots soon minority consumer systems microsoft pc 99 specification recommended isa slots removed entirely though system architecture still required isa present vestigial way internally handle floppy drive serial ports etc. software compatible lpc bus created isa slots remained years towards turn century common see systems accelerated graphics port agp sitting near central processing unit array pci slots one two isa slots near end late 2008 even floppy disk drives serial ports disappearing extinction vestigial isa lpc bus chipsets horizon pci slots rotated compared isa counterparts—pci cards essentially inserted upside-down allowing isa pci connectors squeeze together motherboard one two connectors used slot time allowed greater flexibility attachment ata hard disk interface directly descended 16-bit isa pc/at ata origins hardcards integrated hard disk drive hdd hard disk controller hdc onto one card best awkward worst damaging motherboard isa slots designed support heavy devices hdds next generation integrated drive electronics drives moved drive controller drive bay used ribbon cable simple interface board connect isa slot ata basically standardization arrangement plus uniform command structure software interface hdc within drive ata since separated isa bus connected directly local bus usually integration chipset much higher clock rates data throughput isa could support ata clear characteristics 16-bit isa 16-bit transfer size signal timing pio modes interrupt dma mechanisms pc/xt-bus eight-bit isa bus used intel 8086 intel 8088 systems ibm pc ibm pc xt 1980s among 62 pins demultiplexed electrically buffered versions 8 data 20 address lines 8088 processor along power lines clocks read/write strobes interrupt lines etc power lines included −5 v ±12 v order directly support pmos enhancement mode nmos circuits dynamic rams among things xt bus architecture uses single intel 8259 pic giving eight vectorized prioritized interrupt lines four dma channels originally provided intel 8237 3 dma channels brought xt bus expansion slots 2 normally already allocated machine functions diskette drive hard disk controller pc/at-bus 16-bit 80286- version pc/xt bus introduced ibm pc/at bus officially termed i/o channel ibm extends xt-bus adding second shorter edge connector in-line eight-bit xt-bus connector unchanged retaining compatibility 8-bit cards second connector adds four additional address lines total 24 8 additional data lines total 16 also adds new interrupt lines connected second 8259 pic connected one lines first 4 × 16-bit dma channels well control lines select 8- 16-bit transfers 16-bit bus slot originally used two standard edge connector sockets early ibm pc/at machines however popularity at-architecture 16-bit isa bus manufacturers introduced specialized 98-pin connectors integrated two sockets one unit found almost every at-class pc manufactured mid-1980s isa slot connector typically black distinguishing brown eisa connectors white pci connectors motherboard devices dedicated irqs present slots 16-bit devices use either pc-bus pc/at-bus irqs therefore possible connect 6 devices use one 8-bit irq 5 devices use one 16-bit irq time 4 devices may use one 8-bit dma channel 3 devices use one 16-bit dma channel originally bus clock synchronous cpu clock resulting varying bus clock frequencies among many different ibm clones market sometimes high 16 20 mhz leading software electrical timing problems certain isa cards bus speeds designed later motherboards integrated chipsets used separate clock generator clock divider either fixed isa bus frequency 4 6 8 mhz allowed user adjust frequency via bios setup used higher bus frequency isa cards certain hercules-compatible video cards instance could show significant performance improvements memory address decoding selection 8 16-bit transfer mode limited 128 kib sections leading problems mixing 8- 16-bit cards could co-exist 128 kib area memcs16 line required set based value la17-23 isa still used today specialized industrial purposes 2008 iei technologies released modern motherboard intel core 2 duo processors addition special i/o features equipped two isa slots marketed industrial military users invested expensive specialized isa bus adaptors available pci bus versions similarly adek industrial computers releasing motherboard early 2013 intel core i3/i5/i7 processors contains one non-dma isa slot pc/104 bus used industrial embedded applications derivative isa bus utilizing signal lines different connectors lpc bus replaced isa bus connection legacy i/o devices recent motherboards physically quite different lpc looks like isa software peculiarities isa 16 mib dma limit corresponds full address space intel 80286 cpu used original ibm likely stick around explained history section isa basis development ata interface used ata a.k.a ide recently serial ata sata hard disks physically ata essentially simple subset isa 16 data bits support exactly one irq one dma channel 3 address bits isa subset ata adds two ide address select chip select lines unique signal lines specific ata/ide hard disks cable select/spindle sync line addition physical interface channel ata goes beyond far outside scope isa also specifying set physical device registers implemented every ata ide drive full set protocols device commands controlling fixed disk drives using registers ata device registers accessed using address bits address select signals ata physical interface channel operations ata hard disks performed using ata-specified protocols ata command set earliest versions ata standard featured simple protocols basic command set comparable command sets mfm rll controllers preceded ata controllers latest ata standards much complex protocols instruction sets include optional commands protocols providing advanced optional-use features sizable hidden system storage areas password security locking programmable geometry translation deviation isa ata isa bus remained locked single standard clock rate backward hardware compatibility ata interface offered many different speed modes could select among match maximum speed supported attached drives kept adding faster speeds later versions ata standard 133 mb/s ata-6 latest forms ata ran much faster isa provided connected directly local bus faster isa bus 16-bit ata/ide interface 8-bit xt-ide also known xta interface hard disks nearly popular ata become xt-ide hardware fairly hard find xt-ide adapters available 8-bit isa cards xta sockets also present motherboards amstrad later xt clones well short-lived line philips units xta pinout similar ata eight data lines two address lines used physical device registers completely different meanings hard drives seagate st351a/x could support either type interface selected jumper many later successor motherboards integrated hard drive interface relied separate hard drive interface plugged isa/eisa/vlb slot even 80486 based units shipped mfm/rll interfaces drives instead increasingly common at-ide commodore built xt-ide based peripheral hard drive memory expansion unit a590 amiga 500 500+ computers also supported scsi drive at-ide type interfaces entered keyboard-cased amiga line upon introduction a600 a1200 integrated interface 44 pin connector many owners removed 2,5 inch bracket installed 3,5 inch drive adapter cable pcmcia specification seen superset ata standard pcmcia hard disk interfaces included pcmcia flash drives allows mutual configuration port drive ata mode de facto extension pcmcia flash drives additionally allow simple ata mode enabled pulling single pin low pcmcia hardware firmware unnecessary use ata drive connected ata port pcmcia flash drive ata adapters thus simple inexpensive guaranteed work every standard pcmcia flash drive adapters used generic pcmcia ports pcmcia interface much complex ata although modern computers physical isa buses ibm compatible computers — x86 x86-64 non-mainframe non-embedded — isa buses allocated physical address space embedded controller chips southbridge cpus provide services temperature monitoring voltage readings buses isa devices ieee started standardization isa bus 1985 called p996 specification however despite even books published p996 specification never officially progressed past draft status still existing user base old computers isa cards still manufactured e.g usb ports complete single board computers based modern processors usb 3.0 sata 1-hop neighbor's text information: central_processing_unit.central processing unit central processing unit cpu also called central processor main processor electronic circuitry within computer carries instructions computer program performing basic arithmetic logic controlling input/output i/o operations specified instructions computer industry used term central processing unit least since early 1960s traditionally term cpu refers processor specifically processing unit control unit cu distinguishing core elements computer external components main memory i/o circuitry form design implementation cpus changed course history fundamental operation remains almost unchanged principal components cpu include arithmetic logic unit alu performs arithmetic logic operations processor registers supply operands alu store results alu operations control unit orchestrates fetching memory execution instructions directing coordinated operations alu registers components modern cpus microprocessors cpu contained single metal-oxide-semiconductor mos integrated circuit ic chip ic contains cpu may also contain memory peripheral interfaces components computer integrated devices variously called microcontrollers systems chip soc computers employ multi-core processor single chip containing two cpus called cores context one speak single chips sockets array processors vector processors multiple processors operate parallel unit considered central also exists concept virtual cpus abstraction dynamical aggregated computational resources early computers eniac physically rewired perform different tasks caused machines called fixed-program computers since term cpu generally defined device software computer program execution earliest devices could rightly called cpus came advent stored-program computer idea stored-program computer already present design j. presper eckert john william mauchly eniac initially omitted could finished sooner june 30 1945 eniac made mathematician john von neumann distributed paper entitled first draft report edvac outline stored-program computer would eventually completed august 1949 edvac designed perform certain number instructions operations various types significantly programs written edvac stored high-speed computer memory rather specified physical wiring computer overcame severe limitation eniac considerable time effort required reconfigure computer perform new task von neumann design program edvac ran could changed simply changing contents memory edvac however first stored-program computer manchester baby small-scale experimental stored-program computer ran first program 21 june 1948 manchester mark 1 ran first program night 16–17 june 1949 early cpus custom designs used part larger sometimes distinctive computer however method designing custom cpus particular application largely given way development multi-purpose processors produced large quantities standardization began era discrete transistor mainframes minicomputers rapidly accelerated popularization integrated circuit ic ic allowed increasingly complex cpus designed manufactured tolerances order nanometers miniaturization standardization cpus increased presence digital devices modern life far beyond limited application dedicated computing machines modern microprocessors appear electronic devices ranging automobiles cellphones sometimes even toys von neumann often credited design stored-program computer design edvac design became known von neumann architecture others konrad zuse suggested implemented similar ideas so-called harvard architecture harvard mark completed edvac also used stored-program design using punched paper tape rather electronic memory key difference von neumann harvard architectures latter separates storage treatment cpu instructions data former uses memory space modern cpus primarily von neumann design cpus harvard architecture seen well especially embedded applications instance atmel avr microcontrollers harvard architecture processors relays vacuum tubes thermionic tubes commonly used switching elements useful computer requires thousands tens thousands switching devices overall speed system dependent speed switches tube computers like edvac tended average eight hours failures whereas relay computers like slower earlier harvard mark failed rarely end tube-based cpus became dominant significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed reliability problems early synchronous cpus ran low clock rates compared modern microelectronic designs clock signal frequencies ranging 100 khz 4 mhz common time limited largely speed switching devices built design complexity cpus increased various technologies facilitated building smaller reliable electronic devices first improvement came advent transistor transistorized cpus 1950s 1960s longer built bulky unreliable fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes relays improvement complex reliable cpus built onto one several printed circuit boards containing discrete individual components 1964 ibm introduced ibm system/360 computer architecture used series computers capable running programs different speed performance significant time electronic computers incompatible one another even made manufacturer facilitate improvement ibm used concept microprogram often called microcode still sees widespread usage modern cpus system/360 architecture popular dominated mainframe computer market decades left legacy still continued similar modern computers like ibm zseries 1965 digital equipment corporation dec introduced another influential computer aimed scientific research markets pdp-8 transistor-based computers several distinct advantages predecessors aside facilitating increased reliability lower power consumption transistors also allowed cpus operate much higher speeds short switching time transistor comparison tube relay increased reliability dramatically increased speed switching elements almost exclusively transistors time cpu clock rates tens megahertz easily obtained period additionally discrete transistor ic cpus heavy usage new high-performance designs like simd single instruction multiple data vector processors began appear early experimental designs later gave rise era specialized supercomputers like made cray inc fujitsu ltd. period method manufacturing many interconnected transistors compact space developed integrated circuit ic allowed large number transistors manufactured single semiconductor-based die chip first basic non-specialized digital circuits gates miniaturized ics cpus based building block ics generally referred small-scale integration ssi devices ssi ics ones used apollo guidance computer usually contained dozen transistors build entire cpu ssi ics required thousands individual chips still consumed much less space power earlier discrete transistor designs ibm system/370 follow-on system/360 used ssi ics rather solid logic technology discrete-transistor modules dec pdp-8/i ki10 pdp-10 also switched individual transistors used pdp-8 pdp-10 ssi ics extremely popular pdp-11 line originally built ssi ics eventually implemented lsi components became practical mosfet metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor also known mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs 1959 demonstrated 1960 led development mos metal-oxide-semiconductor integrated circuit proposed kahng 1961 fabricated fred heiman steven hofstein rca 1962 high scalability much lower power consumption higher density bipolar junction transistors mosfet made possible build high-density integrated circuits lee boysel published influential articles including 1967 manifesto described build equivalent 32-bit mainframe computer relatively small number large-scale integration circuits lsi way build lsi chips chips hundred gates build using mos semiconductor manufacturing process either pmos logic nmos logic cmos logic however companies continued build processors bipolar transistor–transistor logic ttl chips bipolar junction transistors faster mos chips 1970s companies datapoint continued build processors ttl chips early 1980s 1960s mos ics slower initially considered useful applications required low power following development silicon-gate mos technology federico faggin fairchild semiconductor 1968 mos ics largely replaced bipolar ttl standard chip technology early 1970s microelectronic technology advanced increasing number transistors placed ics decreasing number individual ics needed complete cpu msi lsi ics increased transistor counts hundreds thousands 1968 number ics required build complete cpu reduced 24 ics eight different types ic containing roughly 1000 mosfets stark contrast ssi msi predecessors first lsi implementation pdp-11 contained cpu composed four lsi integrated circuits advances mos ic technology led invention microprocessor early 1970s since introduction first commercially available microprocessor intel 4004 1971 first widely used microprocessor intel 8080 1974 class cpus almost completely overtaken central processing unit implementation methods mainframe minicomputer manufacturers time launched proprietary ic development programs upgrade older computer architectures eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors backward-compatible older hardware software combined advent eventual success ubiquitous personal computer term cpu applied almost exclusively microprocessors several cpus denoted cores combined single processing chip previous generations cpus implemented discrete components numerous small integrated circuits ics one circuit boards microprocessors hand cpus manufactured small number ics usually one overall smaller cpu size result implemented single die means faster switching time physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance allowed synchronous microprocessors clock rates ranging tens megahertz several gigahertz additionally ability construct exceedingly small transistors ic increased complexity number transistors single cpu many fold widely observed trend described moore law proven fairly accurate predictor growth cpu ic complexity 2016 complexity size construction general form cpus changed enormously since 1950 basic design function changed much almost common cpus today accurately described von neumann stored-program machines moore law longer holds concerns arisen limits integrated circuit transistor technology extreme miniaturization electronic gates causing effects phenomena like electromigration subthreshold leakage become much significant newer concerns among many factors causing researchers investigate new methods computing quantum computer well expand usage parallelism methods extend usefulness classical von neumann model fundamental operation cpus regardless physical form take execute sequence stored instructions called program instructions executed kept kind computer memory nearly cpus follow fetch decode execute steps operation collectively known instruction cycle execution instruction entire process repeats next instruction cycle normally fetching next-in-sequence instruction incremented value program counter jump instruction executed program counter modified contain address instruction jumped program execution continues normally complex cpus multiple instructions fetched decoded executed simultaneously section describes generally referred classic risc pipeline quite common among simple cpus used many electronic devices often called microcontroller largely ignores important role cpu cache therefore access stage pipeline instructions manipulate program counter rather producing result data directly instructions generally called jumps facilitate program behavior like loops conditional program execution use conditional jump existence functions processors instructions change state bits flags register flags used influence program behaves since often indicate outcome various operations example processors compare instruction evaluates two values sets clears bits flags register indicate one greater whether equal one flags could used later jump instruction determine program flow first step fetch involves retrieving instruction represented number sequence numbers program memory instruction location address program memory determined program counter pc stores number identifies address next instruction fetched instruction fetched pc incremented length instruction contain address next instruction sequence often instruction fetched must retrieved relatively slow memory causing cpu stall waiting instruction returned issue largely addressed modern processors caches pipeline architectures see instruction cpu fetches memory determines cpu decode step performed circuitry known instruction decoder instruction converted signals control parts cpu way instruction interpreted defined cpu instruction set architecture isa often one group bits field within instruction called opcode indicates operation performed remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required operation operands operands may specified constant value called immediate value location value may processor register memory address determined addressing mode cpu designs instruction decoder implemented hardwired unchangeable circuit others microprogram used translate instructions sets cpu configuration signals applied sequentially multiple clock pulses cases memory stores microprogram rewritable making possible change way cpu decodes instructions fetch decode steps execute step performed depending cpu architecture may consist single action sequence actions action various parts cpu electrically connected perform part desired operation action completed typically response clock pulse often results written internal cpu register quick access subsequent instructions cases results may written slower less expensive higher capacity main memory example addition instruction executed arithmetic logic unit alu inputs connected pair operand sources numbers summed alu configured perform addition operation sum operand inputs appear output alu output connected storage e.g. register memory receive sum clock pulse occurs sum transferred storage resulting sum large i.e. larger alu output word size arithmetic overflow flag set hardwired cpu circuitry set basic operations perform called instruction set operations may involve example adding subtracting two numbers comparing two numbers jumping different part program basic operation represented particular combination bits known machine language opcode executing instructions machine language program cpu decides operation perform decoding opcode complete machine language instruction consists opcode many cases additional bits specify arguments operation example numbers summed case addition operation going complexity scale machine language program collection machine language instructions cpu executes actual mathematical operation instruction performed combinational logic circuit within cpu processor known arithmetic logic unit alu general cpu executes instruction fetching memory using alu perform operation storing result memory beside instructions integer mathematics logic operations various machine instructions exist loading data memory storing back branching operations mathematical operations floating-point numbers performed cpu floating-point unit fpu control unit cu component cpu directs operation processor tells computer memory arithmetic logic unit input output devices respond instructions sent processor directs operation units providing timing control signals computer resources managed cu directs flow data cpu devices john von neumann included control unit part von neumann architecture modern computer designs control unit typically internal part cpu overall role operation unchanged since introduction arithmetic logic unit alu digital circuit within processor performs integer arithmetic bitwise logic operations inputs alu data words operated called operands status information previous operations code control unit indicating operation perform depending instruction executed operands may come internal cpu registers external memory may constants generated alu input signals settled propagated alu circuitry result performed operation appears alu outputs result consists data word may stored register memory status information typically stored special internal cpu register reserved purpose address generation unit agu sometimes also called address computation unit acu execution unit inside cpu calculates addresses used cpu access main memory address calculations handled separate circuitry operates parallel rest cpu number cpu cycles required executing various machine instructions reduced bringing performance improvements performing various operations cpus need calculate memory addresses required fetching data memory example in-memory positions array elements must calculated cpu fetch data actual memory locations address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations addition subtraction modulo operations bit shifts often calculating memory address involves one general-purpose machine instruction necessarily decode execute quickly incorporating agu cpu design together introducing specialized instructions use agu various address-generation calculations offloaded rest cpu often executed quickly single cpu cycle capabilities agu depend particular cpu architecture thus agus implement expose address-calculation operations also include advanced specialized instructions operate multiple operands time furthermore cpu architectures include multiple agus one address-calculation operation executed simultaneously bringing performance improvements capitalizing superscalar nature advanced cpu designs example intel incorporates multiple agus sandy bridge haswell microarchitectures increase bandwidth cpu memory subsystem allowing multiple memory-access instructions executed parallel high-end microprocessors desktop laptop server computers memory management unit translating logical addresses physical ram addresses providing memory protection paging abilities useful virtual memory simpler processors especially microcontrollers usually n't include mmu cpu cache hardware cache used central processing unit cpu computer reduce average cost time energy access data main memory cache smaller faster memory closer processor core stores copies data frequently used main memory locations cpus different independent caches including instruction data caches data cache usually organized hierarchy cache levels l1 l2 l3 l4 etc. modern fast cpus specialized exceptions multiple levels cpu caches first cpus used cache one level cache unlike later level 1 caches split l1d data l1i instructions almost current cpus caches split l1 cache also l2 caches larger processors l3 caches well l2 cache usually split acts common repository already split l1 cache every core multi-core processor dedicated l2 cache usually shared cores l3 cache higher-level caches shared cores split l4 cache currently uncommon generally dynamic random-access memory dram rather static random-access memory sram separate die chip also case historically l1 bigger chips allowed integration generally cache levels possible exception last level extra level cache tends bigger optimized differently types caches exist counted towards cache size important caches mentioned translation lookaside buffer tlb part memory management unit mmu cpus caches generally sized powers two 4 8 16 etc kib mib larger non-l1 sizes although ibm z13 96 kib l1 instruction cache cpus synchronous circuits means employ clock signal pace sequential operations clock signal produced external oscillator circuit generates consistent number pulses second form periodic square wave frequency clock pulses determines rate cpu executes instructions consequently faster clock instructions cpu execute second ensure proper operation cpu clock period longer maximum time needed signals propagate move cpu setting clock period value well worst-case propagation delay possible design entire cpu way moves data around edges rising falling clock signal advantage simplifying cpu significantly design perspective component-count perspective however also carries disadvantage entire cpu must wait slowest elements even though portions much faster limitation largely compensated various methods increasing cpu parallelism see however architectural improvements alone solve drawbacks globally synchronous cpus example clock signal subject delays electrical signal higher clock rates increasingly complex cpus make difficult keep clock signal phase synchronized throughout entire unit led many modern cpus require multiple identical clock signals provided avoid delaying single signal significantly enough cause cpu malfunction another major issue clock rates increase dramatically amount heat dissipated cpu constantly changing clock causes many components switch regardless whether used time general component switching uses energy element static state therefore clock rate increases energy consumption causing cpu require heat dissipation form cpu cooling solutions one method dealing switching unneeded components called clock gating involves turning clock signal unneeded components effectively disabling however often regarded difficult implement therefore see common usage outside low-power designs one notable recent cpu design uses extensive clock gating ibm powerpc-based xenon used xbox 360 way power requirements xbox 360 greatly reduced another method addressing problems global clock signal removal clock signal altogether removing global clock signal makes design process considerably complex many ways asynchronous clockless designs carry marked advantages power consumption heat dissipation comparison similar synchronous designs somewhat uncommon entire asynchronous cpus built without using global clock signal two notable examples arm compliant amulet mips r3000 compatible minimips rather totally removing clock signal cpu designs allow certain portions device asynchronous using asynchronous alus conjunction superscalar pipelining achieve arithmetic performance gains altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs perform comparable better level synchronous counterparts evident least excel simpler math operations combined excellent power consumption heat dissipation properties makes suitable embedded computers every cpu represents numerical values specific way example early digital computers represented numbers familiar decimal base 10 numeral system values others employed unusual representations ternary base three nearly modern cpus represent numbers binary form digit represented two-valued physical quantity high low voltage related numeric representation size precision integer numbers cpu represent case binary cpu measured number bits significant digits binary encoded integer cpu process one operation commonly called word size bit width data path width integer precision integer size cpu integer size determines range integer values directly operate example 8-bit cpu directly manipulate integers represented eight bits range 256 2 discrete integer values integer range also affect number memory locations cpu directly address address integer value representing specific memory location example binary cpu uses 32 bits represent memory address directly address 2 memory locations circumvent limitation various reasons cpus use mechanisms bank switching allow additional memory addressed cpus larger word sizes require circuitry consequently physically larger cost consume power therefore generate heat result smaller 4- 8-bit microcontrollers commonly used modern applications even though cpus much larger word sizes 16 32 64 even 128-bit available higher performance required however benefits larger word size larger data ranges address spaces may outweigh disadvantages cpu internal data paths shorter word size reduce size cost example even though ibm system/360 instruction set 32-bit instruction set system/360 model 30 model 40 8-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required four cycles one 8 bits operands even though motorola 68000 series instruction set 32-bit instruction set motorola 68000 motorola 68010 16-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required two cycles gain advantages afforded lower higher bit lengths many instruction sets different bit widths integer floating-point data allowing cpus implementing instruction set different bit widths different portions device example ibm system/360 instruction set primarily 32 bit supported 64-bit floating point values facilitate greater accuracy range floating point numbers system/360 model 65 8-bit adder decimal fixed-point binary arithmetic 60-bit adder floating-point arithmetic many later cpu designs use similar mixed bit width especially processor meant general-purpose usage reasonable balance integer floating point capability required description basic operation cpu offered previous section describes simplest form cpu take type cpu usually referred subscalar operates executes one instruction one two pieces data time less one instruction per clock cycle process gives rise inherent inefficiency subscalar cpus since one instruction executed time entire cpu must wait instruction complete proceeding next instruction result subscalar cpu gets hung instructions take one clock cycle complete execution even adding second execution unit see improve performance much rather one pathway hung two pathways hung number unused transistors increased design wherein cpu execution resources operate one instruction time possibly reach scalar performance one instruction per clock cycle however performance nearly always subscalar less one instruction per clock cycle attempts achieve scalar better performance resulted variety design methodologies cause cpu behave less linearly parallel referring parallelism cpus two terms generally used classify design techniques methodology differs ways implemented well relative effectiveness afford increasing cpu performance application one simplest methods used accomplish increased parallelism begin first steps instruction fetching decoding prior instruction finishes executing simplest form technique known instruction pipelining used almost modern general-purpose cpus pipelining allows one instruction executed given time breaking execution pathway discrete stages separation compared assembly line instruction made complete stage exits execution pipeline retired pipelining however introduce possibility situation result previous operation needed complete next operation condition often termed data dependency conflict cope additional care must taken check sorts conditions delay portion instruction pipeline occurs naturally accomplishing requires additional circuitry pipelined processors complex subscalar ones though significantly pipelined processor become nearly scalar inhibited pipeline stalls instruction spending one clock cycle stage improvement upon idea instruction pipelining led development method decreases idle time cpu components even designs said superscalar include long instruction pipeline multiple identical execution units load-store units arithmetic-logic units floating-point units address generation units superscalar pipeline multiple instructions read passed dispatcher decides whether instructions executed parallel simultaneously dispatched available execution units resulting ability several instructions executed simultaneously general instructions superscalar cpu able dispatch simultaneously waiting execution units instructions completed given cycle difficulty design superscalar cpu architecture lies creating effective dispatcher dispatcher needs able quickly correctly determine whether instructions executed parallel well dispatch way keep many execution units busy possible requires instruction pipeline filled often possible gives rise need superscalar architectures significant amounts cpu cache also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction speculative execution register renaming out-of-order execution transactional memory crucial maintaining high levels performance attempting predict branch path conditional instruction take cpu minimize number times entire pipeline must wait conditional instruction completed speculative execution often provides modest performance increases executing portions code may needed conditional operation completes out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges order instructions executed reduce delays due data dependencies also case single instruction stream multiple data stream—a case lot data type processed— modern processors disable parts pipeline single instruction executed many times cpu skips fetch decode phases thus greatly increases performance certain occasions especially highly monotonous program engines video creation software photo processing case portion cpu superscalar part part suffers performance penalty due scheduling stalls intel p5 pentium two superscalar alus could accept one instruction per clock cycle fpu could accept one instruction per clock cycle thus p5 integer superscalar floating point superscalar intel successor p5 architecture p6 added superscalar capabilities floating point features therefore afforded significant increase floating point instruction performance simple pipelining superscalar design increase cpu ilp allowing single processor complete execution instructions rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle modern cpu designs least somewhat superscalar nearly general purpose cpus designed last decade superscalar later years emphasis designing high-ilp computers moved cpu hardware software interface isa strategy long instruction word vliw causes ilp become implied directly software reducing amount work cpu must perform boost ilp thereby reducing design complexity another strategy achieving performance execute multiple threads processes parallel area research known parallel computing flynn taxonomy strategy known multiple instruction stream multiple data stream mimd one technology used purpose multiprocessing mp initial flavor technology known symmetric multiprocessing smp small number cpus share coherent view memory system scheme cpu additional hardware maintain constantly up-to-date view memory avoiding stale views memory cpus cooperate program programs migrate one cpu another increase number cooperating cpus beyond handful schemes non-uniform memory access numa directory-based coherence protocols introduced 1990s smp systems limited small number cpus numa systems built thousands processors initially multiprocessing built using multiple discrete cpus boards implement interconnect processors processors interconnect implemented single chip technology known chip-level multiprocessing cmp single chip multi-core processor later recognized finer-grain parallelism existed single program single program might several threads functions could executed separately parallel earliest examples technology implemented input/output processing direct memory access separate thread computation thread general approach technology introduced 1970s systems designed run multiple computation threads parallel technology known multi-threading mt approach considered cost-effective multiprocessing small number components within cpu replicated support mt opposed entire cpu case mp mt execution units memory system including caches shared among multiple threads downside mt hardware support multithreading visible software mp thus supervisor software like operating systems undergo larger changes support mt one type mt implemented known temporal multithreading one thread executed stalled waiting data return external memory scheme cpu would quickly context switch another thread ready run switch often done one cpu clock cycle ultrasparc t1 another type mt simultaneous multithreading instructions multiple threads executed parallel within one cpu clock cycle several decades 1970s early 2000s focus designing high performance general purpose cpus largely achieving high ilp technologies pipelining caches superscalar execution out-of-order execution etc trend culminated large power-hungry cpus intel pentium 4 early 2000s cpu designers thwarted achieving higher performance ilp techniques due growing disparity cpu operating frequencies main memory operating frequencies well escalating cpu power dissipation owing esoteric ilp techniques cpu designers borrowed ideas commercial computing markets transaction processing aggregate performance multiple programs also known throughput computing important performance single thread process reversal emphasis evidenced proliferation dual core processor designs notably intel newer designs resembling less superscalar p6 architecture late designs several processor families exhibit cmp including x86-64 opteron athlon 64 x2 sparc ultrasparc t1 ibm power4 power5 well several video game console cpus like xbox 360 triple-core powerpc design playstation 3 7-core cell microprocessor less common increasingly important paradigm processors indeed computing general deals data parallelism processors discussed earlier referred type scalar device name implies vector processors deal multiple pieces data context one instruction contrasts scalar processors deal one piece data every instruction using flynn taxonomy two schemes dealing data generally referred single instruction stream multiple data stream simd single instruction stream single data stream sisd respectively great utility creating processors deal vectors data lies optimizing tasks tend require operation example sum dot product performed large set data classic examples types tasks include multimedia applications images video sound well many types scientific engineering tasks whereas scalar processor must complete entire process fetching decoding executing instruction value set data vector processor perform single operation comparatively large set data one instruction possible application tends require many steps apply one operation large set data early vector processors cray-1 associated almost exclusively scientific research cryptography applications however multimedia largely shifted digital media need form simd general-purpose processors become significant shortly inclusion floating-point units started become commonplace general-purpose processors specifications implementations simd execution units also began appear general-purpose processors early simd specifications like hp multimedia acceleration extensions max intel mmx integer-only proved significant impediment software developers since many applications benefit simd primarily deal floating-point numbers progressively developers refined remade early designs common modern simd specifications usually associated one isa notable modern examples include intel sse powerpc-related altivec also known vmx cloud computing involve subdividing cpu operation virtual central processing units vcpus host virtual equivalent physical machine virtual system operating several physical machines operating tandem managed whole grouped computing memory resources form cluster systems possible dynamically add remove cluster resources available host cluster level partitioned resources pools fine granularity performance speed processor depends among many factors clock rate generally given multiples hertz instructions per clock ipc together factors instructions per second ips cpu perform many reported ips values represented peak execution rates artificial instruction sequences branches whereas realistic workloads consist mix instructions applications take longer execute others performance memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance issue barely considered mips calculations problems various standardized tests often called benchmarks purposesuch specinthave developed attempt measure real effective performance commonly used applications processing performance computers increased using multi-core processors essentially plugging two individual processors called cores sense one integrated circuit ideally dual core processor would nearly twice powerful single core processor practice performance gain far smaller 50 due imperfect software algorithms implementation increasing number cores processor i.e dual-core quad-core etc increases workload handled means processor handle numerous asynchronous events interrupts etc take toll cpu overwhelmed cores thought different floors processing plant floor handling different task sometimes cores handle tasks cores adjacent single core enough handle information due specific capabilities modern cpus simultaneous multithreading uncore involve sharing actual cpu resources aiming increased utilization monitoring performance levels hardware use gradually became complex task response cpus implement additional hardware logic monitors actual use various parts cpu provides various counters accessible software example intel performance counter monitor technology 1-hop neighbor's text information: timeline_of_dos_operating_systems.timeline dos operating systems article presents timeline events history x86 dos disk operating systems 1973 2016 operating systems named dos generally part scope timeline dos releases forms Target text information: cpu_card.cpu card cpu card printed circuit board pcb contains central processing unit cpu computer cpu cards specified cpu clock frequency bus type well features applications built card cpu cards include peripheral component interconnect pci cards modular pc cards industry standard architecture isa cards pci extensions instrumentation pxi cards embedded technology extended etx cards many others cpu cards often used expand memory speed bandwidth embedded applications existing computer system pc cards typically used expand system ’ embedded applications pc cards include modules audio video applications data communications embedded storage pxi cards used data acquisition control systems making suitable real-time measurement applications etx cards used industrial applications augment computer system ’ embedded applications etx cards contain functionality necessary run pc compact space cpu cards used augment existing computer backplanes typically isa pci connectors plugged backplane without additional configuration cpu cards use computer backplanes typically half-sized cpu card contains pc functionality communicates cards plugged backplane computer bus cpu cards may also called expansion cards expansion boards offer variety embedded applications modems wireless networking graphics video controllers raid controllers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	3,769	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: calibri.calibri calibri sans-serif typeface family designed luc de groot 2002–2004 released general public 2007 microsoft office 2007 windows vista office 2007 replaced times new roman default typeface word replaced arial default powerpoint excel outlook wordpad de groot described subtly rounded design warm soft character calibri part cleartype font collection suite fonts various designers released windows vista start letter c reflect designed work well microsoft cleartype text rendering system text rendering engine designed make text clearer read liquid-crystal display monitors fonts group cambria candara consolas constantia corbel calibri features subtly rounded stems corners visible larger sizes sloped form true italic handwriting influences common modern sans-serif typefaces typeface includes characters latin latin extended greek cyrillic scripts calibri makes extensive use sophisticated opentype formatting features range ligatures well lining text figures indices numbers enclosed circles 20 alternate f g accessible enabling fourth fifth stylistic sets features calibri remain unsupported office including true small caps all-caps spacing superscript subscript glyphs ability create arbitrary fractions may accessed using programs adobe indesign one potential source confusion calibri visible homoglyph pair easily confused characters lowercase letter l uppercase letter l latin script effectively indistinguishable true many common fonts however design clear similarities de groot famous much extensive commercial family thesans although straight ends rather rounding calibri default typeface microsoft office much microsoft software joe friend program manager word office 2007 release explained decision switch calibri caused desire make default font one optimised towards onscreen display believed documents would never printed would solely consumed digital device achieve modern look long development windows vista calibri development – 2002 2004 – occurred several years release os first presented 2004 beta windows vista codenamed longhorn first became available use beta 2 version office 2007 released may 23 2006 calibri rest cleartype font collection finally released general public january 30 2007 since released microsoft software environments calibri also distributed microsoft excel viewer microsoft powerpoint viewer microsoft office compatibility pack microsoft windows open xml file format converter mac use operating systems cross-platform web use calibri licensed ascender corporation parent company monotype imaging font calibri light introduced microsoft windows 8 added windows 7 server 2008 part software update microsoft word 2013 onwards calibri calibri light default fonts body text headings respectively calibri light also default font headings powerpoint 2013 due calibri widespread use microsoft office documents google released freely-licensed font called carlito metric-compatible calibri part chromeos carlito font metrics calibri chromeos users correctly display print document designed calibri without disrupting layout carlito based prior open-source typeface lato without de groot involvement calibri tdc2 2005 award type directors club type system category calibri position default font office many cases reported documents shown forged thanks purported creation date calibri available general public 2017 font came public attention evidence pakistani government-related panama papers case also known fontgate document supposedly signed february 2006 found typed calibri. ref name= thenextweb/11july2017 /ref de groot said really zero chance document genuine 1-hop neighbor's text information: technical_features_new_to_windows_vista.technical features new windows vista windows vista formerly codenamed windows longhorn many significant new features compared previous microsoft windows versions covering aspects operating system addition new user interface security capabilities developer technologies several major components core operating system redesigned notably audio print display networking subsystems results work visible software developers end-users see appear evolutionary changes user interface part redesign networking architecture ipv6 incorporated operating system number performance improvements introduced tcp window scaling prior versions windows typically needed third-party wireless networking software work properly longer case windows vista includes comprehensive wireless networking support graphics windows vista introduces new well major revisions direct3d new display driver model facilitates new desktop window manager provides tearing-free desktop special effects cornerstones windows aero graphical user interface new display driver model also able offload rudimentary tasks gpu allow users install drivers without requiring system reboot seamlessly recover rare driver errors due illegal application behavior core operating system many improvements made memory manager process scheduler heap manager i/o scheduler kernel transaction manager implemented used data persistence services enable atomic transactions service used give applications ability work file system registry using atomic transaction operations windows vista features completely re-written audio stack designed provide low-latency 32-bit floating point audio higher-quality digital signal processing bit-for-bit sample level accuracy 144 db dynamic range new audio apis created team including steve ball larry osterman new audio stack runs user level thus increasing stability windows vista audio engine designed run faster windows xp audio engine tighter requirements audio buffer position accuracy also new universal audio architecture uaa model introduced replacing wdm audio allows compliant audio hardware automatically work windows without needing device drivers audio hardware vendor three major apis windows vista audio architecture applications communicate audio driver sessions sessions programmed windows audio session api wasapi general wasapi operates two modes exclusive mode also called dma mode unmixed audio streams rendered directly audio adapter application audio play signal processing effect exclusive mode useful applications demand least amount intermediate processing audio data want output compressed audio data dolby digital dts wma pro s/pdif wasapi exclusive mode similar kernel streaming function kernel mode programming required shared mode audio streams rendered application optionally applied per-stream audio effects known local effects lfx per-session volume control streams mixed global audio engine set global audio effects gfx may applied finally 're rendered audio device higher level apis waveform-audio interface wavexxx functions directsound use shared mode results pre-mixed pcm audio sent driver single format terms sample rate bit depth channel count format configurable end user control panel passing wasapi host-based audio processing including custom audio processing take place sample rate conversion mixing effects host-based processing modules referred audio processing objects apos components operate user mode portion architecture runs kernel mode audio driver contains port class driver vendor miniport driver vendor hal windows kernel mixer kmixer completely gone direct path directsound audio drivers directsound mme emulated session instances since whole point directsound acceleration allow hardware process unmixed audio content directsound accelerated audio model directsound3d supported also breaks eax extensions apis asio openal affected windows vista also includes new multimedia class scheduler service mmcss allows multimedia applications register time-critical processing run elevated thread priority thus ensuring prioritized access cpu resources time-sensitive dsp processing mixing tasks audio professionals new wavert port driver introduced strives achieve real-time performance using multimedia class scheduler supports audio applications reduce latency audio streams consequently user mode applications completely govern streams audio without code execution kernel runtime wavert allows user mode application direct access internal audio hardware buffers sample position counters data memory mapped audio hardware dma engine allows applications poll current position dma memory window hardware accessing wavert also supports notion hardware generated clock notification event similar asio api applications need poll current position n't want existing audio apis re-plumbed emulated use apis internally audio goes three apis applications work fault mme wavein/waveout emulation introduced windows vista sample rate conversion needed audible noise sometimes introduced playing audio web browser uses apis internal resampler longer configurable defaults linear interpolation lowest-quality conversion mode could set previous versions windows resampler set high-quality mode via hotfix windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 new digital signal processing functionalities room correction bass management loudness equalization speaker fill introduced speaker fill mixes 2-channel content use available speakers manner similar creative cmss bass management used redirect subwoofer signal main speakers channel missing feature called channel phantoming allows best use speakers redirecting sound missing channels speakers whether multi-channel stereo sound system home theater living room windows vista also includes ability calibrate speakers room placing microphone listener plans sit running wizard measures room response windows vista automatically set levels delay frequency balance channel accordingly position pcs equipped stereo headphones vista adds ability surround sound using new feature called headphone virtualization uses technology based upon head-related transfer function windows vista also includes ability use custom host-based digital signal processing effects part audio device manufacturer-supplied driver value-added features effects packaged user-mode system effect audio processing objects sapos sapos also reusable third-party software windows vista builds universal audio architecture new class driver definition aims reduce need third-party drivers increase overall stability reliability audio windows microsoft also included new high quality voice capture directx media object dmo part directshow allows voice capture applications instant messengers speech recognition applications apply acoustic echo cancellation microphone array processing speech signals windows vista first windows operating system include fully integrated support speech recognition windows 2000 xp speech recognition installed office 2003 included windows xp tablet pc edition windows speech recognition allows users control machine voice commands enables dictation many applications application fairly high recognition accuracy provides set commands assists dictation brief speech-driven tutorial included help familiarize user speech recognition commands training could also completed improve accuracy speech recognition windows vista includes speech recognition 8 languages release time english u.s. british spanish german french japanese chinese traditional simplified support additional languages planned post-release speech recognition vista utilizes version 5.3 microsoft speech api sapi version 8 speech recognizer speech synthesis first introduced windows windows 2000 significantly enhanced windows vista code name mulan old voice microsoft sam replaced two new natural sounding voices generally greater intelligibility anna lili latter capable speaking chinese screen-reader narrator uses voices also updated microsoft agent text speech applications use newer sapi 5 voices windows vista includes redesigned print architecture built around windows presentation foundation provides high-fidelity color printing improved use color management removes limitations current gdi-based print subsystem enhances support printing advanced effects gradients transparencies etc. color laser printers use xml paper specification xps print subsystem windows vista implements new xps print path well legacy gdi print path legacy support windows vista transparently makes use xps print path printers support otherwise using gdi print path documents intensive graphics xps printers expected produce much greater quality prints gdi printers networked environment print server running windows vista documents rendered client machine rather server using feature known client side rendering rendered intermediate form transferred server printed without additional processing making print servers scalable offloading rendering computation clients xps print path introduced windows vista supports high quality 16-bit color printing xps print path uses xml paper specification xps print spooler file format serves page description language pdl printers xps spooler format intended replacement enhanced metafile emf format print spooler format graphics device interface gdi print path xps xml-based specifically xaml-based color-managed device resolution independent vector-based paged document format encapsulates exact representation actual printed output xps documents packed zip container along text fonts raster images 2d vector graphics drm information printers supporting xps eliminates intermediate conversion printer-specific language increasing reliability fidelity printed output microsoft claims major printer vendors planning release printers built-in xps support provide better fidelity original document core xps print path xpsdrv xps-based printer driver includes filter pipeline contains set filters print processing modules xml-based configuration file describe filters loaded filters receive spool file data input perform document processing rendering pdl post-processing output pdl data printer consume filters perform single function watermarking page color transformations perform several print processing functions specific document parts individually collectively convert spool file page description language supported printer windows vista also provides improved color support windows color system higher color precision dynamic range also supports cmyk colorspace multiple ink systems higher print fidelity print subsystem also support named colors simplifying color definition images transmitted printer supporting colors xps print path automatically calibrate color profile settings used display subsystem conversely xps print drivers express configurable capabilities printer virtue xps printcapabilities class enable fine-grained control print settings tuned individual printing device applications use windows presentation foundation display elements directly print xps print path without need image colorspace conversion xps format used spool file represents advanced graphics effects 3d images glow effects gradients windows presentation foundation primitives processed printer drivers without rasterization preventing rendering artifacts reducing computational load legacy gdi print path used xps spool file used processing converted gdi image minimize processing done raster level print schemas provide xml-based format expressing organizing large set properties describe either job format print capabilities hierarchically structured manner print schemas intended address problems associated internal communication components print subsystem external communication print subsystem applications windows vista contains new networking stack brings large improvements areas network-related functionality includes native implementation ipv6 well complete overhaul ipv4 ipv6 supported networking components services user interface ipv6 mode windows vista use link local multicast name resolution llmnr protocol resolve names local hosts network dns server running new tcp/ip stack uses new method store configuration settings enables dynamic control require computer restart settings changed new stack also based strong host model features infrastructure enable modular components dynamically inserted removed user interface configuring troubleshooting working network connections changed significantly prior versions windows well users make use new network center see status network connections access every aspect configuration network browsed using network explorer replaces windows xp network places network explorer items shared device scanner file share network location awareness uniquely identifies network exposes network attributes connectivity type windows vista graphically presents different devices connected network network map view using lltd protocol addition network map uses lltd determine connectivity information media type wired wireless device implement lltd appear network map icon representing device allowing users one-click access device user interface lltd invoked provides metadata device contains static state information mac address ipv4/ipv6 address signal strength etc support wireless networks built network stack emulate wired connections case previous versions windows allows implementation wireless-specific features larger frame sizes optimized error recovery procedures windows vista uses various techniques like receive window auto-scaling explicit congestion notification tcp chimney offload compound tcp improve networking performance quality service qos policies used prioritize network traffic traffic shaping available applications even explicitly use qos apis windows vista includes in-built support peer-to-peer networks smb 2.0 improved network security windows vista supports 256-bit 384-bit diffie-hellman dh algorithms well 128-bit 192-bit 256-bit advanced encryption standard aes included network stack integrating ipsec windows firewall windows vista introduces overhaul previous windows nt operating system loader architecture ntldr used versions windows nt since inception windows nt 3.1 ntldr completely replaced new architecture designed address modern firmware technologies unified extensible firmware interface new architecture introduces firmware-independent data store backward compatible previous versions windows operating system windows vista introduces improved driver model windows driver foundation opt-in framework replace older windows driver model includes windows vista includes following changes enhancements processor power management windows vista first client version windows ship .net framework specifically includes .net framework 2.0 .net framework 3.0 previously known winfx version 1.0 1.1 .net framework set managed code apis slated succeed win32 win32 api also present windows vista give direct access new functionality introduced .net framework addition .net framework intended give programmers easier access functionality present windows .net framework 3.0 includes apis ado.net asp.net windows forms among others adds four core frameworks .net framework windows presentation foundation codenamed avalon overhaul graphical subsystem windows flagship resolution independent api 2d 3d graphics raster vector graphics xaml fixed adaptive documents xps advanced typography animation xaml data binding audio video windows vista wpf enables richer control design development visual aspects windows programs based directx renders graphics using direct3d routing graphics direct3d allows windows offload graphics tasks gpu reducing workload computer cpu capability used desktop window manager make desktop windows shell elements 3d surfaces wpf applications deployed desktop hosted web browser xbap 3d capabilities wpf limited compared available direct3d however wpf provides tighter integration features like user interface ui documents media makes possible 3d ui 3d documents 3d media set built-in controls provided part wpf containing items button menu list box controls wpf provides ability perform control composition control contain control layout wpf also built-in set data services enable application developers bind data controls images supported using windows imaging component media wpf supports audio video formats windows media player play addition wpf supports time-based animations contrast frame-based approach delinks speed animation slow fast system performing text anti-aliased rendered using cleartype wpf uses extensible application markup language xaml variant xml intended use developing user interfaces using xaml develop user interfaces also allows separation model view xaml every element maps onto class underlying api attributes set properties instantiated classes elements wpf may also coded .net language c xaml code ultimately compiled managed assembly way .net languages means use xaml development incur performance cost windows communication foundation codenamed indigo new communication subsystem enable applications one machine across multiple machines connected network communicate wcf programming model unifies web services .net remoting distributed transactions message queues single service-oriented architecture model distributed computing server exposes service via interface defined using xml clients connect wcf runs sandbox provides enhanced security model .net applications provide wcf capable using soap communication two processes thereby making wcf based applications interoperable process communicates via soap wcf process communicates non-wcf process xml based encoding used soap messages communicates another wcf process soap messages encoded optimized binary format optimize communication encodings conform data structure soap format called infoset windows vista also incorporates microsoft message queuing 4.0 msmq supports subqueues poison messages messages continually fail processed correctly receiver transactional receives messages remote queue windows workflow foundation microsoft technology defining executing managing workflows technology part .net framework 3.0 therefore targeted primarily windows vista operating system windows workflow foundation runtime components provide common facilities running managing workflows hosted clr application domain workflows comprise 'activities developers write domain-specific activities use workflows windows workflow foundation also provides set general-purpose 'activities cover several control flow constructs also includes visual workflow designer workflow designer used within visual studio 2005 including integration visual studio project system debugger windows cardspace codenamed infocard part .net framework 3.0 implementation identity metasystem centralizes acquiring usage management digital identity digital identity represented logical security tokens consist one claims provide information different aspects identity name address etc identity system centers around three entities — user identified identity provider provides identifying information regarding user relying party uses identity authenticate user identity provider may service like active directory even user provides authentication password biometric authentication data relying party issues request application identity means policy states claims needs physical representation security token application passes request windows cardspace contacts suitable identity provider retrieves identity provides application identity along information use windows cardspace also keeps track identities used represents visually identifiable virtual cards accessible user centralized location whenever application requests identity windows cardspace informs user identity used needs confirmation provides requestor identity windows cardspace presents api allows application use windows cardspace handle authentication tasks similarly api allows identity providers hook windows cardspace relying party appears service provides authentication credentials media foundation set com-based apis handle audio video playback provides directx video acceleration 2.0 better resilience cpu i/o memory stress glitch-free low-latency playback audio video also enables high color spaces multimedia processing pipeline directshow windows media sdk gradually deprecated future versions windows vista instant search index also accessed programmatically using managed well native code native code connects index catalog using data source object retrieved windows vista shell indexing service ole db provider managed code use msidxs ado.net provider index catalog name catalog remote machine also specified using unc path criteria search specified using sql-like syntax default catalog called systemindex stores properties indexed items predefined naming pattern example name location documents system exposed table column names system itemname system itemurl respectively sql query directly refer tables index catalogues use msidxs provider run queries search index also used via ole db using collatordso provider however ole db provider read-only supporting select group sql statements windows search api also used convert search query written using advanced query syntax natural query syntax natural language version aqs sql queries exposes method generatesqlfromuserquery method isearchqueryhelper interface searches also performed using search-ms protocol pseudo protocol lets searches exposed uri contains operators search terms specified aqs refer saved search folders well uri activated windows search registered handler protocol parses uri extract parameters perform search winsock kernel wsk new transport-independent kernel-mode network programming interface npi provides tdi client developers sockets-like programming model similar supported user-mode winsock sockets programming concepts exist user-mode winsock socket creation bind connect accept send receive winsock kernel completely new programming interface unique characteristics asynchronous i/o uses irps event callbacks enhance performance tdi supported windows vista backward compatibility windows vista includes specialized qos api called qwave quality windows audio/video experience pre-configured quality service module time dependent multimedia data audio video streams qwave uses different packet priority schemes real-time flows multimedia packets best-effort flows file downloads e-mails ensure real time data gets little delays possible providing high quality channel data packets windows filtering platform allows external applications access hook packet processing pipeline networking subsystem windows vista features update microsoft crypto api known cryptography api next generation cng cng extensible user mode kernel mode api includes support elliptic curve cryptography number newer algorithms part national security agency nsa suite b also integrates smart card subsystem including base csp module encapsulates smart card api developers write complex csps 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_jhenghei.microsoft jhenghei microsoft jhenghei 微軟正黑體 sans-serif typeface included windows vista later microsoft office 2007 follows standard form national characters prescribed ministry education republic china taiwan intended used traditional chinese language environments using cleartype version microsoft jhenghei alternate character design versions microsoft jhenghei microsoft jhenghei ui respectively sold monotype family includes light version font microsoft jhenghei tc light microsoft jhenghei ui tc light downloading installing traditional chinese cleartype fonts windows xp microsoft also makes microsoft jhenghei available windows xp microsoft jhenghei ui included windows 8 later Target text information: constantia_(typeface).constantia typeface constantia serif typeface designed john hudson commissioned microsoft transitional serif design influenced eric gill ’ perpetua design development typeface began 2003 released 2006 constantia part cleartype font collection suite fonts various designers released windows vista start letter c reflect designed work well microsoft ’ cleartype text rendering system text rendering engine designed make text clearer read lcd monitors fonts suite calibri cambria candara consolas corbel constantia designed either print on-screen uses numerals text figures default seen sample image font also includes lining figures alternate style reviewing website typographica raph levien described likely “ everyone ’ favourite face suite ... highly readable roman font departing slightly classical model still manages fresh new takes inspiration perpetua ... triangular serifs bring mind chisel font enough calligraphic flavor recall palatino. ” among features design includes small capitals alternative spacing punctuation caps text numbers enclosed circles superscript subscript glyphs transitional serif design design features moderate contrast thick thin strokes nearly-vertical axis render well cleartype letters q slightly squared-off distributed microsoft excel viewer microsoft powerpoint viewer microsoft office compatibility pack microsoft windows open xml file format converter mac use operating systems gnu/linux cross-platform use web use available freeware explaining name hudson wrote “ ’ remember possible names came ended rejected international trademark searches ... ’ singing psalms vespers noticed word constantia hey thought starts c ” writing 2011 hudson commented “ actually ’ like name constantia much every time see sea birds dock ’ waiting ferry wish ’ thought call cormorant ” I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,146	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: intelligent_database.intelligent database 1980s databases viewed computer systems stored record-oriented business data manufacturing inventories bank records sales transactions database system expected merge numeric data text images multimedia information expected automatically notice patterns data stored late 1980s concept intelligent database put forward system manages information rather data way appears natural users goes beyond simple record keeping term introduced 1989 book intelligent databases kamran parsaye mark chignell setrag khoshafian harry wong concept postulated three levels intelligence systems high level tools user interface database engine high level tools manage data quality automatically discover relevant patterns data process called data mining layer often relies use artificial intelligence techniques user interface uses hypermedia form uniformly manages text images numeric data intelligent database engine supports two layers often merging relational database techniques object orientation twenty-first century intelligent databases become widespread e.g hospital databases call patient histories consisting charts text x-ray images mouse clicks many corporate databases include decision support tools based sales pattern analysis 1-hop neighbor's text information: database_refactoring.database refactoring database refactoring simple change database schema improves design retaining behavioral informational semantics database refactoring change way data interpreted used fix bugs add new functionality every refactoring database leaves system working state thus causing maintenance lags provided meaningful data exists production environment database refactoring conceptually difficult code refactoring code refactorings need maintain behavioral semantics database refactorings also must maintain informational semantics refactor database schema one several reasons examples database refactoring process database refactoring act applying database refactorings evolve existing database schema database refactoring core practice evolutionary database design three considerations need taken account 1-hop neighbor's text information: database_application.database application database application computer program whose primary purpose entering retrieving information computerized database early examples database applications accounting systems airline reservations systems sabre developed starting 1957 characteristic modern database applications facilitate simultaneous updates queries multiple users systems 1970s might accomplished user front 3270 terminal mainframe computer mid-1980s becoming common give user personal computer program running pc connected database server information would pulled database transmitted network arranged graphed otherwise formatted program running pc starting mid-1990s became common build database applications web interface rather develop custom software run user pc user would use web browser program every application database application web interface advantage could used devices different sizes different hardware different operating systems examples early database applications web interfaces include amazon.com used oracle relational database management system photo.net online community whose implementation top oracle described book database-backed web sites ziff-davis press may 1997 ebay also running oracle electronic medical records referred emrexperts.com december 2010 software database application 2005 o'reilly book uses term title database applications web complex database applications remain accounting systems sap may contain thousands tables single module many today widely used computer systems database applications example facebook built top mysql etymology phrase database application comes practice dividing computer software systems programs operating system compilers file system tools database management system application programs payroll check processor standard pc running microsoft windows example windows operating system contains systems programs games word processors spreadsheet programs photo editing programs etc would application programs application short application program database application short database application program every program uses database would typically considered database application example many physics experiments e.g. large hadron collider generate massive data sets programs subsequently analyze data sets constitute database though typically managed standard relational database management system computer programs analyze data primarily developed answer hypotheses put information back database therefore overall program would called database application Target text information: database_connection.database connection database connection facility computer science allows client software talk database server software whether machine connection required send commands receive answers usually form result set connections key concept data-centric programming since dbms engines require considerable time connect connection pooling invented improve performance command performed database without open available connection connections built supplying underlying driver provider connection string way addressing specific database server instance well user authentication credentials example server=sql_box database=common user id=uid pwd=password connection built opened closed properties command time-out length transaction one exists set connection string composed set key/value pairs dictated data access interface data provider used many databases postgresql allow one operation performed time connection request data sql select statement sent database result set returned connection open available operations client finishes consuming result set databases like sql server 2005 later impose limitation however databases provide multiple operations per connection usually incur far overhead permit single operation task time database connections finite expensive take disproportionately long time create relative operations performed inefficient application create use close database connection whenever needs update database connection pooling technique designed alleviate problem pool database connections created shared among applications need access database application needs database access requests connection pool finished returns connection pool becomes available use applications connection object obtained connection pool often wrapper around actual database connection wrapper understands relationship pool hides details pool application example wrapper object implement close method called like close method database connection unlike method database connection method wrapper may actually close database connection instead return pool application need aware connection pooling calls methods wrapper object approach encourages practice opening connection application needed closing soon work done rather holding connection open entire life application manner relatively small number connections service large number requests also called multiplexing client/server architecture hand persistent connection typically used server state managed state includes server-side cursors temporary products connection-specific functional settings application failure occurs connection pool overflows occur connection pool use application requests connection example application may use connection long many clients attempt access web site one operations blocked simply inefficient I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	853	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: firefox_3.6.firefox 3.6 mozilla firefox 3.6 version firefox web browser released january 2010 release main improvement firefox 3.5 improved performance due speed improvements tracemonkey javascript engine uses gecko 1.9.2 engine compared 1.9.1 ff 3.5 improves compliance web standards codenamed namoroka version support x bitmap images dropped release marked beginning new development cycle firefox well receiving major updates browser also received minor updates new features allow users receive new features quickly dawn new roadmap reflected changes superseded firefox 4 released next year although ff 3.6 prolonged period use version 4 noted user interface changes firefox 3.6 last major version official firefox release run powerpc-based macintoshes see tenfourfox much-more-recent version firefox powerpc-based computers running mac os x soon 4 much less weight given major version numbers 6 numbers used september year 4 5 6 7 8 9 compared 3 nearly decade firefox development 1 2 3 firefox versions 4 9 reached end-of-life status mozilla continued supporting firefox 3.6 security updates coinciding proposal cater enterprise users optional extended support releases beginning 2012 based upon firefox 10 mozilla discontinued support firefox 3.6 april 24 2012 automatic update firefox 12 pushed compatible devices june 2012 development version started december 1 2008 first alpha version 3.6 released august 7 2009 first beta version released october 30 followed beta 2 november 10 beta 3 november 17 beta 4 november 26 beta 5 december 17 release candidate 1 released january 8 2010 followed release candidate 2 january 17 final version released january 21 2010 firefox 3.6.2 released march 23 2010 followed version 3.6.3 april 1 closed bugs aslr dep handling found pwn2own contest 2010 firefox developers created new feature called lorentz named lorentz national park preview version lorentz firefox 3.6.3plugin1 made available april 8 2010 betas firefox 3.6.4 made available starting april 20 2010 firefox 3.6.4 released june 22 2010 windows linux versions incorporate out-of-process plug-ins oopp isolates execution plug-ins adobe flash apple quicktime microsoft silverlight default separate process significantly reduces number firefox crashes experienced users watching online videos playing games user simply refresh page continue mozilla states 30 browser crashes caused third-party plugins support plug-ins default oopp mac os x platform become available firefox 4 firefox 3.6.6 lengthens amount time plug-in allowed unresponsive point plug-in quits firefox 3.6.7 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.8 security update released mere three days 3.6.7 fix another security fault firefox 3.6.9 addition fixing security stability issues introduced support codice_1 http response header help prevent clickjacking firefox 3.6.10 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.11 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.12 security update fixed critical security issue firefox 3.6.13 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.14 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.15 stability update fixed java applets issue firefox 3.6.16 security update blacklisted invalid https certificates firefox 3.6.17 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.18 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.19 stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.20 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.21 security update blacklisted compromised https certificate firefox 3.6.22 security update revoked ssl certificates staten der nederlanden due fraudulent ssl certificate issuance well fixing error .gov.uk domain names firefox 3.6.23 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.24 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.25 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.26 security stability update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.27 security update fixed several issues firefox 3.6.28 security stability update fixed several issues new features firefox 3.6 include mozilla discontinued support firefox 3.6 april 24 2012 27 months support made longest supported version firefox even longer firefox 2 26 months total support underlying gecko 1.9.2 engine continued used updates camino 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_explorer_for_mac_os_x.internet explorer mac os x internet explorer mac os x also referred internet explorer macintosh internet explorer macintosh edition internet explorer mac ie mac unsupported inactive proprietary web browser developed microsoft macintosh platform initial versions developed code base internet explorer windows later versions diverged particularly release version 5 included cutting edge fault-tolerant highly standards-compliant tasman layout engine result five-year agreement apple microsoft 1997 default browser classic mac os mac os x 1998 superseded apple safari web browser 2003 release mac os x 10.3 panther june 13 2003 microsoft announced ceasing development internet explorer mac final update released july 11 2003 browser included default installation mac os x 10.4 tiger released april 29 2005 microsoft stopped releases product december 31 2005 removed application macintosh downloads site january 31 2006 microsoft recommended users migrate recent web browsing technologies apple safari archived version download available softonic.com works mac os x 10.6 earlier versions discontinuation rosetta versions internet explorer macintosh released starting version 2 1996 version 5 received last patch 2003 ie versions mac typically lagged several months year behind windows versions included unique developments including layout engine tasman first version internet explorer macintosh operating system beta version internet explorer 2.0 macintosh released january 23 1996 free download microsoft website first version based spyglass mosaic web browser licensed spyglass available 68k ppc based macs running system 7.0.1 later supported embedding number multimedia formats web pages including avi quicktime formatted video aiff wav formatted audio final version released three months later april 23 version 2.1 released august year mostly aimed fixed bugs improving stability also added features support npapi first version internet explorer platform support quicktime vr aol 3.0 macintosh used ie 2.1 rendering engine built-in web browser november 5 1996 microsoft announced release beta version internet explorer version 3.0 macintosh release added support html version 3.2 cascading style sheets java applets activex controls final version made available january 8 1997 also added support ssl ntlm security protocols pics rsaci rating systems used control access websites based content ratings problem operating system extension used mac os called cfm68k runtime enabler led delay release version 3.0 macs based 68k line processors four months later may 14 microsoft released version 3.01 included version 68k-based machines version also included features windows version internet explorer 4.0 autocomplete monitoring favorites notified users sites favorites list updated also included support javascript introduced download manager cookie manager 1997 macworld expo boston august 6 steve jobs bill gates announced partnership microsoft apple amongst things apple agreed make internet explorer default browser instead netscape navigator five months later january 6 1998 macworld expo san francisco microsoft announced release final version internet explorer version 4.0 macintosh version 4 included support offline browsing dynamic html new faster java virtual machine security zones allow users administrators limit access certain types web content depending zone example intranet internet content coming publicized feature internet explorer 4.0 support microsoft active channel technology intended deliver regularly updated content users could personally tailor interests however active channel failed reach wide audience event apple announced release mac os 8.1 first version macintosh operating system bundle internet explorer default browser per agreement microsoft however version 4.0 ready time included version 3.01 bundled cds following year san francisco macworld expo january 9 1999 microsoft announced release internet explorer 4.5 macintosh edition new version dropped 68k processor support introduced form autofill print preview page holder pane let user hold page links one side screen opened pages right hand support mac os technology like sherlock year later january 5 2000 microsoft announced new version internet explorer san francisco macworld expo internet explorer 5 macintosh edition released two months later march 27 2000 windows version internet explorer 5 released year earlier used trident layout engine macintosh edition introduced new rendering engine called tasman designed compliant emerging w3c standards html 4.0 css level 1 dom level 1 ecmascript also introduced number features later added browsers complete support png image standard previous versions support doctype switching text zoom xml source view also included auction manager tracking auctions sites like ebay internet scrapbook allow users quickly easily store organize web content example image piece selected text preview releases browser included feature called mediabar integrated mp3 internet radio playback feature dropped final version initial release mac os 8 mac os 9 however two months release may 15 mac os x version released bundled mac os x dp4 release handed developers 2000 worldwide developers conference mac os x public beta included another preview mac os x version ie release mac os x 10.0 march 24 2001 included yet another preview mac os x version ie 5 updated later release mac os x v10.1 september 25 2001 included final version internet explorer 5.1 mac os x. ie 5.1 mac os 8 9 released december 18 2001 according jorg brown one ie mac developers microsoft version 5 team produced ie mac moved another project ie mac relegated something expected work spare time june 17 2002 microsoft announced release version 5.2 first mac os x-only release included performance security fixes support mac os x features likes quartz text smoothing 2002 microsoft reassigned developers develop version 6 internet explorer mac intended used base new product msn mac os x would subscription-only browser worked online msn service incorporate features like address book junk mail filters msn messenger client however hearing apple started development browser canceled standalone browser development concentrated msn browser released may 15 2003 june 13 2003 pc pro reported macintosh business unit general manager roz ho confirmed aside updates fix security problems would new versions internet explorer microsoft three days later june 16 2003 microsoft released final version mac os x ppc version 5.2.3 month later july 11 2003 released final version mac os 8 9 version 5.1.7 last versions internet explorer mac os x ppc distinguishing blue logo base logo used internet explorer 6 windows windows one lighter blue less 3-d features found internet explorer mac found common contemporary browsers possible exception internet explorer windows still features many browsers features found internet explorer mac contemporaries acid1 included offline easter egg accessible typing 'tasman internet explorer 5 mac os text replaced names developers 1-hop neighbor's text information: file_transfer_protocol.file transfer protocol file transfer protocol ftp standard network protocol used transfer computer files client server computer network ftp built client-server model architecture using separate control data connections client server ftp users may authenticate clear-text sign-in protocol normally form username password connect anonymously server configured allow secure transmission protects username password encrypts content ftp often secured ssl/tls ftps replaced ssh file transfer protocol sftp first ftp client applications command-line programs developed operating systems graphical user interfaces still shipped windows unix linux operating systems many ftp clients automation utilities since developed desktops servers mobile devices hardware ftp incorporated productivity applications html editors original specification file transfer protocol written abhay bhushan published 16 april 1971 1980 ftp ran ncp predecessor tcp/ip protocol later replaced tcp/ip version june 1980 october 1985 current specification several proposed standards amend example february 1994 enables firewall-friendly ftp passive mode june 1997 proposes security extensions september 1998 adds support ipv6 defines new type passive mode ftp may run active passive mode determines data connection established cases client creates tcp control connection random usually unprivileged port n ftp server command port 21 modes updated september 1998 support ipv6 changes introduced passive mode time updating extended passive mode server responds control connection three-digit status codes ascii optional text message example 200 200 ok means last command successful numbers represent code response optional text represents human-readable explanation request e.g need account storing file ongoing transfer file data data connection aborted using interrupt message sent control connection transferring data network four data representations used text files different format control record structure options provided features designed facilitate files containing telnet asa data transfer done three modes ftp software also implements deflate-based compressed mode sometimes called mode z command enables mode described internet draft standardized ftp login uses normal username password scheme granting access username sent server using user command password sent using pass command sequence unencrypted wire may vulnerable network sniffing attack information provided client accepted server server send greeting client session commence server supports users may log without providing login credentials server may authorize limited access sessions host provides ftp service may provide anonymous ftp access users typically log service 'anonymous lower-case case-sensitive ftp servers account prompted user name although users commonly asked send email address instead password verification actually performed supplied data many ftp hosts whose purpose provide software updates allow anonymous logins ftp normally transfers data server connect back client port command sent client problematic nats firewalls allow connections internet towards internal hosts nats additional complication representation ip addresses port number port command refer internal host ip address port rather public ip address port nat two approaches solve problem one ftp client ftp server use pasv command causes data connection established ftp client server widely used modern ftp clients another approach nat alter values port command using application-level gateway purpose http essentially fixes bugs ftp made inconvenient use many small ephemeral transfers typical web pages ftp stateful control connection maintains current working directory flags transfer requires secondary connection data transferred passive mode secondary connection client server whereas default active mode connection server client apparent role reversal active mode random port numbers transfers firewalls nat gateways hard time ftp http stateless multiplexes control data single connection client server well-known port numbers trivially passes nat gateways simple firewalls manage setting ftp control connection quite slow due round-trip delays sending required commands awaiting responses customary bring control connection hold open multiple file transfers rather drop re-establish session afresh time contrast http originally dropped connection transfer cheap http subsequently gained ability reuse tcp connection multiple transfers conceptual model still independent requests rather session ftp transferring data connection control connection idle transfer takes long firewall nat may decide control connection dead stop tracking effectively breaking connection confusing download single http connection idle requests normal expected connections dropped time-out common web browsers retrieve files hosted ftp servers although may support protocol extensions ftps ftp—rather http—url supplied accessible contents remote server presented manner similar used web content full-featured ftp client run within firefox form extension called fireftp ftp url syntax described taking form codice_1 bracketed parts optional example url nowiki ftp //public.ftp-servers.example.com/mydirectory/myfile.txt /nowiki represents file myfile.txt directory mydirectory server public.ftp-servers.example.com ftp resource url nowiki ftp //user001 secretpassword private.ftp-servers.example.com/mydirectory/myfile.txt /nowiki adds specification username password must used access resource details specifying username password may found browsers documentation e.g. firefox internet explorer default web browsers use passive pasv mode easily traverses end-user firewalls variation existed different browsers treat path resolution cases non-root home directory user ftp designed secure protocol many security weaknesses may 1999 authors listed vulnerability following problems ftp encrypt traffic transmissions clear text usernames passwords commands data read anyone able perform packet capture sniffing network problem common many internet protocol specifications smtp telnet pop imap designed prior creation encryption mechanisms tls ssl common solutions problem include ftp ssh practice tunneling normal ftp session secure shell connection ftp uses multiple tcp connections unusual tcp/ip protocol still use particularly difficult tunnel ssh many ssh clients attempting set tunnel control channel initial client-to-server connection port 21 protect channel data transferred ftp software either end sets new tcp connections data channels thus confidentiality integrity protection otherwise necessary ssh client software specific knowledge ftp protocol monitor rewrite ftp control channel messages autonomously open new packet forwardings ftp data channels software packages support mode include explicit ftps extension ftp standard allows clients request ftp sessions encrypted done sending auth tls command server option allowing denying connections request tls protocol extension defined implicit ftps outdated standard ftp required use ssl tls connection specified use different ports plain ftp ssh file transfer protocol chronologically second two protocols abbreviated sftp transfers files similar command set users uses secure shell protocol ssh transfer files unlike ftp encrypts commands data preventing passwords sensitive information transmitted openly network interoperate ftp software trivial file transfer protocol tftp simple lock-step ftp allows client get file put file onto remote host one primary uses early stages booting local area network tftp simple implement tftp lacks security advanced features offered robust file transfer protocols file transfer protocol tftp first standardized 1981 current specification protocol found simple file transfer protocol first protocol abbreviated sftp defined proposed unsecured file transfer protocol level complexity intermediate tftp ftp never widely accepted internet assigned historic status ietf runs port 115 often receives initialism sftp command set 11 commands support three types data transmission ascii binary continuous systems word size multiple 8 bits implementation binary continuous protocol also supports login user id password hierarchical folders file management including rename delete upload download download overwrite download append summary ftp reply codes may returned ftp server codes standardized ietf reply code three-digit value first digit used indicate one three possible outcomes — success failure indicate error incomplete reply second digit defines kind error third digit reply code used provide additional detail categories defined second digit Target text information: netpresenz.netpresenz netpresenz written peter n. lewis stairways software pty ltd world wide web ftp server developed use classic mac os update older product called simply ftpd time significant ftp daemon available macintosh platform added web gopher functionality originally shareware package netpresenz rendered obsolete increasing functionality mac os made freeware work macos I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	10,174	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: graphics_core_next.graphics core next graphics core next gcn codename series microarchitectures well instruction set gcn developed amd gpus successor terascale microarchitecture/instruction set first product featuring gcn launched january 9 2012 gcn risc simd rather simt microarchitecture contrasting vliw simd architecture terascale gcn requires considerably transistors terascale offers advantages gpgpu computation makes compiler simpler also lead better utilization gcn graphics chips fabricated cmos 28 nm finfet 14 nm samsung electronics globalfoundries 7 nm tsmc available selected models radeon hd 7000 hd 8000 200 300 400 500 vega series amd radeon graphics cards including separately released radeon vii gcn also used graphics portion amd accelerated processing units apu playstation 4 xbox one apus gcn instruction set owned amd also owns x86-64 instruction set gcn instruction set developed specifically gpus gpgpu example micro-operation division documentation available llvm code generator compiler back-end available gcn instruction set used mesa 3d miaow open-source rtl implementation amd southern islands gpgpu instruction set aka graphics core next november 2015 amd announced boltzmann initiative amd boltzmann initiative shall enable porting cuda-based applications common c++ programming model super computing 15 amd showed heterogeneous compute compiler hcc headless linux driver hsa runtime infrastructure cluster-class high performance computing hpc heterogeneous-compute interface portability hip tool porting cuda-based applications common c++ programming model july 2017 family microarchitectures implementing identically called instruction set graphics core next seen five iterations differences instruction set rather minimal differentiate much one another exception fifth generation gcn architecture heavily modified stream processors improve performance support simultaneous processing two lower precision numbers place single higher precision number graphics command processor gcp functional unit gcn microarchitecture among tasks responsible asynchronous shaders short video amd asynchronous shaders visualizes differences multi thread preemption asynchronous shaders asynchronous compute engine ace distinct functional block serving computing purposes purpose similar graphics command processor since third iteration gcn hardware contains two schedulers one schedule wavefronts shader execution cu scheduler see new one schedule execution draw compute queues latter helps performance executing compute operations cus underutilized graphics commands limited fixed function pipeline speed bandwidth limited functionality known async compute given shader gpu drivers also need select good instruction order order minimize latency done cpu sometimes referred scheduling geometry processor contains geometry assembler tesselator vertex assembler gcn tesselator geometry processor capable tessellation hardware defined direct3d 11 opengl 4.5 see amd january 21 2017 gcn tesselator amd current sip block earlier units ati truform hardware tessellation terascale one compute unit combines 64 shader processors 4 tmus compute unit separate feed render output units rops compute unit consists cu scheduler branch message unit 4 simd vector units 16-lane wide 4 64kib vgpr files 1 scalar unit 4 kib gpr file local data share 64 kib 4 texture filter units 16 texture fetch load/store units 16 kib l1 cache four compute units wired share instruction cache 16 kib size scalar data cache 32kib size backed l2 cache simd-vu operates 16 elements time per cycle su operate one time one/cycle addition su handles operations like branching every simd-vu private memory stores registers two types registers scalar registers s0 s1 etc hold 4 bytes number vector registers v0 v1 etc represent set 64 4 bytes numbers operate vector registers every operation done parallel 64 numbers every time work actually work 64 inputs example work 64 different pixels time inputs slightly different thus get slightly different color end every simd-vu room 512 scalar registers 256 vector registers cu scheduler hardware functional block choosing simd-vu wavefronts execute picks one simd-vu per cycle scheduling confused schedulers hardware software gcn-gpus “ wavefront ” consists 64 threads nvidia gpus “ warp ” consists 32 threads amd solution attribute multiple wavefronts simd-vu hardware distributes registers different wavefronts one wavefront waiting result lies memory cu scheduler decides make simd-vu work another wavefront wavefronts attributed per simd-vu simd-vus exchange wavefronts max 10 wavefronts attributed per simd-vu thus 40 per cu amd codexl shows tables relationship number sgprs vgprs number wavefronts basically sgprs min 104 512/numwavefronts vgprs 256/numwavefronts note conjunction sse instructions concept basic level parallelism often called vector width vector width characterized total number bits simd vector unit simd-vu 10 wavefront instruction buffer takes 4 cycles execute one wavefront many implementations gcn typically accompanied several amd asic blocks including limited unified video decoder video coding engine amd trueaudio preview 2011 anandtech wrote unified virtual memory supported graphics core next specific hsa features implemented hardware need support operating system kernel subsystems and/or specific device drivers example july 2014 amd published set 83 patches merged linux kernel mainline 3.17 supporting graphics core next-based radeon graphics cards special driver titled hsa kernel driver resides directory /drivers/gpu/hsa drm-graphics device drivers reside /drivers/gpu/drm augments already existent drm driver radeon cards first implementation focuses single works alongside existing radeon kernel graphics driver kgd used perform scheduling offload assignment compute queues aces driver hardware buffering queues least one empty queue least one ace causing hws immediately assign buffered queues aces queues full queues safely assign part scheduling work performed includes prioritized queues allow critical tasks run higher priority tasks without requiring lower priority tasks preempted run high priority task therefore allowing tasks run concurrently high priority tasks scheduled hog gpu much possible letting tasks use resources high priority tasks using essentially asynchronous compute engines lack dispatch controllers first introduced fourth generation gcn microarchitecture present third generation gcn microarchitecture internal testing purposes driver update enabled hardware schedulers third generation gcn parts production use unit discards degenerate triangles enter vertex shader triangles cover fragments enter fragment shader unit introduced fourth generation gcn microarchitecture asynchronous compute engines controlling computation dispatching zerocore power long idle power saving technology shutting functional units gpu use amd zerocore power technology supplements amd powertune discrete gpus southern islands family gcn 2nd generation introduced radeon hd 7790 also found radeon hd 8770 r7 260/260x r9 290/290x r9 295x2 r7 360 r9 390/390x well steamroller-based desktop kaveri apus mobile kaveri apus puma-based beema mullins apus multiple advantages original gcn including freesync support amd trueaudio revised version amd powertune technology gcn 2nd generation introduced entity called shader engine se shader engine comprises one geometry processor 44 cus hawaii chip rasterizers rops l1 cache part shader engine graphics command processor 8 aces l2 cache memory controllers well audio video accelerators display controllers 2 dma controllers pcie interface a10-7850k kaveri contains 8 cus compute units 8 asynchronous compute engines independent scheduling work item dispatching amd developer summit apu november 2013 michael mantor presented radeon r9 290x discrete gpus sea islands family integrated apus gcn 3rd generation introduced 2014 radeon r9 285 r9 m295x tonga gpu features improved tessellation performance lossless delta color compression order reduce memory bandwidth usage updated efficient instruction set new high quality scaler video new multimedia engine video encoder/decoder delta color compression supported mesa however double precision performance worse compared previous generation discrete gpus integrated apus gpus arctic islands-family introduced q2 2016 amd radeon 400 series 3d-engine i.e gca graphics compute array gfx identical found tonga-chips polaris feature newer display controller engine uvd version 6.3 etc polaris-based chips polaris 30 produced 14 nm finfet process developed samsung electronics licensed globalfoundries slightly newer refreshed polaris 30 built 12 nm lp finfet process node developed samsung globalfoundries fourth generation gcn instruction set architecture compatible third generation optimization 14 nm finfet process enabling higher gpu clock speeds 3rd gcn generation architectural improvements include new hardware schedulers new primitive discard accelerator new display controller updated uvd decode hevc 4k resolutions 60 frames per second 10 bits per color channel discrete gpus fp64 performance gcn 4th generation gpus fp32 performance amd began releasing details next generation gcn architecture termed 'next-generation compute unit january 2017 new design expected increase instructions per clock higher clock speeds support hbm2 larger memory address space discrete graphics chipsets also include hbcc high bandwidth cache controller integrated apus additionally new chips expected include improvements rasterisation render output units stream processors heavily modified previous generations support packed math rapid pack math technology 8-bit 16-bit 32-bit numbers significant performance advantage lower precision acceptable example processing two half-precision numbers rate single single precision number nvidia introduced tile-based rasterization binning maxwell big reason maxwell efficiency increase january anandtech assumed vega would finally catch nvidia regarding energy efficiency optimizations due new dsbr draw stream binning rasterizer introduced vega also added support new shader stage – primitive shaders primitive shaders provide flexible geometry processing replace vertex geometry shaders rendering pipeline december 2018 primitive shaders ca n't used required api changes yet done vega 10 vega 12 use 14 nm finfet process developed samsung electronics licensed globalfoundries vega 20 uses 7 nm finfet process developed tsmc discrete gpus integrated apus double-precision floating-point fp64 performance gcn 5th generation gpus except vega 20 fp32 performance vega 20 fp32 performance gcn 5th generation gpus support half-precision floating-point fp16 calculations double fp32 performance 1-hop neighbor's text information: powerpc.powerpc powerpc backronym performance optimization enhanced risc – performance computing sometimes abbreviated ppc reduced instruction set computer risc instruction set architecture isa created 1991 apple–ibm–motorola alliance known aim powerpc evolving instruction set since 2006 named power isa old name lives trademark implementations power architecture-based processors powerpc cornerstone aim prep common hardware reference platform initiatives 1990s originally intended personal computers architecture well known used apple power macintosh powerbook imac ibook xserve lines 1994 2006 apple migrated intel x86 since become niche personal computers remains popular embedded high-performance processors use 7th generation video game consoles embedded applications provided array uses addition powerpc cpus still used amigaone third party amigaos 4 personal computers powerpc largely based ibm earlier power instruction set architecture retains high level compatibility architectures remained close enough programs operating systems run care taken preparation newer chips power series use power isa history risc began ibm 801 research project john cocke lead developer developed concepts risc 1975–78 801-based microprocessors used number ibm embedded products eventually becoming 16-register ibm romp processor used ibm rt pc rt pc rapid design implementing risc architecture years 1982–1984 ibm started project build fastest microprocessor market new 32-bit architecture became referred america project throughout development cycle lasted approximately 5–6 years result power instruction set architecture introduced risc system/6000 early 1990 original power microprocessor one first superscalar risc implementations high performance multi-chip design ibm soon realized single-chip microprocessor needed order scale rs/6000 line lower-end high-end machines work began one-chip power microprocessor designated rsc risc single chip early 1991 ibm realized design could potentially become high-volume microprocessor used across industry apple already realized limitations risks dependency upon single cpu vendor time motorola falling behind delivering 68040 cpu furthermore apple conducted research made experimental quad-core cpu design called aquarius convinced company technology leadership future computing risc methodology ibm approached apple goal collaborating development family single-chip microprocessors based power architecture soon apple one motorola largest customers desktop-class microprocessors asked motorola join discussions due long relationship motorola extensive experience manufacturing high-volume microprocessors ibm form second source microprocessors three-way collaboration apple ibm motorola became known aim alliance 1991 powerpc one facet larger alliance among three companies time personal computer industry shipping systems based intel 80386 80486 chips complex instruction set computer cisc architecture development pentium processor well underway powerpc chip one several joint ventures involving three alliance members efforts counter growing microsoft-intel dominance personal computing motorola power looked like unbelievable deal allowed company sell widely tested powerful risc cpu little design cash part also maintained ties important customer apple seemed offer possibility adding ibm might buy smaller versions motorola instead making point motorola already risc design form 88000 poorly market motorola well 68000 family majority funding focused 88000 effort somewhat starved resources 88000 already production however data general shipping 88000 machines apple already 88000 prototype machines running 88000 also achieved number embedded design wins telecom applications new power one-chip version could made bus-compatible hardware level 88000 would allow apple motorola bring machines market far faster since would redesign board architecture result various requirements powerpc performance computing specification differences earlier power instruction set powerpc outlined appendix e manual powerpc isa v.2.02 since 1991 ibm long-standing desire unifying operating system would simultaneously host existing operating systems personalities upon one microkernel 1991 1995 company designed aggressively evangelized would become workplace os primarily targeting powerpc first powerpc products reached market met enthusiasm addition apple ibm motorola computer group offered systems built around processors microsoft released windows nt 3.51 architecture used motorola powerpc servers sun microsystems offered version solaris os ibm ported aix unix workplace os featured new port os/2 intel emulation application compatibility pending successful launch powerpc 620 throughout mid-1990s powerpc processors achieved benchmark test scores matched exceeded fastest x86 cpus ultimately demand new architecture desktop never truly materialized windows os/2 sun customers faced lack application software powerpc almost universally ignored chip ibm workplace os platform thus os/2 powerpc summarily canceled upon first developers release december 1995 due simultaneous buggy launch powerpc 620 powerpc versions solaris windows discontinued brief period market macintosh due apple persistence powerpc gain traction apple performance powerpc bright spot face increased competition windows 95 windows nt-based pcs cancellation workplace os general powerpc platform especially aim common hardware reference platform instead seen hardware-only compromise run many operating systems one time upon single unifying vendor-neutral hardware platform parallel alliance ibm motorola companies development efforts underway internally powerquicc line result work inside motorola 4xx series embedded processors underway inside ibm ibm embedded processor business grew nearly us 100 million revenue attracted hundreds customers toward close decade manufacturing issues began plaguing aim alliance much way motorola consistently pushed back deployments new processors apple vendors first motorola 1990s powerpc 7xx 74xx processors ibm 64-bit powerpc 970 processor 2003 2004 motorola exited chip manufacturing business spinning semiconductor business independent company called freescale semiconductor around time ibm exited 32-bit embedded processor market selling line powerpc products applied micro circuits corporation amcc focusing 64-bit chip designs maintaining commitment powerpc cpus toward game console makers nintendo gamecube wii sony playstation 3 microsoft xbox 360 latter two use 64-bit processors 2005 apple announced would longer use powerpc processors apple macintosh computers favoring intel-produced processors instead citing performance limitations chip future personal computer hardware specifically related heat generation energy usage well inability ibm move 970 processor 3 ghz range ibm-freescale alliance replaced open standards body called power.org power.org operates governance ieee ibm continuing use evolve powerpc processor game consoles freescale semiconductor focusing solely embedded devices ibm continues develop powerpc microprocessor cores use application-specific integrated circuit asic offerings many high volume applications embed powerpc cores powerpc specification handled power.org ibm freescale amcc members powerpc cell power processors jointly marketed power architecture power.org released unified isa combining power powerpc isas new power isa v.2.03 specification new reference platform servers called papr power architecture platform reference ibm power microprocessors implement power isa used ibm ibm power systems running ibm aix linux many powerpc designs named labeled apparent technology generation began g3 internal project name inside aim development would become powerpc 750 family apple popularized term g3 introduced power mac g3 powerbook g3 event 10 november 1997 motorola apple liked moniker used term g4 7400 family introduced 1998 power mac g4 1999 time g4 launched motorola categorized powerpc models former current future according generation adhered even renaming older 603e core g2 motorola g5 project never came fruition name stuck apple reused 970 family launched 2003 even designed built ibm powerpc designed along risc principles allows superscalar implementation versions design exist 32-bit 64-bit implementations starting basic power specification powerpc added instructions present power instruction set deemed complex removed powerpc architecture removed instructions could emulated operating system necessary removed instructions powerpc chips switch endianness via bit msr machine state register second bit provided allow os run different endianness accesses inverted page table hash table functions tlb off-chip storage always done big-endian mode processor starts big-endian mode little-endian mode three lowest-order bits effective address exclusive-ored three bit value selected length operand enough appear fully little-endian normal software operating system see warped view world accesses external chips video network hardware fixing warped view requires motherboard perform unconditional 64-bit byte swap data entering leaving processor endianness thus becomes property motherboard os operates little-endian mode big-endian motherboard must swap bytes undo exclusive-or accessing little-endian chips altivec operations despite 128-bit treated 64-bit allows compatibility little-endian motherboards designed prior altivec interesting side effect implementation program store 64-bit value longest operand format memory one endian mode switch modes read back 64-bit value without seeing change byte order case motherboard switched time mercury systems matrox ran powerpc little-endian mode done powerpc devices serving co-processors pci boards could share data structures host computers based x86 pci x86 little-endian os/2 windows nt powerpc ran processor little-endian mode solaris aix linux ran big endian ibm embedded powerpc chips use per-page endianness bit none previous applies first implementation architecture powerpc 601 released 1992 based rsc implementing hybrid power1 powerpc instructions allowed chip used ibm existing power1-based platforms although also meant slight pain switching 2nd generation pure powerpc designs apple continued work new line macintosh computers based chip eventually released 601-based power macintosh march 14 1994 ibm also full line powerpc based desktops built ready ship unfortunately operating system ibm intended run desktops—microsoft windows nt—was complete early 1993 machines ready marketing accordingly ibm developed animosity toward microsoft ibm decided port os/2 powerpc form workplace os new software platform spent three years 1992 1995 development canceled december 1995 developer release disappointing launch powerpc 620 reason ibm powerpc desktops ship although reference design codenamed sandalbow based powerpc 601 cpu released rs/6000 model byte april 1994 issue included extensive article apple ibm powerpc desktops apple also lacked powerpc based os took different route utilizing portability platform yielded secret star trek project company ported essential pieces mac os operating system powerpc architecture wrote 68k emulator could run 68k based applications parts os rewritten second generation pure includes low end powerpc 603 high end powerpc 604 603 notable due low cost power consumption deliberate design goal motorola part used 603 project build basic core future generations ppc chips apple tried use 603 new laptop design unable due small 8 kib level 1 cache 68000 emulator mac os could fit 8 kib thus slowed computer drastically 603e solved problem 16 kib l1 cache allowed emulator run efficiently 1993 developers ibm essex junction burlington vermont facility started work version powerpc would support intel x86 instruction set directly cpu one several concurrent power architecture projects ibm working chip began known inside ibm media powerpc 615 profitability concerns rumors performance issues switching x86 native powerpc instruction sets resulted project canceled 1995 limited number chips produced in-house testing aside rumors switching process took 5 cycles amount time needed processor empty instruction pipeline microsoft also aided processor demise refusing support powerpc mode first 64-bit implementation powerpc 620 appears seen little use apple n't want buy large die area costly embedded market later slower promised ibm used power3 design instead offering 64-bit small version late-2002 introduction powerpc 970 970 64-bit processor derived power4 server processor create power4 core modified backward-compatible 32-bit powerpc processors vector unit similar altivec extensions motorola 74xx series added ibm rs64 processors family chips implementing amazon variant powerpc architecture processors used rs/6000 as/400 computer families amazon architecture includes proprietary extensions used as/400 power4 later power processors implement amazon architecture replaced rs64 chips rs/6000 as/400 families ibm developed separate product line called 4xx line focused embedded market designs included 401 403 405 440 460 2004 ibm sold 4xx product line applied micro circuits corporation amcc amcc continues develop new high performance products partly based ibm technology along technology developed within amcc products focus variety applications including networking wireless storage printing/imaging industrial automation numerically powerpc mostly found controllers cars automotive market freescale semiconductor initially offered many variations called mpc5xx family mpc555 built variation 601 core called 8xx designed israel msil motorola silicon israel limited 601 core single issue meaning issue one instruction clock cycle add various bits custom hardware allow i/o one chip 2004 next-generation four-digit 55xx devices launched automotive market use newer e200 series powerpc cores networking another area embedded powerpc processors found large numbers msil took quicc engine mc68302 made powerquicc mpc860 famous processor used many cisco edge routers late 1990s variants powerquicc include mpc850 mpc823/mpc823e variants include separate risc microengine called cpm offloads communications processing tasks central processor functions dma follow-on chip family mpc8260 603e-based core different cpm honda also uses powerpc processors asimo 2003 bae systems platform solutions delivered vehicle-management computer f-35 fighter jet platform consists dual powerpcs made freescale triple redundant setup operating systems work powerpc architecture generally divided oriented toward general-purpose powerpc systems oriented toward embedded powerpc systems companies licensed 64-bit power 32-bit powerpc ibm include powerpc processors used number now-discontinued video game consoles power architecture currently used following desktop computers power architecture currently used following embedded applications 1-hop neighbor's text information: single_instruction,_multiple_threads.single instruction multiple threads single instruction multiple thread simt execution model used parallel computing single instruction multiple data simd combined multithreading processors say number seem execute many tasks achieved processor multiple threads work-items sequence simd lane operations execute lock-step analogous simd lanes simt execution model implemented several gpus relevant general-purpose computing graphics processing units gpgpu e.g supercomputers combine cpus gpus simt introduced nvidia ati technologies amd released competing product slightly later may 14 2007 terascale 1-based r600 gpu chip access time widespread ram types e.g ddr sdram gddr sdram xdr dram etc still relatively high engineers came idea hide latency inevitably comes memory access strictly latency-hiding feature zero-overhead scheduling implemented modern gpus might might considered property 'simt simt intended limit instruction fetching overhead i.e latency comes memory access used modern gpus nvidia amd combination 'latency hiding enable high-performance execution despite considerable latency memory-access operations processor oversubscribed computation tasks able quickly switch tasks would otherwise wait memory strategy comparable multithreading cpus confused multi-core downside simt execution fact thread-specific control-flow performed using masking leading poor utilization processor threads follow different control-flow paths instance handle else block various threads processor execute different paths threads must actually process paths threads processor always execute lock-step masking used disable enable various threads appropriate masking avoided control flow coherent threads processor i.e follow path execution masking strategy distinguishes simt ordinary simd benefit inexpensive synchronization threads processor Target text information: dynamic_frequency_scaling.dynamic frequency scaling dynamic frequency scaling also known cpu throttling technique computer architecture whereby frequency microprocessor automatically adjusted fly depending actual needs conserve power reduce amount heat generated chip dynamic frequency scaling helps preserve battery mobile devices decrease cooling cost noise quiet computing settings useful security measure overheated systems e.g poor overclocking dynamic frequency scaling used ranges computing systems ranging mobile systems data centers reduce power times low workload dynamic power switching power dissipated per unit time chip c·v·a·f c capacitance switched per clock cycle v voltage activity factor indicating average number switching events undergone transistors chip unit-less quantity f switching frequency voltage therefore main determinant power usage heating voltage required stable operation determined frequency circuit clocked reduced frequency also reduced dynamic power alone account total power chip however also static power primarily various leakage currents due static power consumption asymptotic execution time shown energy consumption piece software shows convex energy behavior i.e. exists optimal cpu frequency energy consumption minimal leakage current become important transistor sizes become smaller threshold voltage levels lower decade ago dynamic power accounted approximately two-thirds total chip power power loss due leakage currents contemporary cpus socs tend dominate total power consumption attempt control leakage power high-k metal-gates power gating common methods dynamic voltage scaling another related power conservation technique often used conjunction frequency scaling frequency chip may run related operating voltage efficiency electrical components voltage regulators decreases increasing temperature power usage may increase temperature since increasing power use may increase temperature increases voltage frequency may increase system power demands even cmos formula indicates vice versa dynamic frequency scaling reduces number instructions processor issue given amount time thus reducing performance hence generally used workload cpu-bound dynamic frequency scaling rarely worthwhile way conserve switching power saving highest possible amount power requires dynamic voltage scaling v component fact modern cpus strongly optimized low power idle states constant-voltage cases efficient run briefly peak speed stay deep idle state longer time called race idle computational sprinting run reduced clock rate long time stay briefly light idle state however reducing voltage along clock rate change trade-offs related-but-opposite technique overclocking whereby processor performance increased ramping processor dynamic frequency beyond manufacturer design specifications one major difference two modern pc systems overclocking mostly done front side bus mainly multiplier normally locked dynamic frequency scaling done multiplier moreover overclocking often static dynamic frequency scaling always dynamic software often incorporate overclocked frequencies frequency scaling algorithm chip degradation risks allowable intel cpu throttling technology speedstep used mobile desktop cpu lines amd employs two different cpu throttling technologies amd cool n'quiet technology used desktop server processor lines aim cool n'quiet save battery life used amd mobile processor line instead purpose producing less heat turn allows system fan spin slower speeds resulting cooler quieter operation hence name technology amd powernow cpu throttling technology used mobile processor line though supporting cpus like amd k6-2+ found desktops well via technologies processors use technology named longhaul powersaver transmeta version called longrun 36-processor asap 1 chip among first multi-core processor chips support completely unconstrained clock operation requiring frequencies maximum allowed including arbitrary changes frequency starts stops 167-processor asap 2 chip first multi-core processor chip enables individual processors make fully unconstrained changes clock frequencies according acpi specs c0 working state modern-day cpu divided so-called p -states performance states allow clock rate reduction -states throttling states throttle cpu actual clock rate inserting stpclk stop clock signals thus omitting duty cycles amd powertune amd zerocore power dynamic frequency scaling technologies gpus power saving technologies performance boosting technologies I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	10,966	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: law360.law360 law360 subscription-based legal news service operated portfolio media company subsidiary lexisnexis marius meland founded portfolio media october 2003 2004 began publishing daily online newsletter intellectual property law later named law360 march 20 2012 company acquired lexisnexis meland hoglund serving co-ceos publication 11 news bureaus across u.s Target text information: quicklaw.quicklaw lexisnexis quicklaw canadian electronic legal research database provides court decisions levels news reports provincial federal statutes journals legal commentary also offers case citator case digests 2002 quicklaw purchased lexisnexis subsidiary lexisnexis canada lexisnexis quicklaw used lawyers law firms canada access case law legislation exclusive current awareness services expert commentary addition research lexisnexis quicklaw service also includes citation tools help lawyers law firms validate authority cases find summaries judicial considerations along treatment pinpoint references lexisnexis quicklaw composed several products providing legal practitioners access need perform research designed practices focus particular legal segments lexisnexis quicklaw essentials provides content needed research areas westlaw/ecarswell offers similar fee-based services canlii.org non-profit organization managed federation law societies canada canlii goal make canadian law accessible free internet website provides access court judgments tribunal decisions statutes regulations canadian jurisdictions canlii part collaboration legal information institute around world include austlii bailii lii etc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	5,919	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: firefly_media_server.firefly media server firefly media server formerly mt-daapd open-source audio media server daemon roku soundbridge itunes serves media files using roku server protocol rsp digital audio access protocol daap features include firefly media server formerly known mt-daapd renamed adopted new features support rsp support microsoft windows mac os x. firefly media server active development although attempts resurrect abortive effort continue project firefly2 media server without developers coming forward however old forums links many forked versions available new website since july 2009 development continues linux/freebsd fork named forked-daapd latest version forked-daapd v25.0 1-hop neighbor's text information: world_wide_web.world wide web world wide web www commonly known web information system documents web resources identified uniform resource locators urls nowiki https //www.example.com/ /nowiki may interlinked hypertext accessible internet resources www may accessed users software application called web browser english scientist tim berners-lee invented world wide web 1989 wrote first web browser 1990 employed cern near geneva switzerland browser released outside cern 1991 first research institutions starting january 1991 general public august 1991 world wide web central development information age primary tool billions people use interact internet web resources may type downloaded media web pages hypertext media formatted hypertext markup language html formatting allows embedded hyperlinks contain urls permit users navigate web resources addition text web pages may contain images video audio software components rendered user web browser coherent pages multimedia content multiple web resources common theme common domain name make website websites stored computers running program called web server responds requests made internet web browsers running user computer website content largely provided publisher interactively users contribute content content depends upon users actions websites may provided myriad informative entertainment commercial governmental non-governmental reasons tim berners-lee vision global hyperlinked information system became possibility second half 1980s 1985 global internet began proliferate europe domain name system upon uniform resource locator built came 1988 first direct ip connection europe north america made berners-lee began openly discuss possibility web-like system cern working cern berners-lee became frustrated inefficiencies difficulties posed finding information stored different computers march 12 1989 submitted memorandum titled information management proposal management cern system called mesh referenced enquire database software project built 1980 used term web described elaborate information management system based links embedded text imagine references document associated network address thing referred reading document could skip click mouse system explained could referred using one existing meanings word hypertext term says coined 1950s reason proposal continues hypertext links could encompass multimedia documents including graphics speech video berners-lee goes use term hypermedia help colleague fellow hypertext enthusiast robert cailliau published formal proposal 12 november 1990 build hypertext project called worldwideweb one word web hypertext documents viewed browsers using client–server architecture point html http already development two months first web server month completing first successful test proposal estimated read-only web would developed within three months would take six months achieve creation new links new material readers authorship becomes universal well automatic notification reader new material interest him/her become available read-only goal met accessible authorship web content took longer mature wiki concept webdav blogs web 2.0 rss/atom proposal modelled sgml reader dynatext electronic book technology spin-off institute research information scholarship brown university dynatext system licensed cern key player extension sgml iso 8879:1986 hypermedia within hytime considered expensive inappropriate licensing policy use general high energy physics community namely fee document document alteration next computer used berners-lee world first web server also write first web browser worldwideweb 1990 christmas 1990 berners-lee built tools necessary working web first web browser web editor well first web server first web site described project published 20 december 1990 first web page may lost paul jones unc-chapel hill north carolina announced may 2013 berners-lee gave says oldest known web page 1991 visit unc jones stored magneto-optical drive next computer 6 august 1991 berners-lee published short summary world wide web project newsgroup alt.hypertext date sometimes confused public availability first web servers occurred months earlier another example confusion several news media reported first photo web published berners-lee 1992 image cern house band les horribles cernettes taken silvano de gennaro gennaro disclaimed story writing media totally distorting words sake cheap sensationalism first server outside europe installed stanford linear accelerator center slac palo alto california host spires-hep database accounts differ substantially date event world wide web consortium timeline says december 1992 whereas slac claims december 1991 w3c document titled little history world wide web underlying concept hypertext originated previous projects 1960s hypertext editing system hes brown university ted nelson project xanadu douglas engelbart on-line system nls nelson engelbart turn inspired vannevar bush microfilm-based memex described 1945 essay may think berners-lee breakthrough marry hypertext internet book explains repeatedly suggested marriage two technologies possible members technical communities one took invitation finally assumed project process developed three essential technologies world wide web several differences hypertext systems available time web required unidirectional links rather bidirectional ones making possible someone link another resource without action owner resource also significantly reduced difficulty implementing web servers browsers comparison earlier systems turn presented chronic problem link rot unlike predecessors hypercard world wide web non-proprietary making possible develop servers clients independently add extensions without licensing restrictions 30 april 1993 cern announced world wide web would free anyone fees due coming two months announcement server implementation gopher protocol longer free use produced rapid shift away gopher towards web early popular web browser violawww unix x window system scholars generally agree turning point world wide web began introduction mosaic web browser 1993 graphical browser developed team national center supercomputing applications university illinois urbana–champaign ncsa-uiuc led marc andreessen funding mosaic came us high-performance computing communications initiative high performance computing act 1991 one several computing developments initiated us senator al gore prior release mosaic graphics commonly mixed text web pages web popularity less older protocols use internet gopher wide area information servers wais mosaic graphical user interface allowed web become far popular internet protocol world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered internet year later second site founded inria french national computer research lab support european commission dg infso 1996 third continental site created japan keio university end 1994 total number websites still relatively small many notable websites already active foreshadowed inspired today popular services connected internet websites created around world motivated international standards development protocols formatting berners-lee continued stay involved guiding development web standards markup languages compose web pages advocated vision semantic web world wide web enabled spread information internet easy-to-use flexible format thus played important role popularising use internet although two terms sometimes conflated popular use world wide web synonymous internet web information space containing hyperlinked documents resources identified uris implemented client server software using internet protocols tcp/ip http berners-lee knighted 2004 queen elizabeth ii services global development internet never patented invention terms internet world wide web often used without much distinction however two terms mean thing internet global system interconnected computer networks contrast world wide web global collection documents resources linked hyperlinks uris web resources accessed using http https application-level internet protocols use internet transport protocols viewing web page world wide web normally begins either typing url page web browser following hyperlink page resource web browser initiates series background communication messages fetch display requested page 1990s using browser view web pages—and move one web page another hyperlinks—came known 'browsing 'web surfing channel surfing 'navigating web early studies new behaviour investigated user patterns using web browsers one study example found five user patterns exploratory surfing window surfing evolved surfing bounded navigation targeted navigation following example demonstrates functioning web browser accessing page url codice_1 browser resolves server name url codice_2 internet protocol address using globally distributed domain name system dns lookup returns ip address 203.0.113.4 2001 db8:2e :7334 browser requests resource sending http request across internet computer address requests service specific tcp port number well known http service receiving host distinguish http request network protocols may servicing http protocol normally uses port number 80 https protocol normally port number 443 content http request simple two lines text computer receiving http request delivers web server software listening requests port 80 web server fulfil request sends http response back browser indicating success followed content requested page hypertext markup language html basic web page might look like web browser parses html interprets markup paragraph surrounds words format text screen many web pages use html reference urls resources images embedded media scripts affect page behaviour cascading style sheets affect page layout browser makes additional http requests web server internet media types receives content web server browser progressively renders page onto screen specified html additional resources hypertext markup language html standard markup language creating web pages web applications cascading style sheets css javascript forms triad cornerstone technologies world wide web web browsers receive html documents web server local storage render documents multimedia web pages html describes structure web page semantically originally included cues appearance document html elements building blocks html pages html constructs images objects interactive forms may embedded rendered page html provides means create structured documents denoting structural semantics text headings paragraphs lists links quotes items html elements delineated tags written using angle brackets tags directly introduce content page tags surround provide information document text may include tags sub-elements browsers display html tags use interpret content page html embed programs written scripting language javascript affects behavior content web pages inclusion css defines look layout content world wide web consortium w3c maintainer html css standards encouraged use css explicit presentational html web pages contain hyperlinks related pages perhaps downloadable files source documents definitions web resources underlying html hyperlink looks like collection useful related resources interconnected via hypertext links dubbed web information publication internet created tim berners-lee first called worldwideweb original camelcase subsequently discarded november 1990 hyperlink structure www described webgraph nodes web graph correspond web pages urls directed edges hyperlinks time many web resources pointed hyperlinks disappear relocate replaced different content makes hyperlinks obsolete phenomenon referred circles link rot hyperlinks affected often called dead links ephemeral nature web prompted many efforts archive web sites internet archive active since 1996 best known efforts many hostnames used world wide web begin www long-standing practice naming internet hosts according services provide hostname web server often www way may ftp ftp server news nntp usenet news server host names appear domain name system dns subdomain names www.example.com use www required technical policy standard many web sites use first web server nxoc01.cern.ch according paolo palazzi worked cern along tim berners-lee popular use www subdomain accidental world wide web project page intended published www.cern.ch info.cern.ch intended cern home page however dns records never switched practice prepending www institution website domain name subsequently copied many established websites still use prefix employ subdomain names www2 secure en special purposes many web servers set main domain name e.g. example.com www subdomain e.g. www.example.com refer site others require one form may map different web sites use subdomain name useful load balancing incoming web traffic creating cname record points cluster web servers since currently subdomain used cname result achieved using bare domain root user submits incomplete domain name web browser address bar input field web browsers automatically try adding prefix www beginning possibly .com .org .net end depending might missing example entering may transformed nowiki http //www.microsoft.com/ /nowiki 'openoffice nowiki http //www.openoffice.org /nowiki feature started appearing early versions firefox still working title 'firebird early 2003 earlier practice browsers lynx reported microsoft granted us patent idea 2008 mobile devices english www usually read double-u double-u double-u users pronounce dub-dub-dub particularly new zealand stephen fry podgrams series podcasts pronounces wuh wuh wuh english writer douglas adams quipped independent sunday 1999 world wide web thing know whose shortened form takes three times longer say short mandarin chinese world wide web commonly translated via phono-semantic matching wàn wéi wǎng satisfies www literally means myriad dimensional net translation reflects design concept proliferation world wide web tim berners-lee web-space states world wide web officially spelled three separate words capitalised intervening hyphens use www prefix declining especially web 2.0 web applications sought brand domain names make easily pronounceable mobile web grew popularity services like gmail.com outlook.com myspace.com facebook.com twitter.com often mentioned without adding www indeed .com domain scheme specifiers codice_3 codice_4 start web uri refer hypertext transfer protocol http secure respectively specify communication protocol use request response http protocol fundamental operation world wide web added encryption layer https essential browsers send retrieve confidential data passwords banking information web browsers usually automatically prepend nowiki http // /nowiki user-entered uris omitted web page also written webpage document suitable world wide web web browsers web browser displays web page monitor mobile device term web page usually refers visible may also refer contents computer file usually text file containing hypertext written html comparable markup language typical web pages provide hypertext browsing web pages via hyperlinks often referred links web browsers frequently access multiple web resource elements reading style sheets scripts images presenting web page network web browser retrieve web page remote web server web server may restrict access private network corporate intranet web browser uses hypertext transfer protocol http make requests web server static web page delivered exactly stored web content web server file system contrast dynamic web page generated web application usually driven server-side software dynamic web pages help browser client enhance web page user input server static web page sometimes called flat page/stationary page web page delivered user exactly stored contrast dynamic web pages generated web application consequently static web page displays information users contexts subject modern capabilities web server negotiate content-type language document versions available server configured server-side dynamic web page web page whose construction controlled application server processing server-side scripts server-side scripting parameters determine assembly every new web page proceeds including setting client-side processing client-side dynamic web page processes web page using html scripting running browser loads javascript scripting languages determine way html received page parsed document object model dom represents loaded web page client-side techniques dynamically update change dom way dynamic web page reloaded user computer program change variable content updating information could come server changes made page dom may may truncate browsing history create saved version go back dynamic web page update using ajax technologies neither create page go back truncate web browsing history forward displayed page using ajax technologies end user gets one dynamic page managed single page web browser actual web content rendered page vary ajax engine sits browser requesting parts dom dom client application server dhtml umbrella term technologies methods used create web pages static web pages though fallen common use since popularization ajax term rarely used client-side-scripting server-side scripting combination make dynamic web experience browser javascript scripting language initially developed 1995 brendan eich netscape use within web pages standardised version ecmascript make web pages interactive web applications also use javascript techniques ajax asynchronous javascript xml client-side script delivered page make additional http requests server either response user actions mouse movements clicks based elapsed time server responses used modify current page rather creating new page response server needs provide limited incremental information multiple ajax requests handled time users interact page data retrieved web pages may also regularly poll server check whether new information available website collection related web resources including web pages multimedia content typically identified common domain name published least one web server notable examples wikipedia.org google.com amazon.com website may accessible via public internet protocol ip network internet private local area network lan referencing uniform resource locator url identifies site websites many functions used various fashions website personal website corporate website company government website organization website etc websites typically dedicated particular topic purpose ranging entertainment social networking providing news education publicly accessible websites collectively constitute world wide web private websites company website employees typically part intranet web pages building blocks websites documents typically composed plain text interspersed formatting instructions hypertext markup language html xhtml may incorporate elements websites suitable markup anchors web pages accessed transported hypertext transfer protocol http may optionally employ encryption http secure https provide security privacy user user application often web browser renders page content according html markup instructions onto display terminal hyperlinking web pages conveys reader site structure guides navigation site often starts home page containing directory site web content websites require user registration subscription access content examples subscription websites include many business sites news websites academic journal websites gaming websites file-sharing websites message boards web-based email social networking websites websites providing real-time stock market data well sites providing various services end users access websites range devices including desktop laptop computers tablet computers smartphones smart tvs web browser commonly referred browser software user agent accessing information world wide web connect website server display pages user needs web browser program program user runs download format display web page user computer addition allowing users find displaying moving web pages web browser usually features like keeping bookmarks recording history managing cookies see home pages may facilities recording passwords logging web sites popular browsers chrome firefox safari internet explorer edge web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers also frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems http cookie also called web cookie internet cookie browser cookie simply cookie small piece data sent website stored user computer user web browser user browsing cookies designed reliable mechanism websites remember stateful information items added shopping cart online store record user browsing activity including clicking particular buttons logging recording pages visited past also used remember arbitrary pieces information user previously entered form fields names addresses passwords credit card numbers cookies perform essential functions modern web perhaps importantly authentication cookies common method used web servers know whether user logged account logged without mechanism site would know whether send page containing sensitive information require user authenticate logging security authentication cookie generally depends security issuing website user web browser whether cookie data encrypted security vulnerabilities may allow cookie data read hacker used gain access user data used gain access user credentials website cookie belongs see cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery examples tracking cookies especially third-party tracking cookies commonly used ways compile long-term records individuals browsing histories potential privacy concern prompted european u.s. lawmakers take action 2011 european law requires websites targeting european union member states gain informed consent users storing non-essential cookies device google project zero researcher jann horn describes ways cookies read intermediaries like wi-fi hotspot providers recommends use browser incognito mode circumstances web search engine internet search engine software system designed carry web search internet search means search world wide web systematic way particular information specified web search query search results generally presented line results often referred search engine results pages serps information may mix web pages images videos infographics articles research papers types files search engines also mine data available databases open directories unlike web directories maintained human editors search engines also maintain real-time information running algorithm web crawler internet content capable searched web search engine generally described deep web deep web invisible web hidden web parts world wide web whose contents indexed standard web search engines opposite term deep web surface web accessible anyone using internet computer scientist michael k. bergman credited coining term deep web 2001 search indexing term content deep web hidden behind http forms includes many common uses web mail online banking services users must pay protected paywall video demand online magazines newspapers among others content deep web located accessed direct url ip address may require password security access past public website page web cache server computer located either public internet within enterprise stores recently accessed web pages improve response time users content requested within certain time original request web browsers also implement browser cache writing recently obtained data local data storage device http requests browser may ask data changed since last access web pages resources may contain expiration information control caching secure sensitive data online banking facilitate frequently updated sites news media even sites highly dynamic content may permit basic resources refreshed occasionally web site designers find worthwhile collate resources css data javascript site-wide files cached efficiently enterprise firewalls often cache web resources requested one user benefit many users search engines store cached content frequently accessed websites criminals web become venue spread malware engage range cybercrimes including identity theft fraud espionage intelligence gathering web-based vulnerabilities outnumber traditional computer security concerns measured google one ten web pages may contain malicious code web-based attacks take place legitimate websites measured sophos hosted united states china russia common malware threats sql injection attacks websites html uris web vulnerable attacks like cross-site scripting xss came introduction javascript exacerbated degree web 2.0 ajax web design favours use scripts today one estimate 70 websites open xss attacks users phishing another common threat web february 2013 rsa security division emc estimated global losses phishing 1.5 billion 2012 two well-known phishing methods covert redirect open redirect proposed solutions vary large security companies like mcafee already design governance compliance suites meet post-9/11 regulations like finjan recommended active real-time inspection programming code content regardless source argued enterprises see web security business opportunity rather cost centre others call ubiquitous always-on digital rights management enforced infrastructure replace hundreds companies secure data networks jonathan zittrain said users sharing responsibility computing safety far preferable locking internet every time client requests web page server identify request ip address usually logs also unless set web browsers record requested web pages viewable history feature usually cache much content locally unless server-browser communication uses https encryption web requests responses travel plain text across internet viewed recorded cached intermediate systems another way hide personally identifiable information using vpn vpn encrypts online traffic masks original ip address lowering chance user identification web page asks user supplies personally identifiable information—such real name address e-mail address etc.—web-based entities associate current web traffic individual website uses http cookies username password authentication tracking techniques relate web visits identifiable information provided way possible web-based organisation develop build profile individual people use site sites may able build record individual includes information leisure activities shopping interests profession aspects demographic profile profiles obviously potential interest marketeers advertisers others depending website terms conditions local laws apply information profiles may sold shared passed organisations without user informed many ordinary people means little unexpected e-mails in-box uncannily relevant advertising future web page others mean time spent indulging unusual interest result deluge targeted marketing may unwelcome law enforcement counter terrorism espionage agencies also identify target track individuals based interests proclivities web social networking sites try get users use real names interests locations rather pseudonyms executives believe makes social networking experience engaging users hand uploaded photographs unguarded statements identified individual may regret exposure employers schools parents relatives may influenced aspects social networking profiles text posts digital photos posting individual intend audiences on-line bullies may make use personal information harass stalk users modern social networking websites allow fine grained control privacy settings individual posting complex easy find use especially beginners photographs videos posted onto websites caused particular problems add person face on-line profile modern potential facial recognition technology may possible relate face previously anonymous images events scenarios imaged elsewhere due image caching mirroring copying difficult remove image world wide web web standards include many interdependent standards specifications govern aspects internet world wide web even web-focused standards directly indirectly affect development administration web sites web services considerations include interoperability accessibility usability web pages web sites web standards broader sense consist following web standards fixed sets rules constantly evolving set finalized technical specifications web technologies web standards developed standards organizations—groups interested often competing parties chartered task standardization—not technologies developed declared standard single individual company crucial distinguish specifications development ones already reached final development status case w3c specifications highest maturity level methods accessing web alternative mediums formats facilitate use individuals disabilities disabilities may visual auditory physical speech-related cognitive neurological combination accessibility features also help people temporary disabilities like broken arm ageing users abilities change web receives information well providing information interacting society world wide web consortium claims essential web accessible provide equal access equal opportunity people disabilities tim berners-lee noted power web universality access everyone regardless disability essential aspect many countries regulate web accessibility requirement websites international co-operation w3c web accessibility initiative led simple guidelines web content authors well software developers use make web accessible persons may may using assistive technology w3c internationalisation activity assures web technology works languages scripts cultures beginning 2004 2005 unicode gained ground eventually december 2007 surpassed ascii western european web frequently used character encoding originally allowed resources identified uri subset us-ascii allows characters—any character universal character set—and resource identified iri language 1-hop neighbor's text information: dropbox_(service).dropbox service dropbox file hosting service operated american company dropbox inc. headquartered san francisco california offers cloud storage file synchronization personal cloud client software dropbox founded 2007 mit students drew houston arash ferdowsi startup company initial funding seed accelerator combinator dropbox praised receiving crunchie award 2010 best internet application macworld 2009 editor choice award software ranked one valuable startups us world valuation us 10 billion described one combinator successful investments date however dropbox also experienced criticism generated controversy issues including security breaches privacy concerns dropbox blocked china since 2014 five star privacy rating electronic frontier foundation dropbox brings files together one central place creating special folder user computer contents folders synchronized dropbox servers computers devices user installed dropbox keeping files up-to-date devices dropbox uses freemium business model users offered free account set storage size paid subscriptions available offer capacity additional features dropbox basic users given two gigabytes free storage space dropbox plus users given two terabytes storage space well additional features including advanced sharing controls remote wipe optional extended version history add-on dropbox offers computer apps microsoft windows apple macos linux computers mobile apps ios android windows phone smartphones tablets march 2013 company acquired mailbox popular email app april 2014 company introduced dropbox carousel photo video gallery app mailbox carousel shut december 2015 key features apps implemented regular dropbox service october 2015 officially announced dropbox paper collaborative document editor reported effort expand operations towards businesses march 2016 dropbox 500 million users dropbox founder drew houston conceived dropbox concept repeatedly forgetting usb flash drive student mit 2009 meet team post dropbox blog wrote existing services time suffered problems internet latency large files bugs made think much began making something personal use realized could benefit others problems houston founded evenflow inc. may 2007 company behind dropbox shortly thereafter secured seed funding combinator dropbox officially launched 2008 techcrunch disrupt annual technology conference owing trademark disputes proxy inc. evenflow dropbox official domain name get dropbox.com october 2009 acquired current domain dropbox.com october 2009 evenflow inc. renamed dropbox inc interview techcrunch founder stories october 2011 houston explained demo video released dropbox early days one viewer arash ferdowsi ferdowsi impressed formed partnership regards competition houston stated easy explain idea actually really hard dropbox seen steady user growth since inception surpassed 1 million registered users milestone april 2009 followed 2 million september 3 million november passed 50 million users october 2011 100 million november 2012 200 million november 2013 400 million june 2015 500 million march 2016 july 2012 dropbox acquired tapengage startup enables advertisers publishers collaborate tablet-optimized advertising following december dropbox acquired two companies audiogalaxy startup allowing users store music files playlists cloud stream device snapjoy company allowed users aggregate archive view digital photos cameras phones popular apps like flickr instagram picasa view online via ios app july 2013 dropbox acquired endorse mobile coupon startup may 2014 dropbox acquired bubbli startup built innovative ways incorporating 3d technology 2d views packaging mobile app january 2015 dropbox acquired cloudon company provided mobile applications document editing creation time dropbox told techcrunch cloudon base herzliya would become first dropbox office israel july dropbox acquired clementine enterprise communication service april 2014 dropbox acquired photo-sharing company loom would shut integrated then-recently announced carousel document-sharing startup hackpad dropbox later announced april 2017 hackpad would shut july 19 notes migrated dropbox paper dropbox computer apps microsoft windows apple macos linux computers mobile apps ios android windows phone smartphones tablets also offers website interface part partnership microsoft dropbox announced universal windows 10 app january 2016 dropbox apps offer automatic photo uploading feature allowing users automatically upload photos videos cameras tablets sd cards smartphones dedicated camera uploads folder dropbox users given 500 megabytes extra space uploading first photo given 3 gigabytes extra space users continue using method photos july 2014 dropbox introduced streaming sync computer apps streaming sync described new supercharged synchronization speed large files improves upload download time 2 times august 2015 dropbox announced availability universal 2nd factor usb security keys providing two-factor authentication logging services dropbox received initial funding seed accelerator combinator dropbox also raised us 1.2 million series funding sequoia capital 2007 along interest amount converted equity part series investment included fresh slug us 6 million bringing total amount us 7.25 million round closed 2008 documents filed 2009 may 2010 report wall street journal said since founder drew houston started reading eric ries lean startup blog year ago company started trickling new features ready instead waiting launch fully featured product helps test customer appetite says dubbing practice minimum viable product techcrunch reported july 2011 dropbox looking raise us 200 us 300 million valuation end 5 billion 10 billion range ... quite step previous funding rounds totalled tiny 7.2 million noted forbes article dropbox revenue track hit 240 million 2011 april 2012 dropbox announced bono edge two members irish rock band u2 individual investors company march 2017 bloomberg reported dropbox secured us 600 million credit line company expected file initial public offering ipo soon year february 2018 dropbox filed ipo listed nasdaq company initial intent raise 500 million dropbox stock rose 42 percent 29.89 first day trading march 23 2018 may 2018 dropbox never profitable reports positive cash flow dropbox uses freemium business model users offered free account set storage size paid subscriptions available offer capacity additional features dropbox basic users given two gigabytes free storage space expanded referrals users recommend service people people start using service user awarded additional 500 megabytes storage space dropbox basic users earn 16 gigabytes referral program dropbox plus subscription named dropbox pro prior march 2017 gives users 2 terabytes storage space well additional features including november 2013 dropbox announced changes dropbox business would enable users connect personal dropbox business dropbox device folders properly labeled personal work come password contacts settings files furthermore dropbox announced shared audit logs remote wipe business administrators account transfers new features business offering january 2017 dropbox introduced smart sync business enterprise customers feature lets windows macos users see files dropbox folder download specific files on-demand similarly dropbox basic dropbox plus users also earn extra space referrals plus users earn 1 gigabyte per referral 32 gigabytes dropbox business dropbox solution corporations adding business-centered functionality teams including collaboration tools advanced security control unlimited file recovery user management granular permissions options unlimited storage large organizations dropbox offers dropbox enterprise highest tier product offerings adding domain management tools assigned dropbox customer support member help expert advisors deployment user training july 2016 dropbox announced new adminx administrator dashboard business customers offering improved control company files users june 2017 adminx dashboard given redesign additional administrator functions log-in durations custom password strength parameters granular subdomain verifications specified teams september 2012 facebook dropbox integrated allow users facebook groups share files using dropbox 2013 samsung pre-loaded dropbox mobile application android devices dropbox provided extra space users owning samsung devices november 2014 dropbox announced partnership microsoft integrate dropbox microsoft office applications ios android office 365 applications web july 10 2018 dropbox announced partnership salesforce aiming improve brand engagement team productivity dropbox software enables users drop file designated folder file automatically uploaded dropbox cloud-based service made available user computers devices also dropbox software installed keeping file up-to-date systems file user dropbox folder changed dropbox uploads pieces file changed whenever possible file folder deleted users recover within 30 days dropbox plus users recovery time extended one year purchasing extended version history add-on dropbox accounts accessed emails replied year automatically deleted dropbox also offers lan sync feature instead receiving information data dropbox servers computers local network exchange files directly potentially significantly improving synchronization speeds originally dropbox servers computer apps written python july 2014 dropbox began migrating performance-critical backend infrastructure go september 2012 dropbox website code base rewritten javascript coffeescript dropbox originally used amazon s3 storage system store user files 2014 2016 gradually moved away amazon use hardware referred magic pocket due dropbox description place keep stuff ’ get lost always access june 2017 company announced major global network expansion aiming increase synchronization speeds cutting costs expansion starting 14 cities across 7 countries 3 continents adds hundreds gigabits internet connectivity transit providers regional global isps hundreds new peering partners exchange traffic directly rather isp dropbox uses ssl transfers synchronization stores data via advanced encryption standard aes -256 encryption functionality dropbox integrated third-party applications application programming interface api dropbox prevents sharing copyrighted data checking hash files shared public folders users blacklist copyrighted material applies files folders shared users publicly files kept individual dropbox folder shared march 2013 dropbox acquired mailbox popular email app mailbox ceo gentry underwood saying rather grow mailbox 've decided join forces dropbox build together deal developers mailbox joined dropbox kept mailbox running stand-alone app mailbox ceo stated still struggling keep demand want use dropbox ceo drew houston said felt could help mailbox reach much different audience much faster acquisition reported cost 100 million december 2015 dropbox announced shut-down mailbox blog post drew houston arash ferdowsi explained 'll ... using 've learned mailbox build new ways communicate collaborate dropbox april 2014 dropbox introduced carousel photo video gallery combines photos dropbox photos phone automatically backs new ones take carousel sorted photos event date december 2015 dropbox announced shut-down carousel blog post drew houston arash ferdowsi explained 'll taking key features carousel back place photos live dropbox app april 2015 dropbox launched dropbox notes collaborative note-taking service beta testing phase prompting speculation dropbox planning bring product compete google docs techcrunch noted dropbox notes appeared new version project composer previous iteration service roots acquisition hackpad april 2014 october 2015 dropbox announced upcoming launch dropbox paper collaborative document editor noted media result development dropbox notes service earlier 2015 dropbox paper entered open beta august 2016 allowing anyone join test product mobile apps android ios also released january 2017 dropbox paper officially launched aimed businesses dropbox paper described one part online document one part collaboration one part task management tool one part content hub rob baesman dropbox head product allows importing editing collaboration number file types google microsoft others users devised number uses mashups technology expand dropbox functionality include sending files dropbox via gmail using dropbox sync instant messaging chat logs bittorrent management password management remote application launching system monitoring free web hosting service dropbox received several awards including crunchie award 2010 best internet application macworld 2009 editor choice award software nominated 2010 webby award 2010 mac design awards ars technica 2011 business insider named dropbox world sixth valuable startup 2017 publication ranked dropbox eighth valuable us startup valuation 10 billion described one combinator successful investments date apple launched cloud storage service later 2011 icloud n't hold back dropbox growth dropbox mobile iphone app release 2010 among top 10 best apps selected alex ahlund former ceo two websites focused mobile apps company android app also selected one top five best apps list compiled 2010 jason hiner zdnet founders drew houston arash ferdowsi named among top 30 30 entrepreneurs inc. 2011 january 2012 dropbox named startup year techcrunch 2016 company ranked 2 forbes cloud 100 list dropbox subject criticism controversy related multiple incidents including june 2011 authentication problem let accounts accessed several hours without passwords july 2011 privacy policy update language suggesting dropbox ownership users data concerns dropbox employee access users information july 2012 email spam recurrence february 2013 leaked government documents june 2013 information dropbox considered inclusion national security agency prism surveillance program july 2014 comment nsa whistleblower edward snowden criticizing dropbox encryption leak 68 million account passwords internet august 2016 january 2017 accidental data restoration incident years-old supposedly deleted files reappeared users accounts dropbox headquarters located san francisco originally market street expansion china basin landing building july 2011 allowing significant space increase number employees grew company needed expansion february 2014 signed lease two buildings brannan street needing substantial amounts space company started shopping remaining available space companies sublease november 2015 dropbox expanded second u.s. office austin texas february 2014 state texas city austin provided 1.7 million performance-based incentives package dropbox exchange locating office austin december 2012 dropbox set office dublin ireland first office outside united states Target text information: style_jukebox.style jukebox style jukebox hi-fi high-resolution audio cloud music streaming storage player windows ios android windows phone platforms web player also available mac windows linux style jukebox allows users upload personal music collection computer style jukebox servers listen another compatible device android ios windows mac windows phone streaming downloading songs offline playback basic accounts 10 gb storage pro accounts 2 tb music july 2016 style jukebox 250,000 registered users december 1st 2017 style jukebox discontinued service small post home page details released style jukebox consists cloud-based services user management music storage programmatic interfaces apis clients music streaming storage desktop mobile operating systems upload available desktop client style jukebox enables users drop music files folders music player automatically uploaded synced style jukebox cloud-based services made available user computers devices also style jukebox client installed style jukebox cloud-based services automatically transcodes formats match device supported formats example 320kbit/s wma transcoded 320kbit/s mp3 ios devices flac lossless transcoded wma lossless windows phone devices I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	9,358	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: attack_surface.attack surface attack surface software environment sum different points attack vectors unauthorized user attacker try enter data extract data environment keeping attack surface small possible basic security measure examples attack vectors include user input fields protocols interfaces services due increase countless potential vulnerable points enterprise increasing advantage hackers attackers need find one vulnerable point succeed attack three steps towards understanding visualizing attack surface step 1 visualize visualize system enterprise first step mapping devices paths networks step 2 find indicators exposures second step correspond indicator vulnerability potentially exposed visualized map last step one ioe missing security controls systems software step 3 find indicators compromise indicator attack already succeeded one approach improving information security reduce attack surface system software basic strategies attack surface reduction include following reduce amount code running reduce entry points available untrusted users eliminate services requested relatively users less code available unauthorized actors tend fewer failures turning unnecessary functionality fewer security risks although attack surface reduction helps prevent security failures mitigate amount damage attacker could inflict vulnerability found 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: process_(computing).process computing computing process instance computer program executed one many threads contains program code activity depending operating system os process may made multiple threads execution execute instructions concurrently computer program passive collection instructions process actual execution instructions several processes may associated program example opening several instances program often results one process executed multitasking method allow multiple processes share processors cpus system resources cpu core executes single task time however multitasking allows processor switch tasks executed without wait task finish depending operating system implementation switches could performed tasks perform input/output operations task indicates switched hardware interrupts common form multitasking time-sharing time-sharing method allow high responsiveness interactive user applications time-sharing systems context switches performed rapidly makes seem like multiple processes executed simultaneously processor seeming execution multiple processes simultaneously called concurrency security reliability modern operating systems prevent direct communication independent processes providing strictly mediated controlled inter-process communication functionality general computer system process consists said following resources operating system holds information active processes data structures called process control blocks subset resources typically least processor state may associated process threads operating systems support threads child processes operating system keeps processes separate allocates resources need less likely interfere cause system failures e.g. deadlock thrashing operating system may also provide mechanisms inter-process communication enable processes interact safe predictable ways multitasking operating system may switch processes give appearance many processes executing simultaneously parallel though fact one process executing one time single cpu unless cpu multiple cores multithreading similar technologies used usual associate single process main program child processes spin-off parallel processes behave like asynchronous subroutines process said resources image program memory one resource however multiprocessing systems many processes may run share reentrant program location memory process said image program processes often called tasks embedded operating systems sense process task something takes time opposed memory something takes space description applies processes managed operating system processes defined process calculi process requests something must wait blocked process blocked state eligible swapping disk transparent virtual memory system regions process memory may really disk main memory time note even portions active processes/tasks executing programs eligible swapping disk portions used recently parts executing program data physical memory associated process active operating system kernel allows multitasking needs processes certain states names states standardised similar functionality processes communicate called inter-process communication ipc processes frequently need communicate instance shell pipeline output first process need pass second one process preferred well-structured way using interrupts even possible two processes running different machines operating system os may differ one process therefore mediator called protocols needed early 1960s computer control software evolved monitor control software example ibsys executive control software time computers got faster computer time still neither cheap fully utilized environment made multiprogramming possible necessary multiprogramming means several programs run concurrently first one program ran single processor result underlying uniprocessor computer architecture shared scarce limited hardware resources consequently concurrency serial nature later systems multiple processors multiple programs may run concurrently parallel programs consist sequences instructions processors single processor run one instruction time impossible run programs time program might need resource input device large delay program might start slow operation sending output printer would lead processor idle unused keep processor busy times execution program halted operating system switches processor run another program user appear programs run time hence term parallel shortly thereafter notion program expanded notion executing program context concept process born also became necessary invention re-entrant code threads came somewhat later however advent concepts time-sharing computer networks multiple-cpu shared memory computers old multiprogramming gave way true multitasking multiprocessing later multithreading Target text information: attack_surface_analyzer.attack surface analyzer attack surface analyzer tool created analysis changes made attack surface operating systems since windows vista beyond tool recommended microsoft sdl guidelines verification stage development according microsoft sdl team one tool checking changes made attack surface windows operating system attack surface analyzer developed problem check verify effects various software installations system way back since windows server 2003 developed back use multiple tools every type change made attack surface painful process check everything using multiple tools problem made microsoft create application developers could analyze changes made windows attack surface first used developers microsoft later january 18 2011 beta version version 5.1.3.0 tool named attack surface analyzer released public testers administrators attack surface analyzer compare two scan data system called baseline scan product scan 32-bit 64-bit versions software available windows vista windows 7 respective server editions news windows xp version released attack surface analyzer one tool analysis changes made various parts attack surface windows 6 series operating system includes windows vista windows 7 using one tool analyze changes made registry file permissions windows iis server gac assemblies lot done according microsoft tool use engineers security team microsoft analyze effects software installation windows operating system would possible one tool would use different software different parts windows combine effects logically tool enlists various elements enumerates running system scan elements list comprehensive set elements possible well important elements changed new software installed system software might change elements list change different elements system attack surface analyzer combines easier analyze parts attack surface analyzer tell changes sure cases also able tell particular change configuration causing threat tool enlist threats categories parts operating system scans noticeable issues services configurations file system acls issues related processes running system getting list threats system great thing software released microsoft one knows windows better microsoft improved concerns security shown microsoft important severity threat also known team enterprise attack surface analyzer also shows severity threats finds however seems report severity every threat instead shows severity threat category example severity threat caused “ executables weak acls ” threat severity level 1 less caused “ processes impersonation tokens ” threat severity level 2 surely desirable feature enlist level severity caused threat rather category belongs however news might available every organization experts various domains security may case network security expert organization aware details terminology domain say windows services however two issues may connected possible case important experts two security expert teams know everything terms use might required cases brief description along link technet library describing term detail threats changes attack surface enlisted report generated attack surface analyzer brief description usually enough experts might needed cases microsoft made easy find right resource term rather relying upon web search engines attack surface windows operating system concerns various parts operating system would difficult anyone understand report changes listed serial order attack surface analyzer makes easy user browse report listing threats categories providing table contents html page attack surface analyzer compare two scan data generated two different scans generate report viewed html format also possible run scans one system generate another system using tool good windows vista clients possible generate report using current version attack surface analyzer windows vista case attack surface analyzer used run scans windows vista client transfer scan result files computer running windows 7 generate browse report windows 7 based computer attack surface analyzer works windows 6.x series operating systems report generation done 6.1 version operating systems following system requirements attack surface analyzer official download page installable windows vista windows 7 windows server 2008 windows server 2008 r2 collection attack surface data windows vista windows 7 windows server 2008 windows server 2008 r2 analysis attack surface data report generation windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 microsoft .net 3.5 sp1 microsoft enlisted hardware requirements separately tool able perform job machine meeting hardware requirements installed operating system note however running time generation scan data report depends hardware capabilities better hardware would get work done faster attack surface analyzer list two types scans namely baseline scan product scan strict technical terms scans difference logical technical scan run user run generate data initial system data compared product scan running baseline scan product whose effect attack surface operating system checked installed installation changes system configuration possibly installing services changing firewall rules installing new .net assemblies baseline scan logical scan run user using attack surface analyzer generates file containing configuration system software installed product scan signifies state system ‘ product ’ installed context product software whose effects system upon installation checked generate report two scans required minimum product scan would capture changes made system installation software product testing scan data generated scan compared baseline scan data find changes made system configurations different points worth note one system state captured using attack surface analyzer combination used report generation however ‘ baseline scan ’ one taken automatically called product scan I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,614	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: url_normalization.url normalization url normalization process urls modified standardized consistent manner goal normalization process transform url normalized url possible determine two syntactically different urls may equivalent search engines employ url normalization order reduce indexing duplicate pages web crawlers perform url normalization order avoid crawling resource web browsers may perform normalization determine link visited determine page cached several types normalization may performed always semantics preserving may following normalizations described rfc 3986 result equivalent urls http https urls following normalizations listed rfc 3986 may result equivalent urls guaranteed standards applying following normalizations result semantically different url although may refer resource normalization rules may developed specific websites examining url lists obtained previous crawls web server logs example url appears crawl log several times along may assume two urls equivalent normalized one url forms schonfeld et al 2006 present heuristic called dustbuster detecting dust different urls similar text rules applied url lists showed correct dust rules found applied normalization algorithm able find 68 redundant urls url list 1-hop neighbor's text information: url_redirection.url redirection url redirection also called url forwarding world wide web technique making web page available one url address web browser attempts open url redirected page different url opened similarly domain redirection domain forwarding pages url domain redirected different domain wikipedia.com wikipedia.net automatically redirected wikipedia.org url redirection done various reasons several reasons use url redirection user might mistype url example example.com exmaple.com organizations often register misspelled domains redirect correct location example.com addresses example.com example.net could redirect single domain web page example.org technique often used reserve top-level domains tld name make easier true .edu .net redirect recognizable .com domain web pages may redirected new domain three reasons url redirects incoming links outdated url sent correct location links might sites realized change bookmarks/favorites users saved browsers applies search engines often older/outdated domain names links database send search users old urls using moved permanently redirect new url visitors still end correct page also next search engine pass search engine detect use newer url access logs web servers keep detailed information visitors came browsed hosted site however log links visitors left visitor browser need communicate original server visitor clicks outgoing link information captured several ways one way involves url redirection instead sending visitor straight site links site direct url original website domain automatically redirects real target technique bears downside delay caused additional request original website server added request leave trace server log revealing exactly link followed also privacy issue technique also used corporate websites implement statement subsequent content another site therefore necessarily affiliated corporation scenarios displaying warning causes additional delay web applications often include lengthy descriptive attributes urls represent data hierarchies command structures transaction paths session information practice results url aesthetically unpleasant difficult remember may fit within size limitations microblogging sites url shortening services provide solution problem redirecting user longer url shorter one sometimes url page changes even though content stays therefore url redirection help users bookmarks routinely done wikipedia whenever page renamed post/redirect/get prg web development design pattern prevents duplicate form submissions user clicks refresh button submitting form creating intuitive interface user agents users redirects effectively used targeting purposes like geotargeting device targeting become increasingly important rise mobile clients two approaches serve mobile users make website responsive redirect mobile website version mobile website version offered users mobile clients automatically forwarded corresponding mobile content device targeting client-side redirects non-cacheable server-side redirects used geotargeting approach offer localized content automatically forward user localized version requested url helpful websites target audience one location and/or language usually server-side redirects used geotargeting client-side redirects might option well depending requirements redirects used manipulate search engines unethical intentions e.g. url hijacking goal misleading redirects drive search traffic landing pages enough ranking power remotely related search target approach requires rank range search terms number urls would utilize sneaky redirects forward searcher target page method revival uprise mobile devices device targeting url hijacking off-domain redirect technique exploited nature search engine handling temporary redirects temporary redirect encountered search engines decide whether assign ranking value url initializes redirect redirect target url url initiates redirect may kept show search results redirect indicates temporary nature certain circumstances possible exploit behaviour applying temporary redirects well-ranking urls leading replacement original url search results url initialized redirect therefore stealing ranking method usually combined sneaky redirects re-target user stream search results target page search engines developed efficient technologies detect kinds manipulative approaches major search engines usually apply harsh ranking penalties sites get caught applying techniques like url redirection sometimes used part phishing attacks confuse visitors web site visiting modern browsers always show real url address bar threat lessened however redirects also take sites otherwise attempt attack ways example redirect might take user site would attempt trick downloading antivirus software installing trojan sort instead link clicked browser sends along http request field called referer indicates source link field populated url current web page end logs server serving external link since sensitive pages may sensitive urls example codice_2 desirable codice_1 url leave organization redirection page performs referrer hiding could embedded external urls transforming example codice_4 codice_5 technique also eliminates potentially sensitive information referer url session id reduce chance phishing indicating end user passed clear gateway another site several different kinds response browser result redirection vary whether affect http headers html content techniques used typically depend role person implementing access different parts system example web author control headers might use refresh meta tag whereas web server administrator redirecting pages site likely use server configuration simplest technique ask visitor follow link new page usually using html anchor like method often used fall-back — browser support automatic redirect visitor still reach target document following link http protocol used world wide web redirect response status code beginning 3 causes browser display different page client encounters redirect needs make number decisions handle redirect different status codes used clients understand purpose redirect handle caching request method use subsequent request http/1.1 defines several status codes redirection rfc 7231 status codes require url redirect target given location header http response 300 multiple choices usually list choices body message show default choice location header status codes 304 modified 305 use proxy redirects http response 301 moved permanently redirect looks like http/1.1 301 moved permanently location http //www.example.org/ content-type text/html content-length 174 html head title moved /title /head body h1 moved /h1 p page moved href= http //www.example.org/ http //www.example.org/ /a /p /body /html web authors producing html content ca n't usually create redirects using http headers generated automatically web server program serving html file usually true even programmers writing cgi scripts though servers allow scripts add custom headers e.g enabling non-parsed-headers many web servers generate 3xx status code script outputs location header line example php one use header function headers may required prevent caching programmer must ensure headers output body may fit easily natural flow control code help frameworks server-side content generation buffer body data asp scripting language also accomplished using codice_6 codice_7 http/1.1 allows either relative uri reference absolute uri reference uri reference relative client computes required absolute uri reference according rules defined rfc 3986 apache http server mod_alias extension used redirect certain requests typical configuration directives look like flexible url rewriting redirection apache mod_rewrite used e.g. redirect requests canonical domain name configuration applied one sites server server configuration files single content directory codice_8 file nginx integrated http rewrite module used perform advanced url processing even web-page generation return directive showing example advanced use rewrite module mdoc.su implements deterministic url shortening service entirely help nginx configuration language alone example request /dragonflybsd/hammer.5 come along would first redirected internally /d/hammer.5 first rewrite directive affecting internal state without http replies issued client yet second rewrite directive http response 302 found status code would issued client actually redirect external cgi script web-man netscape introduced meta refresh feature refreshes page certain amount time specify new url replace one page another supported web browsers timeout zero seconds effects immediate redirect treated like 301 permanent redirect google allowing transfer pagerank target page example simple html document uses technique technique used web authors meta tag contained inside document meta tag must placed head section html file number 0 example may replaced another number achieve delay many seconds anchor body section users whose browsers support feature effect achieved http codice_9 header response easier generate cgi programs one need change default status code simple cgi program effects redirect note usually http server adds status line content-length header automatically w3c discourage use meta refresh since communicate information either original new resource browser search engine w3c web content accessibility guidelines 7.4 discourage creation auto-refreshing pages since web browsers allow user disable control refresh rate articles written issue include w3c web content accessibility guidelines 1.0 ensure user control time-sensitive content changes use standard redirects n't break back button core techniques web content accessibility guidelines 1.0 section 7 javascript cause redirect setting codice_10 attribute e.g window.location='http //www.example.com/' normally javascript pushes redirector site url browser history cause redirect loops users hit back button following command prevent type behaviour window.location.replace 'http //www.example.com/ however http headers refresh meta tag may preferred security reasons javascript executed browsers many web crawlers slightly different effect achieved creating inline frame one main difference redirect methods frame redirect browser displays url frame document url target page url bar cloaking technique may used reader sees memorable url fraudulently conceal phishing site part website spoofing html5 effect could done html frame contains target page one redirect may lead another example url http //wikipedia.com *.com domain first redirected https //www.wikipedia.org/ domain name .org navigate language-specific site unavoidable different links chain served different servers though minimised rewriting url much possible server returning browser redirect wikipedia redirecting pages https default since 2015 sometimes mistake cause page end redirecting back possibly via pages leading infinite sequence redirects browsers stop redirecting certain number hops display error message http/1.1 standard states client detect intervene cyclical redirections i.e. infinite redirection loops note earlier version specification recommended maximum five redirections rfc 2068 section 10.3 content developers need aware clients might implement fixed limitation note urls sequence might repeat e.g http //www.example.com/1 http //www.example.com/2 http //www.example.com/3 ... exist services perform url redirection demand need technical work access web server site hosted redirect service information management system provides internet link redirects users desired content typical benefit user use memorable domain name reduction length url web address redirecting link also used permanent address content frequently changes hosts similarly domain name system hyperlinks involving url redirection services frequently used spam messages directed blogs wikis thus one way reduce spam reject edits comments containing hyperlinks known url redirection services however also remove legitimate edits comments may effective method reduce spam recently url redirection services taken using ajax efficient user friendly method creating shortened urls major drawback url redirection services use delay pages frame based advertising generate revenue first redirect services took advantage top-level domains tld .to tonga .at austria .is iceland goal make memorable urls first mainstream redirect service v3.com boasted 4 million users peak 2000 v3.com success attributed wide variety short memorable domains including r.im go.to i.am come.to start.at v3.com acquired fortunecity.com large free web hosting company early 1999 sales price top level domains started falling 70.00 per year less 10.00 use redirection services declined launch tinyurl 2002 new kind redirecting service born namely url shortening goal make long urls short able post internet forums since 2006 140 character limit extremely popular twitter service short url services heavily used redirection services hide referrer placing intermediate page page link destination although conceptually similar url redirection services serve different purpose rarely attempt shorten obfuscate destination url intended side-effect hide referrer information provide clear gateway websites type redirection often used prevent potentially-malicious links gaining information using referrer example session id query string many large community websites use link redirection external links lessen chance exploit could used steal account information well make clear user leaving service lessen chance effective phishing simplistic example service written php example check called e.g referrer although could spoofed also check url provided means malicious person could link redirection page using url parameter his/her selection page uses web server resources url redirection abused attackers phishing attacks open redirect covert redirect open redirect application takes parameter redirects user parameter value without validation covert redirect application takes parameter redirects user parameter value without sufficient validation disclosed may 2014 mathematical doctoral student wang jing nanyang technological university singapore 1-hop neighbor's text information: world_wide_web.world wide web world wide web www commonly known web information system documents web resources identified uniform resource locators urls nowiki https //www.example.com/ /nowiki may interlinked hypertext accessible internet resources www may accessed users software application called web browser english scientist tim berners-lee invented world wide web 1989 wrote first web browser 1990 employed cern near geneva switzerland browser released outside cern 1991 first research institutions starting january 1991 general public august 1991 world wide web central development information age primary tool billions people use interact internet web resources may type downloaded media web pages hypertext media formatted hypertext markup language html formatting allows embedded hyperlinks contain urls permit users navigate web resources addition text web pages may contain images video audio software components rendered user web browser coherent pages multimedia content multiple web resources common theme common domain name make website websites stored computers running program called web server responds requests made internet web browsers running user computer website content largely provided publisher interactively users contribute content content depends upon users actions websites may provided myriad informative entertainment commercial governmental non-governmental reasons tim berners-lee vision global hyperlinked information system became possibility second half 1980s 1985 global internet began proliferate europe domain name system upon uniform resource locator built came 1988 first direct ip connection europe north america made berners-lee began openly discuss possibility web-like system cern working cern berners-lee became frustrated inefficiencies difficulties posed finding information stored different computers march 12 1989 submitted memorandum titled information management proposal management cern system called mesh referenced enquire database software project built 1980 used term web described elaborate information management system based links embedded text imagine references document associated network address thing referred reading document could skip click mouse system explained could referred using one existing meanings word hypertext term says coined 1950s reason proposal continues hypertext links could encompass multimedia documents including graphics speech video berners-lee goes use term hypermedia help colleague fellow hypertext enthusiast robert cailliau published formal proposal 12 november 1990 build hypertext project called worldwideweb one word web hypertext documents viewed browsers using client–server architecture point html http already development two months first web server month completing first successful test proposal estimated read-only web would developed within three months would take six months achieve creation new links new material readers authorship becomes universal well automatic notification reader new material interest him/her become available read-only goal met accessible authorship web content took longer mature wiki concept webdav blogs web 2.0 rss/atom proposal modelled sgml reader dynatext electronic book technology spin-off institute research information scholarship brown university dynatext system licensed cern key player extension sgml iso 8879:1986 hypermedia within hytime considered expensive inappropriate licensing policy use general high energy physics community namely fee document document alteration next computer used berners-lee world first web server also write first web browser worldwideweb 1990 christmas 1990 berners-lee built tools necessary working web first web browser web editor well first web server first web site described project published 20 december 1990 first web page may lost paul jones unc-chapel hill north carolina announced may 2013 berners-lee gave says oldest known web page 1991 visit unc jones stored magneto-optical drive next computer 6 august 1991 berners-lee published short summary world wide web project newsgroup alt.hypertext date sometimes confused public availability first web servers occurred months earlier another example confusion several news media reported first photo web published berners-lee 1992 image cern house band les horribles cernettes taken silvano de gennaro gennaro disclaimed story writing media totally distorting words sake cheap sensationalism first server outside europe installed stanford linear accelerator center slac palo alto california host spires-hep database accounts differ substantially date event world wide web consortium timeline says december 1992 whereas slac claims december 1991 w3c document titled little history world wide web underlying concept hypertext originated previous projects 1960s hypertext editing system hes brown university ted nelson project xanadu douglas engelbart on-line system nls nelson engelbart turn inspired vannevar bush microfilm-based memex described 1945 essay may think berners-lee breakthrough marry hypertext internet book explains repeatedly suggested marriage two technologies possible members technical communities one took invitation finally assumed project process developed three essential technologies world wide web several differences hypertext systems available time web required unidirectional links rather bidirectional ones making possible someone link another resource without action owner resource also significantly reduced difficulty implementing web servers browsers comparison earlier systems turn presented chronic problem link rot unlike predecessors hypercard world wide web non-proprietary making possible develop servers clients independently add extensions without licensing restrictions 30 april 1993 cern announced world wide web would free anyone fees due coming two months announcement server implementation gopher protocol longer free use produced rapid shift away gopher towards web early popular web browser violawww unix x window system scholars generally agree turning point world wide web began introduction mosaic web browser 1993 graphical browser developed team national center supercomputing applications university illinois urbana–champaign ncsa-uiuc led marc andreessen funding mosaic came us high-performance computing communications initiative high performance computing act 1991 one several computing developments initiated us senator al gore prior release mosaic graphics commonly mixed text web pages web popularity less older protocols use internet gopher wide area information servers wais mosaic graphical user interface allowed web become far popular internet protocol world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered internet year later second site founded inria french national computer research lab support european commission dg infso 1996 third continental site created japan keio university end 1994 total number websites still relatively small many notable websites already active foreshadowed inspired today popular services connected internet websites created around world motivated international standards development protocols formatting berners-lee continued stay involved guiding development web standards markup languages compose web pages advocated vision semantic web world wide web enabled spread information internet easy-to-use flexible format thus played important role popularising use internet although two terms sometimes conflated popular use world wide web synonymous internet web information space containing hyperlinked documents resources identified uris implemented client server software using internet protocols tcp/ip http berners-lee knighted 2004 queen elizabeth ii services global development internet never patented invention terms internet world wide web often used without much distinction however two terms mean thing internet global system interconnected computer networks contrast world wide web global collection documents resources linked hyperlinks uris web resources accessed using http https application-level internet protocols use internet transport protocols viewing web page world wide web normally begins either typing url page web browser following hyperlink page resource web browser initiates series background communication messages fetch display requested page 1990s using browser view web pages—and move one web page another hyperlinks—came known 'browsing 'web surfing channel surfing 'navigating web early studies new behaviour investigated user patterns using web browsers one study example found five user patterns exploratory surfing window surfing evolved surfing bounded navigation targeted navigation following example demonstrates functioning web browser accessing page url codice_1 browser resolves server name url codice_2 internet protocol address using globally distributed domain name system dns lookup returns ip address 203.0.113.4 2001 db8:2e :7334 browser requests resource sending http request across internet computer address requests service specific tcp port number well known http service receiving host distinguish http request network protocols may servicing http protocol normally uses port number 80 https protocol normally port number 443 content http request simple two lines text computer receiving http request delivers web server software listening requests port 80 web server fulfil request sends http response back browser indicating success followed content requested page hypertext markup language html basic web page might look like web browser parses html interprets markup paragraph surrounds words format text screen many web pages use html reference urls resources images embedded media scripts affect page behaviour cascading style sheets affect page layout browser makes additional http requests web server internet media types receives content web server browser progressively renders page onto screen specified html additional resources hypertext markup language html standard markup language creating web pages web applications cascading style sheets css javascript forms triad cornerstone technologies world wide web web browsers receive html documents web server local storage render documents multimedia web pages html describes structure web page semantically originally included cues appearance document html elements building blocks html pages html constructs images objects interactive forms may embedded rendered page html provides means create structured documents denoting structural semantics text headings paragraphs lists links quotes items html elements delineated tags written using angle brackets tags directly introduce content page tags surround provide information document text may include tags sub-elements browsers display html tags use interpret content page html embed programs written scripting language javascript affects behavior content web pages inclusion css defines look layout content world wide web consortium w3c maintainer html css standards encouraged use css explicit presentational html web pages contain hyperlinks related pages perhaps downloadable files source documents definitions web resources underlying html hyperlink looks like collection useful related resources interconnected via hypertext links dubbed web information publication internet created tim berners-lee first called worldwideweb original camelcase subsequently discarded november 1990 hyperlink structure www described webgraph nodes web graph correspond web pages urls directed edges hyperlinks time many web resources pointed hyperlinks disappear relocate replaced different content makes hyperlinks obsolete phenomenon referred circles link rot hyperlinks affected often called dead links ephemeral nature web prompted many efforts archive web sites internet archive active since 1996 best known efforts many hostnames used world wide web begin www long-standing practice naming internet hosts according services provide hostname web server often www way may ftp ftp server news nntp usenet news server host names appear domain name system dns subdomain names www.example.com use www required technical policy standard many web sites use first web server nxoc01.cern.ch according paolo palazzi worked cern along tim berners-lee popular use www subdomain accidental world wide web project page intended published www.cern.ch info.cern.ch intended cern home page however dns records never switched practice prepending www institution website domain name subsequently copied many established websites still use prefix employ subdomain names www2 secure en special purposes many web servers set main domain name e.g. example.com www subdomain e.g. www.example.com refer site others require one form may map different web sites use subdomain name useful load balancing incoming web traffic creating cname record points cluster web servers since currently subdomain used cname result achieved using bare domain root user submits incomplete domain name web browser address bar input field web browsers automatically try adding prefix www beginning possibly .com .org .net end depending might missing example entering may transformed nowiki http //www.microsoft.com/ /nowiki 'openoffice nowiki http //www.openoffice.org /nowiki feature started appearing early versions firefox still working title 'firebird early 2003 earlier practice browsers lynx reported microsoft granted us patent idea 2008 mobile devices english www usually read double-u double-u double-u users pronounce dub-dub-dub particularly new zealand stephen fry podgrams series podcasts pronounces wuh wuh wuh english writer douglas adams quipped independent sunday 1999 world wide web thing know whose shortened form takes three times longer say short mandarin chinese world wide web commonly translated via phono-semantic matching wàn wéi wǎng satisfies www literally means myriad dimensional net translation reflects design concept proliferation world wide web tim berners-lee web-space states world wide web officially spelled three separate words capitalised intervening hyphens use www prefix declining especially web 2.0 web applications sought brand domain names make easily pronounceable mobile web grew popularity services like gmail.com outlook.com myspace.com facebook.com twitter.com often mentioned without adding www indeed .com domain scheme specifiers codice_3 codice_4 start web uri refer hypertext transfer protocol http secure respectively specify communication protocol use request response http protocol fundamental operation world wide web added encryption layer https essential browsers send retrieve confidential data passwords banking information web browsers usually automatically prepend nowiki http // /nowiki user-entered uris omitted web page also written webpage document suitable world wide web web browsers web browser displays web page monitor mobile device term web page usually refers visible may also refer contents computer file usually text file containing hypertext written html comparable markup language typical web pages provide hypertext browsing web pages via hyperlinks often referred links web browsers frequently access multiple web resource elements reading style sheets scripts images presenting web page network web browser retrieve web page remote web server web server may restrict access private network corporate intranet web browser uses hypertext transfer protocol http make requests web server static web page delivered exactly stored web content web server file system contrast dynamic web page generated web application usually driven server-side software dynamic web pages help browser client enhance web page user input server static web page sometimes called flat page/stationary page web page delivered user exactly stored contrast dynamic web pages generated web application consequently static web page displays information users contexts subject modern capabilities web server negotiate content-type language document versions available server configured server-side dynamic web page web page whose construction controlled application server processing server-side scripts server-side scripting parameters determine assembly every new web page proceeds including setting client-side processing client-side dynamic web page processes web page using html scripting running browser loads javascript scripting languages determine way html received page parsed document object model dom represents loaded web page client-side techniques dynamically update change dom way dynamic web page reloaded user computer program change variable content updating information could come server changes made page dom may may truncate browsing history create saved version go back dynamic web page update using ajax technologies neither create page go back truncate web browsing history forward displayed page using ajax technologies end user gets one dynamic page managed single page web browser actual web content rendered page vary ajax engine sits browser requesting parts dom dom client application server dhtml umbrella term technologies methods used create web pages static web pages though fallen common use since popularization ajax term rarely used client-side-scripting server-side scripting combination make dynamic web experience browser javascript scripting language initially developed 1995 brendan eich netscape use within web pages standardised version ecmascript make web pages interactive web applications also use javascript techniques ajax asynchronous javascript xml client-side script delivered page make additional http requests server either response user actions mouse movements clicks based elapsed time server responses used modify current page rather creating new page response server needs provide limited incremental information multiple ajax requests handled time users interact page data retrieved web pages may also regularly poll server check whether new information available website collection related web resources including web pages multimedia content typically identified common domain name published least one web server notable examples wikipedia.org google.com amazon.com website may accessible via public internet protocol ip network internet private local area network lan referencing uniform resource locator url identifies site websites many functions used various fashions website personal website corporate website company government website organization website etc websites typically dedicated particular topic purpose ranging entertainment social networking providing news education publicly accessible websites collectively constitute world wide web private websites company website employees typically part intranet web pages building blocks websites documents typically composed plain text interspersed formatting instructions hypertext markup language html xhtml may incorporate elements websites suitable markup anchors web pages accessed transported hypertext transfer protocol http may optionally employ encryption http secure https provide security privacy user user application often web browser renders page content according html markup instructions onto display terminal hyperlinking web pages conveys reader site structure guides navigation site often starts home page containing directory site web content websites require user registration subscription access content examples subscription websites include many business sites news websites academic journal websites gaming websites file-sharing websites message boards web-based email social networking websites websites providing real-time stock market data well sites providing various services end users access websites range devices including desktop laptop computers tablet computers smartphones smart tvs web browser commonly referred browser software user agent accessing information world wide web connect website server display pages user needs web browser program program user runs download format display web page user computer addition allowing users find displaying moving web pages web browser usually features like keeping bookmarks recording history managing cookies see home pages may facilities recording passwords logging web sites popular browsers chrome firefox safari internet explorer edge web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers also frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems http cookie also called web cookie internet cookie browser cookie simply cookie small piece data sent website stored user computer user web browser user browsing cookies designed reliable mechanism websites remember stateful information items added shopping cart online store record user browsing activity including clicking particular buttons logging recording pages visited past also used remember arbitrary pieces information user previously entered form fields names addresses passwords credit card numbers cookies perform essential functions modern web perhaps importantly authentication cookies common method used web servers know whether user logged account logged without mechanism site would know whether send page containing sensitive information require user authenticate logging security authentication cookie generally depends security issuing website user web browser whether cookie data encrypted security vulnerabilities may allow cookie data read hacker used gain access user data used gain access user credentials website cookie belongs see cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery examples tracking cookies especially third-party tracking cookies commonly used ways compile long-term records individuals browsing histories potential privacy concern prompted european u.s. lawmakers take action 2011 european law requires websites targeting european union member states gain informed consent users storing non-essential cookies device google project zero researcher jann horn describes ways cookies read intermediaries like wi-fi hotspot providers recommends use browser incognito mode circumstances web search engine internet search engine software system designed carry web search internet search means search world wide web systematic way particular information specified web search query search results generally presented line results often referred search engine results pages serps information may mix web pages images videos infographics articles research papers types files search engines also mine data available databases open directories unlike web directories maintained human editors search engines also maintain real-time information running algorithm web crawler internet content capable searched web search engine generally described deep web deep web invisible web hidden web parts world wide web whose contents indexed standard web search engines opposite term deep web surface web accessible anyone using internet computer scientist michael k. bergman credited coining term deep web 2001 search indexing term content deep web hidden behind http forms includes many common uses web mail online banking services users must pay protected paywall video demand online magazines newspapers among others content deep web located accessed direct url ip address may require password security access past public website page web cache server computer located either public internet within enterprise stores recently accessed web pages improve response time users content requested within certain time original request web browsers also implement browser cache writing recently obtained data local data storage device http requests browser may ask data changed since last access web pages resources may contain expiration information control caching secure sensitive data online banking facilitate frequently updated sites news media even sites highly dynamic content may permit basic resources refreshed occasionally web site designers find worthwhile collate resources css data javascript site-wide files cached efficiently enterprise firewalls often cache web resources requested one user benefit many users search engines store cached content frequently accessed websites criminals web become venue spread malware engage range cybercrimes including identity theft fraud espionage intelligence gathering web-based vulnerabilities outnumber traditional computer security concerns measured google one ten web pages may contain malicious code web-based attacks take place legitimate websites measured sophos hosted united states china russia common malware threats sql injection attacks websites html uris web vulnerable attacks like cross-site scripting xss came introduction javascript exacerbated degree web 2.0 ajax web design favours use scripts today one estimate 70 websites open xss attacks users phishing another common threat web february 2013 rsa security division emc estimated global losses phishing 1.5 billion 2012 two well-known phishing methods covert redirect open redirect proposed solutions vary large security companies like mcafee already design governance compliance suites meet post-9/11 regulations like finjan recommended active real-time inspection programming code content regardless source argued enterprises see web security business opportunity rather cost centre others call ubiquitous always-on digital rights management enforced infrastructure replace hundreds companies secure data networks jonathan zittrain said users sharing responsibility computing safety far preferable locking internet every time client requests web page server identify request ip address usually logs also unless set web browsers record requested web pages viewable history feature usually cache much content locally unless server-browser communication uses https encryption web requests responses travel plain text across internet viewed recorded cached intermediate systems another way hide personally identifiable information using vpn vpn encrypts online traffic masks original ip address lowering chance user identification web page asks user supplies personally identifiable information—such real name address e-mail address etc.—web-based entities associate current web traffic individual website uses http cookies username password authentication tracking techniques relate web visits identifiable information provided way possible web-based organisation develop build profile individual people use site sites may able build record individual includes information leisure activities shopping interests profession aspects demographic profile profiles obviously potential interest marketeers advertisers others depending website terms conditions local laws apply information profiles may sold shared passed organisations without user informed many ordinary people means little unexpected e-mails in-box uncannily relevant advertising future web page others mean time spent indulging unusual interest result deluge targeted marketing may unwelcome law enforcement counter terrorism espionage agencies also identify target track individuals based interests proclivities web social networking sites try get users use real names interests locations rather pseudonyms executives believe makes social networking experience engaging users hand uploaded photographs unguarded statements identified individual may regret exposure employers schools parents relatives may influenced aspects social networking profiles text posts digital photos posting individual intend audiences on-line bullies may make use personal information harass stalk users modern social networking websites allow fine grained control privacy settings individual posting complex easy find use especially beginners photographs videos posted onto websites caused particular problems add person face on-line profile modern potential facial recognition technology may possible relate face previously anonymous images events scenarios imaged elsewhere due image caching mirroring copying difficult remove image world wide web web standards include many interdependent standards specifications govern aspects internet world wide web even web-focused standards directly indirectly affect development administration web sites web services considerations include interoperability accessibility usability web pages web sites web standards broader sense consist following web standards fixed sets rules constantly evolving set finalized technical specifications web technologies web standards developed standards organizations—groups interested often competing parties chartered task standardization—not technologies developed declared standard single individual company crucial distinguish specifications development ones already reached final development status case w3c specifications highest maturity level methods accessing web alternative mediums formats facilitate use individuals disabilities disabilities may visual auditory physical speech-related cognitive neurological combination accessibility features also help people temporary disabilities like broken arm ageing users abilities change web receives information well providing information interacting society world wide web consortium claims essential web accessible provide equal access equal opportunity people disabilities tim berners-lee noted power web universality access everyone regardless disability essential aspect many countries regulate web accessibility requirement websites international co-operation w3c web accessibility initiative led simple guidelines web content authors well software developers use make web accessible persons may may using assistive technology w3c internationalisation activity assures web technology works languages scripts cultures beginning 2004 2005 unicode gained ground eventually december 2007 surpassed ascii western european web frequently used character encoding originally allowed resources identified uri subset us-ascii allows characters—any character universal character set—and resource identified iri language Target text information: clean_url.clean url clean urls also sometimes referred restful urls user-friendly urls search engine-friendly urls uniform resource locators urls intended improve usability accessibility website web service immediately intuitively meaningful non-expert users url schemes tend reflect conceptual structure collection information decouple user interface server internal representation information reasons using clean urls include search engine optimization seo conforming representational state transfer rest style software architecture ensuring individual web resources remain consistently url makes world wide web stable useful system allows durable reliable bookmarking web resources clean urls also contain implementation details underlying web application carries benefit reducing difficulty changing implementation resource later date example many urls include filename server-side script underlying implementation resource changed urls would need change along likewise urls clean site database moved restructured potential cause broken links internally external sites latter lead removal search engine listings use clean urls presents consistent location resources user-agents regardless internal structure potential benefit use clean urls concealment internal server application information improve security system url often comprise path script name query string query string parameters dictate content show page frequently include information opaque irrelevant users—such internal numeric identifiers values database illegibly-encoded data session ids implementation details clean urls contrast contain path resource hierarchy reflects logical structure users easily interpret manipulate implementation clean urls involves url mapping via pattern matching transparent rewriting techniques usually takes place server side clean url often form seen user search engine optimization purposes web developers often take opportunity include relevant keywords url remove irrelevant words common words removed include articles conjunctions descriptive keywords added increase user-friendliness improve search engine rankings fragment identifier included end clean url references within page need user-readable systems define slug part url identifies page human-readable keywords usually end part url interpreted name resource similar basename filename title page name based use word slug news media indicate short name given article internal use slugs typically generated automatically page title also entered altered manually page title remains designed display human readability slug may optimized brevity consumption search engines long page titles may also truncated keep final url reasonable length slugs may entirely lowercase accented characters replaced letters english alphabet whitespace characters replaced dash underscore avoid encoded punctuation marks generally removed also remove short common words conjunctions example original title outré collection would generated slug I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	6,002	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: arm_cortex-a8.arm cortex-a8 arm cortex-a8 32-bit processor core licensed arm holdings implementing armv7-a architecture compared arm11 cortex-a8 dual-issue superscalar design achieving roughly twice instructions per cycle cortex-a8 first cortex design adopted large scale consumer devices key features cortex-a8 core several system-on-chips soc implemented cortex-a8 core including arm cortex force drives mobile devices 1-hop neighbor's text information: arm_cortex-a55.arm cortex-a55 arm cortex-a55 microarchitecture implementing armv8.2-a 64-bit instruction set designed arm holdings cambridge design centre cortex-a55 2-wide decode in-order superscalar pipeline cortex-a55 serves successor arm cortex-a53 designed improve performance energy efficiency a53 arm stated a55 15 improved power efficiency 18 increased performance relative a53 memory access branch prediction also improved relative a53 cortex-a75 cortex-a55 cores first products support arm dynamiq technology successor big.little technology designed flexible scalable designing multi-core products cortex-a55 available sip core licensees design makes suitable integration sip cores e.g gpu display controller dsp image processor etc one die constituting system chip soc arm also collaborated qualcomm semi-custom version cortex-a55 used within kryo 385 cpu core semi-custom core also used qualcomm mid-range socs kryo 360 silver kryo 460 silver 1-hop neighbor's text information: apple_a6.apple a6 apple a6 32-bit package package pop system chip soc designed apple inc. introduced september 12 2012 launch iphone 5 apple states twice fast twice graphics power compared predecessor apple a5 software updates devices using chip ceased 2017 release ios 11 apple a6 said use 1.3 ghz custom apple-designed armv7-a architecture based dual-core cpu called swift rather licensed cpu arm like previous designs integrated 266 mhz triple-core powervr sgx543mp3 graphics processing unit gpu swift core a6 uses new tweaked instruction set featuring elements arm cortex-a15 support advanced simd v2 vfpv4 analysis suggests swift core triple-wide frontend two fpus compared two-wide core single fpu cortex-a9 based predecessor a6 processor package also incorporates 1 gb lpddr2-1066 ram compared 512mb lpddr2-800 ram apple a5 providing double memory capacity increasing theoretical memory bandwidth 6.4 gb/s 8.5 gb/s a6 includes upgraded image signal processor isp compared isp a5 improves speed image capture low-light performance noise reduction video stabilization a6 manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 32 nm process chip 96.71 mm large 22 smaller a5 a6 also consumes less energy predecessor version a6 higher frequency four graphic cores called apple a6x found fourth generation ipad apple a6 chip used iphones ipads generation ipod touch ipad minis apple tvs Target text information: list_of_applications_of_arm_cores.list applications arm cores list applications arm cores lists products using various arm microprocessor cores sorted generation release name I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	9,163	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_cloud.sun cloud sun cloud on-demand cloud computing service operated sun microsystems prior acquisition oracle corporation sun cloud compute utility provided access substantial computing resource internet us 1 per cpu-hour launched sun grid march 2006 based supported open source technologies solaris 10 sun grid engine java platform sun cloud delivered enterprise computing power resources internet enabling developers researchers scientists businesses optimize performance speed time results accelerate innovation without investment infrastructure early 2010 oracle announced discontinuing sun cloud project since sunday march 7 2010 network.com web site inaccessible typical application could run compute utility fit following parameters resources collections files contain user data executable jobs compute utility concept define elements unit work submitted sun cloud compute utility major elements job include name shell script controlling program execution required arguments shell script list resources must place job run run specific instantiation job description submitted sun cloud compute utility runs occur job submitted compute utility execution job one submits runs cloud sun cloud cpu usage aggregated rounded nearest whole hour example job used 1000 cpus one minute would aggregated 1000 cpu minutes 16.67 cpu hours software rounds 17 hours job would billed us 17 march 13 2007 sun announced launch application catalog online service allows developers isvs develop publish applications enabling communities scientists academics life sciences education engineering fields accelerate innovation complete research projects quickly less expensively network.com application catalog gives users immediate online access popular isv open-source applications easy-to-use web portal contractual obligation users upload run applications create personal library favorites take advantage pre-installed configured applications giving instant productivity portal gives everything need conduct analysis complete complex computational tasks help speed scientific discovery shorten time market new products simply select application upload data get results fast network.com enables anyone publish applications application catalog take advantage powerful solaris 10-based cloud platform users publish applications private library access whenever want also share applications others retaining data securely private space applications available catalog include category examples types suitable applications include 1-hop neighbor's text information: plug_computer.plug computer plug computer external device often configured use home office compact computer consists high-performance low-power system-on-a-chip processor several i/o ports usb ports ... typically runs number linux distributions versions provisions connecting display best suited running media server back-up services file sharing remote access functions thus acting bridge in-home protocols digital living network alliance dlna server message block smb cloud based services however plug computer offerings analog vga monitor and/or hdmi connectors along multiple usb ports permit use display keyboard mouse thus making full-fledged low-power alternatives desktop notebook computers name plug computer derived small configuration devices plug computers often enclosed ac power plug ac adapter plug computers typically consume little power inexpensive one manufacturer claims 119 plug computer draws 1.2 watts cost 2 year run number devices type began appear 2009 consumer electronics show chippc another one 1-hop neighbor's text information: amazon_simple_queue_service.amazon simple queue service amazon simple queue service amazon sqs distributed message queuing service introduced amazon.com late 2004 supports programmatic sending messages via web service applications way communicate internet sqs intended provide highly scalable hosted message queue resolves issues arising common producer-consumer problem connectivity producer consumer amazon sqs described commoditization messaging service well-known examples messaging service technologies include ibm websphere mq microsoft message queuing unlike technologies users need maintain server amazon sells sqs service per-use rate amazon provides sdks several programming languages including java ruby python .net php javascript java message service jms 1.1 client amazon sqs released december 2014 amazon sqs provides authentication procedures allow secure handling data amazon uses amazon web services aws identification requiring users aws enabled account amazon.com created amazon web services aws cloud computing services aws assigns pair related identifiers aws access keys aws enabled account perform identification first identifier public 20-character access key key included aws service request identify user user using soap protocol ws-security digital signature calculated using secret access key secret access key 40-character private identifier aws uses access key id provided service request look account secret access key amazon.com calculates digital signature key match user considered authentic authentication fails request processed amazon sqs guarantees at-least-once delivery messages stored multiple servers redundancy ensure availability message delivered server available may removed server queue may resent amazon sqs guarantee recipient receive messages order sent sender message ordering important required application place sequencing information within messages allow reordering delivery messages type data contained within restricted message bodies initially limited 8kb size later raised 64kb 2010-07-01 256kb 2013-06-18 larger messages user options get around limitation large message split multiple segments sent separately message data stored using amazon simple storage service amazon s3 amazon dynamodb pointer data transmitted sqs message amazon made extended client library available purpose extension amazon sqs client enables sending receiving messages 2gb via amazon s3 awslabs/amazon-sqs-java-extended-client-lib service supports unlimited queues message traffic sqs automatically delete messages sent message delivered receipt handle generated delivery sent recipient receipts sent message addition sqs requires recipient provide receipt order delete message feature new 2008 message id required message deletion system distributed message may sent case recent receipt handle needed delete message message delivered visibility timeout prevent components consuming clock visibility timeout starts message sent default time 30 seconds queue told delete message time message becomes visible resent queue also consists retention parameter defaulting 4 days message residing queue longer purged automatically retention modified 1 minute 14 days user retention changed messages already queue message queue longer new retention purged dropbox netflix nextdoor examples companies use sqs extensively sqs also widely used within amazon.com first 1 million monthly requests free pricing follows regions date transfer price Target text information: rightscale.rightscale rightscale company sells software service cloud computing management multiple providers company based santa barbara california thorsten von eicken former professor computer science cornell university left manage systems architecture expertcity startup company became citrix online joined rightscale ceo michael crandell rightscale vice president engineering rafael saavedra rightscale received 4.5 million venture capital april 2008 13 million december 2008 25 million september 2010 july 18 2012 rightscale announced acquisition scotland-based planforcloud.com formerly shopforcloud.com provides free cloud cost forecasting service rightscale introduced cloud maturity model release second annual state cloud report april 25 2013 report findings based rightscale survey 625 decision makers categorized according cloud maturity model analysis segmentation companies based varying degrees cloud adoption company raised 15.6 million february 2013 september 26 2018 flexera software acquired rightscale undisclosed amount november 5 2012 rightscale announced expanding existing relationship cloud hosting provider rackspace integrate openstack february 2013 rightscale became first cloud management company resell google compute engine public cloud services april 15 2013 rightscale announced would provide enterprise support windows azure conjunction microsoft announcement general availability release windows azure infrastructure services I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	10,893	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cisco_systems.cisco systems cisco systems inc. american multinational technology conglomerate headquartered san jose california center silicon valley cisco develops manufactures sells networking hardware telecommunications equipment high-technology services products numerous acquired subsidiaries opendns webex jabber jasper cisco specializes specific tech markets internet things iot domain security energy management cisco stock added dow jones industrial average june 8 2009 also included p 500 index russell 1000 index nasdaq-100 index russell 1000 growth stock index cisco systems founded december 1984 leonard bosack sandy lerner two stanford university computer scientists pioneered concept local area network lan used connect geographically disparate computers multiprotocol router system time company went public 1990 cisco market capitalization 224 million end dot-com bubble year 2000 cisco 500 billion market capitalization cisco systems founded december 1984 sandy lerner director computer facilities stanford university graduate school business lerner partnered husband leonard bosack charge stanford university computer science department computers cisco initial product roots stanford university campus technology early 1980s students staff stanford including bosack used technology campus link school computer systems talk one another creating box functioned multiprotocol router called blue box blue box used software originally written stanford research engineer william yeager due underlying architecture ability scale well yeager well-designed invention became key cisco early success 1985 bosack stanford employee kirk lougheed began project formally network stanford campus adapted yeager software became foundation cisco ios despite yeager claims denied permission sell blue box commercially july 11 1986 bosack lougheed forced resign stanford university contemplated filing criminal complaints cisco founders theft software hardware designs intellectual properties 1987 stanford licensed router software two computer boards cisco addition bosack lerner lougheed greg satz programmer richard troiano handled sales completed early cisco team company first ceo bill graves held position 1987 1988 1988 john morgridge appointed ceo name cisco derived city name san francisco company engineers insisted using lower case cisco early years logo intended depict two towers golden gate bridge february 16 1990 cisco systems went public market capitalization 224 million listed nasdaq stock exchange august 28 1990 lerner fired upon hearing news husband bosack resigned protest couple walked away cisco 170 million 70 committed charity although cisco first company develop sell dedicated network nodes one first sell commercially successful routers supporting multiple network protocols classical cpu-based architecture early cisco devices coupled flexibility operating system ios allowed keeping evolving technology needs means frequent software upgrades popular models time cisco 2500 managed stay production almost decade virtually unchanged company quick capture emerging service provider environment entering sp market product lines cisco 7000 cisco 8500 1992 1994 cisco acquired several companies ethernet switching kalpana grand junction notably mario mazzola crescendo communications together formed catalyst business unit time company envisioned layer 3 routing layer 2 ethernet token ring switching complementary functions different intelligence architecture—the former slow complex latter fast simple philosophy dominated company product lines throughout 1990s 1995 john morgridge succeeded john chambers internet protocol ip became widely adopted mid-to-late 1990s cisco introduced products ranging modem access shelves as5200 core gsr routers making major player market late march 2000 height dot-com bubble cisco became valuable company world market capitalization 500 billion july 2014 market cap us 129 billion still one valuable companies perceived complexity programming routing functions silicon led formation several startups determined find new ways process ip mpls packets entirely hardware blur boundaries routing switching one juniper networks shipped first product 1999 2000 chipped away 30 cisco sp market share response cisco later developed homegrown asics fast processing cards gsr routers catalyst 6500 switches 2004 cisco also started migration new high-end hardware crs-1 software architecture ios-xr part rebranding campaign 2006 cisco systems adopted shortened name cisco created human network advertising campaign efforts meant make cisco household brand—a strategy designed support low-end linksys products future consumer products traditional business side cisco continued develop routing switching security portfolio quickly growing importance ethernet also influenced company product lines limits ios aging crescendo architecture also forced cisco look merchant silicon carrier ethernet segment resulted new asr9000 product family intended consolidate company carrier ethernet subscriber management business around ezchip-based hardware ios-xr throughout mid-2000s cisco also built significant presence india establishing globalization centre east bangalore 1 billion cisco also expanded new markets acquisition—one example 2009 purchase mobile specialist starent networks cisco continued challenged domestic alcatel-lucent juniper networks overseas competitors huawei due lower-than-expected profit 2011 cisco reduced annual expenses 1 billion company cut around 3,000 employees early-retirement program accepted buyout planned eliminate many 10,000 jobs around 14 percent 73,400 total employees curtailment 2011 analyst call cisco ceo john chambers called several competitors name including juniper hp july 24 2012 cisco received approval eu acquire nds tv software developer us 5 billion 2013 cisco sold linksys home-router unit belkin international inc. signaling shift sales businesses rather consumers july 23 2013 cisco systems announced definitive agreement acquire sourcefire 2.7 billion august 14 2013 cisco systems announced would cut 4,000 jobs workforce roughly 6 starting 2014 end 2013 cisco announced poor revenue due depressed sales emerging markets caused economic uncertainty fears national security agency planting backdoors products april 2014 cisco announced funding early-stage firms focus internet things investment fund allocated investments iot accelerators startups alchemist accelerator ayla networks evrythng later year company announced laying another 6,000 workers 8 global workforce part second restructuring november 4 2014 cisco announced investment stratoscale may 4 2015 cisco announced ceo chairman john chambers would step ceo july 26 2015 remain chairman chuck robbins senior vice president worldwide sales operations 17-year cisco veteran announced next ceo july 23 2015 cisco announced divesture television set-top-box cable modem business technicolor sa 600 million division originally formed cisco 6.9 billion purchase scientific atlanta deal came part cisco gradual exit consumer market part effort cisco new leadership focus cloud-based products enterprise segments cisco indicated would still collaborate technicolor video products november 19 2015 cisco alongside arm holdings dell intel microsoft princeton university founded openfog consortium promote interests development fog computing january 2016 cisco invested velocloud software-defined wan sd-wan start-up cloud offering configuring optimizing branch office networks cisco contributed velocloud 27 million series c round led march capital partners february 2017 cisco launched cloud-based secure internet gateway called cisco umbrella provide safe internet access users n't use corporate networks vpns connect remote data centers immediately reporting fourth quarter earnings 2017 cisco price-per-share value jumped 7 earnings per share ratio increased 60 61 cents per share due part cisco outperformance analyst expectations september 2017 chambers announced would step executive chairman role end term board december 2017 december 11 2017 robbins elected succeed chambers executive chairman retaining role ceo chambers given title chairman emeritus reuters reported cisco systems inc ’ csco.o product revenue russia grew 20 percent 2017 ahead cisco ’ technology product revenue growth so-called bric countries brazil china india may 1 2018 cisco systems agreed buy ai-driven business intelligence startup accompany 270 million june 2018 cisco systems ranked 444th forbes global 2000 list 221.3 billion market cap fiscal year 2017 cisco reported earnings us 0.1 billion annual revenue us 49.3 billion increase 2.8 previous fiscal cycle cisco shares traded 43 per share market capitalization valued us 213.2 billion september 2018 low net income fiscal year 2018 attributed one time tax charge allowed cisco bring back capital overseas cisco used money able bring back lower tax rate fund share buybacks acquisitions cisco acquired variety companies spin products talent company 1995–1996 company completed 11 acquisitions several acquisitions stratacom biggest deals industry occurred internet boom 1999 company acquired cerent corporation start-up company located petaluma california us 7 billion expensive acquisition made cisco date acquisition scientific atlanta larger 1999 cisco also acquired stake 1 billion kpmg consulting enable establishing internet firm metrius founded keyur patel fuse several acquired companies grown 1bn+ business units cisco including lan switching enterprise voice internet protocol voip platform webex home networking latter came result cisco acquiring linksys 2003 2010 supplemented new product line dubbed cisco valet cisco announced january 12 2005 would acquire airespace us 450 million reinforce wireless controller product lines cisco announced january 4 2007 would buy ironport deal valued us 830 million completed acquisition june 25 2007 ironport best known ironport antispam senderbase email reputation service email security appliances accordingly ironport integrated cisco security business unit ironport senderbase renamed sensorbase take account input database cisco devices provide sensorbase allows devices build risk profile ip addresses therefore allowing risk profiles dynamically created http sites smtp email sources cisco announced march 15 2012 would acquire nds group 5bn transaction completed july 30 2012 recent merger deals cisco bought starent networks mobile packet core company moto development group product design consulting firm helped develop cisco flip video camera also 2010 cisco became key stakeholder e-skills week march 2011 cisco completed acquisition privately held network configuration change management software company pari networks although many buy-ins crescendo networks 1993 tandberg 2010 resulted acquisition flagship technology cisco many others failed—partially completely instance 2010 cisco occupied meaningful share packet-optical market revenues still par us 7 billion price tag paid 1999 cerent acquired technologies flip pure digital saw product lines terminated january 2013 cisco systems acquired israeli software maker intucell around 475 million cash move expand mobile network management offerings month cisco systems acquired cognitive security company focused cyber threat protection cisco also acquired solvedirect cloud services march 2013 ubiquisys mobile software april 2013 cisco acquired cyber-security firm sourcefire october 2013 june 16 2014 cisco announced completed acquisition threatgrid company provided dynamic malware analysis threat intelligence technology june 17 2014 cisco announced intent acquire privately held tail-f systems leader multi-vendor network service orchestration solutions traditional virtualized networks april 2 2015 cisco announced plans buy embrane software-defined networking startup deal give cisco embrane software platform provides layer 3–7 network services things firewalls vpn termination server load balancers ssl offload may 7 2015 cisco announced plans buy tropo cloud api platform simplifies addition real-time communications collaboration capabilities within applications june 30 2015 cisco acquired privately held opendns company best known dns service adds level security monitoring domain name requests august 6 2015 cisco announced completed acquisition privately held maintenancenet us-based company best known cloud-based contract management platform serviceexchange month cisco acquired pawaa privately held company bangalore india provides secure on-premises cloud-based file-sharing software september 30 2015 cisco announced intent acquire privately held portcullis computer security uk-based company provides cybersecurity services enterprise clients government sectors october 26 2015 cisco announced intent acquire parstream privately held company based cologne germany provides analytics database allows companies analyze large amounts data store near real time anywhere network october 27 2015 cisco announced would acquire lancope company focuses detecting threat activity 452.5 million cash-and-equity deal june 28 2016 cisco announced intent acquire cloudlock privately held cloud security company founded 2011 three israeli military veterans 293 million deal expected close first quarter 2017 august 2016 cisco announced getting closer making deal acquire springpath startup whose technology used cisco hyperflex systems cisco already owns undisclosed stake hyper-converged provider january 2017 cisco announced would acquire appdynamics company monitors application performance 3.7 billion acquisition came one day appdynamics set ipo january 26 2017 cisco founded innovation alliance germany eleven companies bringing together 40 sites 2,000 staff provide small businesses germany expertise august 1 2017 cisco completed acquisition viptela inc. 610 million cash assumed equity awards viptela privately held software-defined wide area network sd-wan company based san jose ca october 23 2017 cisco systems announced would acquiring broadsoft 1.9 billion entrench cloud communication collaboration area 2017 cisco systems shares mainly held institutional investors vanguard group blackrock state street corporation others cisco products services focus upon three market segments—enterprise service provider midsize small business cisco provides products services across five major technology areas networking including ethernet optical wireless mobility security collaboration including voice video data data center internet things cisco grown increasingly popular asia-pacific region last three decades dominant vendor australian market leadership across market segments uses australian office one main headquarters asia-pacific region offering diverse product portfolio long-term stability integration sustainable competitive advantage cisco became major provider voice ip enterprises moving home user market acquisitions scientific atlanta linksys scientific atlanta provides voip equipment cable service providers time warner cablevision rogers communications upc others linksys partnered companies skype microsoft yahoo integrate consumer voip services wireless cordless phones cisco partners offer cloud-based services based cisco virtualized unified computing system ucs part cisco unified services delivery solution includes hosted versions cisco unified communications manager ucm cisco unified contact center cisco unified mobility cisco unified presence cisco unity connection unified messaging cisco webex meeting center part tactical operations initiative cisco maintains several network emergency response vehicles nerv s. vehicles maintained deployed cisco employees natural disasters public crises vehicles self-contained provide wired wireless services including voice radio interoperability voice ip network-based video surveillance secured high-definition video-conferencing leaders first responders crisis areas 3 mbit/s bandwidth via 1.8-meter satellite antenna nervs based cisco headquarters sites san jose california research triangle park north carolina allowing strategic deployment north america become fully operational within 15 minutes arrival high-capacity diesel fuel-tanks allow largest vehicles run 72 hours continuously nerv deployed incidents october 2007 california wildfires hurricanes gustav ike katrina 2010 san bruno gas pipeline explosion tornado outbreaks north carolina alabama 2011 hurricane sandy 2012 tactical operations team maintains deploys smaller portable communication kits emergencies outside north america 2010 team deployed assist earthquake recovery haiti christchurch new zealand 2011 deployed flooding brazil well response 2011 earthquake tsunami japan 2011 cisco received innovation preparedness award american red cross silicon valley chapter development use vehicles disasters cisco systems also sponsors line professional certifications cisco products four five path network designers levels certification entry ccent associate ccna/ccda professional ccnp/ccdp expert ccie/ccde recently architect ccar ccde previous well nine different paths routing switching design industrial network network security service provider service provider operations storage networking voice datacenter wireless number specialist technician sales datacenter certifications also available cisco also provides training certifications via portal called cisco networking academy qualifying schools become members cisco networking academy provide ccna level level courses cisco academy instructors must ccna certified ccai certified instructor cisco often finds involved technical education 10,000 partnerships 65 countries cisco academy program operates many exotic locations example march 2013 cisco announced interest myanmar investing two cisco networking academies yangon mandalay channel partner network cisco products including ip phones telepresence seen movies tv series company featured documentary film something ventured premiered 2011 cisco 2002–03 recipient ron brown award u.s. presidential honor recognize companies exemplary quality relationships employees communities cisco included part fortune 100 best companies work ranking 20 2011 according report technology consulting firm lexinnova cisco one leading recipients network security-related patents largest portfolio within companies 6,442 security-related patents 2015 class action lawsuit filed april 20 2001 accused cisco making misleading statements relied purchasers cisco stock insider trading cisco denied allegations suit august 18 2006 cisco liability insurers directors officers paid plaintiffs us 91.75 million settle suit december 11 2008 free software foundation filed suit cisco regarding cisco failure comply gpl lgpl license models make applicable source code publicly available may 20 2009 cisco settled lawsuit complying fsf licensing terms making monetary contribution fsf cisco criticized involvement censorship people republic china according author ethan gutmann cisco telecommunications equipment providers supplied chinese government surveillance internet infrastructure equipment used block internet websites track online activities china cisco stated customize develop specialized unique filtering capabilities enable governments block access information sells equipment china sells worldwide wired news uncovered leaked confidential cisco powerpoint presentation detailed commercial opportunities golden shield project internet control may 2011 group falun gong practitioners filed lawsuit alien tort statute alleging cisco knowingly developed customized product assist chinese government prosecution abuse falun gong practitioners lawsuit dismissed september 2014 united states district court northern district california decision appealed united states court appeals ninth circuit september 2015 october 2007 employees cisco brazilian unit arrested charges imported equipment without paying import duties response cisco stated import directly brazil instead use middlemen december 1 2008 multiven filed antitrust lawsuit cisco systems inc. multiven complaint alleges cisco harmed multiven consumers bundling tying bug fixes/patches updates operating system software maintenance services smartnet may 2010 cisco accused person filed antitrust suit british-nigerian technology entrepreneur peter alfred-adekeye hacking pressured us government extradite canada cisco settled antitrust lawsuit two months alfred-adekeye arrest making software updates available multiven customers cisco linksys e2700 e3500 e4500 devices reported remotely updated firmware version forces users register cloud service allows cisco monitor network use ultimately shut cloud service account thus render affected router unusable according german magazine der spiegel nsa developed jetplow gaining access asa series 5505 5510 5520 5540 5550 500-series pix firewalls cisco chief security officer addressed allegations publicly denied working government weaken cisco products exploitation implement security back doors document included trove national security agency files released glenn greenwald book place hide details agency tailored access operations tao unit nsa employees intercept servers routers network gear shipped organizations targeted surveillance install covert firmware onto delivered trojan horse systems described nsa manager “ productive operations tao pre-position access points hard target networks around world. ” cisco denied allegations customer document saying information included specific cisco products supply chain intervention implant techniques new security vulnerabilities cisco general counsel also said cisco work government including united states government weaken products allegations reported prompted company ceo express concern president united states march 2014 cisco systems sued patent infringement spherix says 43 billion cisco sales infringe old nortel patents owned spherix officials spherix saying wide range cisco products switches routers infringe 11 former nortel patents company owns january 2008 cisco announced investment 10 million three years towards job creation technology sector development palestinian territories according cisco project cooperation palestinian authority president mahmoud abbas ramallah-based exalt technologies handles software development cisco outsources palestinian territories 1-hop neighbor's text information: ping_(networking_utility).ping networking utility ping computer network administration software utility used test reachability host internet protocol ip network available virtually operating systems networking capability including embedded network administration software ping measures round-trip time messages sent originating host destination computer echoed back source name comes active sonar terminology sends pulse sound listens echo detect objects water ping operates sending internet control message protocol icmp echo request packets target host waiting icmp echo reply program reports errors packet loss statistical summary results typically including minimum maximum mean round-trip times standard deviation mean command-line options ping utility output vary numerous implementations options may include size payload count tests limits number network hops ttl probes traverse interval requests many systems provide companion utility ping6 testing internet protocol version 6 ipv6 networks implement icmpv6 ping utility written mike muuss december 1983 employment ballistic research laboratory us army research laboratory created tool troubleshoot problems ip network mike muuss inspired remark david mills using icmp echo packets ip network diagnosis measurements author named sound sonar makes since methodology analogous sonar echo location first released version public domain software subsequent versions licensed bsd license ping first included 4.3bsd freedos version developed erick engelke licensed gpl tim crawford developed reactos version licensed mit license rfc 1122 prescribes host must process icmp echo requests issue echo replies return following output running ping linux sending five probes target host www.example.com output lists probe message results obtained finally lists statistics entire test example shortest round trip time 9.674 ms average 10.968 ms maximum value 11.726 ms measurement standard deviation 0.748 ms cases response target host implementations display either nothing periodically print notifications timing possible ping results indicating problem include following case error target host intermediate router sends back icmp error message example host unreachable ttl exceeded transit addition messages include first eight bytes original message case header icmp echo request including quench value ping utility match responses originating queries generic composition icmp packet echo request ping icmp/icmp6 message identifier sequence number used client match reply request caused reply practice linux systems use unique identifier every ping process sequence number increasing number within process windows uses fixed identifier varies windows versions sequence number reset boot time echo reply icmp message generated response echo request mandatory hosts must include exact payload received request payload packet generally filled ascii characters output tcpdump utility shows last 32 bytes following example eight-byte icmp header starting payload may include timestamp indicating time transmission sequence number found example allows ping compute round trip time stateless manner without needing record time transmission packet payload may also include magic packet wake-on-lan protocol minimum payload case longer shown echo request typically receive reply host sleeping hibernation state host still wakes sleep state interface configured accept wakeup requests host already active configured allow replies incoming icmp echo request packets returned reply include payload may used detect remote host effectively woken repeating new request delay allow host resume network services host sleeping low power active state single request wakes host enough allow echo reply service reply instantly service enabled host need completely wake devices may return low power mode short delay configuration may used avoid host enter hibernation state much longer wake delay time passed low power active mode conduct denial-of-service attack attacker may send ping requests fast possible possibly overwhelming victim icmp echo requests technique called ping flood ping requests multiple addresses ping sweeps may used obtain list hosts network 1-hop neighbor's text information: ip_address_spoofing.ip address spoofing computer networking ip address spoofing ip spoofing creation internet protocol ip packets false source ip address purpose impersonating another computing system basic protocol sending data internet network many computer networks internet protocol ip protocol specifies ip packet must header contains among things ip address sender packet source ip address normally address packet sent sender address header altered recipient appears packet came another source protocol requires receiving computer send back response source ip address spoofing mainly used sender anticipate network response care response source ip address provides limited information sender may provide general information region city town packet sent provide information identity sender computer used ip address spoofing involving use trusted ip address used network intruders overcome network security measures authentication based ip addresses type attack effective trust relationships exist machines example common corporate networks internal systems trust users log without username password provided connecting another machine internal network must already logged spoofing connection trusted machine attacker network may able access target machine without authentication ip address spoofing frequently used denial-of-service attacks objective flood target overwhelming volume traffic attacker care receiving responses attack packets packets spoofed ip addresses difficult filter since spoofed packet appears come different address hide true source attack denial service attacks use spoofing typically randomly choose addresses entire ip address space though sophisticated spoofing mechanisms might avoid unroutable addresses unused portions ip address space proliferation large botnets makes spoofing less important denial service attacks attackers typically spoofing available tool want use defenses denial-of-service attacks rely validity source ip address attack packets might trouble spoofed packets backscatter technique used observe denial-of-service attack activity internet relies attackers use ip spoofing effectiveness use packets false source ip address always evidence malicious intent example performance testing websites hundreds even thousands vusers virtual users may created executing test script website test order simulate happen system goes live large number users log since user normally ip address commercial testing products hp loadrunner webload others use ip spoofing allowing user return address well configuration services vulnerable ip spoofing packet filtering one defense ip spoofing attacks gateway network usually performs ingress filtering blocking packets outside network source address inside network prevents outside attacker spoofing address internal machine ideally gateway would also perform egress filtering outgoing packets blocking packets inside network source address inside prevents attacker within network performing filtering launching ip spoofing attacks external machines also recommended design network protocols services rely source ip address authentication upper layer protocols provide defense ip spoofing attacks example transmission control protocol tcp uses sequence numbers negotiated remote machine ensure arriving packets part established connection since attacker normally see reply packets sequence number must guessed order hijack connection poor implementation many older operating systems network devices however means tcp sequence numbers predicted term spoofing also sometimes used refer header forgery insertion false misleading information e-mail netnews headers falsified headers used mislead recipient network applications origin message common technique spammers sporgers wish conceal origin messages avoid tracked Target text information: smurf_attack.smurf attack smurf attack distributed denial-of-service attack large numbers internet control message protocol icmp packets intended victim spoofed source ip broadcast computer network using ip broadcast address devices network default respond sending reply source ip address number machines network receive respond packets large victim computer flooded traffic slow victim computer point becomes impossible work original smurf.c written dan moschuk aka tfreak late 1990s many ip networks would participate smurf attacks prompted would respond icmp requests sent broadcast addresses name comes idea small numerous attackers overwhelming much larger opponent see smurfs today administrators make network immune abuse therefore networks remain vulnerable smurf attacks fix two-fold another proposed solution network ingress filtering rejects attacking packets basis forged source address example configuring router forward packets broadcast addresses cisco router smurf amplifier computer network lends used smurf attack smurf amplifiers act worsen severity smurf attack configured way generate large number icmp replies victim spoofed source ip address fraggle attack variation smurf attack attacker sends large amount udp traffic ports 7 echo 19 chargen ip broadcast address intended victim spoofed source ip address works similarly smurf attack many computers network respond traffic sending traffic back spoofed source ip victim flooding traffic source code attack also released tfreak I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,495	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: lisp_(programming_language).lisp programming language lisp historically lisp family computer programming languages long history distinctive fully parenthesized prefix notation originally specified 1958 lisp second-oldest high-level programming language widespread use today fortran older one year lisp changed since early days many dialects existed history today best-known general-purpose lisp dialects clojure common lisp scheme lisp originally created practical mathematical notation computer programs influenced notation alonzo church lambda calculus quickly became favored programming language artificial intelligence ai research one earliest programming languages lisp pioneered many ideas computer science including tree data structures automatic storage management dynamic typing conditionals higher-order functions recursion self-hosting compiler read–eval–print loop name lisp derives list processor linked lists one lisp major data structures lisp source code made lists thus lisp programs manipulate source code data structure giving rise macro systems allow programmers create new syntax new domain-specific languages embedded lisp interchangeability code data gives lisp instantly recognizable syntax program code written s-expressions parenthesized lists function call syntactic form written list function operator name first arguments following instance function takes three arguments would called john mccarthy developed lisp 1958 massachusetts institute technology mit mccarthy published design paper communications acm 1960 entitled recursive functions symbolic expressions computation machine part showed simple operators notation functions one build turing-complete language algorithms information processing language first ai language 1955 1956 already included many concepts list-processing recursion came used lisp mccarthy original notation used bracketed m-expressions would translated s-expressions example m-expression equivalent s-expression lisp implemented programmers rapidly chose use s-expressions m-expressions abandoned m-expressions surfaced short-lived attempts mlisp horace enea cgol vaughan pratt lisp first implemented steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions two assembly language macros ibm 704 became primitive operations decomposing lists contents address part register number contents decrement part register number register used refer registers computer central processing unit cpu lisp dialects still use operations return first item list rest list respectively first complete lisp compiler written lisp implemented 1962 tim hart mike levin mit compiler introduced lisp model incremental compilation compiled interpreted functions intermix freely language used hart levin memo much closer modern lisp style mccarthy earlier code lisp difficult system implement compiler techniques stock hardware 1970s garbage collection routines developed mit graduate student daniel edwards made practical run lisp general-purpose computing systems efficiency still problem led creation lisp machines dedicated hardware running lisp environments programs 1980s 1990s great effort made unify work new lisp dialects mostly successors maclisp zetalisp nil new implementation lisp single language new language common lisp somewhat compatible dialects replaced book common lisp language notes compatibility various constructs 1994 ansi published common lisp standard ansi x3.226-1994 information technology programming language common lisp since inception lisp closely connected artificial intelligence research community especially pdp-10 systems lisp used implementation programming language micro planner used famous ai system shrdlu 1970s ai research spawned commercial offshoots performance existing lisp systems became growing issue sixty-year history lisp spawned many variations core theme s-expression language moreover given dialect may several implementations—for instance dozen implementations common lisp differences dialects may quite visible—for instance common lisp uses keyword codice_1 name function scheme uses codice_2 within dialect standardized however conforming implementations support core language different extensions libraries declined somewhat 1990s lisp experienced resurgence interest 2000 new activity focused around implementations common lisp scheme emacs lisp clojure racket includes development new portable libraries applications many new lisp programmers inspired writers paul graham eric s. raymond pursue language others considered antiquated new lisp programmers often describe language eye-opening experience claim substantially productive languages increase awareness may contrasted ai winter lisp brief gain mid-1990s dan weinreb lists survey common lisp implementations eleven actively maintained common lisp implementations scieneer common lisp new commercial implementation forked cmucl first release 2002 open source community created new supporting infrastructure cliki wiki collects common lisp related information common lisp directory lists resources lisp popular irc channel allows sharing commenting code snippets support lisppaste irc bot written lisp planet lisp collects contents various lisp-related blogs lispforum users discuss lisp topics lispjobs service announcing job offers weekly news service weekly lisp news common-lisp.net hosting site open source common lisp projects quicklisp library manager common lisp fifty years lisp 1958–2008 celebrated lisp50 oopsla regular local user meetings boston vancouver hamburg events include european common lisp meeting european lisp symposium international lisp conference scheme community actively maintains twenty implementations several significant new implementations chicken gambit gauche ikarus larceny ypsilon developed 2000s decade revised report algorithmic language scheme standard scheme widely accepted scheme community scheme requests implementation process created lot quasi standard libraries extensions scheme user communities individual scheme implementations continue grow new language standardization process started 2003 led rrs scheme standard 2007 academic use scheme teaching computer science seems declined somewhat universities longer using scheme computer science introductory courses mit uses python instead scheme undergraduate computer science program mitx massive open online course several new dialects lisp arc hy nu liskell lfe lisp flavored erlang parser julia implemented femtolisp dialect scheme julia inspired scheme often considered lisp common lisp scheme represent two major streams lisp development languages embody significantly different design choices common lisp successor maclisp primary influences lisp machine lisp maclisp nil s-1 lisp spice lisp scheme many features lisp machine lisp large lisp dialect used program lisp machines designed efficiently implementable personal computer workstation common lisp general-purpose programming language thus large language standard including many built-in data types functions macros language elements object system common lisp object system common lisp also borrowed certain features scheme lexical scoping lexical closures common lisp implementations available targeting different platforms llvm java virtual machine x86-64 powerpc alpha arm motorola 68000 mips operating systems windows macos linux solaris freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd heroku scheme statically scoped properly tail-recursive dialect lisp programming language invented guy l. steele jr. gerald jay sussman designed exceptionally clear simple semantics different ways form expressions designed decade earlier common lisp scheme minimalist design much smaller set standard features certain implementation features tail-call optimization full continuations specified common lisp wide variety programming paradigms including imperative functional message passing styles find convenient expression scheme scheme continues evolve series standards revised report algorithmic language scheme series scheme requests implementation clojure recent dialect lisp targets mainly java virtual machine common language runtime clr python vm ruby vm yarv compiling javascript designed pragmatic general-purpose language clojure draws considerable influences haskell places strong emphasis immutability clojure provides access java frameworks libraries optional type hints type inference calls java avoid reflection enable fast primitive operations lisp dialects used scripting languages many applications best-known emacs lisp emacs editor autolisp later visual lisp autocad nyquist audacity scheme lilypond potential small size useful scheme interpreter makes particularly popular embedded scripting examples include siod tinyscheme successfully embedded gimp image processor generic name script-fu librep lisp interpreter john harper originally based emacs lisp language embedded sawfish window manager lisp first language structure program code represented faithfully directly standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed homoiconicity thus lisp functions manipulated altered even created within lisp program without lower-level manipulations generally considered one main advantages language regard expressive power makes language suitable syntactic macros metacircular evaluation conditional using if–then–else syntax invented mccarthy fortran context proposed inclusion algol made part algol 58 specification lisp mccarthy used general cond -structure algol 60 took if–then–else popularized lisp deeply influenced alan kay leader research team developed smalltalk xerox parc turn lisp influenced smalltalk later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features inheritance classes encapsulating instances message passing etc 1970s flavors object system introduced concept multiple inheritance mixin common lisp object system provides multiple inheritance multimethods multiple dispatch first-class generic functions yielding flexible powerful form dynamic dispatch served template many subsequent lisp including scheme object systems often implemented via metaobject protocol reflective metacircular design object system defined terms lisp second language smalltalk still one languages possess metaobject system many years later alan kay suggested result confluence features smalltalk lisp could regarded properly conceived object-oriented programming systems lisp introduced concept automatic garbage collection system walks heap looking unused memory progress modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms generational garbage collection stimulated use lisp edsger w. dijkstra 1972 turing award lecture said largely resource requirements respect early computing hardware including early microprocessors lisp become popular outside ai community fortran algol-descended c language suitability complex dynamic applications lisp enjoying resurgence popular interest 2010s lisp expression oriented language unlike languages distinction made expressions statements code data written expressions expression evaluated produces value common lisp possibly multiple values embedded expressions value data type mccarthy 1958 paper introduced two types syntax symbolic expressions s-expressions sexps mirror internal representation code data meta expressions m-expressions express functions s-expressions m-expressions never found favor almost lisps today use s-expressions manipulate code data use parentheses lisp immediately obvious difference programming language families result students long given lisp nicknames lost stupid parentheses lots irritating superfluous parentheses however s-expression syntax also responsible much lisp power syntax extremely regular facilitates manipulation computer however syntax lisp limited traditional parentheses notation extended include alternative notations example xmlisp common lisp extension employs metaobject protocol integrate s-expressions extensible markup language xml reliance expressions gives language great flexibility lisp functions written lists processed exactly like data allows easy writing programs manipulate programs metaprogramming many lisp dialects exploit feature using macro systems enables extension language almost without limit lisp list written elements separated whitespace surrounded parentheses example list whose elements three atoms values implicitly typed respectively two integers lisp-specific data type called symbol declared empty list also represented special atom entity lisp atom list expressions written lists using prefix notation first element list name function name macro lambda expression name special operator see remainder list arguments example function returns arguments list expression evaluates list quote preceding example special operator returns argument without evaluating unquoted expressions recursively evaluated enclosing expression evaluated example evaluates list note third argument list lists nested arithmetic operators treated similarly expression evaluates 10 equivalent infix notation would lisp notion operators implemented algol-derived languages arithmetic operators lisp variadic functions n-ary able take number arguments c-style '++ increment operator sometimes implemented name incf giving syntax equivalent setq x x 1 returning new value x special operators sometimes called special forms provide lisp control structure example special operator takes three arguments first argument non-nil evaluates second argument otherwise evaluates third argument thus expression evaluates course would useful non-trivial expression substituted place lisp also provides logical operators operators short circuit evaluation return first nil non-nil argument respectively evaluate james another special operator used bind variables values evaluated within expression operator also used create functions arguments list arguments expression expressions function evaluates returned value value last expression evaluated expression evaluates function applied takes one argument binds returns number one greater argument lambda expressions treated differently named functions invoked way therefore expression evaluates 're function application execute anonymous function passing value 5 named functions created storing lambda expression symbol using defun macro original lisp two fundamental data types atoms lists list finite ordered sequence elements element either atom list atom number symbol symbol essentially unique named item written alphanumeric string source code used either variable name data item symbolic processing example list contains three elements symbol list number 2 essential difference atoms lists atoms immutable unique two atoms appeared different places source code written exactly way represented object whereas list separate object could altered independently lists could distinguished lists comparison operators data types introduced later lisp dialects programming styles evolved concept atom lost importance many dialects still retained predicate atom legacy compatibility defining true object cons lisp list implemented singly linked list cell list called cons scheme pair composed two pointers called car cdr respectively equivalent fields discussed article linked list many data structures built cons cells one basic called proper list proper list either special empty list symbol cons points datum may another cons structure list points another proper list given cons taken head linked list car points first element list cdr points rest list reason functions also called referring conses part linked list rather say tree thus lisp list atomic object instance container class c++ java would list nothing aggregate linked conses variable refers given list simply pointer first cons list traversal list done cdring list taking successive cdrs visit cons list using several higher-order functions map function list conses lists universal lisp systems common misconception lisp data structures fact simplistic lisps data structures vectors arrays hash tables structures forth parenthesized s-expressions represent linked list structures several ways represent list s-expression cons written dotted-pair notation car cdr longer proper list might written dotted-pair notation conventionally abbreviated list notation improper list may written combination two – list three conses whose last cdr i.e. list fully specified form lisp provides many built-in procedures accessing controlling lists lists created directly procedure takes number arguments returns list arguments way lists constructed cons pairs procedure used add element front list note procedure asymmetric handles list arguments lists constructed procedure appends two lists one another lisp lists linked lists appending two lists asymptotic time complexity formula_1 lisp lists simple linked lists share structure one another say two lists tail final sequence conses instance execution following common lisp code lists respectively however tail structure lists copy cons cells pointing memory locations lists sharing structure rather copying give dramatic performance improvement however technique interact undesired ways functions alter lists passed arguments altering one list replacing affect changes thereby also changes – possibly unexpected result source bugs functions alter arguments documented destructive reason aficionados functional programming avoid destructive functions scheme dialect favors functional style names destructive functions marked cautionary exclamation point bang —such read set car bang replaces car cons common lisp dialect destructive functions commonplace equivalent named replace car function rarely seen however common lisp includes special facility make easier define use destructive functions frequent style common lisp write code functionally without destructive calls prototyping add destructive calls optimization safe lisp evaluates expressions entered user symbols lists evaluate usually simpler expression – instance symbol evaluates value variable names evaluates however forms evaluate entering lisp returns expression also marked prevent evaluated necessary symbols lists role special operator abbreviation one quotation mark instance usually entering symbol returns value corresponding variable error variable refer literal symbol enter usually common lisp scheme also support backquote operator termed quasiquote scheme entered character grave accent almost plain quote except allows expressions evaluated values interpolated quoted list comma unquote comma-at splice operators variable value evaluates evaluates backquote often used defining macro expansions self-evaluating forms quoted forms lisp equivalent literals may possible modify values mutable literals program code instance function returns quoted form code calls function modifies form may alter behavior function subsequent iterations modifying quoted form like generally considered bad style defined ansi common lisp erroneous resulting undefined behavior compiled files file-compiler coalesce similar constants put write-protected memory etc. lisp formalization quotation noted douglas hofstadter gödel escher bach others example philosophical idea self-reference lisp family splits use dynamic static a.k.a lexical scope clojure common lisp scheme make use static scoping default newlisp picolisp embedded languages emacs autocad use dynamic scoping since version 24.1 emacs uses dynamic lexical scoping fundamental distinction lisp languages lisp textual representation program simply human-readable description internal data structures linked lists symbols number characters etc would used underlying lisp system lisp uses implement powerful macro system like macro languages c macro returns code compiled however unlike c macros macros lisp functions exploit full power lisp lisp code structure lists macros built list-processing functions language short anything lisp data structure lisp macros code contrast languages parser output purely internal language implementation manipulated programmer feature makes easy develop efficient languages within languages example common lisp object system implemented cleanly language extension using macros means application needs different inheritance mechanism use different object system stark contrast languages example java support multiple inheritance reasonable way add simplistic lisp implementations list structure directly interpreted run program function literally piece list structure traversed interpreter executing however substantial lisp systems also include compiler compiler translates list structure machine code bytecode execution code run fast code compiled conventional languages c. macros expand compilation step thus offer interesting options program needs precomputed table macro might create table compile time compiler need output table need call code create table run time lisp implementations even mechanism codice_3 allows code present compile time macro would need present emitted module lisp languages often used interactive command line may combined integrated development environment ide user types expressions command line directs ide transmit lisp system lisp reads entered expressions evaluates prints result reason lisp command line called read–eval–print loop repl basic operation repl follows simplistic description omits many elements real lisp quoting macros function accepts textual s-expressions input parses internal data structure instance type text prompt translates linked list three elements symbol number 1 number 2 happens list also valid piece lisp code evaluated car list names function—the addition operation note read single symbol read number one hundred twenty-three read string 123 function evaluates data returning zero lisp data result evaluation mean interpretation lisp systems compile every expression native machine code simple however describe evaluation interpretation evaluate list whose car names function first evaluates arguments given cdr applies function arguments case function addition applying argument list yields answer result evaluation symbol evaluates value symbol foo data like string 123 evaluates string list evaluates list 1 2 3 job function represent output user simple result trivial expression evaluated piece list structure would require traverse list print s-expression implement lisp repl necessary implement three functions infinite-loop function naturally implementation complex since must also implement special operators like done basic repl one line code lisp repl typically also provides input editing input history error handling interface debugger lisp usually evaluated eagerly common lisp arguments evaluated applicative order 'leftmost innermost scheme order arguments undefined leaving room optimization compiler lisp originally control structures many added language evolution lisp original conditional operator precursor later structures programmers scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion scheme commonality academic computer science led students believe tail recursion common way write iterations lisp incorrect oft-seen lisp dialects imperative-style iteration constructs scheme loop common lisp complex expressions moreover key issue makes objective rather subjective matter scheme makes specific requirements handling tail calls thus reason use tail recursion generally encouraged scheme practice expressly supported language definition contrast ansi common lisp require optimization commonly termed tail call elimination thus fact tail recursive style casual replacement use traditional iteration constructs discouraged common lisp matter stylistic preference potentially one efficiency since apparent tail call common lisp may compile simple jump program correctness since tail recursion may increase stack use common lisp risking stack overflow lisp control structures special operators equivalent languages syntactic keywords expressions using operators surface appearance function calls differ arguments necessarily evaluated—or case iteration expression may evaluated contrast major programming languages lisp allows implementing control structures using language several control structures implemented lisp macros even macro-expanded programmer wants know work common lisp scheme operators non-local control flow differences operators deepest differences two dialects scheme supports re-entrant continuations using procedure allows program save later restore particular place execution common lisp support re-entrant continuations support several ways handling escape continuations often algorithm expressed lisp either imperative functional style noted scheme tends favor functional style using tail recursion continuations express control flow however imperative style still quite possible style preferred many common lisp programmers may seem familiar programmers used structured languages c preferred schemers closely resembles pure-functional languages haskell lisp early heritage list processing wide array higher-order functions relating iteration sequences many cases explicit loop would needed languages like loop c lisp task accomplished higher-order function true many functional programming languages good example function scheme called common lisp called given function one lists applies function successively lists elements order collecting results new list applies function corresponding pair list elements yielding result examples common lisp code basic hello world program lisp syntax lends naturally recursion mathematical problems enumeration recursively defined sets simple express notation evaluate number factorial alternative implementation takes less stack space previous version underlying lisp system optimizes tail recursion contrast iterative version uses common lisp macro following function reverses list lisp built-in reverse function thing various object systems models built top alongside lisp including 1-hop neighbor's text information: common_lisp_object_system.common lisp object system common lisp object system clos facility object-oriented programming part ansi common lisp clos powerful dynamic object system differs radically oop facilities found static languages c++ java clos inspired earlier lisp object systems mit flavors commonloops although general either originally proposed add-on clos adopted part ansi standard common lisp adapted lisp dialects eulisp emacs lisp basic building blocks clos classes methods instances classes generic functions clos provides macros define codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 instances created function codice_4 classes multiple superclasses list slots member variables c++/java parlance special metaclass slots allocated class instances class share slot instance slot name value slot accessed name using function codice_5 additionally special generic functions defined write read values slots slot clos class must unique name clos multiple dispatch system means methods specialized upon required arguments oo languages single-dispatch meaning methods specialized first argument another unusual feature methods belong classes classes provide namespace generic functions methods methods defined separately classes special access e.g self protected class slots methods clos grouped generic functions generic function object callable like function associates collection methods shared name argument structure specialized different arguments since common lisp provides non-clos classes structures built-in data types numbers strings characters symbols ... clos dispatch works also non-clos classes clos also supports dispatch individual objects eql specializers clos default support dispatch common lisp data types example dispatch work fully specialized array types types introduced codice_6 however common lisp implementations provide metaobject protocol allows generic functions provide application specific specialization dispatch rules dispatch clos also different oo languages dispatch mechanism works runtime adding removing methods thus may lead changed effective methods even generic function called arguments runtime changing method combination also may lead different effective methods example like oo systems dynamic languages clos enforce encapsulation slot accessed using codice_5 function via optionally auto-generated accessor methods access via codice_5 know name slot cl programmers use language package facility declare functions data structures intended export apart normal primary methods also codice_9 codice_10 codice_11 auxiliary methods former two invoked prior primary method particular order based class hierarchy codice_11 method control whether primary method executed additionally programmer specify whether possible primary methods along class hierarchy called one providing closest match standard method-combination provides primary around methods explained method-combinations method types new simple complex method-combinations method types defined clos allows multiple inheritance default order methods executed multiple inheritance correct programmer may resolve diamond inheritance problems specifying order method combinations clos dynamic meaning contents also structure objects modified runtime clos supports changing class definitions on-the-fly even instances class question already exist well changing class membership given instance codice_13 operator clos also allows one add redefine remove methods runtime circle-ellipse problem readily solved clos oop design patterns either disappear qualitatively simpler clos prototype language classes must defined objects instantiated members class outside ansi common lisp standard widely implemented extension clos called metaobject protocol mop mop defines standard interface underpinnings clos implementation treating classes slot-descriptions generic-functions methods instances metaclasses allows definition new metaclasses modification clos behavior flexibility clos mop prefigures aspect-oriented programming later developed engineers gregor kiczales mop defines behavior whole object system set protocols defined terms clos thus possible create new object-systems extending changing provided clos functionality book art metaobject protocol describes use implementation clos mop various common lisp implementations slightly different support meta-object protocol closer project aims provide missing features flavors successor new flavors object system mit lisp machine large parts lisp machine operating systems many applications use flavors new flavors flavors introduced multiple inheritance mixins among features flavors mostly obsolete though implementations common lisp exist flavors using message passing paradigm new flavors introduced generic functions commonloops successor loops xerox interlisp-d commonloops implemented common lisp portable implementation called portable commonloops pcl first implementation clos pcl widely ported still provides base clos implementation several common lisp implementations pcl implemented mostly portable common lisp system dependent parts power expressivity clos well historical availability tinyclos simplified portable clos implementation written gregor kiczales use scheme clos-like mop-based object systems become de facto norm lisp dialect implementations well finding way languages oop facilities 1-hop neighbor's text information: maclisp.maclisp maclisp maclisp sometimes styled maclisp maclisp programming language dialect language lisp originated massachusetts institute technology mit project mac derived prefix late 1960s based lisp 1.5 richard greenblatt main developer original codebase pdp-6 jon l. white responsible later maintenance development name maclisp began used early 1970s distinguish forks pdp-6 lisp notably bbn lisp maclisp descendant lisp 1.5 maclisp departs lisp 1.5 using value cell access store dynamic values variables lisp 1.5 used linear search association list determine variable value maclisp variable evaluation faster different variable semantics maclisp also employed reader macros make readable input output termed input/output i/o instead entering codice_1 one could enter codice_2 get s-expression although implementations put functions property list maclisp uses different syntax define functions maclisp also load-on-demand feature maclisp began digital equipment corporation pdp-6 pdp-10 computers running incompatible timesharing system later ported pdp-10 operating systems example timesharing total operating system tops-10 tops-20 original implementation assembly language later implementation multics used pl/i maclisp developed considerably lifetime major features added language systems would typically correspond major release numbers maclisp used implement macsyma computer algebra system cas symbolic algebra program macsyma development also drove several features maclisp shrdlu blocks-world program written maclisp language widespread use artificial intelligence ai research community early 1980s also used implement programming languages planner scheme multics maclisp used implement first lisp-based emacs maclisp influential lisp implementation longer maintained actively runs pdp-10 emulators used experimenting early ai programs maclisp began small fixed number data types cons cell atom later termed symbol integer floating-point number later additions included arrays never first-class data types arbitrary-precision integers bignums strings tuples objects except inums implemented pointers data type determined block memory pointed special case small numbers inums programs could interpreted compiled compiled behavior interpreted except local variables lexical default compiled code unless declared special error checking done inline operations car cdr ncomplr compiler mid-1970s introduced fast numeric support lisp languages generating machine code instructions arithmetic rather calling interpretive routines dispatched data type made lisp arithmetic comparable speed fortran scalar operations though fortran array loop implementation remained much faster original version limited 18-bit word memory address pdp-10 considerable effort expended keeping implementation lean simple multics maclisp far larger address space costly use memory processing power pdp-10 exceeded lisp machine invented lisp machine lisp direct descendant maclisp several lisp dialects also use need unify community resulted modern common lisp language maclisp named project mac unrelated apple macintosh mac computer predates decades various lisp systems macintosh particular similarity maclisp Target text information: advice_(programming).advice programming aspect functional programming advice describes class functions modify functions latter run certain function method procedure applied given join point program following taken discussion mailing list aosd-discuss pascal costanza contributed following term advice goes back term advising introduced warren teitelman phd thesis 1966 quote chapter 3 thesis advising found way bbn lisp later xerox parc interlisp also found way flavors first object-oriented extension lisp developed mit subsumed notion method combination since method combination macros closely related also interesting note first macro system described 1963 three years warren teitelman phd thesis practical use advice functions generally modify otherwise extend behavior functions easily modified extended emacspeak emacs-addon makes extensive use advice must modify thousands existing emacs modules functions produce audio output blind corresponding visual presentation would infeasible copy redefine produce audio output addition normal outputs emacspeak programmers define advice functions run another emacs example suppose one corrected misspelled word ispell one wanted re-spellcheck entire buffer codice_1 offers functionality even spellchecked word used thousand times one could track definition codice_1 copy one .emacs write additional functionality tedious prone broken-ness .emacs version get sync actual ispell elisp module even works home one wants fairly simple run another command codice_1 runs using advice functions done simply form advices part c classes late 1970s early 1980s namely functions called codice_4 codice_5 defined class called respectively member functions class however dropped c++ advices part common lisp object system clos codice_6 codice_7 codice_8 methods combined primary method standard method combination common lisp implementations provide advice functionality addition standard method combination clos extensions lispworks supports advising functions macros clos methods emacslisp added advice-related code version 19.28 1994 gregor kiczales comments follows I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	8,173	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: mobile_translation.mobile translation mobile translation refers electronic device software application provides audio translation includes handheld electronic device specifically designed audio translation also includes machine translation service software application hand-held devices including mobile telephones pocket pcs pdas mobile translation provides hand-held device users advantage instantaneous non-mediated translation one human language another usually service fee nevertheless significantly smaller human translator charges mobile translation part new range services offered mobile communication users including location positioning gps service e-wallet mobile banking business card/bar-code/text scanning etc relies computer programming sphere computational linguistics device communication means internet connection sms work translation system allowing japanese exchange conversations foreign nationals mobile phones first developed 1999 advanced telecommunications research institute international-interpreting telecommunications research laboratories based kansai science city japan words spoken mobile device translated target language sent voice user mobile phone machine translation software handheld devices featuring translation capabilities user-input text sms email commercially released 2004 transclick patent issued transclick sms email im translation 2006 november 2005 another japanese company nec corporation announced development translation system could loaded mobile phones mobile translation system could recognize 50,000 japanese words 30,000 english words could used simple translations travelling however january 2009 nec corporation officially demonstrated product technological advances within miniaturization computing communication devices made possible usage mobile telephones language learning among early projects spanish study programs included vocabulary practice quizzes word phrase translations soon projects developed using mobile phones teach english japanese university 2005 shifted focus providing vocabulary instruction sms similar program created learning italian australia vocabulary phrases quizzes short sentences sent via sms google translate one highly-utilized translation services see also infoscope handheld device composed digital camera wireless internet access developed ibm almaden research center ili handheld device provide instantaneous audio translation one language another provides translation english japanese chinese one2one prototype rely internet connectivity order function provide audio translation eight languages pixel buds device produced google provide real-time audio translation 40 languages order support machine translation service mobile device needs able communicate external computers servers receive user-input text/speech translate send back user usually done via internet connection wap gprs edge umts wi-fi earlier applications used sms communicate translation server mobile translation confused user-editable talking dictionaries phrase books already widespread available many hand-held devices normally require internet connectivity mobile device mobile translation may include number useful features auxiliary text translation forms basis service user input text using device keyboard also use pre-existing text form email sms messages received user device email/sms translation also possible send translated message optionally containing source text well translation mobile translation applications also offer additional services facilitate translated communication process may transformed human speech computer renders voice native speaker target language record speech send translation server convert text translating device camera printed text road sign restaurant menu page book etc application send translation server apply optical character recognition ocr technology extract text return user editing necessary translate chosen language combination get connected automatically live interpreter recently notable increase number language pairs offered automatic translation mobile devices japanese service providers traditionally offer cross-translation japanese chinese english korean others may offer translation 20 languages 200 language pairs including latin languages speech generation however limited smaller portion including english spanish italian french chinese etc image translation depends ocr languages available portable real-time automated translation one disposal number practical uses advantages advances mobile technology machine translation services helped reduce even eliminate disadvantages mobile translation reduced screen size mobile device one-finger keyboarding many new hand-held devices come equipped qwerty keyboard and/or touch-sensitive screen well handwriting recognition significantly increases typing speed 2006 new mobile phones devices began featuring large screens greater resolutions 640 x 480 px 854 x 480 px even 1024 x 480 px gives user enough visible space read/write large texts 2011 so-called hybrid translation technology introduced mylanguage mobile app vocre relies large part crowd-sourced language data however important challenge facing mobile translation industry linguistic communicative quality translations although providers claim achieved accuracy high 95 boasting proprietary technology capable “ understanding ” idioms slang language machine translation still distinctly lower quality human translation used care matters translated require correctness disadvantage needs mentioning requirement stable internet connection user mobile device since sms method communicating translation server proved less efficient sending packets data – message length limit 160 characters higher cost sms compared internet traffic charges – internet connectivity mobile devices must coverage non-urban areas still unstable 1-hop neighbor's text information: iso_12620.iso 12620 iso 12620 standard iso/tc 37 defines data category registry registry registering linguistic terms used various fields translation computational linguistics natural language processing defining mappings different terms terms used different systems goal registry new systems reuse existing terminology least easily mapped existing terminology aid interoperability end number terminologies added registry including ones based general ontology linguistic description national corpus polish termbase exchange localization industry standards association standard first released iso 12620:1999 rendered obsolete iso 12620:2009 first edition english-only second bilingual english-french standard relatively low-level used standards lexical markup framework iso 24613:2008 1-hop neighbor's text information: computational_linguistics.computational linguistics computational linguistics interdisciplinary field concerned statistical rule-based modeling natural language computational perspective well study appropriate computational approaches linguistic questions traditionally computational linguistics performed computer scientists specialized application computers processing natural language today computational linguists often work members interdisciplinary teams include regular linguists experts target language computer scientists general computational linguistics draws upon involvement linguists computer scientists experts artificial intelligence mathematicians logicians philosophers cognitive scientists cognitive psychologists psycholinguists anthropologists neuroscientists among others computational linguistics theoretical applied components theoretical computational linguistics focuses issues theoretical linguistics cognitive science applied computational linguistics focuses practical outcome modeling human language use association computational linguistics defines computational linguistics computational linguistics often grouped within field artificial intelligence actually present development artificial intelligence computational linguistics originated efforts united states 1950s use computers automatically translate texts foreign languages particularly russian scientific journals english since computers make arithmetic calculations much faster accurately humans thought short matter time could also begin process language computational quantitative methods also used historically attempted reconstruction earlier forms modern languages subgrouping modern languages language families earlier methods lexicostatistics glottochronology proven premature inaccurate however recent interdisciplinary studies borrow concepts biological studies especially gene mapping proved produce sophisticated analytical tools trustworthy results machine translation also known mechanical translation failed yield accurate translations right away automated processing human languages recognized far complex originally assumed computational linguistics born name new field study devoted developing algorithms software intelligently processing language data term computational linguistics first coined david hays founding member association computational linguistics international committee computational linguistics artificial intelligence came existence 1960s field computational linguistics became sub-division artificial intelligence dealing human-level comprehension production natural languages order translate one language another observed one understand grammar languages including morphology grammar word forms syntax grammar sentence structure order understand syntax one also understand semantics lexicon 'vocabulary even something pragmatics language use thus started effort translate languages evolved entire discipline devoted understanding represent process natural languages using computers nowadays research within scope computational linguistics done computational linguistics departments computational linguistics laboratories computer science departments linguistics departments research field computational linguistics aims create working speech text processing systems others aim create system allowing human-machine interaction programs meant human-machine communication called conversational agents computational linguistics performed experts variety fields wide assortment departments research fields broach diverse range topics following sections discuss literature available across entire field broken four main area discourse developmental linguistics structural linguistics linguistic production linguistic comprehension language cognitive skill develops throughout life individual developmental process examined using number techniques computational approach one human language development provide constraints make harder apply computational method understanding instance language acquisition human children largely exposed positive evidence means linguistic development individual evidence correct form provided evidence correct insufficient information simple hypothesis testing procedure information complex language provides certain boundaries computational approach modeling language development acquisition individual attempts made model developmental process language acquisition children computational angle leading statistical grammars connectionist models work realm also proposed method explain evolution language history using models shown languages learned combination simple input presented incrementally child develops better memory longer attention span simultaneously posed reason long developmental period human children conclusions drawn strength artificial neural network project created ability infants develop language also modeled using robots order test linguistic theories enabled learn children might model created based affordance model mappings actions perceptions effects created linked spoken words crucially robots able acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure vastly simplifying learning process shedding light information furthers current understanding linguistic development important note information could empirically tested using computational approach understanding linguistic development individual within lifetime continually improved using neural networks learning robotic systems also important keep mind languages change develop time computational approaches understanding phenomenon unearthed interesting information using price equation pólya urn dynamics researchers created system predicts future linguistic evolution also gives insight evolutionary history modern-day languages modeling effort achieved computational linguistics would otherwise impossible clear understanding linguistic development humans well throughout evolutionary time fantastically improved advances computational linguistics ability model modify systems affords science ethical method testing hypotheses would otherwise intractable order create better computational models language understanding language structure crucial end english language meticulously studied using computational approaches better understand language works structural level one important pieces able study linguistic structure availability large linguistic corpora samples grants computational linguists raw data necessary run models gain better understanding underlying structures present vast amount data contained single language one cited english linguistic corpora penn treebank derived widely-different sources ibm computer manuals transcribed telephone conversations corpus contains 4.5 million words american english corpus primarily annotated using part-of-speech tagging syntactic bracketing yielded substantial empirical observations related language structure theoretical approaches structure languages also developed works allow computational linguistics framework within work hypotheses understanding language myriad ways one original theoretical theses internalization grammar structure language proposed two types models models rules patterns learned increase strength frequency encounter work also created question computational linguists answer infant learn specific non-normal grammar chomsky normal form without learning overgeneralized version getting stuck theoretical efforts like set direction research go early lifetime field study crucial growth field structural information languages allows discovery implementation similarity recognition pairs text utterances instance recently proven based structural information present patterns human discourse conceptual recurrence plots used model visualize trends data create reliable measures similarity natural textual utterances technique strong tool probing structure human discourse without computational approach question vastly complex information present discourse data would remained inaccessible scientists information regarding structural data language available english well languages japanese using computational methods japanese sentence corpora analyzed pattern log-normality found relation sentence length though exact cause lognormality remains unknown precisely sort intriguing information computational linguistics designed uncover information could lead important discoveries regarding underlying structure japanese could number effects understanding japanese language computational linguistics allows exciting additions scientific knowledge base happen quickly little room doubt recent days structural data languages available several languages world english language computational linguistics work progress sindhi language structure grammar domain sindhi language different languages world computational linguistics models english language suitable sindhi language viewing computational linguistics work sindhi language started properly developing methods algorithms linguistics tools https //sindhinlp.com/ machine learning models deep learning models since 2016. focus solve linguistics problems sindhi language work could lead important discoveries regarding underlying structure sindhi could number effects understanding sindhi language computational linguistics allows exciting additions scientific knowledge base happen quickly little room doubt without computational approach structure linguistic data much information available would still hidden vastness data within single language computational linguistics allows scientists parse huge amounts data reliably efficiently creating possibility discoveries unlike seen approaches production language equally complex information provides necessary skills fluent producer must say comprehension half problem communication half system produces language computational linguistics made interesting discoveries area famous paper published 1950 alan turing proposed possibility machines might one day ability think thought experiment might define concept thought machines proposed imitation test human subject two text-only conversations one fellow human another machine attempting respond like human turing proposes subject tell difference human machine may concluded machine capable thought today test known turing test remains influential idea area artificial intelligence projects still trying solve problem first started computational linguistics field first place however methods become refined clever consequently results generated computational linguists become enlightening effort improve computer translation several models compared including hidden markov models smoothing techniques specific refinements apply verb translation model found produce natural translations german french words refined alignment model first-order dependence fertility model 16 also provide efficient training algorithms models presented give scientists ability improve results type work specific computational linguistics applications could vastly improve understanding language produced comprehended computers work also done making computers produce language naturalistic manner using linguistic input humans algorithms constructed able modify system style production based factor linguistic input human abstract factors like politeness five main dimensions personality work takes computational approach via parameter estimation models categorize vast array linguistic styles see across individuals simplify computer work way making human-computer interaction much natural many earliest simplest models human-computer interaction eliza example involve text-based input user generate response computer method words typed user trigger computer recognize specific patterns reply accordingly process known keyword spotting recent technologies placed emphasis speech-based interactive systems systems siri ios operating system operate similar pattern-recognizing technique text-based systems former user input conducted speech recognition branch linguistics involves processing user speech sound waves interpreting acoustics language patterns order computer recognize input much focus modern computational linguistics comprehension proliferation internet abundance easily accessible written human language ability create program capable understanding human language would many broad exciting possibilities including improved search engines automated customer service online education early work comprehension included applying bayesian statistics task optical character recognition illustrated bledsoe browing 1959 large dictionary possible letters generated learning example letters probability one learned examples matched new input combined make final decision attempts applying bayesian statistics language analysis included work mosteller wallace 1963 analysis words used federalist papers used attempt determine authorship concluding madison likely authored majority papers 1971 terry winograd developed early natural language processing engine capable interpreting naturally written commands within simple rule governed environment primary language parsing program project called shrdlu capable carrying somewhat natural conversation user giving commands within scope toy environment designed task environment consisted different shaped colored blocks shrdlu capable interpreting commands find block taller one holding put box asking questions n't understand pyramid mean response user input impressive kind natural language processing proven much difficult outside limited scope toy environment similarly project developed nasa called lunar designed provide answers naturally written questions geological analysis lunar rocks returned apollo missions kinds problems referred question answering initial attempts understanding spoken language based work done 1960s 1970s signal modeling unknown signal analyzed look patterns make predictions based history initial somewhat successful approach applying kind signal modeling language achieved use hidden markov models detailed rabiner 1989 approach attempts determine probabilities arbitrary number models could used generating speech well modeling probabilities various words generated possible models similar approaches employed early speech recognition attempts starting late 70s ibm using word/part-of-speech pair probabilities recently kinds statistical approaches applied difficult tasks topic identification using bayesian parameter estimation infer topic probabilities text documents modern computational linguistics often combination studies computer science programming math particularly statistics language structures natural language processing combined fields often lead development systems recognize speech perform task based speech examples include speech recognition software apple siri feature spellcheck tools speech synthesis programs often used demonstrate pronunciation help disabled machine translation programs websites google translate computational linguistics especially helpful situations involving social media internet example filters chatrooms website searches require computational linguistics chat operators often use filters identify certain words phrases deem inappropriate users submit another example using filters websites schools use filters websites certain keywords blocked children view also many programs parents use parental controls put content filters place computational linguists also develop programs group organize content social media mining example twitter programs group tweets subject keywords computational linguistics also used document retrieval clustering online search documents websites retrieved based frequency unique labels related typed search engine instance search red large four-wheeled vehicle intention finding pictures red truck search engine still find information desired matching words four-wheeled car computational linguistics divided major areas depending upon medium language processed whether spoken textual upon task performed whether analyzing language recognition synthesizing language generation speech recognition speech synthesis deal spoken language understood created using computers parsing generation sub-divisions computational linguistics dealing respectively taking language apart putting together machine translation remains sub-division computational linguistics dealing computers translate languages possibility automatic language translation however yet realized remains notoriously hard branch computational linguistics areas research studied computational linguistics include subject computational linguistics recurring impact popular culture Target text information: translation_memory.translation memory translation memory tm database stores segments sentences paragraphs sentence-like units headings titles elements list previously translated order aid human translators translation memory stores source text corresponding translation language pairs called “ translation units ” individual words handled terminology bases within domain tm software programs use translation memories sometimes known translation memory managers tmm translation memory systems tm systems confused translation management system tms another type software focused managing process translation translation memories typically used conjunction dedicated computer assisted translation cat tool word processing program terminology management systems multilingual dictionary even raw machine translation output research indicates many companies producing multilingual documentation using translation memory systems survey language professionals 2006 82.5 874 replies confirmed use tm usage tm correlated text type characterised technical terms simple sentence structure technical lesser degree marketing financial computing skills repetitiveness content program breaks source text text translated segments looks matches segments source half previously translated source-target pairs stored translation memory presents matching pairs translation candidates translator accept candidate replace fresh translation modify match source last two cases new modified translation goes database translation memory systems search 100 matches say retrieve segments text match entries database exactly others employ fuzzy matching algorithms retrieve similar segments presented translator differences flagged important note typical translation memory systems search text source segment flexibility robustness matching algorithm largely determine performance translation memory although applications recall rate exact matches high enough justify 100 -match approach segments match found translated translator manually newly translated segments stored database used future translations well repetitions segment current text translation memories work best texts highly repetitive technical manuals also helpful translating incremental changes previously translated document corresponding example minor changes new version user manual traditionally translation memories considered appropriate literary creative texts simple reason little repetition language used however others find value even non-repetitive texts database resources created value concordance searches determine appropriate usage terms quality assurance empty segments simplification review process source target segment always displayed together translators work two documents traditional review environment translation memory managers suitable translating technical documentation documents containing specialized vocabularies benefits include main problems hindering wider use translation memory managers include use tm systems might effect quality texts translated main effect clearly related so-called error propagation translation particular segment incorrect fact likely incorrect translation reused next time source text similar source text translated thereby perpetuating error.traditionally two main effects quality translated texts described sentence-salad effect bédard 2000 cited ’ hagan 2009 50 peep-hole effect heyn 1998 first refers lack coherence text level text translated using sentences tm translated different translators different styles according latter translators may adapt style use tm system order contain intratextual references segments better reused future texts thus affecting cohesion readability o'hagan 2009 potential present probably unconscious effect translated text different languages use different sequences logical elements within sentence translator presented multiple clause sentence half translated less likely completely rebuild sentence consistent empirical evidences martín-mor 2011 show translators likely modify structure multiple clause sentence working text processor rather tm system also potential translator deal text mechanically sentence-by-sentence instead focusing sentence relates around text whole researchers dragsted 2004 identified effect relates automatic segmentation feature programs necessarily negative effect quality translations note effects closely related training rather inherent tool according martín-mor 2011 use tm systems effect quality translated texts especially novices experienced translators able avoid pym 2013 reminds translators using tm/mt tend revise segment go along allowing little time final revision whole text end might fact ultimate cause effects described following summary main functions translation memory function used transfer text translation text file tm import done raw format external source text available importing tm along translation sometimes texts reprocessed user another format used import native format format one uses tm save translation memories file process analysis involves following steps export transfers text tm external text file import export inverses translating one main purposes tm retrieve useful matches memory translator choose best one tm must show source target text pointing identities differences several different types matches retrieved tm tm updated new translation accepted translator always updating database question previous contents database tm modified changing deleting entries tm systems allow translators save multiple translations source segment translation memory tools often provide automatic retrieval substitution networking enables group translators translate text together faster working isolation sentences phrases translated one translator available others moreover translation memories shared final translation opportunity mistakes one translator corrected team members text memory basis proposed lisa oscar xml tm standard text memory comprises author memory translation memory unique identifiers remembered translation target language document 'exactly aligned text unit level source document subsequently modified text units changed directly transferred new target version document without need translator interaction concept 'exact 'perfect matching translation memory xml tm also provide mechanisms in-document leveraged fuzzy matching 1970s infancy stage tm systems scholars carried preliminary round exploratory discussions original idea tm systems often attributed martin kay proper place paper details fully given paper shown basic concept storing system translator might start issuing command causing system display anything store might relevant ... going examine past future fragments text contain similar material observation kay actually influenced suggestion peter arthern translators use similar already translated documents online 1978 article gave fully demonstration call tm systems today new text would typed word processing station typed system would check text earlier texts stored memory together translation official languages european community ... one advantage machine translation proper would passages retrieved would grammatically correct effect operating electronic 'cut stick process would according calculations save least 15 per cent time translators employ effectively producing translations idea incorporated alps automated language processing systems tools first developed researcher brigham young university time idea tm systems mixed tool call repetitions processing aimed find matched strings long time concept so-called translation memory come real exploratory stage tm systems would 1980s one first implementation tm system appeared sadler vendelmans bilingual knowledge bank bilingual knowledge bank syntactically referentially structured pair corpora one translation translation units cross-coded corpora aim bilingual knowledge bank develop corpus-based general-purpose knowledge source applications machine translation computer-aided translation sadler vendelman 1987 another important step made brian harris bi-text defined bi-text single text two dimensions 1988 source target texts related activity translator translation units made similar echoes sadler bilingual knowledge bank harris work proposed something like tm system without using name database paired translations searchable either individual word whole translation unit latter case search allowed retrieve similar rather identical units tm technology became commercially available wide scale late 1990s efforts made several engineers translators note first tm tool called trados sdl trados nowadays tool opening source file applying translation memory 100 matches identical matches fuzzy matches similar identical matches within text instantly extracted placed within target file matches suggested translation memory either accepted overridden new alternatives translation unit manually updated stored within translation memory future use well repetition current text similar way segments target file without match would translated manually automatically added translation memory 2000s online translation services began incorporating tm machine translation services like google translate well professional hybrid translation services provided sites like gengo ackuna incorporate databases tm data supplied translators volunteers make efficient connections languages provide faster translation services end-users one recent development concept 'text memory contrast translation memory also basis proposed lisa oscar standard text memory within xml tm comprises 'author memory 'translation memory author memory used keep track changes authoring cycle translation memory uses information author memory implement translation memory matching although primarily targeted xml documents xml tm used document converted xliff format much powerful first-generation tm systems include linguistic analysis engine use chunk technology break segments intelligent terminological groups automatically generate specific glossaries translation memory exchange tmx standard enables interchange translation memories translation suppliers tmx adopted translation community best way importing exporting translation memories current version 1.4b allows recreation original source target documents tmx data termbase exchange lisa standard revised republished iso 30042 allows interchange terminology data including detailed lexical information framework tbx provided three iso standards iso 12620 iso 12200 iso 16642 iso 12620 provides inventory well-defined “ data categories ” standardized names function data element types predefined values iso 12200 also known martif provides basis core structure tbx iso 16642 also known terminological markup framework includes structural meta-model terminology markup languages general universal terminology exchange utx format standard specifically designed used user dictionaries machine translation used general human-readable glossaries purpose utx accelerate dictionary sharing reuse extremely simple practical specification segmentation rules exchange srx intended enhance tmx standard translation memory data exchanged applications used effectively ability specify segmentation rules used previous translation may increase leveraging achieved gilt metrics gilt stands globalization internationalization localization translation gilt metrics standard comprises three parts gmx-v volume metrics gmx-c complexity metrics gmx-q quality metrics proposed gilt metrics standard tasked quantifying workload quality requirements given gilt task open lexicon interchange format olif open xml-compliant standard exchange terminological lexical data although originally intended means exchange lexical data proprietary machine translation lexicons evolved general standard terminology exchange xml localisation interchange file format xliff intended provide single interchange file format understood localization provider xliff preferred way exchanging data xml format translation industry translation web services transws specifies calls needed use web services submission retrieval files messages relating localization projects intended detailed framework automation much current localization process use web services xml tm xml-based text memory approach translation memory based concept text memory comprises author translation memory xml tm donated lisa oscar xml-intl gettext portable object format though often regarded translation memory format gettext po files bilingual files also used translation memory processes way translation memories used typically po translation memory system consist various separate files directory tree structure common tools work po files include gnu gettext tools translate toolkit several tools programs also exist edit po files mere source text files I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	6,655	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux_kernel_interfaces.linux kernel interfaces linux kernel provides several interfaces user-space applications used different purposes different properties design two types application programming interface api linux kernel confused kernel–user space api kernel internal api linux api kernel–user space api allows programs user space access system resources services linux kernel composed system call interface linux kernel subroutines gnu c library glibc focus development linux api provide usable features specifications defined posix way reasonably compatible robust performant provide additional useful features defined posix kernel–user space apis systems implementing posix api also provide additional features defined posix linux api choice kept stable decades never breaks stability guarantees portability source code time linux kernel developers historically conservative meticulous introducing new system calls much available free open-source software written posix api since much development flows linux kernel compared posix-compliant combinations kernel c standard library linux kernel api augmented additional features far additional features provide technical advantage programming linux api preferred posix-api well-known current examples udev systemd weston people lennart poettering openly advocate prefer linux api posix api offers advantages fosdem 2016 michael kerrisk explained perceived issues linux kernel user-space api describing contains multiple design errors non-extensible unmaintainable overly complex limited purpose violation standards inconsistent mistakes fixed would break abi kernel presents user space system call interface denomination entirety implemented available system calls kernel various subsystems e.g drm define system calls entirety called system call interface various issues organization linux kernel system calls publicly discussed issues pointed andy lutomirski michael kerrisk others gnu c library wrapper around system calls linux kernel combination linux kernel system call interface glibc builds linux api unix-like systems additional capabilities linux kernel exist part posix drm paramount development implementations well-defined performant free open-source graphics device drivers without rendering acceleration would available even worse 2d drivers would available x.org server drm developed linux since ported operating systems well term linux abi refers kernel–user space abi application binary interface refers compiled binaries machine code abi therefore bound instruction set defining useful abi keeping stable less responsibility linux kernel developers developers gnu c library task linux distributions independent software vendor isvs wish sell provide support proprietary software binaries single linux abi opposed supporting multiple linux abis abi defined every instruction set x86 x86-64 mips armv7-a 32-bit armv8-a 64-bit etc endianness supported able compile software different compilers definitions specified abi achieve full binary compatibility compilers free open-source software e.g gnu compiler collection llvm/clang end-users fact interested linux api windows api abis lot kernel-internal apis subsystems interface one another kept fairly stable guarantee stability case new research insights make change seem favorable api changed necessary rewrite testing done author linux kernel monolithic kernel hence device drivers kernel components ease burden companies maintaining proprietary device drivers out-of-tree stable apis device drivers repeatedly requested linux kernel developers repeatedly denied guaranteeing stable in-kernel apis device drivers guaranteeing would faltered development linux kernel past would still future due nature free open-source software necessary ergo choice linux kernel stable in-kernel api since stable in-kernel apis stable in-kernel abis several use cases linux api considered low-level higher abstraction apis used course still need work top low-level linux apis examples 1-hop neighbor's text information: bada.bada bada stylized bada korean discontinued operating system mobile devices smartphones tablet computers developed samsung electronics name derived bada meaning ocean sea korean ranges mid- high-end smartphones foster adoption bada os since 2011 samsung reportedly considered releasing source code open-source license expanding device support include smart tvs samsung announced june 2012 intentions merge bada tizen project would meanwhile use bada operating system parallel google android os microsoft windows phone smartphones devices running bada branded wave name unlike samsung devices branded name galaxy encompass whole range samsung devices running android 25 february 2013 samsung announced would stop developing bada moving development tizen instead bug reporting finally terminated april 2014 announcement bada wave s8500 would eventually turn first bada-based phone first shown public mobile world congress 2010 barcelona february 2010 alongside bada applications running bada exhibited including mobile videogames like gameloft asphalt 5 samsung wave s8500 released april year sold one million handsets first four weeks market according samsung companies twitter ea capcom gameloft blockbuster revealed support bada platform arranged development partnerships samsung since launch shared insights vision future mobile apps bada would play role showcase could heard series events held across world year 2010 called developer days addition made public announcement incoming bada developer challenge total prize 2,700,000 usd throughout launch event may 2010 samsung released beta bada software development kit sdk making available general public done partners previous december entice potential developers applications platform august 2010 samsung released version 1.0 bada sdk year later august 2011 version 2.0 bada sdk released samsung s8500 wave launched version 1.0 bada operating system samsung soon released version 1.0.2 included minor fixes european users latest version 1.2 released samsung s8530 wave ii phone alpha-version bada 2.0 introduced 15 february 2011 samsung s8530 wave ii handset current flagship bada handset samsung wave 3 s8600 running bada 2.0 release samsung wave samsung opened international application store samsung apps bada platform samsung apps 2400 applications store also available android samsung feature phones samsung remove bada brand market new os tizen apps store new store around 1000 applications tizen bada samsung defines operating system platform kernel configurable architecture allows using either proprietary real-time operating system hybrid rtos kernel linux kernel according copyrights displayed samsung wave s8500 uses code freebsd netbsd openbsd despite numerous suggestions known bada device date running linux kernel similarly evidence bada uses similar graphics stack tizen os particular efl device layer provides core functions graphics protocols telephony security service layer provides service-centric features sms mapping in-app-purchasing provide features so-called bada server top layer framework layer provides application programming interface api c++ application developers use bada provides various ui controls developers provides assorted basic ui controls listbox color picker tab web browser control based open-source webkit features adobe flash supporting flash 9 10 11 flash lite 4 actionscript 3.0 support bada 2.0 webkit flash embedded inside native bada applications bada supports opengl es 2.0 3d graphics api offers interactive mapping point interest poi features also embedded inside native applications supports pinch-to-zoom tabbed browsing cut copy paste features bada supports many mechanisms enhance interaction incorporated applications include various sensors motion sensing vibration control face detection accelerometer magnetometer tilt global positioning system gps multi-touch native applications developed c++ bada sdk eclipse based integrated development environment ide gnu-based tool chains used building debugging applications ide also contains ui builder developers easily design interface applications dragging dropping ui controls forms testing debugging ide contains emulator run apps publications criticized bada 1.x following issues bada 2.0 version shown ifa 2011 berlin released end december 2011 lot new functions improvements compared version 1.2 introducing features end 2011 samsung released three new models preloaded bada 2.0 ending list devices running short-lived bada chart show global sales bada smartphones second quarter 2010 second quarter 2013 canalys technology market analysis company estimated samsung shipped 3.5 million phones running bada q1 2011 rose 4.5 million phones q2 2011 according gartner q1 2012 bada gained grow index +43 rose 2.7 market share 1.9 q1 2011 south korea fiscal year calendar year 1-hop neighbor's text information: playstation_2.playstation 2 playstation 2 officially abbreviated ps2 home video game console developed marketed sony computer entertainment first released japan march 4 2000 north america october 26 2000 europe australia november 2000 successor playstation well second video game console playstation brand sixth-generation console ps2 competed sega dreamcast nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox announced 1999 ps2 offered backwards compatibility predecessor dualshock controller well games ps2 best-selling video game console time sold 159 million units estimated ign 150 million confirmed sony 2011 3,800 game titles released ps2 since launch 1.5 billion copies sold sony later manufactured several smaller lighter revisions console known slimline models 2004 2006 sony announced launched successor playstation 3 even release successor ps2 remained popular well seventh generation continued produced january 4 2013 sony finally announced discontinued twelve years production – one longest lifespans video game console despite announcement new games console continued produced end 2013 including final fantasy xi seekers adoulin japan fifa 13 north america pro evolution soccer 2014 europe repair services system japan ended september 7 2018 though sony kept details playstation 2 development secret work console began around time original playstation released late 1994 insiders stated developed u.s. west coast former members argonaut software 1997 word leaked press console would backwards compatibility original playstation built-in dvd player internet connectivity sony announced playstation 2 ps2 march 1 1999 video game console positioned competitor sega dreamcast first sixth-generation console released although ultimately main rivals ps2 nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox dreamcast launched successfully north america later year selling 500,000 units within two weeks soon dreamcast north american launch sony unveiled playstation 2 tokyo game show september 20 1999 sony showed fully playable demos upcoming playstation 2 games including gran turismo 2000 later released tekken tag tournament showed console graphic abilities power ps2 launched march 2000 japan october north america november europe sales console games accessories pulled 250 million first day beating 97 million made first day dreamcast directly release difficult find ps2 units retailer shelves due manufacturing delays another option purchasing console online auction websites ebay people paid thousand dollars console ps2 initially sold well partly basis strength playstation brand console backward compatibility selling 980,000 units japan march 5 2000 one day launch allowed ps2 tap large install base established playstation another major selling point competition later sony added new development kits game developers ps2 units consumers ps2 built-in functionality also expanded audience beyond gamer debut pricing less standalone dvd player made console low cost entry home theater market success ps2 end 2000 caused sega problems financially competitively sega announced discontinuation dreamcast march 2001 18 months successful western launch despite dreamcast still received support 2001 ps2 remained sixth generation console eye future 6 months would face competition new rivals form nintendo gamecube microsoft xbox many analysts predicted close three-way matchup among three consoles xbox powerful hardware gamecube least expensive console nintendo changed policy encourage third-party developers playstation 2 theoretically weakest specification three head start due installed base plus strong developer commitment well built-in dvd player xbox required adapter gamecube lacked support entirely playstation 2 initial games lineup considered mediocre changed 2001 holiday season release several blockbuster games maintained ps2 sales momentum held newer rivals sony also countered xbox temporarily securing playstation 2 exclusives highly anticipated games grand theft auto series sony cut price console may 2002 us 299 199 north america making price gamecube 100 less xbox also planned cut price japan around time cut price twice japan 2003 2006 sony cut cost console anticipation release playstation 3 sony unlike sega dreamcast originally placed little emphasis online gaming first years although changed upon launch online-capable xbox coinciding release xbox live sony released playstation network adapter late 2002 several online first–party titles released alongside demonstrate active support internet play sony also advertised heavily online model support electronic arts ea ea offer online xbox titles 2004 although sony nintendo started late although followed decentralized model online gaming responsibility developer provide servers sony moves made online gaming major selling point ps2 september 2004 time launch sony revealed newer slimmer ps2 preparation launch new models scph-700xx-9000x sony stopped making older models scph-3000x-500xx let distribution channel empty stock units apparent manufacturing issue sony reportedly underestimated demand caused initial slowdown producing new unit caused part shortages time old units cleared new units ready issue compounded britain russian oil tanker became stuck suez canal blocking ship china carrying ps2s bound uk one week november british sales totalled 6,000 units compared 70,000 units weeks prior shortages 1,700 stores north america day christmas playstation 2 software distributed cd-rom dvd-rom addition console play audio cds dvd movies backwards compatible playstation games ps2 also supports playstation memory cards controllers although original playstation memory cards work original playstation games controllers may support functions analog buttons ps2 games standard playstation 2 memory card 8 mb capacity variety non-sony manufactured memory cards available playstation 2 allowing memory capacity larger standard 8 mb console also features 2 usb ports 1 ieee 1394 firewire port scph-10000 3900x hard disk drive installed expansion bay back console required play certain games notably popular final fantasy xi available certain models hardware uses emotion engine cpu custom-designed processor based mips architecture floating point performance 6.2 gflops custom-designed graphics synthesizer gpu fillrate 2.4 gigapixels/second capable rendering 75 million polygons per second accounting features lighting texture mapping artificial intelligence game physics real-world performance 3 million 16 million polygons per second playstation 2 may natively output video resolutions sdtv hdtv 480i 480p games gran turismo 4 tourist trophy known support up-scaled 1080i resolution using following standards composite video 480i s-video 480i rgb 480i/p vga progressive scan games ps2 linux component video display original playstation games native 240p mode hdtv sets support d-terminal cables available signal types cables also output analog stereo audio additionally rf modulator available system connect older tvs digital s/pdif audio may also output console via toslink connector outputs 2.0 pcm 5.1 channel sound dolby digital dts formats ps2 undergone many revisions internal construction others involving substantial external changes ps2 primarily differentiated models featuring original fat case design slimline models introduced end 2004 2010 sony bravia kdl-22px300 made available consumers 22 hd-ready television incorporated built-in playstation 2 ps2 standard color matte black several variations color produced different quantities regions including ceramic white light yellow metallic blue aqua metallic silver navy star blue opaque blue astral blue opaque black midnight black pearl white sakura purple satin gold satin silver snow white super red transparent blue ocean blue also limited edition color pink distributed regions oceania parts asia september 2004 sony unveiled third major hardware revision available late october 2004 smaller thinner quieter original versions included built-in ethernet port markets also integrated modem due thinner profile contain 3.5 expansion bay therefore support internal hard disk drive also lacked internal power supply later revision excluding japan version similar gamecube modified multitap expansion removal expansion bay criticized limitation due existence titles final fantasy xi required use hdd sony also manufactured consumer device called psx used digital video recorder dvd burner addition playing ps2 games device released japan december 13 2003 first sony product include xrossmediabar interface sell well japanese market released anywhere else class action lawsuit filed sony computer entertainment america inc. july 16 2002 superior court california county san mateo lawsuit addresses consumer reports inappropriate disc error disc read error messages problems associated playing dvds cds playstation 2 sony settled disc read error lawsuit compensating affected customers us 25 free game specified list reduced cost repair replacement scea discretion damaged system settlement subject courts approval hearings began us canada april 28 2006 may 11 2006 respectively playstation 2 software distributed cd-rom dvd-rom two formats differentiated color discs bottoms cd-roms blue dvd-roms silver playstation 2 offered particularly high-profile exclusive games main entries grand theft auto final fantasy metal gear solid series released exclusively console several prolific series got start playstation 2 including god war ratchet clank jak daxter devil may cry kingdom hearts sly cooper best-selling game console game releases peaked 2004 declined release playstation 3 2006 last new games console final fantasy xi seekers adoulin asia fifa 13 north america pro evolution soccer 2014 europe june 30 2007 total 10,035 software titles released worldwide counting games released multiple regions separate titles playstation 2 users option play select games internet using broadband internet connection playstation 2 network adaptor instead unified subscription-based online service like xbox live competitor microsoft later chose xbox console online multiplayer functionality playstation 2 responsibility game publisher ran third-party servers recent playstation 2 online games developed exclusively support broadband internet access xbox live similarly requires broadband internet connection playstation 2 sold 155 million units worldwide march 31 2013 europe sold 48 million units may 6 2008 according sony computer entertainment europe north america sold 50 million units december 2008 japan ps2 sold 21,454,325 units october 1 2008 according famitsu /enterbrain 2005 playstation 2 became fastest game console reach 100 million units shipped accomplishing feat within 5 years 9 months launch since surpassed playstation 4 playstation 2 dualshock 2 controller largely identical playstation dualshock basic functionality however includes analog pressure sensitivity face shoulder d-pad buttons replacing digital buttons original buttons would later become digital release dualshock 4 like predecessor dualshock 2 controller force feedback vibration functionality lighter includes two levels vibration optional hardware includes additional dualshock dualshock 2 controllers ps2 dvd remote control internal external hard disk drive hdd network adapter horizontal vertical stands playstation ps2 memory cards multitap playstation ps2 usb motion camera eyetoy usb keyboard mouse headset original ps2 multitap scph-10090 plugged newer slim models multitap connects memory card slot well controller slot memory card slot slimline shallower new slim-design multitaps scph-70120 manufactured models however third-party adapters also exist permit original multitaps used early versions ps2 could networked via i.link port though little game support dropped third party manufacturers created devices allow disabled people access ps2 ordinary switches etc third-party companies joytech produced lcd monitor speaker attachments ps2 attach back console allow users play games without access television long access mains electricity similar power source screens fold onto ps2 similar fashion laptop screens many accessories musical games dance pads dance dance revolution groove pump titles konami microphones use karaoke revolution games dual microphones sold used exclusively singstar games various guitar controllers guitar freaks series guitar hero series drum set controller sold box set guitar controller usb microphone use rock band guitar hero series world tour newer taiko drum controller specialized controllers include light guns guncon fishing rod reel controllers slime controller final fantasy x-2 tiny bee dual pistol controller katana controller resident evil 4 chainsaw controller unlike playstation requires use official sony playstation mouse play mouse-compatible games ps2 games mouse support work standard usb mouse well usb trackball addition games also support usage usb keyboard text input game control lieu dualshock dualshock 2 gamepad tandem usb mouse using homebrew programs possible play various audio video file formats ps2 homebrew programs also used play patched backups original ps2 dvd games unmodified consoles install retail discs installed hard drive older models homebrew emulators older computer gaming systems developed ps2 sony released linux-based operating system linux playstation 2 ps2 package also includes keyboard mouse ethernet adapter hdd europe australia ps2 comes free yabasic interpreter bundled demo disc allows users create simple programs ps2 port netbsd project blackrhino gnu/linux alternative debian-based distribution also available ps2 Target text information: openal.openal openal open audio library open open-source cross-platform audio application programming interface api designed efficient rendering multichannel three-dimensional positional audio api style conventions deliberately resemble opengl openal environmental 3d audio library add realism game simulating attenuation degradation sound distance doppler effect change frequency result motion material densities openal aimed originally open standard open-source replacement proprietary generally incompatible one another 3d audio systems eax a3d reference implementation later became proprietary open source implementations openal soft available openal originally developed 2000 loki software help business porting windows games linux demise loki project maintained time free software/open source community implemented nvidia nforce sound cards motherboards hosted largely developed creative technology on-going support apple blue ripple sound via rapture3d openal driver individual open-source developers openal charter says architecture review board arb modeled opengl arb organization ever formed openal specification generally handled discussed via email public mailing list since 1.1 implementation creative turned proprietary last releases free licenses still accessible project subversion source code repository however openal soft widely used open source alternative general functionality openal encoded source objects audio buffers single listener source object contains pointer buffer velocity position direction sound intensity sound listener object contains velocity position direction listener general gain applied sound buffers contain audio data pcm format either 8- 16-bit either monaural stereo format rendering engine performs necessary calculations far distance attenuation doppler effect etc net result end user properly written openal application sounds behave quite naturally user moves three-dimensional space virtual world programmer perspective little additional work required make happen existing opengl-based 3d graphical application unlike opengl specification openal specification includes two subsections api core consisting actual openal function calls alc audio library context api used manage rendering contexts resource usage locking cross platform manner also 'alut audio library utility toolkit library provides higher level 'convenience functions — exactly analogous opengl 'glut order provide additional functionality future openal utilizes extension mechanism individual vendors thereby able include extensions distributions openal commonly purpose exposing additional functionality proprietary hardware extensions promoted arb architecture review board status indicating standard extension maintained backwards compatibility arb extensions prospect added core api period time advanced digital signal processing hardware-accelerated sound effects efx effects extension environmental audio extensions eax used single listener model openal tailored single human user fit artificial intelligence robotic simulations multiple human participants collaborative musical performances cases multiple listener model required openal also fails take account sound propagation delays speed sound used doppler effect distance sound source translates amplitude effect attenuation delay hence openal used time difference arrival calculations unless functionality added separately api available following platforms operating systems android supports opensl es amigaos 3.x 4.x bada blackberry 10 blackberry playbook bsd ios supports core audio irix linux supports alsa oss portaudio pulseaudio mac os 8 mac os 9 mac os x core audio microsoft windows supports directsound windows multimedia api windows multimedia device mmdevice api morphos openbsd solaris qnx aros supported gaming devices instance gamecube playstation 2 playstation 3 xbox xbox 360 wii playstation portable following video games known use openal I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,368	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: jean-loup_gailly.jean-loup gailly jean-loup gailly author gzip wrote compression code portable archiver info-zip tools compatible pkzip archiver ms-dos worked zlib collaboration mark adler prefers write hyphenated first name j l ell capitalized wrote chapter fractal image compression mark nelson data compression book 1990 1995 designed real-time executive chorusos microkernel 1999 2001 cto mandrakesoft 2006 2014 worked google tech lead manager 1-hop neighbor's text information: library_(computing).library computing computer science library collection non-volatile resources used computer programs often software development may include configuration data documentation help data message templates pre-written code subroutines classes values type specifications ibm os/360 successors referred partitioned data sets library also collection implementations behavior written terms language well-defined interface behavior invoked instance people want write higher level program use library make system calls instead implementing system calls addition behavior provided reuse multiple independent programs program invokes library-provided behavior via mechanism language example simple imperative language c behavior library invoked using c normal function-call distinguishes call library function versus another function program way code organized system library code organized way used multiple programs connection code part program organized used within one program distinction gain hierarchical notion program grows large multi-million-line program case may internal libraries reused independent sub-portions large program distinguishing feature library organized purposes reused independent programs sub-programs user needs know interface internal details library value library lies reuse behavior program invokes library gains behavior implemented inside library without implement behavior libraries encourage sharing code modular fashion ease distribution code behavior implemented library connected invoking program different program lifecycle phases code library accessed build invoking program library called static library alternative build executable invoking program distribute independently library implementation library behavior connected executable invoked executed either part process starting execution middle execution case library called dynamic library loaded run time dynamic library loaded linked preparing program execution linker alternatively middle execution application may explicitly request module loaded compiled languages standard library although programmers also create custom libraries modern software systems provide libraries implement majority system services libraries commoditized services modern application requires code used modern applications provided system libraries earliest programming concepts analogous libraries intended separate data definitions program implementation jovial brought compool communication pool concept popular attention 1959 although adopted idea large-system sage software following computer science principles separation concerns information hiding comm pool purpose permit sharing system data among many programs providing centralized data description cobol also included primitive capabilities library system 1959 jean sammet described inadequate library facilities retrospect another major contributor modern library concept came form subprogram innovation fortran fortran subprograms compiled independently compiler lacked linker prior introduction modules fortran-90 type checking fortran subprograms impossible finally historians concept remember influential simula 67 simula first object-oriented programming language classes nearly identical modern concept used java c++ c class concept simula also progenitor package ada module modula-2 even developed originally 1965 simula classes could included library files added compile time libraries important program linking binding process resolves references known links symbols library modules linking process usually automatically done linker binder program searches set libraries modules given order usually considered error link target found multiple times given set libraries linking may done executable file created whenever program used run time references resolved may addresses jumps routine calls may main program one module depending upon another resolved fixed relocatable addresses common base allocating runtime memory memory segments module referenced programming languages may use feature called smart linking whereby linker aware integrated compiler linker knows external references used code library never actually used even though internally referenced discarded compiled application example program uses integers arithmetic arithmetic operations exclude floating-point library routines smart-linking feature lead smaller application file sizes reduced memory usage references program library module stored relative symbolic form resolved code libraries assigned final static addresses relocation process adjusting references done either linker loader general relocation done individual libraries addresses memory may vary depending program using libraries combined position-independent code avoids references absolute addresses therefore require relocation linking performed creation executable another object file known static linking early binding case linking usually done linker may also done compiler static library also known archive one intended statically linked originally static libraries existed static linking must performed modules recompiled modules required program sometimes statically linked copied executable file process resulting stand-alone file known static build program static build may need relocation virtual memory used address space layout randomization desired shared library shared object file intended shared executable files shared object files modules used program loaded individual shared objects memory load time run time rather copied linker creates single monolithic executable file program shared libraries statically linked meaning references library modules resolved modules allocated memory executable file created often linking shared libraries postponed loaded modern operating systems shared library files format executable files offers two main advantages first requires making one loader rather two single loader considered well worth added complexity secondly allows executables also used shared libraries symbol table typical combined executable shared library formats elf mach-o unix pe windows older environments 16-bit windows mpe hp 3000 stack-based data local allowed shared-library code significant restrictions placed shared-library code library code may shared memory multiple processes well disk virtual memory used processes would execute physical page ram mapped different address spaces processes advantages instance openstep system applications often hundred kilobytes size loaded quickly majority code located libraries already loaded purposes operating system programs accomplish ram sharing using position-independent code unix leads complex flexible architecture using common virtual addresses windows os/2 systems make sure various tricks like pre-mapping address space reserving slots shared library code great probability shared third alternative single-level store used ibm system/38 successors allows position-dependent code places significant restrictions code placed shared cases different versions shared libraries cause problems especially libraries different versions file name different applications installed system require specific version scenario known dll hell named windows os/2 dll file modern operating systems 2001 clean-up methods eliminate situations use application-specific private libraries dynamic linking late binding linking performed program loaded load time executed run time rather executable file created dynamically linked library dynamic-link library dll windows os/2 dynamic shared object dso unix-like systems library intended dynamic linking minimal amount work done linker executable file created records library routines program needs index names numbers routines library majority work linking done time application loaded load time execution run time usually necessary linking program called dynamic linker linking loader actually part underlying operating system however possible exceedingly difficult write program uses dynamic linking includes dynamic linker even operating system provides support dynamic linking programmers originally developed dynamic linking multics operating system starting 1964 mts michigan terminal system built late 1960s since shared libraries systems change often systems compute likely load address shared library system needed store information libraries executables every shared library loaded undergone process load predetermined address speeds process dynamic linking optimization known prebinding macos prelinking linux disadvantages technique include time required precompute addresses every time shared libraries change inability use address space layout randomization requirement sufficient virtual address space use problem alleviated adoption 64-bit architectures least time loaders shared libraries vary widely functionality depend executable storing explicit paths libraries change library naming layout file system cause systems fail commonly name library path stored executable operating system supplying method find library disk based algorithm shared library executable depends deleted moved renamed incompatible version library copied place earlier search executable would fail load called dependency hell existing many platforms infamous windows variant commonly known dll hell problem occur version library uniquely identified program references libraries full unique identifiers dll hell problems earlier windows versions arose using names libraries guaranteed unique resolve dynamic links programs avoid dll hell later versions windows rely largely options programs install private dlls—essentially partial retreat use shared libraries—along mechanisms prevent replacement shared system dlls earlier versions microsoft windows checks registry determine proper place load dlls implement com objects dlls check directories defined order first windows checks directory loaded program private dll directories set calling codice_1 function system32 system windows directories current working directory finally directories specified path environment variable applications written .net framework framework since 2002 also check global assembly cache primary store shared dll files remove issue dll hell openstep used flexible system collecting list libraries number known locations similar path concept system first starts moving libraries around causes problems although users incur time cost first starting system unix-like systems search path specifying file-system directories look dynamic libraries systems specify default path configuration file others hard-code dynamic loader executable file formats specify additional directories search libraries particular program usually overridden environment variable although disabled setuid setgid programs user ca n't force program run arbitrary code root permissions developers libraries encouraged place dynamic libraries places default search path downside make installation new libraries problematic known locations quickly become home increasing number library files making management complex dynamic loading subset dynamic linking involves dynamically linked library loading unloading run time request request may made implicitly compile time explicitly run time implicit requests made compile time linker adds library references include file paths simply file names explicit requests made applications make direct calls operating system api run time operating systems support dynamically linked libraries also support dynamically loading libraries via run-time linker api instance microsoft windows uses api functions loadlibrary loadlibraryex freelibrary getprocaddress microsoft dynamic link libraries posix-based systems including unix unix-like systems use dlopen dlclose dlsym development systems automate process although originally pioneered 1960s dynamic linking reach operating systems used consumers late 1980s generally available form operating systems early 1990s period object-oriented programming oop becoming significant part programming landscape oop runtime binding requires additional information traditional libraries n't supply addition names entry points code located within also require list objects depend side-effect one oop main advantages inheritance means parts complete definition method may different places simply listing one library requires services another true oop system libraries may known compile time vary system system time many developers worked idea multi-tier programs display running desktop computer would use services mainframe minicomputer data storage processing instance program gui-based computer would send messages minicomputer return small samples huge dataset display remote procedure calls rpc already handled tasks standard rpc system soon majority minicomputer mainframe vendors instigated projects combine two producing oop library format could used anywhere systems known object libraries distributed objects supported remote access microsoft com example system local use dcom modified version supports remote access time object libraries held status next big thing programming world number efforts create systems would run across platforms companies competed try get developers locked system examples include ibm system object model som/dsom sun microsystems distributed objects everywhere doe next portable distributed objects pdo digital objectbroker microsoft component object model com/dcom number corba-based systems inevitable cooling marketing hype object libraries continue used object-oriented programming distributed information systems class libraries rough oop equivalent older types code libraries contain classes describe characteristics define actions methods involve objects class libraries used create instances objects characteristics set specific values oop languages like java distinction clear classes often contained library files like java jar file format instantiated objects residing memory although potentially able made persistent separate files others like smalltalk class libraries merely starting point system image includes entire state environment classes instantiated objects another solution library issue comes using completely separate executables often lightweight form calling using remote procedure call rpc network another computer approach maximizes operating system re-use code needed support library code used provide application support security every program additionally systems require library exist machine forward requests network however approach means every library call requires considerable amount overhead rpc calls much expensive calling shared library already loaded machine approach commonly used distributed architecture makes heavy use remote calls notably client-server systems application servers enterprise javabeans code generation libraries high-level apis generate transform byte code java used aspect-oriented programming data access frameworks testing generate dynamic proxy objects also used intercept field access system stores codice_2 codice_3 files directories codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 filenames always start codice_7 end suffix codice_8 archive static library codice_9 shared object dynamically linked library systems might multiple names dynamically linked library names names symbolic links remaining name names might include major version library full version number example systems codice_10 would filename second major interface revision dynamically linked library codice_11 codice_12 files sometimes found library directories libtool archives usable system system inherits static library conventions bsd library stored codice_8 file use codice_9-style dynamically linked libraries codice_15 suffix instead libraries macos however consist frameworks placed inside special directories called bundles wrap library required files metadata example framework called codice_16 would implemented bundle called codice_17 codice_18 either dynamically linked library file symlink dynamically linked library file codice_19 dynamic-link libraries usually suffix codice_20 although file name extensions may identify specific-purpose dynamically linked libraries e.g codice_21 ole libraries interface revisions either encoded file names abstracted away using com-object interfaces depending compiled codice_22 files either static libraries representations dynamically linkable libraries needed compilation known import libraries unlike unix world uses different file extensions linking codice_23 file windows one must first know regular static library import library latter case codice_24 file must present run time 1-hop neighbor's text information: gzip.gzip gzip file format software application used file compression decompression program created jean-loup gailly mark adler free software replacement compress program used early unix systems intended use gnu g gnu version 0.1 first publicly released 31 october 1992 version 1.0 followed february 1993. gzip based deflate algorithm combination lz77 huffman coding deflate intended replacement lzw patent-encumbered data compression algorithms time limited usability compress popular archivers gzip often also used refer gzip file format although file format also allows multiple streams concatenated gzipped files simply decompressed concatenated originally one file gzip normally used compress single files compressed archives typically created assembling collections files single tar archive also called tarball compressing archive gzip final compressed file usually extension gzip confused zip archive format also uses deflate zip format hold collections files without external archiver less compact compressed tarballs holding data compresses files individually take advantage redundancy files solid compression various implementations program written commonly known gnu project implementation using lempel-ziv coding lz77 openbsd version gzip actually compress program support gzip format added openbsd 3.4 g specific version stands gratis freebsd dragonfly bsd netbsd use bsd-licensed implementation instead gnu version actually command-line interface zlib intended compatible gnu implementation options implementations originally come netbsd support decompression bzip2 unix pack format alternative compression program achieving 3-8 better compression zopfli achieves gzip-compatible compression using exhaustive algorithms expense compression time required affect decompression time codice_3 written mark adler compatible gzip speeds compression using available cpu cores threads tar utility included linux distributions extract .tar.gz files passing option e.g. zlib abstraction deflate algorithm library form includes support gzip file format lightweight stream format api zlib stream format deflate gzip file format standardized respectively rfc 1950 rfc 1951 rfc 1952 gzip format used http compression technique used speed sending html content world wide web one three standard formats http compression specified rfc 2616 rfc also specifies zlib format called deflate equal gzip format except gzip adds eleven bytes overhead form headers trailers still gzip format sometimes recommended zlib internet explorer implement standard correctly handle zlib format specified rfc 1950. zlib deflate used internally portable network graphics png format since late 1990s bzip2 file compression utility based block-sorting algorithm gained popularity gzip replacement produces considerably smaller files especially source code structured text cost memory processing time factor 4 advancecomp 7-zip produce gzip-compatible files using internal deflate implementation better compression ratios gzip itself—at cost processor time compared reference implementation Target text information: mark_adler.mark adler mark adler born april 3 1959 american software engineer best known work field data compression author adler-32 checksum function co-author zlib compression library gzip contributed info-zip participated developing portable network graphics png image format adler also spirit cruise mission manager mars exploration rover mission adler born miami florida raised child david bertha adler adler earned bachelor science mathematics master science electrical engineering degrees university florida 1981 1985 respectively 1990 adler earned ph.d. physics california institute technology doctorate adler worked hughes aircraft space communications group working diverse projects including analysis effects x-ray bursts satellite cables development new error-correcting codes designing automobile anti-theft key digital image video compression research wavelets mpeg-2 1992 1995 adler lead mission engineer cassini–huygens mission afterwards became mars exploration program architect jet propulsion laboratory jpl 1996 1998 meant adler responsible planning mars exploration missions 2001 well handling inter-project engineering issues missions flight development time 1999 early 2000 adler mission systems manager chief engineer mars sample return project launch three missions 2003 2005 bring martian samples back earth 2008 project canceled failure mars polar lander adler initiated led three-and-a-half-week study concept later selected mars exploration rover mer mission 2003 served deputy mission system manager acting project engineer deputy assembly test launch operations manager landing site selection engineer spirit mission manager adler currently project chief low density supersonic decelerator adler instrument-rated private pilot certified scuba diver amateur theater actor lives diana st. james la cañada california two children joshua zachary st. james works california institute technology acts directs theatrical performances together co-author jean-loup gailly adler received 2009 usenix software tools user group stug award contributions floss algorithms data compression I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,780	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: kernelcare.kernelcare kernelcare live kernel patching service provides security patches bugfixes range popular linux kernels installed without rebooting system kernelcare software released gpl2 first beta introduced march 2014 commercially launched may 2014 kernelcare supports centos/rhel 5.x 6.x 7.x cloudlinux 5.x 6.x 7.x parallels cloud server oracle linux/rhel 6.x 7.x amazon linux virtuozzo openvz rhel6/rhel proxmox 3.x 4.x 5.x virt-sig/xen4centos debian 6.x 7.x 8.x 9.x ubuntu 14.04 lts 16.04 lts 18.04 lts kernelcare agent resides user server periodically checks kernelcare distribution servers new patches available currently running kernel kernelcare agent downloads applies patches running kernel kernelcare patch piece code used substitute vulnerable buggy code kernel arbitrary code line modification missing security check set functions even modified data structures patch compiled usual generated code additional information changed code pieces caused original source code modification information apply code pieces resulting code modifications safely applied running kernel special kernelcare kernel module applies patches loads patches kernel address space sets relocations i.e. fixes references original kernel code data safely switches execution path original code updated code blocks code ensures patch applied safely cpu n't execute original code blocks moment switching new version 1-hop neighbor's text information: epoll.epoll codice_1 linux kernel system call scalable i/o event notification mechanism first introduced version 2.5.44 linux kernel mainline function monitor multiple file descriptors see whether i/o possible meant replace older posix codice_2 codice_3 system calls achieve better performance demanding applications number watched file descriptors large unlike older system calls operate n time codice_1 operates 1 time codice_1 similar freebsd codice_6 consists set user-space functions taking file descriptor argument denoting configurable kernel object cooperatively operate codice_1 used red-black tree rb-tree data structure keep track file descriptors currently monitored creates codice_1 object returns file descriptor codice_9 parameter allows epoll behavior modified one valid value codice_10 codice_11 older variant codice_12 deprecated linux kernel version 2.6.27 glibc version 2.9 controls configures file descriptors watched object events codice_13 add modify delete waits events registered codice_14 least one occurs timeout elapses returns occurred events codice_15 codice_16 codice_1 provides edge-triggered level-triggered modes edge-triggered mode call codice_18 return new event enqueued codice_1 object level-triggered mode codice_18 return long condition holds instance pipe registered codice_1 received data call codice_18 return signaling presence data read suppose reader consumed part data buffer level-triggered mode calls codice_18 return immediately long pipe buffer contains data read edge-triggered mode however codice_18 return new data written pipe bryan cantrill pointed codice_1 mistakes could avoided learned predecessors input/output completion ports event ports solaris kqueue however large part criticism addressed codice_1 codice_27 codice_28 options codice_27 added version 2.6.2 linux kernel mainline released february 2004. codice_28 added version 4.5 released march 2016 1-hop neighbor's text information: andries_brouwer.andries brouwer andries evert brouwer born 1951 dutch mathematician computer programmer professor emeritus eindhoven university technology tu/e known creator greatly expanded 1984 1985 versions roguelike computer game hack formed basis nethack also linux kernel hacker sometimes referred handle aeb born amsterdam brouwer attended gymnasium obtained msc mathematics university amsterdam 1971 1976 received ph.d. mathematics vrije universiteit thesis entitled treelike spaces related topological spaces supervision maarten maurice pieter baayen turn students johannes de groot 2004 received honorary doctorate aalborg university graduation brouwer started academic career mathematisch centrum later centrum wiskunde informatica 1986 2012 professor eindhoven university technology tu/e brouwer varied research interests include several branches discrete mathematics particularly graph theory finite geometry coding theory published dozens papers graph theory areas combinatorics many collaboration researchers co-authors include least 9 co-authors paul erdős giving erdős number 2 december 1984 centrum wiskunde informatica cwi made first public release hack usenet hack implementation rogue originally written 1982 jay fenlason others brouwer heavily modified expanded distributed total four versions hack december 1984 july 1985 source code released free software widely copied played ported multiple computer platforms mike stephenson brought together large development team via usenet produce enhanced version 1987 incorporating changes many hack derivatives respected brouwer wishes renaming game nethack brouwer might ... eventually release new version brouwer also involved development unix-like computer operating systems based linux kernel previously maintainer man pager program codice_1 maintainer linux man-pages project 1995 2004 kernel maintainer areas disk geometry partition handling brouwer also serves specialist security aspects unix linux eipsi eindhoven institute protection systems information tu/e information security research institute Target text information: read-copy-update.read-copy-update computer science read-copy-update rcu synchronization mechanism based mutual exclusion used performance reads crucial example space–time tradeoff enabling fast operations cost space read-copy-update allows multiple threads efficiently read shared memory deferring updates pre-existing reads later time simultaneously marking data ensuring new readers read updated data makes readers proceed synchronization involved hence fast also making updates difficult key property rcu readers access data structure even process updated rcu updaters block readers force retry accesses overview starts showing data safely inserted deleted linked structures despite concurrent readers first diagram right depicts four-state insertion procedure time advancing left right first state shows global pointer named initially colored red indicate might accessed reader time thus requiring updaters take care allocating memory new structure transitions second state structure indeterminate state indicated question marks inaccessible readers indicated green color structure inaccessible readers updater may carry desired operation without fear disrupting concurrent readers initializing new structure transitions third state shows initialized values structure fields assigning reference new structure transitions fourth final state state structure accessible readers therefore colored red primitive used carry assignment ensures assignment atomic sense concurrent readers either see pointer valid pointer new structure mash-up two values additional properties described later article procedure demonstrates new data may inserted linked data structure even though readers concurrently traversing data structure insertion second diagram right depicts four-state deletion procedure time advancing left right first state shows linked list containing elements three elements colored red indicate rcu reader might reference time using remove element list transitions second state note link element b c left intact order allow readers currently referencing element traverse remainder list readers accessing link element either obtain reference element element either way reader see valid correctly formatted linked list element colored yellow indicate pre-existing readers might still reference element new readers way obtain reference wait-for-readers operation transitions third state note wait-for-readers operation need wait pre-existing readers new readers element colored green indicate readers longer referencing therefore safe updater free element thus transitioning fourth final state important reiterate second state different readers see two different versions list either without element words rcu provides coordination space different versions list well time different states deletion procedures stark contrast traditional synchronization primitives locking transactions coordinate time space procedure demonstrates old data may removed linked data structure even though readers concurrently traversing data structure deletion given insertion deletion wide variety data structures implemented using rcu rcu readers execute within read-side critical sections normally delimited statement within rcu read-side critical section said quiescent state statements permitted hold references rcu-protected data structures wait-for-readers operation required wait threads quiescent states time period thread resides least quiescent state called grace period definition rcu read-side critical section existence beginning given grace period must complete end grace period constitutes fundamental guarantee provided rcu addition wait-for-readers operation must wait least one grace period elapse turns guarantee provided extremely small read-side overheads fact limiting case actually realized server-class linux-kernel builds read-side overhead exactly zero rcu fundamental guarantee may used splitting updates removal reclamation phases removal phase removes references data items within data structure possibly replacing references new versions data items run concurrently rcu read-side critical sections reason safe run removal phase concurrently rcu readers semantics modern cpus guarantee readers see either old new version data structure rather partially updated reference grace period elapsed longer readers referencing old version safe reclamation phase free reclaim data items made old version splitting update removal reclamation phases allows updater perform removal phase immediately defer reclamation phase readers active removal phase completed words grace period elapsed typical rcu update sequence goes something like following procedure matches earlier diagram updater performing removal reclamation step often helpful entirely different thread reclamation reference counting used let reader perform removal even thread performs update step step 2 reclamation step step 4 often helpful think separately early 2008 almost 2,000 uses rcu api within linux kernel including networking protocol stacks memory-management system 9,000 uses since 2006 researchers applied rcu similar techniques number problems including management metadata used dynamic analysis managing lifetime clustered objects managing object lifetime k42 research operating system optimizing software transactional memory implementations dragonfly bsd uses technique similar rcu closely resembles linux sleepable rcu srcu implementation ability wait readers done allows rcu readers use much lighter-weight synchronization—in cases absolutely synchronization contrast conventional lock-based schemes readers must use heavy-weight synchronization order prevent updater deleting data structure reason lock-based updaters typically update data place must therefore exclude readers contrast rcu-based updaters typically take advantage fact writes single aligned pointers atomic modern cpus allowing atomic insertion removal replacement data linked structure without disrupting readers concurrent rcu readers continue accessing old versions dispense atomic read-modify-write instructions memory barriers cache misses expensive modern smp computer systems even absence lock contention lightweight nature rcu read-side primitives provides additional advantages beyond excellent performance scalability real-time response example provide immunity deadlock livelock conditions course rcu also disadvantages example rcu specialized technique works best situations mostly reads updates often less applicable update-only workloads another example although fact rcu readers updaters may execute concurrently enables lightweight nature rcu read-side primitives algorithms may amenable read/update concurrency despite well decade experience rcu exact extent applicability still research topic technique covered u.s. software patent 5,442,758 issued august 15 1995 assigned sequent computer systems well 5,608,893 expired 2009-03-30 5,727,209 expired 2010-04-05 6,219,690 expired 2009-05-18 6,886,162 expired 2009-05-25 now-expired us patent 4,809,168 covers closely related technique rcu also topic one claim sco v. ibm lawsuit rcu available number operating systems added linux kernel october 2002 user-level implementations liburcu also available implementation rcu version 2.6 linux kernel among better-known rcu implementations used inspiration rcu api remainder article core api application programming interface quite small diagram right shows api communicates among reader updater reclaimer rcu infrastructure observes time sequence codice_9 codice_10 codice_1 codice_4 invocations order determine 1 codice_1 invocations may return callers 2 codice_4 callbacks may invoked efficient implementations rcu infrastructure make heavy use batching order amortize overhead many uses corresponding apis rcu extremely simple toy implementations aid understanding rcu section presents one toy implementation works non-preemptive environment void call_rcu void callback void void arg void synchronize_rcu void code sample codice_7 codice_5 ignored without missing much however needed order suppress harmful compiler optimization prevent cpus reordering accesses smp_wmb /* order previous writes */ typeof p _value access_once p note codice_9 codice_10 nothing great strength classic rcu non-preemptive kernel read-side overhead precisely zero codice_19 empty macro dec alpha cpus memory barriers needed modern cpus codice_20 macro volatile cast generates additional code cases way codice_9 participate deadlock cycle cause realtime process miss scheduling deadline precipitate priority inversion result high lock contention however toy rcu implementation blocking within rcu read-side critical section illegal blocking holding pure spinlock implementation codice_1 moves caller synchronize_cpu cpu thus blocking cpus able perform context switch recall non-preemptive environment blocking within rcu read-side critical section illegal imply preemption points within rcu read-side critical section therefore given cpu executes context switch schedule another process know cpu must completed preceding rcu read-side critical sections cpus executed context switch preceding rcu read-side critical sections completed although rcu used many different ways common use rcu analogous reader-writer locking following side-by-side code display shows closely related reader-writer locking rcu differences two approaches quite small read-side locking moves codice_9 codice_10 update-side locking moves reader-writer lock simple spinlock codice_1 precedes codice_26 however one potential catch read-side update-side critical sections run concurrently many cases problem necessary check carefully regardless example multiple independent list updates must seen single atomic update converting rcu require special care also presence codice_1 means rcu version codice_28 block problem codice_4 could used like codice_30 place codice_1 especially useful combination reference counting name comes way rcu used update linked structure place thread wishing uses following steps thread made copy awakened kernel safely deallocate old structure structure read concurrently thread copying order update hence name read-copy update abbreviation rcu one many contributions linux community names similar techniques include passive serialization mp defer vm/xa programmers generations k42 tornado programmers techniques mechanisms resembling rcu independently invented multiple times bauer r.t. june 2009 operational verification relativistic program psu tech report tr-09-04 http //www.pdx.edu/sites/www.pdx.edu.computer-science/files/tr0904.pdf I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,992	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: objective-c.objective-c objective-c general-purpose object-oriented programming language adds smalltalk-style messaging c programming language main programming language supported apple macos ios ipados operating systems respective application programming interfaces apis cocoa cocoa touch introduction swift programming language objective-c originally developed early 1980s selected main language used next nextstep operating system macos ios derived portable objective-c programs use cocoa cocoa touch libraries using parts may ported reimplemented systems also compiled system supported gnu compiler collection gcc clang objective-c source code 'implementation program files usually filename extensions objective-c 'header/interface files extensions c header files objective-c++ files denoted file extension objective-c created primarily brad cox tom love early 1980s company stepstone introduced smalltalk itt corporation programming technology center 1981 earliest work objective-c traces back around time cox intrigued problems true reusability software design programming realized language like smalltalk would invaluable building development environments system developers itt however tom love also recognized backward compatibility c critically important itt telecom engineering milieu cox began writing pre-processor c add abilities smalltalk soon working implementation object-oriented extension c language called oopc object-oriented pre-compiler love hired schlumberger research 1982 opportunity acquire first commercial copy smalltalk-80 influenced development brainchild order demonstrate real progress could made cox showed making interchangeable software components really needed practical changes existing tools specifically needed support objects flexible manner come supplied usable set libraries allow code resources needed code bundled one cross-platform format love cox eventually formed new venture productivity products international ppi commercialize product coupled objective-c compiler class libraries 1986 cox published main description objective-c original form book object-oriented programming evolutionary approach although careful point problem reusability language objective-c often found compared feature feature languages 1988 next licensed objective-c stepstone new name ppi owner objective-c trademark extended gcc compiler support objective-c. next developed appkit foundation kit libraries nextstep user interface interface builder based next workstations failed make great impact marketplace tools widely lauded industry led next drop hardware production focus software tools selling nextstep openstep platform custom programming order circumvent terms gpl next originally intended ship objective-c frontend separately allowing user link gcc produce compiler executable initially accepted richard m. stallman plan rejected stallman consulted gnu lawyers next agreed make objective-c part gcc work extend gcc led steve naroff joined next stepstone compiler changes made available per gpl license terms runtime libraries rendering open source contribution unusable general public led parties developing runtime libraries open source license later steve naroff also principal contributor work apple build objective-c frontend clang gnu project started work free software implementation cocoa named gnustep based openstep standard dennis glatting wrote first gnu objective-c runtime 1992 gnu objective-c runtime use since 1993 one developed kresten krab thorup university student denmark thorup also worked next 1993 1996 acquiring next 1996 apple computer used openstep then-new operating system mac os x included objective-c next objective-c-based developer tool project builder interface design tool interface builder merged one application xcode apple current cocoa api based openstep interface objects significant objective-c environment used active development wwdc 2014 apple introduced new language swift characterized objective-c without c objective-c thin layer atop c strict superset c meaning possible compile c program objective-c compiler freely include c language code within objective-c class objective-c derives object syntax smalltalk syntax non-object-oriented operations including primitive variables pre-processing expressions function declarations function calls identical c syntax object-oriented features implementation smalltalk-style messaging objective-c model object-oriented programming based message passing object instances objective-c one call method one sends message unlike simula-style programming model used c++ difference two concepts code referenced method message name executed simula-style language method name cases bound section code target class compiler smalltalk objective-c target message resolved runtime receiving object interpreting message method identified selector — unique identifier message name often -terminated string representing name — resolved c method pointer implementing consequence message-passing system type checking object message directed — receiver — guaranteed respond message raises exception sending message object pointed pointer would require following code c++ obj- method argument objective-c written follows obj method argument styles programming strengths weaknesses object-oriented programming simula c++ style allows multiple inheritance faster execution using compile-time binding whenever possible support dynamic binding default also forces methods corresponding implementation unless abstract smalltalk-style programming used objective-c allows messages go unimplemented method resolved implementation runtime example message may sent collection objects expected respond without fear producing runtime errors message passing also require object defined compile time implementation still required method called derived object see dynamic typing section advantages dynamic late binding objective-c requires interface implementation class separately declared code blocks convention developers place interface header file implementation code file header files normally suffixed .h similar c header files implementation method files normally suffixed .m similar c code files called class declaration interface class usually defined header file common convention name header file name class e.g would contain interface class interface declaration takes form interface classname superclassname classmethod1 return_type classmethod2 return_type classmethod3 param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod1with1parameter param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod2with2parameters param1_type param1_varname param2_callname param2_type param2_varname end plus signs denote class methods methods called class instance minus signs denote instance methods called particular instance class class methods also access instance variables code roughly equivalent following c++ interface class classname public superclassname note demonstrates interleaving selector segments argument expressions direct equivalent c/c++ return types standard c type pointer generic objective-c object pointer specific type object nsarray nsimage nsstring pointer class method belongs instancetype default return type generic objective-c type method arguments begin name labeling argument part method name followed colon followed expected argument type parentheses argument name label omitted void setrangestart int start end int end void importdocumentwithname nsstring name withspecifiedpreferences preferences prefs beforepage int insertpage interface declares class interface methods actual code written implementation file implementation method files normally file extension codice_1 originally signified messages implementation classname return_type classmethod return_type instancemethod end methods written using interface declarations comparing objective-c c int method int int function int syntax allows pseudo-naming arguments void changetored float red green float green blue float blue //called like mycolor changecolortored:5.0 green:2.0 blue:6.0 internal representations method vary different implementations objective-c mycolor class instance method might internally labeled refer instance method class method names appended colons changed underscores order parameters part method name changed suit coding style expression true named parameters however internal names function rarely used directly generally messages converted function calls defined objective-c runtime library necessarily known link time method called class receiver object sent message need known runtime objective-c class written instantiated done first allocating uninitialized instance class object initializing object fully functional steps completed steps accomplished one line code never allocated object n't undergone initialization unwise keep intermediate result since codice_2 return different object called instantiation default no-parameter initializer myobject foo end interface integer display id showstars id showint end implementation integer display id showstars id showint end int main void compilation performed example one experiment leaving lines omitting compilation program still run means possible mix-and-match added categories needed category need ability simply compile objective-c permits class wholly replace another class within program replacing class said pose target class class posing declared deprecated mac os x v10.5 unavailable 64-bit runtime similar functionality achieved using method swizzling categories swaps one method implementation another signature versions still supporting posing messages sent target class instead received posing class several restrictions posing similarly categories allows global augmentation existing classes posing permits two features absent categories example interface customnsapplication nsapplication end implementation customnsapplication void setmainmenu nsmenu menu end class_poseas customnsapplication class nsapplication class intercepts every invocation setmainmenu nsapplication c language codice_3 pre-compile directive always causes file contents inserted source point objective-c codice_4 directive equivalent except file included per compilation unit obviating need include guards objective-c features often allow flexible often easy solutions programming issues objective-c++ language variant accepted front-end gnu compiler collection clang compile source files use combination c++ objective-c syntax objective-c++ adds c++ extensions objective-c adds c. nothing done unify semantics behind various language features certain restrictions apply 2006 worldwide developers conference apple announced release objective-c 2.0 revision objective-c language include modern garbage collection syntax enhancements runtime performance improvements 64-bit support mac os x v10.5 released october 2007 included objective-c 2.0 compiler gcc 4.6 supports many new objective-c features declared synthesized properties dot syntax fast enumeration optional protocol methods method/protocol/class attributes class extensions new gnu objective-c runtime api objective-c 2.0 provided optional conservative generational garbage collector run backwards-compatible mode runtime turned reference counting operations retain release no-ops objects subject garbage collection garbage collection enabled regular c pointers could qualified __strong also trigger underlying write-barrier compiler intercepts thus participate garbage collection zero-ing weak subsystem also provided pointers marked __weak set zero object simply gc memory collected garbage collector exist ios implementation objective-c 2.0 garbage collection objective-c runs low-priority background thread halt user events intention keeping user experience responsive garbage collection deprecated mac os x v10.8 favor automatic reference counting arc objective-c ios 7 running arm64 uses 19 bits 64-bit word store reference count form tagged pointers objective-c 2.0 introduces new syntax declare instance variables properties optional attributes configure generation accessor methods properties sense public instance variables declaring instance variable property provides external classes access possibly limited e.g read property property may declared readonly may provided storage semantics codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 default properties considered codice_8 results lock preventing multiple threads accessing time property declared codice_9 removes lock interface person nsobject property copy nsstring name property readonly int age id initwithage int age end properties implemented way codice_10 keyword generates getter setter read-only methods according property declaration alternatively getter setter methods must implemented explicitly codice_11 keyword used indicate accessor methods provided means compiled using clang 3.1 higher properties explicitly declared codice_11 marked codice_13 complete user-implemented getter setter automatically implicitly codice_10 'd implementation person synthesize name id initwithage int initage int age end properties accessed using traditional message passing syntax dot notation key-value coding name via valueforkey setvalue forkey methods person aperson person alloc initwithage 53 aperson.name steve // note dot notation uses synthesized setter nslog access message dot notation property name direct instance variable access order use dot notation invoke property accessors within instance method self keyword used void introducemyselfwithproperties bool usegetter // note getter vs. ivar access class protocol properties may dynamically type introspection\|introspected int int propertycount 0 objc_property_t propertylist class_copypropertylist aperson class propertycount 0 propertycount i++ objective-c 2.0 provides non-fragile instance variables supported runtime i.e building code 64-bit macos ios modern runtime extra layer indirection added instance variable access allowing dynamic linker adjust instance layout runtime feature allows two important improvements objective-c code instead using nsenumerator object indices iterate collection objective-c 2.0 offers fast enumeration syntax objective-c 2.0 following loops functionally equivalent different performance traits // using nsenumerator nsenumerator enumerator thepeople objectenumerator person p p enumerator nextobject nil // using indexes int 0 thepeople count i++ // using fast enumeration person p thepeople fast enumeration generates efficient code standard enumeration method calls enumerate objects replaced pointer arithmetic using nsfastenumeration protocol class extension syntax category declaration category name methods properties declared added directly main class mostly used alternative category add methods class without advertising public headers advantage class extensions compiler checks privately declared methods actually implemented objective-c applications developed macos make use improvements objective-c 2.0 incompatible operating systems prior 10.5 leopard since fast enumeration generate exactly binaries standard enumeration use cause application crash mac os x version 10.4 earlier blocks nonstandard extension objective-c c programming language \|c c++ uses special syntax create closure programming \|closures blocks supported mac os x snow leopard\|mac os x 10.6 snow leopard later ios 4 later gnustep libobjc2 1.7 compiling clang 3.1 later typedef int ^intblock intblock makecounter int start int increment int main void /* output automatic reference counting arc compile-time feature eliminates need programmers manually manage retain counts using codice_7 codice_16 unlike garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection occurs run time arc eliminates overhead separate process managing retain counts arc manual memory management mutually exclusive programmers continue use non-arc code arc-enabled projects disabling arc individual code files xcode also attempt automatically upgrade project arc next apple obj-c runtimes long included short-form way create new strings using literal syntax codice_17 drop corefoundation constants codice_18 codice_19 codice_20 boolean values using format saves programmer use longer codice_21 similar methods certain operations using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries numbers codice_22 codice_23 codice_20 classes also created using literal syntax instead methods example without literals nsarray myarray nsarray arraywithobjects object1 object2 object3 nil nsdictionary mydictionary1 nsdictionary dictionarywithobject someobject forkey key nsdictionary mydictionary2 nsdictionary dictionarywithobjectsandkeys object1 key1 object2 key2 nil nsnumber mynumber nsnumber numberwithint myint nsnumber mysumnumber= nsnumber numberwithint 2 3 nsnumber myboolnumber nsnumber numberwithbool yes example literals nsarray myarray object1 object2 object3 nsdictionary mydictionary1 key someobject nsdictionary mydictionary2 key1 object1 key2 object2 nsnumber mynumber myint nsnumber mysumnumber 2+3 nsnumber myboolnumber yes nsnumber *myintegernumber 8 however different string literal compile constants executable literals compile code equivalent method calls particular manually reference-counted memory management objects autoreleased requires added care e.g. used function-static variables kinds globals using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries codice_22 codice_23 classes manipulated using subscripting subscripting used retrieve values indexes array keys dictionary mutable objects also used set objects indexes keys code subscripting represented using brackets codice_27 example without subscripting id object1 somearray objectatindex:0 id object2 somedictionary objectforkey key somemutablearray replaceobjectatindex:0 withobject object3 somemutabledictionary setobject object4 forkey key example subscripting id object1 somearray 0 id object2 somedictionary key somemutablearray 0 object3 somemutabledictionary key object4 purchase next apple attempts made make language acceptable programmers familiar java programming language \|java smalltalk one attempts introducing dubbed modern syntax objective-c time opposed current classic syntax change behaviour merely alternative syntax instead writing method invocation like instead written similarly declarations went form modern syntax longer supported current dialects objective-c language besides gnu compiler collection\|gcc next apple inc.\|apple implementation added several extensions original stepstone implementation another free open source software\|free open-source objective-c implementation called portable object compiler also exists set extensions implemented portable object compiler differs gcc/next/apple implementation particular includes smalltalk -like blocks objective-c lacks protocols categories two features used extensively openstep derivatives relatives overall poc represents older pre-next stage language evolution roughly conformant brad cox 1991 book also includes runtime library called objectpak based cox original icpak101 library turn derives smalltalk-80 class library quite radically different openstep foundationkit geos 16-bit operating system \|pc geos system used programming language known geos objective-c goc despite name similarity two languages similar overall concept use keywords prefixed sign clang compiler suite part llvm project implements objective-c languages winobjc also known bridge open-source objc compiler project started microsoft github way allow reuse ios application code inside windows universal applications windows objective-c development tools provided download gnustep website gnustep development system consists following packages gnustep msys system gnustep core gnustep devel gnustep cairo projectcenter ide like xcode complex gorm interface builder like xcode nib builder objective-c today often used tandem fixed library standard objects often known kit framework cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep objfw libraries often come operating system gnustep libraries often come linux -based distributions cocoa comes macos programmer forced inherit functionality existing base class nsobject ofobject objective-c allows declaration new root classes inherit existing functionality originally objective-c-based programming environments typically offered object class base class almost classes inherited introduction openstep next created new base class named nsobject offered additional features object emphasis using object references reference counting instead raw pointers example almost classes cocoa inherit nsobject renaming serve differentiate new default behavior classes within openstep api allowed code used object—the original base class used nextstep less objective-c class libraries —to co-exist runtime code used nsobject limitations introduction two letter prefix also became simplistic form namespaces objective-c lacks using prefix create informal packaging identifier became informal coding standard objective-c community continues day recently package managers started appearing cocoapods aims package manager repository packages lot open-source objective-c code written last years installed using cocoapods objective-c implementations use thin run time system\|runtime system written c adds little size application contrast object-oriented systems time created used large virtual machine runtimes programs written objective-c tend much larger size code libraries generally need included software distribution contrast smalltalk systems large amount memory used open window objective-c applications tend larger similar c c++ applications objective-c dynamic typing allow methods stripped inlined since programmer freedom delegate forward calls build selectors fly pass runtime system objective-c compiler assume safe remove unused methods inline calls likewise language implemented atop extant c compilers gnu compiler collection\|gcc first preprocessor module rather new compiler allows objective-c leverage huge existing collection c code libraries tools etc existing c libraries wrapped objective-c adapter pattern\|wrappers provide oo-style interface aspect similar gobject library vala programming language \|vala language widely used development gtk applications practical changes lowered barriers entry\|barrier entry likely biggest problem widespread acceptance smalltalk 1980s common criticism objective-c language support namespaces instead programmers forced add prefixes class names traditionally shorter namespace names thus prone collisions 2007 macos classes functions cocoa software \|cocoa programming environment prefixed ns e.g nsobject nsbutton identify belonging macos ios core ns derives names classes defined development nextstep since objective-c strict superset c treat c primitive types first-class object s. unlike c++ objective-c support operator overloading also unlike c++ objective-c allows object directly inherit one class forbidding multiple inheritance however cases categories protocols may used alternative ways achieve results objective-c uses dynamic runtime typing method calls function calls cases syscalls many common performance optimizations applied objective-c methods example inlining constant propagation interprocedural optimizations scalar replacement aggregates limits performance objective-c abstractions relative similar abstractions languages c++ optimizations possible first versions objective-c support garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection time decision matter debate many people considered long dead times smalltalk performed collection render entire system unusable 3rd party implementations added feature notably gnustep apple implemented mac os x v10.5 however recent versions macos ios garbage collection deprecated favor automatic reference counting arc introduced 2011 arc compiler inserts retain release calls automatically objective-c code based static program analysis\|static code analysis automation relieves programmer write memory management code arc also adds weak references objective-c language design implementation c++ objective-c represent fundamentally different approaches extending c. addition c style procedural programming c++ directly supports certain forms object-oriented programming generic programming metaprogramming c++ also comes c++ standard library\|a large standard library includes sequence container c++ \|several container classes similarly objective-c adds polymorphism object-oriented programming\|object-oriented programming dynamic typing reflection computer science \|reflection c. objective-c provide standard library per se places objective-c used used openstep -like library openstep cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep provides functionality similar c++ standard library one notable difference objective-c provides runtime support reflection computer science \|reflective features whereas c++ adds small amount runtime support c. objective-c object queried properties e.g. whether respond certain message c++ possible without use external libraries use reflection part wider distinction dynamic run-time features static compile-time features language although objective-c c++ employ mix features objective-c decidedly geared toward run-time decisions c++ geared toward compile-time decisions tension dynamic static programming involves many classic trade-offs programming dynamic features add flexibility static features add speed type checking generic programming metaprogramming implemented languages using runtime polymorphism c++ takes form virtual function runtime type identification objective-c offers dynamic typing reflection objective-c lacks compile-time polymorphism generic function entirely c++ supports via function overloading template c++ \|templates category c programming language family category class-based programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category gnustep category next category object-oriented programming languages category objective-c category programming languages created 1986 1-hop neighbor's text information: swift_(programming_language).swift programming language swift general-purpose multi-paradigm compiled programming language developed apple inc. ios macos watchos tvos linux z/os swift designed work apple cocoa cocoa touch frameworks large body existing objective-c code written apple products built open source llvm compiler framework included xcode since version 6 released 2014 apple platforms uses objective-c runtime library allows c objective-c c++ swift code run within one program apple intended swift support many core concepts associated objective-c notably dynamic dispatch widespread late binding extensible programming similar features safer way making easier catch software bugs swift features addressing common programming errors like null pointer dereferencing provides syntactic sugar help avoid pyramid doom swift supports concept protocol extensibility extensibility system applied types structs classes apple promotes real change programming paradigms term protocol-oriented programming similar traits swift introduced apple 2014 worldwide developers conference wwdc underwent upgrade version 1.2 2014 major upgrade swift 2 wwdc 2015 initially proprietary language version 2.2 made open-source software apache license 2.0 december 3 2015 apple platforms linux version 3.0 syntax swift went significant evolution core team making source stability focus later versions first quarter 2018 swift surpassed objective-c measured popularity swift 4.0 released 2017 introduced several changes built-in classes structures code written previous versions swift updated using migration functionality built xcode swift 5 released march 2019 introduced stable binary interface apple platforms allowing swift runtime incorporated apple operating systems source compatible swift 4 development swift started july 2010 chris lattner eventual collaboration many programmers apple swift took language ideas objective-c rust haskell ruby python c clu far many others list june 2 2014 apple worldwide developers conference wwdc application became first publicly released app written swift beta version programming language released registered apple developers conference company promise final version swift would source code compatible test version apple planned make source code converters available needed full release swift programming language free 500-page manual also released wwdc available ibooks store official website swift reached 1.0 milestone september 9 2014 gold master xcode 6.0 ios swift 1.1 released october 22 2014 alongside launch xcode 6.1 swift 1.2 released april 8 2015 along xcode 6.3 swift 2.0 announced wwdc 2015 made available publishing apps app store september 21 2015 swift 3.0 released september 13 2016 swift 4.0 released september 19 2017 swift 4.1 released march 29 2018 swift first place loved programming language stack overflow developer survey 2015 second place 2016 december 3 2015 swift language supporting libraries debugger package manager open sourced apache 2.0 license runtime library exception swift.org created host project source code hosted github easy anyone get code build even create pull requests contribute code back project december 2015 ibm announced swift sandbox website allows developers write swift code one pane display output another swift sandbox deprecated january 2018 wwdc 2016 apple announced ipad exclusive app named swift playgrounds intended teach people code swift app presented 3d video game-like interface provides feedback lines code placed certain order executed january 2017 chris lattner announced departure apple new position tesla motors swift project lead role going team veteran ted kremenek wwdc 2019 apple announced swiftui provides framework declarative ui structure design across apple platforms swift alternative objective-c language employs modern programming-language theory concepts strives present simpler syntax introduction described simply objective-c without c default swift expose pointers unsafe accessors contrast objective-c uses pointers pervasively refer object instances also objective-c use smalltalk-like syntax making method calls replaced dot-notation style namespace system familiar programmers common object-oriented oo languages like java c swift introduces true named parameters retains key objective-c concepts including protocols closures categories often replacing former syntax cleaner versions allowing concepts applied language structures like enumerated types enums cocoa cocoa touch environments many common classes part foundation kit library included nsstring string library using unicode nsarray nsdictionary collection classes others objective-c provided various bits syntactic sugar allow objects created on-the-fly within language created objects manipulated object calls instance objective-c concatenating two nsstrings required method calls similar swift many basic types promoted language core manipulated directly instance strings invisibly bridged nsstring foundation imported concatenated codice_1 operator allowing greatly simplified syntax prior example becoming swift supports five access control levels symbols codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 unlike many object-oriented languages access controls ignore inheritance hierarchies codice_6 indicates symbol accessible immediate scope codice_5 indicates accessible within file codice_4 indicates accessible within containing module codice_3 indicates accessible module codice_2 classes methods indicates class may subclassed outside module important new feature swift option types allow references values operate manner similar common pattern c pointer may refer value may null implies non-optional types result null-pointer error compiler ensure possible optional types created codice_12 mechanism—to make integer nullable one would use declaration similar codice_13 c swift also includes syntactic sugar allowing one indicate variable optional placing question mark type name codice_14 variables constants marked optional either value underlying type codice_15 optional types wrap base type resulting different instance codice_16 codice_17 fundamentally different types latter common codice_18 codice_16 access value inside assuming nil must unwrapped expose instance inside performed codice_20 operator case codice_20 operator unwraps codice_22 expose instance inside allowing method call made codice_22 nil null-pointer error occurs annoying practice swift also includes concept optional chaining test whether instance nil unwrap non-null case runtime calls codice_24 codice_22 nil suppressing error normally requires programmer test whether codice_26 nil proceeding origin term chaining comes common case several method calls/getters chained together instance reduced codice_27 syntax circumvents pyramid doom swift 2 introduced new keyword codice_28 cases code stop executing condition unmet using codice_28 three benefits syntax act codice_30 statement primary benefit inferring non-nullability codice_30 statement requires case codice_28 assumes case based condition provided also since codice_28 contains scope exception codice_34 closure codice_35 presented unwrapped optional guard super-scope lastly codice_28 statement test fails swift requires codice_34 exit current method loop ensuring codice_35 never accessed codice_15 performed keywords codice_40 codice_41 codice_42 codice_43 objective-c weakly typed allowed method called object time method call failed default handler runtime returned nil meant unwrapping testing needed equivalent statement objective-c would return nil could tested however also demanded method calls dynamic introduces significant overhead swift use optionals provides similar mechanism testing dealing nils way allows compiler use static dispatch unwrapping action called defined instance wrapper versus occurring runtime dispatch system many object-oriented languages objects represented internally two parts object stored block data placed heap data structure \|heap name handle object represented pointer computer programming \|pointer objects passed methods copying value pointer allowing underlying data heap accessed anyone copy contrast basic types like integers floating point values represented directly handle contains data pointer data passed directly methods copying styles access termed pass-by-reference case objects pass-by-value basic types concepts advantages disadvantages objects useful data large like description window contents document cases access data provided copying 32- 64-bit value versus copying entire data structure however smaller values like integers size pointers typically one word computer architecture \|word advantage passing pointer versus passing value also pass-by-reference inherently requires dereferencing operation produce noticeable overhead operations typically used basic value types like mathematics similarly c contrast oo languages swift offers built-in support objects using either pass-by-reference pass-by-value semantics former using codice_44 declaration latter using codice_45 structs swift almost features classes methods implementing protocols using extension mechanisms reason apple terms data generically instances versus objects values structs support inheritance however programmer free choose semantics appropriate data structure application larger structures like windows would defined classes allowing passed around pointers smaller structures like 2d point defined structs pass-by-value allow direct access internal data dereference performance improvement inherent pass-by-value concept swift uses types almost common data types including codice_46 codice_47 types normally represented objects like codice_16 codice_49 using value types result significant performance improvements user applications well ensure even largest structs cause performance penalty handed swift uses copy write objects copied program attempts change value means various accessors effect pointer data storage data physically stored one instance memory level application values separate physical separation enforced copy write needed key feature objective-c support categories methods added extend classes runtime categories allow extending classes in-place add new functions need subclass even access original source code example might add spell checker support base codice_50 class means instances nsstring application gain spell checking system also widely used organizational technique allowing related code gathered library-like extensions swift continues support concept although termed extensions declared keyword codice_51 unlike objective-c swift also add new properties accessors types enums extant instances another key feature objective-c use protocol_ object-oriented_programming protocols known modern languages interfaces protocols promise particular class implements set methods meaning objects system call methods object supporting protocol often used modern oo languages substitute multiple inheritance although feature sets entirely similar common example protocol cocoa codice_52 protocol defines one method codice_53 implements object copying deep copy\|deep copying objects objective-c languages implementing protocol concept programmer ensure required methods implemented class swift adds ability add methods using extensions use generic programming generics implement combined allow protocols written support wide variety instances also extension mechanism used add protocol conformance object list protocol definition example protocol might declared called codice_54 ensures instances conform protocol implement codice_55 method returns codice_16 swift declared code like protocol added string access base class source swift like many modern languages supporting interfaces protocols used types means variables methods defined protocol instead specific type matter sort instance codice_57 compiler ensure conforms protocol thus code safe syntax also means collections based protocols also like codice_58 swift treats structs classes similar concepts extensions protocols extensively used swift runtime provide rich api based structs instance swift uses extension add codice_59 protocol many basic types like strings arrays allowing compared codice_60 operator concrete example features interact seen concept default protocol implementations function defines method works instance conforming codice_59 providing equals function instance class struct automatically gains implementation simply conforming codice_59 many instances gain codice_59 base implementations generic extensions basic objects runtime gain equals equals code combination protocols defaults protocol inheritance extensions allows many functions normally associated classes inheritance implemented value types properly used lead dramatic performance improvements significant limits api concept widely used within swift apple begun calling protocol-oriented programming language suggest addressing many problem domains normally solved though classes inheritance using protocols structs instead swift uses runtime extant objective-c system requires ios 7 macos 10.9 higher swift objective-c code used one program extension c c++ also contrast c c++ code used directly swift objective-c c wrapper must created swift c++ case objective-c swift considerable access object model used subclass extend use objective-c code provide protocol support converse true swift class subclassed objective-c. aid development programs re-use extant code xcode 6 higher offers semi-automated system builds maintains bridging header expose objective-c code swift takes form additional header file simply defines imports objective-c symbols needed project swift code point swift refer types functions variables declared imports though written swift objective-c code also use swift code directly importing automatically maintained header file objective-c declarations project swift symbols instance objective-c file mixed project called myapp could access swift classes functions code codice_64 symbols available mechanism however—use swift-specific features like generic types non-object optional types sophisticated enums even unicode identifiers may render symbol inaccessible objective-c swift also limited support attributes metadata read development environment necessarily part compiled code like objective-c attributes use codice_65 syntax currently available set small one example codice_66 attribute marks given value code outlet available use within interface builder ib outlet device binds value on-screen display object code swift uses automatic reference counting arc memory management\|manage memory apple used require manual memory management objective-c introduced arc 2011 allow easier memory allocation deallocation one problem arc possibility creating reference counting reference cycle\|strong reference cycle objects reference way reach object started following references e.g references b b references causes become leaked memory never released swift provides keywords codice_67 codice_68 prevent strong reference cycles typically parent-child relationship would use strong reference child-parent would use either codice_67 reference parents children unrelated codice_68 child always parent parent may child weak references must optional variables since change become codice_15 closure within class also create strong reference cycle capturing self references self references treated weak unowned indicated using capture list key element swift system ability cleanly debugged run within development environment using read–eval–print loop repl giving interactive properties common scripting abilities python traditional system programming languages repl enhanced new concept swift playgrounds\|playgrounds interactive views running within xcode environment respond code debugger changes on-the-fly swift playgrounds\|playgrounds allow programmers add swift code along markdown documentation code changes time regard ranged input value view used timeline assistant demonstrate output animated way addition xcode debugging features swift development including breakpoints step step statements well ui element placement breakdowns app developers apple says swift industrial-quality programming language expressive enjoyable scripting language many features introduced swift also well-known performance safety trade-offs apple implemented optimizing compiler\|optimizations reduce overhead swift similar c various ways also similarities objective-c differences objective-c include since language open-source prospects ported web web frameworks already developed ibm kitura perfect server framework \|perfect vapor server-side swift \|vapor official server apis work group also started apple members swift developer community playing central role second free implementation swift targets cocoa api \|cocoa microsoft common language infrastructure .net framework\|.net java software platform \|java android operating system \|android platform exists part elements compiler remobjects software category apple inc. software category computer-related introductions 2014 category object-oriented programming languages category pattern matching programming languages category programming languages category programming languages created 2014 category software using apache license category statically typed programming languages category systems programming languages 1-hop neighbor's text information: iphone.iphone iphone line smartphones designed marketed apple inc. generations iphone use apple ios mobile operating system software first-generation iphone released june 29 2007 multiple new hardware iterations new ios releases released since user interface built around device multi-touch screen including virtual keyboard iphone wi-fi connect cellular networks iphone take photos play music send receive email browse web send receive text messages record notes perform mathematical calculations receive visual voicemail shooting video also became standard feature iphone 3gs functionality video games reference works social networking enabled downloading mobile apps apple app store contained 2.2 million applications available iphone apple released twelve generations iphone models accompanied one twelve major releases ios operating system first-generation iphone gsm phone established design precedents button placement persisted throughout releases screen size maintained next four iterations iphone 3g added 3g network support followed iphone 3gs improved hardware iphone 4 metal chassis higher display resolution front-facing camera iphone 4s improved hardware voice assistant siri iphone 5 featured taller 4-inch display apple newly introduced lightning connector 2013 apple released iphone 5s improved hardware fingerprint reader lower-cost iphone 5c version 5 colored plastic casings instead metal followed larger iphone 6 iphone 6 plus models featuring displays iphone 6s introduced following year featured hardware upgrades support pressure-sensitive touch inputs well iphone se—which featured hardware 6s smaller form factor 5s 2016 apple unveiled iphone 7 iphone 7 plus add water resistance improved system graphics performance new rear dual-camera setup plus model new color options removing 3.5 mm headphone jack found previous models iphone 8 iphone 8 plus released 2017 adding glass back improved screen camera iphone x released alongside iphone 8 iphone 8 plus highlights near bezel-less design improved camera new facial recognition system named face id home button therefore touch id september 2018 apple released 3 new iphones iphone xs upgraded version since discontinued iphone x iphone xs max larger variant series biggest display iphone xr lower end version iphone x first-generation iphone described revolutionary game-changer mobile phone industry subsequent iterations iphone also garnered praise iphone one widely used smartphones world success credited helping apple become one world valuable publicly traded companies november 1 2018 total 2.2 billion iphones sold development become iphone began 2004 apple started gather team 1,000 employees including jonathan ive designer behind imac ipod work highly confidential project purple apple ceo steve jobs steered original focus away tablet apple eventually revisited form ipad towards phone apple created device secretive collaboration cingular wireless became mobility time—at estimated development cost us 150 million thirty months according steve jobs word imac therefore ipod iphone ipad stands internet individual instruct inform inspire apple rejected design committee approach yielded motorola rokr e1 largely unsuccessful collaboration motorola among deficiencies rokr e1 firmware limited storage 100 itunes songs avoid competing apple ipod nano cingular gave apple liberty develop iphone hardware software in-house even paid apple fraction monthly service revenue iphone 3g exchange four years exclusive us sales 2011 jobs unveiled iphone public january 9 2007 macworld 2007 convention moscone center san francisco two initial models 4 gb model priced us 499 8 gb model us 599 requiring two-year contract went sale united states june 29 2007 6:00 pm local time hundreds customers lined outside stores nationwide passionate reaction launch iphone resulted sections media dubbing 'jesus phone following successful release us first generation iphone made available uk france germany november 2007 ireland austria spring 2008 july 11 2008 apple released iphone 3g twenty-two countries including original six apple released iphone 3g upwards eighty countries territories apple announced iphone 3gs june 8 2009 along plans release later june july august starting us canada major european countries june 19 many would-be users objected iphone cost 40 users household incomes us 100,000 back original first generation iphone made aluminum black plastic accent iphone 3g 3gs feature full plastic back increase strength gsm signal iphone 3g available 8 gb black model black white option 16 gb model iphone 3gs available colors regardless storage capacity iphone 4 aluminosilicate glass front back stainless steel edge serves antennas first available black white version announced released april 2011 10 months later users iphone 4 reported dropped/disconnected telephone calls holding phones certain way became known antennagate january 11 2011 verizon announced media event reached agreement apple would begin selling cdma iphone 4 verizon said would available pre-order february 3 release set february 10 february 2011 verizon iphone accounted 4.5 iphone ad impressions us millennial media mobile ad network 2007 2011 apple spent 647 million advertising iphone us tuesday september 27 apple sent invitations press event held october 4 2011 10:00 cupertino headquarters announce details next generation iphone turned iphone 4s 1 million 4s models sold first 24 hours release october 2011 due large volumes iphone manufactured high selling price apple became largest mobile handset vendor world revenue 2011 surpassing long-time leader nokia american carrier c spire wireless announced would carrying iphone 4s october 19 2011 january 2012 apple reported best quarterly earnings ever 53 revenue coming sale 37 million iphones average selling price nearly 660 average selling price remained fairly constant phone lifespan hovering 622 660 production price iphone 4s estimated ihs isuppli october 2011 188 207 245 16 gb 32 gb 64 gb models respectively labor costs estimated 12.50 30 per unit workers iphone assembly line making 1.78 hour february 2012 comscore reported 12.4 us mobile subscribers used iphone approximately 6.4 million iphones active us alone september 12 2012 apple announced iphone 5 4-inch display predecessors 3.5-inch screen device comes 326 pixels per inch found iphone 4 4s iphone 5 soc a6 processor chip 22 smaller iphone 4s a5 twice fast doubling graphics performance predecessor device 18 thinner iphone 4s measuring 20 lighter july 6 2013 reported apple talks korean mobile carrier sk telecom release next generation iphone lte advanced technology july 22 2013 company suppliers said apple testing larger screens iphone ipad apple asked prototype smartphone screens larger four inches also asked screen designs new tablet device measuring slightly less 13 inches diagonally said september 10 2013 apple unveiled two new iphone models highly anticipated press event cupertino iphone 5c mid-range-priced version handset designed increase accessibility due price available five colors green blue yellow pink white made plastic iphone 5s comes three colors black white gold home button replaced fingerprint scanner touch id phones shipped september 20 2013 september 9 2014 apple revealed iphone 6 iphone 6 plus event cupertino devices larger screen predecessor 4.7 5.5 inches respectively 2016 apple unveiled iphone 7 7 plus added water dust resistance improved system graphics performance new dual-camera setup plus model new color options featured removal 3.5 mm headphone jack iphone september 12 2017 apple officially unveiled iphone 8 8 plus features new glass design camera improvements true tone display wireless charging improved system performance also unveiled iphone x features near bezel-less design facial recognition feature dubbed face id facial tracking used animojis oled screen highest pixel density iphone new telephoto lens works better low light conditions improved cameras ar september 12 2018 apple officially unveiled iphone xs xs max xr steve jobs theater apple park xs xs max feature improved super retina display dolby vision hdr10 support xs max featuring larger 6.5 display improved cameras smart hdr a12 bionic chip iphone xs xs max ip68 water liquid dust resistant allow devices submerged 2 meters duration 30 minutes iphone xr retained ip67 certification found first-generation iphone x also features ips lcd display instead oled displays found higher end models iphone xs/xs max ip68 certifications tested using various liquids chlorinated-water salt water tea wine beer juices apple also announced fourth generation apple watch apple watch series 4 apple sold 6.1 million first generation iphone units five quarters sales fourth quarter 2008 temporarily surpassed research motion rim blackberry sales 5.2 million units briefly made apple third largest mobile phone manufacturer revenue nokia samsung however income deferred recorded sales grew steadily thereafter end fiscal year 2010 total 73.5 million iphones sold 2010 iphone market share barely 4 cell phones however apple pulled 50 total profit global cellphone sales generated apple sold 14.1 million iphones third quarter 2010 representing 91 unit growth year-ago quarter well ahead idc latest published estimate 64 growth global smartphone market september quarter apple sales surpassed research motion 12.1 million blackberry units sold recent quarter ended august 2010 united states market alone third quarter 2010 9.1 million android-powered smartphones shipped 43.6 market apple ios number two phone operating system 26.2 5.5 million iphones sold made popular single device march 2 2011 ipad 2 launch event apple announced sold 100 million iphones worldwide result success iphone sales volume high selling price headlined iphone 4s apple became largest mobile handset vendor world revenue 2011 surpassing long-time leader nokia samsung galaxy ii proved popular iphone 4s parts europe iphone 4s dominant united states january 2012 apple reported best quarterly earnings ever 53 revenue coming sale 37 million iphones average selling price nearly 660 average selling price remained fairly constant phone lifespan hovering 622 660 eight largest phone manufacturers q1 2012 according horace dediu asymco apple samsung combined take 99 industry profits htc took remaining 1 rim lg sony ericsson motorola nokia suffered losses apple earning 73 cents every dollar earned phone makers industry profits grew 5.3 billion first quarter 2010 14.4 billion first quarter 2012 quadruple profits 2007 apple managed increase share profits due increasing carrier subsidies high selling prices iphone negative effect wireless carriers mobility verizon sprint seen ebitda service margins drop sold increasing number iphones quarter ended march 31 2012 apple sales iphone alone 22.7 billion exceeded total microsoft businesses 17.4 billion fourth quarter 2012 iphone 5 iphone 4s best-selling handsets sales 27.4 million 13 smartphones worldwide 17.4 million units respectively samsung galaxy iii third 15.4 million according strategy analytics data impressive performance given iphone portfolio premium pricing adding galaxy iii global popularity appears peaked galaxy iii touted iphone-killer press released samsung led worldwide sales smartphones apple iphone line still managed top samsung smartphone offerings united states 21.4 share 37.8 market respectively ios grew 3.5 37.8 android slid 1.3 fall 52.3 share continued top popularity iphone despite growing android competition also attributed apple able deliver ios updates air android updates frequently impeded carrier testing requirements hardware tailoring forcing consumers purchase new android smartphone get latest version os however 2013 apple market share fallen 13.1 due surging popularity android offerings apple announced september 1 2013 iphone trade-in program would implemented 250 specialty stores us program become available customers must valid contract must purchase new phone rather simply receive credit used later date significant part program goal increase number customers purchase iphones apple stores rather carrier stores september 20 2013 sales date iphone 5s 5c models longest ever queue observed new york city flagship apple store addition prominent queues san francisco us canada however locations throughout world identified anticipation corresponding consumers apple also increased production gold-colored iphone 5s additional one-third due particularly strong demand emerged apple decided introduce gold model finding gold seen popular sign luxury product among chinese customers apple released opening weekend sales results 5c 5s models showing all-time high product sales figures ninemillion handsets sold—the previous record set 2012 fivemillion handsets sold opening weekend 5 model first time apple simultaneously launched two models inclusion china list markets contributed record sales result apple also announced 200 million devices running ios 7 update making fastest software upgrade history apple store located christiana mall newark delaware us claimed highest iphones sales figures november 2013 store high sales results due absence sales tax state delaware finalization deal apple china mobile world largest mobile network announced late december 2013 multi-year agreement provides iphone access 760 million china mobile subscribers first quarter 2014 apple reported sold 51million iphones all-time quarterly record compared 47.8million year-ago quarter iphone upgrade program 24-month program designed consumers able get latest iphone every year without paying whole price up-front program consists low monthly payments consumers gradually pay iphone 24-month period opportunity switch upgrade new iphone 12 months payment passed 12 months passed consumers trade current iphone new one payments transferred old device new device program restarts new 24-month period additional features program include unlocked handsets means consumers free pick network carrier want two-year applecare+ protection includes hardware repairs software support coverage two incidents accidental damage criticism program includes potential endless cycle payments huffington post damon beres writing complete full 24-month payment cycle 're stuck outdated phone upgrade every 12 months 'll never stop owing apple money iphones additionally program limited iphone hardware cell phone service network operator included release iphone handset manufacturers nokia motorola enjoying record sales cell phones based fashion brand rather technological innovation smartphone market dominated time blackberry os windows mobile devices staid corporate-led smartphone paradigm focused enterprise needs phones time designed around carrier business limits conservative regards bandwidth usage battery life phones sold large number models often segmented marketing strategy confusing customers sapping engineering resources example phones marketed business often deliberately stripped cameras ability play music games apple approach deliberately simplify product line offering one model year customers making expensive high-end product apple marketing developing success ipod campaigns allowed phone become mass-market product many buyers launch day market research found unusually technology product iphone users disproportionately female ars technica noted 2012 apple avoided 'patronizing marketing female customers practice used often sell low-quality high-priced products many competitors then-ceo research motion mike lazaridis pried open iphone impression mac stuffed cellphone used much memory processing power smartphones market time capacitive touchscreen consumer-friendly design iphone fundamentally changed mobile industry steve jobs proclaiming 2007 phone communication tool way life dominant mobile operating systems time symbian blackberry os windows mobile designed handle additional tasks beyond communication basic functions operating systems never focused applications developers due infighting among manufacturers well complexity developing low-memory hardware never developed thriving ecosystem like apple app store android google play iphone os renamed ios 2010 designed robust os capabilities multitasking graphics order meet future consumer demands many services provided mobile carriers often extensively customized devices meanwhile apple decision base os os x unexpected benefit allowing os x developers rapidly expand ios development rival manufacturers forced spend software development costs catch iphone iphone success led decline sales high-end fashion phones business-oriented smartphones vertu blackberry well nokia nokia realised limitations operating system symbian attempted develop advanced system maemo without success ultimately agreed technology-sharing deal takeover microsoft prior iphone handsets viewed largely cheap disposable lures massively subsidized snare subscribers lock using carriers proprietary services however according wired apple retained complete control design manufacturing marketing iphone meaning carrier would control software updates extension security patches contrast google allowed carriers oems dictate pace upgrades pre-load phones software top android result many android oems often lag months behind google release next iteration android although nexus pixel devices guaranteed two years operating system updates third addition year security however apple supported older iterations iphones four years december 2017 reports apple using policy slowing speed older iphones issuing operating system upgrades spurred allegations firm using tactic prompt users older iphones buy newer models iphone 4 iphone models well ios devices manufactured exclusively foxconn based taiwan 2011 tim cook became ceo company apple changed outsourcing strategy first time increasing supply partners iphone 4s 2012 first model manufactured simultaneously two stand-alone companies foxconn well pegatron also based taiwan although foxconn still responsible larger share production pegatron orders slowly increased company tasked producing part iphone 5c line 2013 30 iphone 6 devices 2014 6 plus model produced solely foxconn touchscreen first five generations 9 cm 3.5 liquid crystal display scratch-resistant glass one iphone 5 four inches capacitive touchscreen designed bare finger multiple fingers multi-touch sensing screens first three generations resolution 320×480 hvga 163 ppi iphone 4 iphone 4s resolution 640×960 326 ppi 4-inch models 640×1136 326 ppi 4.7-inch models 750×1334 326 ppi 5.5-inch models 1080×1920 401 ppi 5.8-inch model x 1125×2436 458 ppi initial models using twisted-nematic tn lcds starting iphone 4 technology changed in-plane switching ips lcds iphone 5 model screen results aspect ratio approximately 16:9 iphone x first iphone use oled display near bezel-less screen ≈19.5:9 aspect ratio touch gesture features iphone based technology originally developed fingerworks gloves styli prevent necessary electrical conductivity although capacitive styli used iphone finger-touch screen iphone 3gs later also feature fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating iphone minimal hardware user interface models featuring five buttons physical menu button situated directly display called home button primary function close active app navigates home screen interface earlier models included rounded square reminiscent shape icons home screen however new models include apple fingerprint recognition feature touch id use home button fingerprint sensor symbol iphone x later n't home button instead face id facial recognition authentication method multi-function sleep/wake button located top device serves unit power button also controls phone calls call received pressing sleep/wake button silences ringtone pressed twice transfers call voicemail situated left spine volume adjustment controls iphone 4 two separate circular buttons increase decrease volume earlier models house two switches single plastic panel known rocker switch could reasonably counted either one two buttons directly volume controls ring/silent switch engaged mutes telephone ringing alert sounds new sent emails text messages push notifications camera shutter sounds voice memo sound effects phone lock/unlock sounds keyboard clicks spoken auto-corrections switch mute alarm sounds clock application countries regions mute camera shutter voice memo sound effects buttons except home made plastic original first generation iphone metal later models touchscreen furnishes remainder user interface software update january 2008 allowed first-generation iphone use cell tower wi-fi network locations trilateration despite lacking gps hardware since iphone 3g generation iphone employs a-gps operated united states since iphone 4s generation device also supports glonass global positioning system operated russia since iphone 8 supports galileo iphone 6s 6s plus introduced 2015 feature 3d touch displays allows screen recognize hard pressed using pressure sensitive multi-touch technology subsequent iphones exception iphone se iphone xr feature example technology used lightly pressing screen preview photograph pressing take iphones feature number sensors used adjust screen based operating conditions enable motion-controlled games location-based services unlock phone authenticate purchases apple pay among many things proximity sensor deactivates display touchscreen device brought near face call done save battery power prevent inadvertent inputs user face ears ambient light sensor adjusts display brightness saves battery power prevents screen bright dark 3-axis accelerometer senses orientation phone changes screen accordingly allowing user easily switch portrait landscape mode photo browsing web browsing music playing support upright left right widescreen orientations unlike ipad iphone rotate screen turned upside-down home button screen unless running program specifically designed 3.0 update added landscape support still applications email introduced shaking unit form input generally undo functionality accelerometer also used control third-party apps notably games also used fitness tracking purposes primarily pedometer starting iphone 5s functionality included m7 motion coprocessor subsequent revisions embedded chip magnetometer built-in since iphone 3gs used measure strength direction magnetic field vicinity device sometimes certain devices radio signals interfere magnetometer requiring users either move away interference re-calibrate moving device figure-eight motion since iphone 3gs iphone also features compass app unique time release showing compass points direction magnetic field beginning iphone 4 apple smartphones also include gyroscopic sensor enhancing perception moved previous iphone models contained chip capable receiving radio signals however apple fm radio feature switched antenna connected chip later iterations iphone starting iphone 7 however contain radio chips campaign called free radio phone started encourage cellphone manufacturers apple enable radio phones manufacture reasons cited radio drains less power useful emergency 2016 fort mcmurray wildfire 2017 iphone models starting iphone 5s excluding iphone 5c featured apple fingerprint recognition sensor used unlocking device authenticating apple pay purchases since iphone 6 using touch id located home button touch id replaced face id starting iphone x included iphone 6 later excluding iphone se barometer used determine air pressure elevation device starting iphone x facial recognition sensor named truedepth camera system featured used unlocking device authenticating purchases using face id also used animojis ar bottom iphone speaker left dock connector microphone right additional loudspeaker screen serves earpiece phone calls iphone 4 includes additional microphone top unit noise cancellation switches placement microphone speaker base unit—the speaker right volume controls located left side iphone models slider ipod application 3.5 mm trrs connector headphones located top left corner device first five generations original 4s time moved bottom left corner headphone socket first-generation iphone recessed casing making incompatible headsets without use adapter subsequent generations eliminated problem using flush-mounted headphone socket cars equipped auxiliary jack allow handsfree use iphone driving substitute bluetooth iphone 7 later 3.5 mm headphone jack instead headsets must connect iphone bluetooth use apple lightning port replaced 3.5 mm headphone jack traditional headsets use lightning 3.5 mm headphone jack adapter included iphone 7 iphone x plugs lightning port apple headset multipurpose button near microphone play pause music skip tracks answer end phone calls without touching iphone third-party headsets designed iphone also include microphone control button current headsets also provide volume controls compatible recent models fourth ring audio jack carries extra information built-in bluetooth 2.x+edr supports wireless earpieces headphones requires hsp profile stereo audio added 3.0 update hardware supports a2dp non-sanctioned third-party solutions exist iphone officially support obex file transfer protocol lack profiles prevents iphone users exchanging multimedia files pictures music videos bluetooth-enabled cell phones composite component video 576i stereo audio output dock connector using adapter sold apple iphone 4 also supports 1024×768 vga output without audio hdmi output stereo audio via dock adapters iphone support voice recording 3.0 software update iphone features internal rechargeable lithium-ion battery like ipod unlike mobile phones time launch battery user-replaceable iphone charged connected computer syncing across included usb dock connector cable similar charging ipod alternatively usb ac adapter wall charger also included connected cable charge directly ac outlet models iphone support wireless charging apple runs tests preproduction units determine battery life apple website says battery life designed retain 80 original capacity 400 full charge discharge cycles comparable ipod batteries battery life early models iphone criticized several technology journalists insufficient less apple claims also reflected j. d. power associates customer satisfaction survey gave battery aspects iphone 3g lowest rating two five stars battery malfunctions dies prematurely phone returned apple replaced free still warranty warranty lasts one year purchase extended two years applecare battery replacement service pricing made known buyers day product launched similar apple third parties replace batteries ipods foundation taxpayer consumer rights consumer advocate group sent complaint apple fee consumers pay battery replaced apple reduced price out-of-warranty iphone battery replacement 29 since july 2007 third-party battery replacement kits available much lower price apple battery replacement program kits often include small screwdriver instruction leaflet many newer ipod models battery first generation iphone soldered therefore soldering iron required install new battery iphone 3g uses different battery fitted connector easier replace iphone x features different battery two battery cells adhesive pull tabs adhered sides instead folded top therefore making repairs little difficult patent filed corporation published late july 2013 revealed development new iphone battery system uses location data combination data user habits moderate handsets power settings accordingly apple working towards power management system provide features ability estimate length time user away power source modify energy usage detection function adjusts charging rate best suit type power source used december 28 2017 amidst many complaints older iphone models slowing new ones released apple released communication customers website acknowledging effect old batteries iphone performance company offered 29 battery replacements solution first-generation iphone iphone 3g fixed-focus 2.0-megapixel camera back digital photos optical zoom flash autofocus natively support video recording video recording possible first-generation iphone iphone 3g via third-party app available app store jailbreaking iphone os 2.0 introduced geotagging photos iphone 3gs 3.2-megapixel camera autofocus auto white balance auto macro 10 cm manufactured omnivision camera also capture 640×480 vga resolution video 30 frames per second video cropped iphone directly uploaded youtube services iphone 4 introduced 5.0-megapixel camera 2592×1936 pixels record video 720p resolution considered high-definition also backside-illuminated sensor capture pictures low light led flash stay lit recording video first iphone natively high dynamic range photography iphone 4 also second camera front take vga photos record sd video saved recordings may synced host computer attached email supported sent mms iphone 4s camera shoot 8-mp stills 1080p video accessed directly lock screen triggered using volume-up button shutter trigger built-in gyroscope stabilize image recording video iphone 5 iphone 4s running ios 6 later take panoramas using built-in camera app iphone 5 also take still photos recording video camera iphone 5 reportedly shows purple haze light source frame although consumer reports said prone purple hazing photos shot bright light source predecessor several android phones fine cameras ... five model generations phone configured bring camera app quickly pressing home key twice iphones running also accessed lock screen directly iphone 5s features true tone flash two led lights white amber improve white balance adjusted 1,000 combinations image sensor 15 percent larger previous model iphone 6 6 plus include phase detection autofocus 6 plus optical image stabilization models shoot 1080p videos 60 frames per second release ios 8 iphone 4s later models shoot time-lapse videos capability switch frame rates automatically recording increases time iphone 6s 6s plus outfitted 12 megapixel camera 4k hd video capability front-facing camera upgraded 5 megapixels user may change resolution 4k 1080p settings iphone se features 12 mp camera found iphone 6s iphone 6s plus models 4k video capability front camera 1.2 mp iphone 7 features optical image stabilization rear camera feature previously exclusive plus models 7 plus first iphone feature dual-lens cameras 12 mp models 7 mp front-facing camera second camera iphone 7 plus telephoto lens enables 2× optical zoom 10× digital zoom rear cameras 7 7 plus f/1.8 aperture also new quad-led true tone flash brighter compared predecessors iphone 8 camera remains largely predecessor features larger sensor newer color filter camera also record 4k 60 24 frames per second slow-mo 1080p 240 frames per second new camera system also enables portrait lighting defines light scene also features quad-led true tone flash 2× better light uniformity slow sync iphone x camera almost iphone 8 camera telephoto lens aperture f/2.4 optical image stabilization front camera also portrait mode portrait lighting due new truedepth camera system iphone xs xs max xr updated 12mp 1/2.55 sensor size 1.4 μm pixel size xs series telephoto lens lower end xr one lens iphone initially released two options internal storage size 4 8gb september 5 2007 apple discontinued 4gb models february 5 2008 apple added 16gb model iphone 3g available 8 16gb released 2008 iphone 3gs came 16 32gb variants remained available 8gb september 2012 three years launch iphone 4 available 16 32gb variants well 8gb variant sold alongside iphone 4s reduced price point iphone 4s available three sizes 16 32 64gb iphone 5 5s available three sizes iphone 4s 16 32 64gb.. lower-cost iphone 5c model initially available 16 32gb models 8gb model added later iphone 6 6s available three sizes launch 16 64 128gb iphone se available 16 64gb variants launch iphone 7 7 plus released apple changed base model storage capacity 16 32gb iphone 7 7 plus configurations 32 128 256gb storage apple doubled storage iphone 6s 6s plus two configurations 32 128gb well iphone se six months later iphone 8 8 plus x changed base model capacity 64gb retaining 256gb storage option iphone xs xs max introduced 512gb storage option addition existing 64 256 gb options iphone xr comes three storage options 64 128 256gb gsm models iphone use sim card identify gsm network sim sits tray inserted slot top device sim tray ejected paper clip sim ejector tool simple piece die-cut sheet metal included iphone 3g 3gs united states models elsewhere world iphone models shipped sim ejector tool fabricated alloy dubbed liquidmetal countries iphone usually sold sim lock prevents iphone used different mobile network gsm iphone 4 features microsim card located slot right side device cdma model iphone 4 cdma-only cell phone use sim card sim card slot iphone 4s activated cdma carrier however sim card slot rely sim card activation cdma network cdma-activated iphone 4s usually carrier-approved roaming sim preloaded sim slot time purchase used roaming certain carrier-approved international gsm networks sim slot locked use roaming sim card provided cdma carrier case verizon example one request sim slot unlocked international use calling support number requesting international unlock account good standing past 60 days method unlocks iphone 4s use international carriers iphone 4s unlocked way reject non international sim cards mobility t-mobile usa example iphone 5 later iphones use nano-sim order save space internally iphone xs xs max xr added esim support addition nano-sim therefore support dual sim functionality iphones well many devices apple small disc bottom headphone jack changes white red contact water iphone 3g later models also similar indicator bottom dock connector apple warranties cover water damage employees examine indicators approving warranty repair replacement however adoption water resistance feature iphone practice longer use apple iphone indicators exposed mobile phones manufacturers carry protected location beneath battery behind battery cover indicators triggered routine use owner sweat steam bathroom light environmental moisture criticism led apple change water damage policy iphones similar products allowing customers request internal inspection phone verify internal liquid damage sensors triggered iphone models include written documentation dock connector usb cable first generation 3g iphones also came cleaning cloth first generation iphone includes stereo headset earbuds microphone plastic dock hold unit upright charging syncing iphone 3g includes similar headset plus sim eject tool first generation model requires paperclip iphone 3gs includes sim eject tool revised headset adds volume buttons functional previous iphone versions iphone 3g 3gs compatible dock sold separately first generation model dock versions include usb power adapter wall charger allows iphone charge ac outlet iphone 3g iphone 3gs sold north america japan colombia ecuador peru include ultracompact usb power adapter september 2014 launch iphone 6 apple announced apple pay mobile payment system feature aimed revolutionize way users pay uses nfc chip touch id fingerprint scanner face id iphone x later apple wallet app dedicated secure element chip encrypted payment information make purchases participating stores physical online iphone models haptic engine vibrate notification alert incoming call etc iphone models iphone 4s use eccentric rotating mass motor iphone 4s uses linear resonant actuator vibrator usually uses less power creates quieter vibration however iphone 5 5c 5s uses eccentric rotating mass motor unsure apple decided switch back however iphone 6 6 plus uses linear resonant actuator vibrator iphone 6s uses taptic engine vibration haptic feedback works similar eccentric rotating mass motor iphone runs operating system known ios formerly iphone os variant darwin operating system core found macos also included core animation software component mac os x v10.5 leopard together graphics hardware iphone 3gs opengl es 2.0 responsible interface motion graphics iphone comes set bundled applications developed apple supports downloading third-party applications app store apple provides free updates operating system iphone either wirelessly itunes major new updates historically accompanied new models size operating system depends version ios 8 required 4.5 gb successor required 1.3 gb interface based around home screen graphical list available applications iphone applications normally run one time starting iphone 4 primitive version multitasking came play users could double click home button select recently opened applications however apps never ran background starting ios 7 though apps truly multitask open application runs background use although functionality still available making call listening music home screen accessed hardware button screen iphone 8 earlier iphone x later models require swipe original iphone contained following apps messages sms mms messaging calendar photos camera youtube stocks maps google maps weather voice memos notes clock calculator settings itunes store app store introduced iphone 3gs iphone 4 compass facetime gamecenter added ios 4 4.1 respectively ios 5 reminders newsstand added ipod application split separate music videos applications ios 6 added passbook well updated version maps relies data provided tomtom well sources youtube longer came pre-installed application ios 8 added health app ios 9 replaced newsstand passbook news wallet ios 10 introduces home ios 11 added files ios 12 introduces measure app uses ar technology measure objects things available devices a9 chip newer docked base screen four icons phone mail safari internet music delineate iphone main purposes january 15 2008 apple released software update 1.1.3 allowing users create web clips home screen icons resemble apps open user-defined page safari update iphone users rearrange place icons holding icon moving desired location start shaking nine adjacent home screens accessed horizontal swipe users also add delete icons dock every home screen home screen holds twenty icons first-generation iphone 3g 4 4s home screen iphone 5 holds twenty-four icons due larger screen display dock holds four icons users delete web clips third-party applications time may select certain applications transfer itunes apple default programs could removed since ios 10 update 3.0 update adds system-wide search known spotlight left first home screen almost input given touch screen understands complex gestures using multi-touch iphone interaction techniques enable user move content touch-drag motion finger example zooming web pages photos done placing two fingers screen spreading farther apart bringing closer together gesture known pinching scrolling long list menu achieved sliding finger display bottom top vice versa go back either case list moves pasted outer surface wheel slowly decelerating affected friction way interface simulates physics real object unlike previous scrollable views user pressed control move view downwards ios user pushes upwards moving plank wood floating water creating impression user directly manipulating content displayed screen user-centered interactive effects include horizontally sliding sub-selection vertically sliding keyboard bookmarks menu widgets turn around allow settings configured side menu bars found top bottom screen necessary options vary program always follow consistent style motif menu hierarchies back button top-left corner screen displays name parent folder iphone allows audio conferencing call holding call merging caller id integration cellular network features iphone functions example music playing call received music fades fades back call ended proximity sensor shuts screen touch-sensitive circuitry iphone brought close face save battery prevent unintentional touches iphone support video calling videoconferencing versions prior fourth generation one camera opposite side screen iphone 4 supports video calling using either front back camera wi-fi feature apple calls facetime voice control introduced iphone 3gs allows users say contact name number iphone dial first two models support voice dialing third-party applications iphone includes visual voicemail countries feature allowing users view list current voicemail messages on-screen without call voicemail unlike systems messages listened deleted non-chronological order choosing message on-screen list music ringtone feature introduced united states september 5 2007 users create custom ringtones songs purchased itunes store small additional fee ringtones three 30 seconds long part song fade pause half second five seconds looped loop continuously customizing done itunes apple garageband software 4.1.1 later available mac os x third-party tools release ios 6 released september 19 2012 apple added features enable user options decline phone call person calling user reply message set reminder call back later time layout music library similar ipod iphone sort media library songs artists albums videos playlists genres composers podcasts audiobooks compilations options presented alphabetically except playlists retain order itunes iphone uses large font allows users plenty room touch selection users rotate device horizontally landscape mode access cover flow like itunes feature shows different album covers scroll-through photo library scrolling achieved swiping finger across screen alternatively headset controls used pause play skip repeat tracks iphone 3gs volume changed included apple earphones voice control feature used identify track play songs playlist specific artist create genius playlist iphone supports gapless playback like fifth-generation ipods introduced 2005 iphone play digital video allowing users watch tv shows movies widescreen double-tapping switches widescreen video playback iphone allows users purchase download songs itunes store directly iphone feature originally required wi-fi network since 2012 used cellular data network iphone includes software allows user upload view email photos taken camera user zooms photos sliding two fingers apart closer together much like safari camera application also lets users view camera roll pictures taken iphone camera pictures also available photos application along transferred iphoto aperture mac photoshop windows pc internet access available iphone connected local area wi-fi wide area gsm edge network second-generation 2g wireless data standards iphone 3g introduced support third-generation umts hsdpa 3.6 iphone 4s introduced support hsupa networks 14.4 mbit/s support hsdpa 7.2 introduced iphone 3gs networks accessible iphone models include 1xrtt represented 1× status bar gprs shown gprs status bar edge shown capital e status bar umts ev-do shown 3g faster version umts 4g shown 4g symbol status bar lte shown lte status bar 5g evolution supported areas implemented stylized larger 5g reduced size capital e. 5ge uses 4x4 mimo doubling number antennas 256-qam three-way carrier aggregation true 5g expected iphone 2020 release introduced 3g july 2004 late 2007 steve jobs stated still widespread enough us chipsets energy efficient enough included iphone support 802.1x authentication system commonly used university corporate wi-fi networks added 2.0 version update default iphone ask join newly discovered wi-fi networks prompt password required alternatively join closed wi-fi networks manually iphone automatically choose strongest network connecting wi-fi instead edge available similarly iphone 3g onwards prefer 3g 2g wi-fi either wi-fi bluetooth 3g iphone 3g onwards deactivated individually airplane mode disables wireless connections overriding preferences however airplane mode one explicitly enable wi-fi and/or bluetooth modes join continue operate one networks cellular network transceivers remain safari iphone native web browser displays pages similar mac windows counterparts web pages may viewed portrait landscape mode device supports automatic zooming pinching together spreading apart fingertips screen double-tapping text images safari allow file downloads except predefined extensions iphone support flash still popular iphone introduced consequently uk advertising standards authority adjudicated advertisement claiming iphone could access parts internet withdrawn current form grounds false advertising rare public letter april 2010 apple ceo steve jobs outlined reasoning behind absence flash iphone ipad iphone supports svg css html canvas bonjour google chrome introduced ios june 26 2012 opera mini also available maps application access google maps map satellite hybrid form also generate directions two locations providing optional real-time traffic information iphone announcement jobs demonstrated feature searching nearby starbucks locations placing prank call one single tap support walking directions public transit street view added version 2.2 software update voice-guided navigation iphone 3gs iphone 4 orient map digital compass apple also developed separate application view youtube videos iphone streams videos encoding using h.264 codec simple weather stock quotes applications also tap internet iphone users access internet frequently variety places according google 2008 iphone generated 50 times search requests mobile handset according deutsche telekom ceo rené obermann average internet usage iphone customer 100 megabytes 30 times use average contract-based consumer customers nielsen found 98 iphone users use data services 88 use internet china iphone 3g iphone 3gs built distributed without wi-fi introduction verizon iphone january 2011 issue using internet phone brought public attention two us carriers internet phone could used simultaneously networks whereas verizon networks support use separately however 2014 verizon announced iphone 6 6 plus would allow simultaneous voice data lte network t-mobile sprint enabled calls wi-fi verizon soon text input iphone implements virtual keyboard touchscreen automatic spell checking correction predictive word capabilities dynamic dictionary learns new words keyboard predict word user typing complete correct accidental pressing keys near presumed desired key keys somewhat larger spaced farther apart landscape mode supported limited number applications touching section text brief time brings magnifying glass allowing users place cursor middle existing text virtual keyboard accommodate 21 languages including character recognition chinese alternative characters accents example letters alphabets languages emoji typed keyboard pressing letter two seconds selecting alternative character popup 3.0 update brought support cut copy pasting text well landscape keyboards applications iphone 4s siri allows dictation since ios 8 third party keyboards distributed app store allowed previously available jailbroken iphones iphone also features email program supports html email enables user embed photos email message pdf word excel powerpoint attachments mail messages viewed phone yahoo offers free push-email service iphone imap although push-imap pop3 mail standards also supported including microsoft exchange kerio connect first versions iphone firmware accomplished opening imap exchange server apple also licensed microsoft activesync supports platform including push email release iphone 2.0 firmware iphone sync email account settings apple mail application microsoft outlook microsoft entourage manually configured device email program access almost imap pop3 account text messages presented chronologically mailbox format similar mail places text recipients together replies text messages displayed speech bubbles similar ichat recipient name iphone built-in support email message forwarding drafts direct internal camera-to-email picture sending support multi-recipient sms added 1.1.3 software update support mms added 3.0 update original first generation iphone us september 25 2009 wwdc 2007 june 11 2007 apple announced iphone would support third-party web applications using ajax share look feel iphone interface october 17 2007 steve jobs open letter posted apple hot news weblog announced software development kit sdk would made available third-party developers february 2008 iphone sdk officially announced released march 6 2008 apple town hall facility free download apple registration allows developers develop native applications iphone ipod touch test iphone simulator however loading application onto real device possible paying apple developer connection membership fee developers free set price applications distributed app store receive 70 share developers also opt release application free pay costs release distribute application beyond membership fee app store launched release ios 2.0 july 11 2008 update free iphone users owners older ipod touches required pay us 10 developer submitted application app store apple holds firm control distribution apple halt distribution applications deems inappropriate example rich us 1000 program simply demonstrated wealth user apple criticized banning third-party applications enable functionality apple want iphone 2008 apple rejected podcaster allowed iphone users download podcasts directly iphone claiming duplicated functionality itunes apple since released software update grants capability netshare another rejected app would enabled users tether iphone laptop desktop using cellular network load data computer many carriers iphone later globally allowed tethering apple officially supported upgrade ios 3.0 mobility relative latecomer united states cases carrier charges extra tethering iphone sdk released third parties permitted design web apps would run safari unsigned native applications also available jailbroken phones ability install native applications onto iphone outside app store supported apple stated reason native applications could broken software update apple stated design software updates specifically break native applications perform sim unlocking apple passed 60 billion app downloads 140 billion app downloads app store app store 2.2million apps iphone original iphone described revolutionary game-changer mobile phone industry credited helping make apple one world valuable publicly traded companies 2011 newer iterations also received praise called best phone iphone attracts users ages besides consumer use iphone also adopted business purposes starting iphone 4s apple added accessibility feature optimize function iphone hearing aids apple released program made iphone hearing aids hearing aids deliver power-efficient high-quality digital audio experience allow user manage hearing aid right iphone made iphone hearing aids also feature live listen live listen iphone acts remote microphone sends sound made iphone hearing aid live listen help user hear conversation noisy room hear someone speaking across room braille displays ios program announced apple coinciding release iphone 3gs ipad ipod touch 3rd generation program added support 50 bluetooth wireless braille displays work ios box user needs pair keyboard device start using navigate ios device voiceover without additional software ios supports braille tables 25 languages iphone lets user know alert sent variety notice methods delivers visual vibrating alerts incoming phone facetime calls new text messages new sent mail calendar events users set led light flash incoming calls alerts incoming calls display photo caller users choose different vibration patterns even create iphone enlarge text make accessible vision-impaired users accommodate hearing-impaired users closed captioning external tty devices iphone 3gs also features white black mode voiceover screen reader zooming impaired vision mono audio limited hearing one ear apple regularly publishes voluntary product accessibility templates explicitly state compliance us regulation section 508 release ios 9 iphones users ability choose two different screen view options user choose standard view zoomed view iphone placed standard view setting icons normal size text remains zoomed view option icons screen text become slightly larger enables user customized appearance potentially help users read screen easier assistivetouch helps adapt multi-touch screen ios device user unique physical needs great assistance difficulty gestures like pinch one make accessible tap finger user create gestures customize layout assistivetouch menu user trouble pressing home button set activated onscreen tap gestures like rotate shake available even ios device mounted wheelchair guided access helps people autism attention sensory challenges stay focused task app hand guided access parent teacher therapist limit ios device stay one app disabling home button limit amount time spent app user restrict access keyboard touch input certain areas screen 21 different iphone models produced models bold current flagship devices apple filed 200 patent applications related technology behind iphone lg electronics claimed design iphone copied lg prada woo-young kwak head lg mobile handset r center said press conference consider apple copied prada phone design unveiled presented design award prize september 2006 conversely iphone also inspired share high-tech clones september 3 1993 infogear filed us trademark phone march 20 1996 applied trademark iphone phone registered march 1998 iphone registered 1999 since phone mark abandoned infogear trademarks cover communications terminals comprising computer hardware software providing integrated telephone data communications personal computer functions 1993 filing computer hardware software providing integrated telephone communication computerized global information networks 1996 filing 2000 infogear filed infringement claim owners iphones.com domain name owners iphones.com domain name challenged infringement claim northern district court california june 2000 cisco systems acquired infogear including iphone trademark september 2000 cisco systems settled owners iphones.com allowed owners keep iphones.com domain name along intellectual property rights use designation iphones.com domain name sale cellular phones cellular phones internet access wap phones handheld pdas storage devices computer equipment hardware/software digital cameras hardware/software intellectual property rights granted owners iphones.com domain name cisco systems september 2000 october 2002 apple applied iphone trademark united kingdom australia singapore european union canadian application followed october 2004 new zealand application september 2006 october 2006 singapore australian applications granted september 2006 company called ocean telecom services applied iphone trademark united states united kingdom hong kong following filing trinidad tobago ocean telecom trademark applications use exactly wording new zealand application apple assumed ocean telecom applying behalf apple canadian application opposed august 2005 canadian company called comwave applied trademark three months later comwave selling voip devices called iphone since 2004 shortly steve jobs january 9 2007 announcement apple would selling product called iphone june 2007 cisco issued statement negotiating trademark licensing apple expected apple agree final documents submitted night january 10 2007 cisco announced filed lawsuit apple infringement trademark iphone seeking injunction federal court prohibit apple using name february 2007 cisco claimed trademark lawsuit minor skirmish money interoperability february 2 2007 apple cisco announced agreed temporarily suspend litigation held settlement talks subsequently announced february 20 2007 reached agreement companies allowed use iphone name exchange exploring interoperability security consumer business communications products october 22 2009 nokia filed lawsuit apple infringement gsm umts wlan patents nokia alleges apple violating ten nokia patents since iphone initial release december 2010 reuters reported iphone ipad users suing apple inc. applications passing user information third-party advertisers without permission makers applications textplus4 paper toss weather channel dictionary.com talking tom cat pumpkin maker also named co-defendants lawsuit august 2012 apple smartphone patent lawsuit u.s. samsung world largest maker smartphones however december 6 2016 scotus reversed decision awarded nearly 400 million apple returned case federal circuit court define appropriate legal standard define article manufacture smartphone could case screen design patents relate march 2013 apple patent wraparound display revealed around april 20 2011 hidden unencrypted file iphone ios devices widely discussed media alleged file labeled consolidated.db constantly stores iphone user movement approximating geographic locations calculated triangulating nearby cell phone towers technology proven inaccurate times file released june 2010 update apple ios4 may contain almost year worth data previous versions ios stored similar information file called h-cells.plist f-secure discovered data transmitted apple twice day postulate apple using information construct global location database similar ones constructed google skyhook wardriving nevertheless unlike google latitude application performs similar task android phones file dependent upon signing specific eula even user knowledge stated 15,200 word-long terms conditions iphone apple partners licensees may collect use share precise location data including real-time geographic location user apple computer device file also automatically copied onto user computer synchronized iphone open-source application named iphonetracker turns data stored file visual map made available public april 2011 file erased without jailbreaking phone encrypted apple gave official response web site april 27 2011 questions submitted users associated press others apple clarified data small portion crowd-sourced location database cache wi-fi hotspots cell towers downloaded apple iphone making location services faster gps therefore data represent locations iphone volume data retained error apple issued update ios version 4.3.3 4.2.8 cdma iphone 4 reduced size cache stopped backed itunes erased entirely whenever location services turned upload apple also selectively disabled system services cell network search regardless july 2014 report state-owned china central television labeled iphone national security concern frequent locations feature found settings location services stores commonly visited locations locally device feature said help accuracy gps apple maps since log information locations user frequently visited however feature also keeps track number times user location dates exact times media outlets publicized instructions disabled concerned users revealed part 2013 mass surveillance disclosures american british intelligence agencies national security agency nsa government communications headquarters gchq access user data iphones blackberrys android phones respectively read almost smartphone information including sms location emails notes according article new york times titled signaling post-snowden era new iphone locks n.s.a apple developed new encryption method ios 8 described deep apple could longer comply government warrants asking customer information extracted devices throughout 2015 prosecutors united states argued u.s. government able compel decryption iphone contents 2015 san bernardino attack fbi recovered iphone 5c issued one shooters employer icloud backups phone month half shooting shooters destroyed personal phones u.s. government attempted obtain court order writs act compelling apple produce ipsw file would allow investigators brute force device passcode tim cook responded company website outlining need encryption arguing produce backdoor one device would inevitably used compromise privacy iphone users february 19 apple communicated journalists password apple id iphone changed within day government obtaining preventing apple producing workaround would target older devices see fbi–apple encryption dispute graykey manufactured grayshift unlock iphones even disabled countermeasure apple implemented usb restricted mode apple privacy policy addresses requests government agencies access customers data apple never worked government agency country create 'backdoor products services also never allowed government access servers never 2015 electronic frontier foundation awarded apple five five stars commend ing apple strong stance regarding user rights transparency privacy apple ios combination specific hardware uses crypto-shredding activating erase content settings obliterating keys 'effaceable storage renderes user data device cryptographically inaccessible apple tightly controls certain aspects iphone according jonathan zittrain emergence closed devices like iphone made computing proprietary early versions microsoft windows hacker community found many workarounds disallowed apple make difficult impossible obtain warranty service jailbreaking allows users install apps available app store modify basic functionality sim unlocking allows iphone used different carrier network however united states apple void iphone warranty unless show problem component failure linked installation placement after-market item unauthorized applications federal trade commission magnuson-moss warranty act 1975 users set restrictions parental controls apps downloaded used within iphone restrictions area requires password iphone normally prevents access media player web features unless also activated phone authorized carrier july 3 2007 jon lech johansen reported blog successfully bypassed requirement unlocked iphone features combination custom software modification itunes binary published software offsets others use unlike first generation iphone iphone 3g must activated store countries makes iphone 3g difficult impossible hack need in-store activation well huge number first-generation iphone ipod touch users upgrading iphone os 2.0 caused worldwide overload apple servers july 11 2008 day iphone 3g iphone os 2.0 updates well mobileme released update devices required connect apple servers authenticate causing many devices temporarily unusable users o2 network united kingdom however buy phone online activate via itunes previous model even required vendors usually offer activation buyer convenience us apple begun offer free shipping iphone 3g iphone 3gs available reversing in-store activation requirement best buy walmart also sell iphone iphone operating system designed run software apple-approved cryptographic signature restriction overcome jailbreaking phone involves replacing iphone firmware slightly modified version enforce signature check may circumvention apple technical protection measures apple statement united states copyright office response electronic frontier foundation eff lobbying dmca exception kind hacking claimed jailbreaking iphone would copyright infringement due necessary modification system software however 2010 jailbreaking declared officially legal united states dmca jailbroken iphones may susceptible computer viruses incidents reported ios android 2.3.3 'gingerbread may set dual boot jailbroken iphone help openiboot idroid 2007 2010 2011 developers released series tools called jailbreakme used security vulnerabilities mobile safari rendering jailbreak device allows users install compatible software device instead app store apps exploits quickly fixed ios updates apple theoretically flaws could also used malicious purposes july 2011 apple released ios 4.3.5 4.2.10 cdma iphone fix security vulnerability certificate validation following release iphone 5s model group german hackers called chaos computer club announced september 21 2013 bypassed apple new touch id fingerprint sensor using easy everyday means group explained security system defeated photographing fingerprint glass surface using captured image verification spokesman group stated hope finally puts rest illusions people fingerprint biometrics plain stupid use something ca n't change leave everywhere every day security token iphones still sold sim lock restricts use phone one particular carrier common practice subsidized gsm phones unlike gsm phones however phone officially unlocked entering code locked/unlocked state maintained apple servers per imei set iphone activated iphone initially sold us network sim lock place various hackers found methods unlock phone specific network although sprint t-mobile verizon authorized iphone carriers united states unlocked iphones used carriers example unlocked iphone may used t-mobile network us unlocked iphone compatible t-mobile voice network may able make use 3g functionality i.e mobile web e-mail etc. quarter original first generation iphones sold us registered apple speculates likely shipped overseas unlocked lucrative market iphone 3g worldwide release march 26 2009 united states began selling iphone without contract though still sim-locked network up-front purchase price iphone units often twice expensive bundled contracts outside united states policies differ especially us territories insular areas like guam gta teleguam exclusive carrier iphone since introduction none four us carriers sprint t-mobile verizon presence area since 2013 docomo pacific ended gta exclusivity starting iphone 5 beginning april 8 2012 began offering factory sim unlock option apple calls whitelisting allowing used carrier phone supports iphone owners reported verizon 4g lte phones come factory unlocked discovery verizon announced 4g lte phones including iphones would remain unlocked due regulations fcc placed 700 mhz c-block spectrum used verizon united kingdom o2 ee 3 vodafone tesco mobile sell device subsidised contracts use pay go locked network initially though usually unlocked either certain period contract length passed small fee exception 3 network unlock device time charge however current versions iphone available purchase sim-free apple store apple online store consequently unlocked use gsm network iphones purchased full retail price apple store online apple.com come unlocked allows customer selection carriers iphones sold canada purchased mobile carries telus rogers bell locked respective networks unlocking required visiting carrier store paying unlocking fee third party methods unlock iphones existed highly unreliable sometimes rendered phones unusable however 2017 crtc abolished sim-locking required mobile devices sold december 1 2017 come unlocked crtc also mandated carriers must offer unlocking services existing devices free consumers regardless whether purchased phone three major carriers australia optus telstra vodafone offer legitimate unlocking cost iphone devices current prior models internationally policies vary many carriers sell iphone unlocked full retail price 2003 four years iphone officially introduced trademark ifone registered mexico communications systems services company ifone apple tried gain control brandname mexican court denied request case began 2009 mexican firm sued apple supreme court mexico upheld ifone rightful owner held apple iphone trademark violation brazil brand iphone registered 2000 company called gradiente eletrônica s.a. igb eletrônica s.a according filing gradiente foresaw revolution convergence voice data internet time brazil final battle brandname concluded 2008 december 18 2012 igb launched line android smartphones tradename exclusive rights local market february 2013 brazilian patent trademark office known instituto nacional da propriedade industrial issued ruling gradiente eletrônica apple owned iphone mark brazil iphone term registered gradiente 2000 7 years apple release first iphone decision came three months gradiente eletrônica launched lower-cost smartphone using iphone brand june 2014 apple second time right use brandname brazil court ruling determined gradiente registration exclusive rights brand although gradiente intended appeal decision apple use freely brand without paying royalties brazilian company philippines solid group launched myphone brand 2007 stylized my\|phone solid broadband filed trademark application brand apple later filed trademark case intellectual property office philippines ipophl solid broadband myphone confusingly similar iphone may likely deceive cause confusion among consumers apple lost trademark battle solid group 2015 decision made ipo director nathaniel arevalo also reportedly said unlikely consumers would confused iphone myphone case giant trying claim territory entitled great prejudice local 'pinoy phone merchant managed obtain significant foothold mobile phone market marketing sale innovative products distinctive trademark arevalo later added Target text information: elements_crm.elements crm elements crm mac customer relationship management mac crm solution built ntractive apple business using apple devices offered cloud computing subscription-based service elements crm part desktop part cloud main functions include managing leads contact information tracking communication history managing tasks follow-ups tracking email communication creating estimates invoices managing projects architecture overall development elements crm product line initially began 2003 company founder justin bartak first product elements sbm launch october 2007 july 2009 product name changed elements crm ntractive privately held software development company based grand forks north dakota markets business software small medium-sized companies established 2006 company sole product elements crm customer relationship management application aimed small businesses use mac os x computers ipads iphones elements crm cloud based app employs unique site-specific browser merge os x desktop web application functionality product first introduced public keynote address apple 2007 world wide developer conference official launch elements sbm product ’ original name 1.0 took place macworld/iworld 2009 product renamed elements crm 2.0 release awarded honor apple staff pick july 2009 elements crm mac customer relationship management mac crm solution apple business using apple devices offered subscription-based service elements crm part desktop part cloud main functions include managing leads contact information tracking communication history managing tasks follow-ups tracking email communication creating estimates invoices managing projects elements crm ios universal mobile app iphone ipad elements crm ios add-on elements crm desktop app ipad crm version elements crm ios looks works feels like desktop app iphone crm app limited version important functions desktop app mac customer relationship management mac crm approach managing company ’ interaction current future customers apple inc desktop computers ios devices mac crm solutions web-based applications use web browser interaction instead mac crm combination cloud based app built apple programming language objective-c swift programming language mac crms involve using apple devices technology organize automate synchronize sales marketing customer service technical support I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	2,950	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained 1-hop neighbor's text information: database.database database organized collection data generally stored accessed electronically computer system databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques database management system dbms software interacts end users applications database capture analyze data dbms software additionally encompasses core facilities provided administer database sum total database dbms associated applications referred database system often term database also used loosely refer dbms database system application associated database computer scientists may classify database-management systems according database models support relational databases became dominant 1980s model data rows columns series tables vast majority use sql writing querying data 2000s non-relational databases became popular referred nosql use different query languages formally database refers set related data way organized access data usually provided database management system dbms consisting integrated set computer software allows users interact one databases provides access data contained database although restrictions may exist limit access particular data dbms provides various functions allow entry storage retrieval large quantities information provides ways manage information organized close relationship term database often used casually refer database dbms used manipulate outside world professional information technology term database often used refer collection related data spreadsheet card index size usage requirements typically necessitate use database management system existing dbmss provide various functions allow management database data classified four main functional groups database dbms conform principles particular database model database system refers collectively database model database management system database physically database servers dedicated computers hold actual databases run dbms related software database servers usually multiprocessor computers generous memory raid disk arrays used stable storage raid used recovery data disks fail hardware database accelerators connected one servers via high-speed channel also used large volume transaction processing environments dbmss found heart database applications dbmss may built around custom multitasking kernel built-in networking support modern dbmss typically rely standard operating system provide functions since dbmss comprise significant market computer storage vendors often take account dbms requirements development plans databases dbmss categorized according database model support relational xml type computer run server cluster mobile phone query language used access database sql xquery internal engineering affects performance scalability resilience security sizes capabilities performance databases respective dbmss grown orders magnitude performance increases enabled technology progress areas processors computer memory computer storage computer networks development database technology divided three eras based data model structure navigational sql/relational post-relational two main early navigational data models hierarchical model codasyl model network model relational model first proposed 1970 edgar f. codd departed tradition insisting applications search data content rather following links relational model employs sets ledger-style tables used different type entity mid-1980s computing hardware become powerful enough allow wide deployment relational systems dbmss plus applications early 1990s however relational systems dominated large-scale data processing applications remain dominant ibm db2 oracle mysql microsoft sql server searched dbms dominant database language standardised sql relational model influenced database languages data models object databases developed 1980s overcome inconvenience object-relational impedance mismatch led coining term post-relational also development hybrid object-relational databases next generation post-relational databases late 2000s became known nosql databases introducing fast key-value stores document-oriented databases competing next generation known newsql databases attempted new implementations retained relational/sql model aiming match high performance nosql compared commercially available relational dbmss introduction term database coincided availability direct-access storage disks drums mid-1960s onwards term represented contrast tape-based systems past allowing shared interactive use rather daily batch processing oxford english dictionary cites 1962 report system development corporation california first use term data-base specific technical sense computers grew speed capability number general-purpose database systems emerged mid-1960s number systems come commercial use interest standard began grow charles bachman author one product integrated data store ids founded database task group within codasyl group responsible creation standardization cobol 1971 database task group delivered standard generally became known codasyl approach soon number commercial products based approach entered market codasyl approach relied manual navigation linked data set formed large network applications could find records one three methods later systems added b-trees provide alternate access paths many codasyl databases also added straightforward query language however final tally codasyl complex required significant training effort produce useful applications ibm also dbms 1966 known information management system ims ims development software written apollo program system/360 ims generally similar concept codasyl used strict hierarchy model data navigation instead codasyl network model concepts later became known navigational databases due way data accessed bachman 1973 turing award presentation programmer navigator ims classified ibm hierarchical database idms cincom systems total database classified network databases ims remains use edgar codd worked ibm san jose california one offshoot offices primarily involved development hard disk systems unhappy navigational model codasyl approach notably lack search facility 1970 wrote number papers outlined new approach database construction eventually culminated groundbreaking relational model data large shared data banks paper described new system storing working large databases instead records stored sort linked list free-form records codasyl codd idea use table fixed-length records table used different type entity linked-list system would inefficient storing sparse databases data one record could left empty relational model solved splitting data series normalized tables relations optional elements moved main table would take room needed data may freely inserted deleted edited tables dbms whatever maintenance needed present table view application/user relational model also allowed content database evolve without constant rewriting links pointers relational part comes entities referencing entities known one-to-many relationship like traditional hierarchical model many-to-many relationship like navigational network model thus relational model express hierarchical navigational models well native tabular model allowing pure combined modeling terms three models application requires instance common use database system track information users name login information various addresses phone numbers navigational approach data would placed single record unused items would simply placed database relational approach data would normalized user table address table phone number table instance records would created optional tables address phone numbers actually provided linking information back together key system relational model bit information used key uniquely defining particular record information collected user information stored optional tables would found searching key instance login name user unique addresses phone numbers user would recorded login name key simple re-linking related data back single collection something traditional computer languages designed navigational approach would require programs loop order collect records relational approach would require loops collect information one record codd suggestions set-oriented language would later spawn ubiquitous sql using branch mathematics known tuple calculus demonstrated system could support operations normal databases inserting updating etc well providing simple system finding returning sets data single operation codd paper picked two people berkeley eugene wong michael stonebraker started project known ingres using funding already allocated geographical database project student programmers produce code beginning 1973 ingres delivered first test products generally ready widespread use 1979 ingres similar system r number ways including use language data access known quel time ingres moved emerging sql standard ibm one test implementation relational model prtv production one business system 12 discontinued honeywell wrote mrds multics two new implementations alphora dataphor rel dbms implementations usually called relational actually sql dbmss 1970 university michigan began development micro information management system based d.l childs set-theoretic data model micro used manage large data sets us department labor u.s. environmental protection agency researchers university alberta university michigan wayne state university ran ibm mainframe computers using michigan terminal system system remained production 1998 1970s 1980s attempts made build database systems integrated hardware software underlying philosophy integration would provide higher performance lower cost examples ibm system/38 early offering teradata britton lee inc. database machine another approach hardware support database management icl cafs accelerator hardware disk controller programmable search capabilities long term efforts generally unsuccessful specialized database machines could keep pace rapid development progress general-purpose computers thus database systems nowadays software systems running general-purpose hardware using general-purpose computer data storage however idea still pursued certain applications companies like netezza oracle exadata ibm started working prototype system loosely based codd concepts system r early 1970s first version ready 1974/5 work started multi-table systems data could split data record optional stored single large chunk subsequent multi-user versions tested customers 1978 1979 time standardized query language – sql – added codd ideas establishing workable superior codasyl pushing ibm develop true production version system r known sql/ds later database 2 db2 larry ellison oracle database simply oracle started different chain based ibm papers system r. though oracle v1 implementations completed 1978 n't oracle version 2 ellison beat ibm market 1979 stonebraker went apply lessons ingres develop new database postgres known postgresql postgresql often used global mission critical applications .org .info domain name registries use primary data store many large companies financial institutions sweden codd paper also read mimer sql developed mid-1970s uppsala university 1984 project consolidated independent enterprise another data model entity–relationship model emerged 1976 gained popularity database design emphasized familiar description earlier relational model later entity–relationship constructs retrofitted data modeling construct relational model difference two become irrelevant 1980s ushered age desktop computing new computers empowered users spreadsheets like lotus 1-2-3 database software like dbase dbase product lightweight easy computer user understand box c. wayne ratliff creator dbase stated dbase different programs like basic c fortran cobol lot dirty work already done data manipulation done dbase instead user user concentrate rather mess dirty details opening reading closing files managing space allocation dbase one top selling software titles 1980s early 1990s 1990s along rise object-oriented programming saw growth data various databases handled programmers designers began treat data databases objects say person data database person attributes address phone number age considered belong person instead extraneous data allows relations data relations objects attributes individual fields term object-relational impedance mismatch described inconvenience translating programmed objects database tables object databases object-relational databases attempt solve problem providing object-oriented language sometimes extensions sql programmers use alternative purely relational sql programming side libraries known object-relational mappings orms attempt solve problem xml databases type structured document-oriented database allows querying based xml document attributes xml databases mostly used applications data conveniently viewed collection documents structure vary flexible highly rigid examples include scientific articles patents tax filings personnel records nosql databases often fast require fixed table schemas avoid join operations storing denormalized data designed scale horizontally recent years strong demand massively distributed databases high partition tolerance according cap theorem impossible distributed system simultaneously provide consistency availability partition tolerance guarantees distributed system satisfy two guarantees time three reason many nosql databases using called eventual consistency provide availability partition tolerance guarantees reduced level data consistency newsql class modern relational databases aims provide scalable performance nosql systems online transaction processing read-write workloads still using sql maintaining acid guarantees traditional database system databases used support internal operations organizations underpin online interactions customers suppliers see enterprise software databases used hold administrative information specialized data engineering data economic models examples include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems many content management systems store websites collections webpages database one way classify databases involves type contents example bibliographic document-text statistical multimedia objects another way application area example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing insurance third way technical aspect database structure interface type section lists adjectives used characterize different kinds databases connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database dbms acronym sometime extended indicated underlying database model rdbms relational oodbms ordbms object orientated model ordbms object-relational extensions indicate characteristic ddbms distributed database management systems functionality provided dbms vary enormously core functionality storage retrieval update data codd proposed following functions services fully-fledged general purpose dbms provide also generally expected dbms provide set utilities purposes may necessary administer database effectively including import export monitoring defragmentation analysis utilities core part dbms interacting database application interface sometimes referred database engine often dbmss configuration parameters statically dynamically tuned example maximum amount main memory server database use trend minimise amount manual configuration cases embedded databases need target zero-administration paramount large major enterprise dbmss tended increase size functionality involved thousands human years development effort lifetime early multi-user dbms typically allowed application reside computer access via terminals terminal emulation software client–server architecture development application resided client desktop database server allowing processing distributed evolved multitier architecture incorporating application servers web servers end user interface via web browser database directly connected adjacent tier general-purpose dbms provide public application programming interfaces api optionally processor database languages sql allow applications written interact database special purpose dbms may use private api specifically customised linked single application example email system performing many functions general-purpose dbms message insertion message deletion attachment handling blocklist lookup associating messages email address forth however functions limited required handle email external interaction database via application program interfaces dbms range database tool allows users execute sql queries textually graphically web site happens use database store search information programmer code interactions database sometimes referred datasource via application program interface api via database language particular api language chosen need supported dbms possible indirectly via pre-processor bridging api api aim database independent odbc commonly known example common api include jdbc ado.net database languages special-purpose languages allow one following tasks sometimes distinguished sublanguages database languages specific particular data model notable examples include database language may also incorporate features like database storage container physical materialization database comprises internal physical level database architecture also contains information needed e.g. metadata data data internal data structures reconstruct conceptual level external level internal level needed putting data permanent storage generally responsibility database engine a.k.a storage engine though typically accessed dbms underlying operating system often using operating systems file systems intermediates storage layout storage properties configuration setting extremely important efficient operation dbms thus closely maintained database administrators dbms operation always database residing several types storage e.g. memory external storage database data additional needed information possibly large amounts coded bits data typically reside storage structures look completely different way data look conceptual external levels ways attempt optimize best possible levels reconstruction needed users programs well computing additional types needed information data e.g. querying database dbmss support specifying character encoding used store data multiple encodings used database various low-level database storage structures used storage engine serialize data model written medium choice techniques indexing may used improve performance conventional storage row-oriented also column-oriented correlation databases often storage redundancy employed increase performance common example storing materialized views consist frequently needed external views query results storing views saves expensive computing time needed downsides materialized views overhead incurred updating keep synchronized original updated database data cost storage redundancy occasionally database employs storage redundancy database objects replication one copies increase data availability improve performance simultaneous multiple end-user accesses database object provide resiliency case partial failure distributed database updates replicated object need synchronized across object copies many cases entire database replicated database security deals various aspects protecting database content owners users ranges protection intentional unauthorized database uses unintentional database accesses unauthorized entities e.g. person computer program database access control deals controlling person certain computer program allowed access information database information may comprise specific database objects e.g. record types specific records data structures certain computations certain objects e.g. query types specific queries using specific access paths former e.g. using specific indexes data structures access information database access controls set special authorized database owner personnel uses dedicated protected security dbms interfaces may managed directly individual basis assignment individuals privileges groups elaborate models assignment individuals groups roles granted entitlements data security prevents unauthorized users viewing updating database using passwords users allowed access entire database subsets called subschemas example employee database contain data individual employee one group users may authorized view payroll data others allowed access work history medical data dbms provides way interactively enter update database well interrogate capability allows managing personal databases data security general deals protecting specific chunks data physically i.e. corruption destruction removal e.g. see physical security interpretation parts meaningful information e.g. looking strings bits comprise concluding specific valid credit-card numbers e.g. see data encryption change access logging records accessed attributes changed changed logging services allow forensic database audit later keeping record access occurrences changes sometimes application-level code used record changes rather leaving database monitoring set attempt detect security breaches database transactions used introduce level fault tolerance data integrity recovery crash database transaction unit work typically encapsulating number operations database e.g. reading database object writing acquiring lock etc abstraction supported database also systems transaction well defined boundaries terms program/code executions included transaction determined transaction programmer via special transaction commands acronym acid describes ideal properties database transaction atomicity consistency isolation durability database built one dbms portable another dbms i.e. dbms run however situations desirable migrate database one dbms another reasons primarily economical different dbmss may different total costs ownership tcos functional operational different dbmss may different capabilities migration involves database transformation one dbms type another transformation maintain possible database related application i.e. related application programs intact thus database conceptual external architectural levels maintained transformation may desired also aspects architecture internal level maintained complex large database migration may complicated costly one-time project factored decision migrate spite fact tools may exist help migration specific dbmss typically dbms vendor provides tools help importing databases popular dbmss designing database application next stage building database typically appropriate general-purpose dbms selected used purpose dbms provides needed user interfaces used database administrators define needed application data structures within dbms respective data model user interfaces used select needed dbms parameters like security related storage allocation parameters etc. database ready data structures needed components defined typically populated initial application data database initialization typically distinct project many cases using specialized dbms interfaces support bulk insertion making operational cases database becomes operational empty application data data accumulated operation database created initialised populated needs maintained various database parameters may need changing database may need tuned tuning better performance application data structures may changed added new related application programs may written add application functionality etc sometimes desired bring database back previous state many reasons e.g. cases database found corrupted due software error updated erroneous data achieve backup operation done occasionally continuously desired database state i.e. values data embedding database data structures kept within dedicated backup files many techniques exist effectively decided database administrator bring database back state e.g. specifying state desired point time database state files used restore state static analysis techniques software verification applied also scenario query languages particular *abstract interpretation framework extended field query languages relational databases way support sound approximation techniques semantics query languages tuned according suitable abstractions concrete domain data abstraction relational database system many interesting applications particular security purposes fine grained access control watermarking etc dbms features might include increasingly calls single system incorporates core functionalities build test deployment framework database management source control borrowing developments software industry market offerings devops database first task database designer produce conceptual data model reflects structure information held database common approach develop entity-relationship model often aid drawing tools another popular approach unified modeling language successful data model accurately reflect possible state external world modeled example people one phone number allow information captured designing good conceptual data model requires good understanding application domain typically involves asking deep questions things interest organization like customer also supplier product sold two different forms packaging product different products plane flies new york dubai via frankfurt one flight two maybe even three answers questions establish definitions terminology used entities customers products flights flight segments relationships attributes producing conceptual data model sometimes involves input business processes analysis workflow organization help establish information needed database left example help deciding whether database needs hold historic data well current data produced conceptual data model users happy next stage translate schema implements relevant data structures within database process often called logical database design output logical data model expressed form schema whereas conceptual data model theory least independent choice database technology logical data model expressed terms particular database model supported chosen dbms terms data model database model often used interchangeably article use data model design specific database database model modeling notation used express design popular database model general-purpose databases relational model precisely relational model represented sql language process creating logical database design using model uses methodical approach known normalization goal normalization ensure elementary fact recorded one place insertions updates deletions automatically maintain consistency final stage database design make decisions affect performance scalability recovery security like depend particular dbms often called physical database design output physical data model key goal stage data independence meaning decisions made performance optimization purposes invisible end-users applications two types data independence physical data independence logical data independence physical design driven mainly performance requirements requires good knowledge expected workload access patterns deep understanding features offered chosen dbms another aspect physical database design security involves defining access control database objects well defining security levels methods data database model type data model determines logical structure database fundamentally determines manner data stored organized manipulated popular example database model relational model sql approximation relational uses table-based format common logical data models databases include object-relational database combines two related structures physical data models include models include specialized models optimized particular types data database management system provides three views database data typically one conceptual logical physical internal view data number different external views allows users see database information business-related way rather technical processing viewpoint example financial department company needs payment details employees part company expenses need details employees interest human resources department thus different departments need different views company database three-level database architecture relates concept data independence one major initial driving forces relational model idea changes made certain level affect view higher level example changes internal level affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces reduces impact making physical changes improve performance conceptual view provides level indirection internal external one hand provides common view database independent different external view structures hand abstracts away details data stored managed internal level principle every level even every external view presented different data model practice usually given dbms uses data model external conceptual levels e.g. relational model internal level hidden inside dbms depends implementation requires different level detail uses types data structure types separating external conceptual internal levels major feature relational database model implementations dominate 21st century databases database technology active research topic since 1960s academia research development groups companies example ibm research research activity includes theory development prototypes notable research topics included models atomic transaction concept related concurrency control techniques query languages query optimization methods raid database research area several dedicated academic journals example acm transactions database systems -tods data knowledge engineering -dke annual conferences e.g. acm sigmod acm pods vldb ieee icde Target text information: anderson's_rule_(computer_science).anderson rule computer science field computer security anderson rule refers principle formulated ross j. anderson nature large databases never free abuse breaches security large system designed ease access becomes insecure made watertight becomes impossible use I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,625	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: apple-designed_processors.apple-designed processors apple inc. developed range system chip soc well system package sip processors powering mobile consumer devices tasks meet stringent power space constraints common mobile devices chips combine central processing unit cpu components single compact physical package johny srouji executive charge apple silicon design prior introduction apple series socs apple used several socs early revisions iphone ipod touch specified apple manufactured samsung integrate single arm-based processing core cpu graphics processing unit gpu electronics necessary provide mobile computing functions within single physical package apl0098 also 8900b s5l8900 package package pop system chip soc introduced june 29 2007 launch original iphone includes 412 mhz single-core arm11 cpu powervr mbx lite gpu manufactured samsung 90 nm process first generation ipod touch also used apl0278 also s5l8720 package package pop system chip soc introduced september 9 2008 launch second generation ipod touch includes 533 mhz single-core arm11 cpu powervr mbx lite gpu manufactured samsung 65 nm process apl0298 also s5l8920 package package pop system chip soc introduced june 8 2009 launch iphone 3gs includes 600 mhz single-core cortex-a8 cpu powervr sgx535 gpu manufactured samsung 65 nm process apl2298 also s5l8922 45 nm die shrunk version iphone 3gs soc introduced september 9 2009 launch third generation ipod touch family systems chip soc used multiple devices including apple portable devices certain models iphone ipad ipod touch apple tv digital media player integrate one arm-based processing cores cpu graphics processing unit gpu cache memory electronics necessary provide mobile computing functions within single physical package designed apple manufactured samsung tsmc apple a4 package package pop system chip soc designed apple inc. manufactured samsung combines arm cortex-a8 cpu powervr gpu emphasizes power efficiency chip commercially debuted release apple ipad tablet followed shortly iphone 4 smartphone 4th generation ipod touch 2nd generation apple tv superseded ipad 2 released following year apple a5 processor apple a4 based arm processor architecture first version released ran 1 ghz ipad contains arm cortex-a8 cpu core paired powervr sgx 535 graphics processor gpu built samsung 45-nanometer nm silicon chip fabrication process clock speed units used iphone 4 ipod touch 4th generation 800 mhz clock speed unit used apple tv revealed cortex-a8 core used a4 thought use performance enhancements developed chip designer intrinsity subsequently acquired apple collaboration samsung resulting core dubbed hummingbird able run far higher clock rates implementations remaining fully compatible cortex-a8 design provided arm performance improvements include additional l2 cache cortex-a8 cpu core used a4 also used samsung s5pc110a01 soc sgx535 a4 could theoretically push 35 million polygons per second 500 million pixels per second although real world performance may considerably less a4 processor package contain ram supports pop installation hence package two low-power 128 mb ddr sdram chips totaling 256 mb mounted top a4 used first-generation ipad fourth-generation ipod touch second-generation apple tv iphone 4 two 256 mb packages total 512 mb ram connected processor using arm 64-bit-wide amba 3 axi bus support ipad demand high graphics bandwidth width ram data bus double used previous arm11 arm9 based apple devices apple a5 system chip soc designed apple inc. manufactured samsung replaced a4 chip commercially debuted release apple ipad 2 tablet march 2011 followed release iphone 4s smartphone later year apple claims compared predecessor a4 a5 cpu twice work gpu nine times graphics performance a5 contains dual-core arm cortex-a9 cpu arm advanced simd extension marketed neon dual core powervr sgx543mp2 gpu gpu push 70 80 million polygons/second pixel fill rate 2 billion pixels/second apple lists a5 clocked 1 ghz ipad 2 technical specifications page though dynamically adjust frequency save battery life clock speed unit used iphone 4s 800 mhz like a4 a5 process size 45 nm updated 32 nm version a5 processor used third generation apple tv ipod touch 5th generation ipad mini new version ipad 2 version ipad2,4 chip apple tv one core locked markings square package indicates named apl2498 software chip called s5l8942 32 nm variant a5 provides around 15 better battery life web browsing 30 better playing 3d games approximately 20 better battery life video playback march 2013 apple released updated version third generation apple tv appletv3,2 containing smaller single-core version a5 processor unlike a5 variants version a5 package-on-package pop stacked ram chip small 6.1×6.2 mm decrease size due decrease feature size still 32 nm fabrication process indicates a5 revision new design markings tell named apl7498 software chip called s5l8947 apple a5x system-on-a-chip soc designed apple inc. announced march 7 2012 launch third generation ipad high performance variant apple a5 apple claims twice graphics performance a5 superseded fourth generation ipad apple a6x processor soc quad-core graphics unit powervr sgx543mp4 instead previous dual-core well quad-channel memory controller provides memory bandwidth 12.8 gb/s roughly three times a5 added graphics cores extra memory channels add large die size 165 mm² example twice size nvidia tegra 3 mainly due large powervr sgx543mp4 gpu clock frequency dual arm cortex-a9 cores shown operate 1 ghz frequency a5 ram a5x separate main cpu package apple a6 package package pop system chip soc designed apple introduced september 12 2012 launch iphone 5 year later inherited minor successor iphone 5c apple states twice fast twice graphics power compared predecessor apple a5 22 smaller draws less power 45 nm a5 a6 said use 1.3 ghz custom apple-designed armv7 based dual-core cpu called swift rather licensed cpu arm like previous designs integrated 266 mhz triple-core powervr sgx 543mp3 graphics processing unit gpu swift core a6 uses new tweaked instruction set armv7s featuring elements arm cortex-a15 support advanced simd v2 vfpv4 a6 manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 32 nm process apple a6x system-on-a-chip soc designed apple inc. introduced launch fourth generation ipad october 23 2012 high performance variant apple a6 apple claims a6x twice cpu performance twice graphics performance predecessor apple a5x like a6 soc continues use dual-core swift cpu new quad core gpu quad channel memory slightly higher 1.4 ghz cpu clock rate uses integrated quad-core powervr sgx 554mp4 graphics processing unit gpu running 300 mhz quad-channel memory subsystem compared a6 a6x 30 larger continues manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 32 nm process apple a7 package package pop 64-bit system-on-a-chip soc designed apple first appearance iphone 5s introduced september 10 2013 chip would also used ipad air ipad mini 2 ipad mini 3 apple states twice fast twice graphics power compared predecessor apple a6 a7 features apple-designed 1.3–1.4 ghz 64-bit armv8-a dual-core cpu called cyclone integrated powervr g6430 gpu four cluster configuration armv8-a architecture doubles number registers a7 compared a6 31 general purpose registers 64-bits wide 32 floating-point/neon registers 128-bits wide a7 manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 28 nm process chip includes 1 billion transistors die 102 mm size apple a8 package package pop 64-bit system-on-a-chip soc designed apple manufactured tsmc first appearance iphone 6 iphone 6 plus introduced september 9 2014 year later would drive ipad mini 4 apple states 25 cpu performance 50 graphics performance drawing 50 power compared predecessor apple a7 february 9 2018 apple released homepod powered apple a8 1 gb ram a8 features apple-designed 1.4 ghz 64-bit armv8-a dual-core cpu integrated powervr gx6450 gpu four cluster configuration a8 manufactured 20 nm process tsmc replaced samsung manufacturer apple mobile device processors contains 2 billion transistors despite double number transistors compared a7 physical size reduced 13 89 mm consistent shrink known new microarchitecture apple a8x 64-bit system chip soc designed apple introduced launch ipad air 2 october 16 2014 high performance variant apple a8 apple states 40 cpu performance 2.5 times graphics performance predecessor apple a7 unlike a8 soc uses triple-core cpu new octa-core gpu dual channel memory slightly higher 1.5 ghz cpu clock rate uses integrated octa-core powervr gxa6850 graphics processing unit gpu running 450 mhz dual-channel memory subsystem manufactured tsmc 20 nm fabrication process consists 3 billion transistors apple a9 64-bit arm based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone 6s 6s plus introduced september 9 2015 apple states 70 cpu performance 90 graphics performance compared predecessor apple a8 dual sourced first apple soc manufactured samsung 14 nm finfet lpe process tsmc 16 nm finfet process subsequently included iphone se ipad 2017 apple a9x 64-bit system chip soc designed apple inc announced september 9 2015 released november 11 2015 first appeared ipad pro offers 80 cpu performance two times gpu performance predecessor apple a8x manufactured tsmc using 16 nm finfet process apple a10 fusion 64-bit arm based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone 7 7 plus introduced september 7 2016 a10 also featured ipad 2018 ipod touch 7th generation new quad core design two high performance cores two smaller highly efficient cores 40 faster a9 50 faster graphics made tsmc 16 nm finfet process apple a10x fusion 64-bit arm based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared 10.5 ipad pro second generation 12.9 ipad pro announced june 5 2017 variant a10 apple claims 30 percent faster cpu performance 40 percent faster gpu performance predecessor a9x september 12 2017 apple announced apple tv 4k would powered a10x chip made tsmc 10 nm finfet process apple a11 bionic 64-bit arm-based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone 8 iphone 8 plus iphone x introduced september 12 2017 two high-performance cores 25 faster a10 fusion four high-efficiency cores 70 faster energy-efficient cores a10 apple a12 bionic 64-bit arm-based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone xs xs max xr introduced september 12 2018 also within 2019 models ipad air ipad mini two high-performance cores 15 faster a11 bionic four high-efficiency cores 50 lower power usage energy-efficient cores a11 bionic a12 manufactured tsmc using 7 nm finfet process first ship smartphone apple a12x bionic 64-bit arm-based system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared 11.0 ipad pro third generation 12.9 ipad pro announced october 30 2018 offers 35 faster single-core 90 faster multi-core cpu performance predecessor a10x four high-performance cores four high-efficiency cores a12x manufactured tsmc using 7 nm finfet process first ship tablet apple series family systems package sip used apple watch uses customized application processor together memory storage support processors wireless connectivity sensors i/o comprise complete computer single package designed apple manufactured contract manufacturers samsung apple s1 integrated computer designed apple includes memory storage support circuits like wireless modems i/o controllers sealed integrated package announced september 9 2014 part wish could say event first appearance original apple watch used apple watch series 1 dual-core processor almost identical s2 exception built-in gps receiver used apple watch series 2 dual-core processor built-in gps receiver used apple watch series 3 dual-core processor 70 faster apple s2 built-in gps receiver also option cellular modem internal esim module also includes w2 chip used apple watch series 4 apple designed custom 64-bit dual-core processor 2x faster performance also contains w3 wireless chip supports bluetooth 5 apple t1 chip armv7 soc apple driving system management controller smc touch id sensor 2016 2017 macbook pro touch bar addition traditional tasks smc chip operates secure enclave processing encryption fingerprints well acting gatekeeper microphone facetime hd camera protecting possible targets potential hacking attempts t1 runs bridgeos variant watchos separate intel cpu running macos apple t2 chip soc apple first released imac pro 2017 64-bit armv8 chip variant a10 t8010 runs separate operating system called bridgeos 2.0 watchos derivative provides secure enclave encrypted keys gives users ability lock computer boot process handles system functions like camera audio control handles on-the-fly encryption decryption solid-state drive t2 also delivers enhanced imaging processing imac pro facetime hd camera july 12 2018 apple released updated macbook pro includes t2 chip among things enables hey siri feature november 7 2018 apple released updated mac mini macbook air t2 chip apple w series family system chip soc wireless chips focus bluetooth wi-fi connectivity apple w1 soc apple used 2016 airpods select beats headphones maintains bluetooth class 1 connection computer device decodes audio stream sent apple w2 wireless chip apple used apple watch series 3 integrated apple s3 sip apple released implementation chip makes wi-fi 85 faster bluetooth wi-fi 50 power efficient previous model chip design apple w3 wireless chip apple used apple watch series 4 integrated apple s4 sip supports bluetooth 5.0 apple h1 chip first used 2019 version airpods specifically designed headphones bluetooth 5.0 offers 30 lower latency compared w1 chip prior version airpods 1-hop neighbor's text information: hercules_(processors).hercules processors hercules line arm architecture-based microcontrollers texas instruments built around one arm cortex cores hercules safety microcontroller platform includes series microcontrollers specifically targeted functional safety applications hardware-base fault correction/detection features dual cores run lock-step full path ecc automated self testing memory logic peripheral redundancy monitor/checker cores line includes tms470m tms570 rm4 families families designed specifically iec 61508 iso 26262 safety critical applications however differ significantly degree support safety standards 1-hop neighbor's text information: apple_a7.apple a7 apple a7 64-bit system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone 5s introduced september 10 2013 apple states twice fast twice graphics power compared predecessor apple a6 first 64-bit arm cpu first ship consumer smartphone tablet computer software updates systems using chip cease late 2019 ios 13 support iphone 5s ipados 13 support ipad air mini 2 3 a7 features apple-designed 64-bit 1.3–1.4 ghz armv8-a dual-core cpu called cyclone 64-bit a64 instruction set armv8-a architecture doubles number registers a7 compared armv7 architecture used a6 31 general purpose registers 64-bits wide 32 floating-point/neon registers 128-bits wide a7 also integrates graphics processing unit gpu anandtech believes powervr g6430 four cluster configuration a7 per-core l1 cache 64 kb data 64 kb instructions l2 cache 1 mb shared cpu cores 4 mb l3 cache services entire soc a7 includes new image processor feature originally introduced a5 used functionality related camera image stabilizing color correction light balance a7 also includes area called secure enclave stores protects data touch id fingerprint sensor iphone 5s ipad mini 3 speculated security data secure enclave enforced arm trustzone/securcore technology change apple a6 a7 soc longer services accelerometer gyroscope compass order reduce power consumption functionality moved new m7 motion coprocessor appears separate arm-based microcontroller nxp semiconductors apple uses apl0698 variant a7 chip running 1.3 ghz iphone 5s ipad mini 2 ipad mini 3 a7 manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 28 nm process chip includes 1 billion transistors die 102 mm size according abi research a7 drew 1100 fixed point operations 520 floating point operations predecessor a6 processor iphone 5 drew 485 320 manufactured package package pop together 1 gb lpddr3 dram 64-bit wide memory interface onto package apple uses apl5698 variant a7 chip running 1.4 ghz,1.4 ipad air die identical size layout first a7 manufactured samsung however unlike first version a7 a7 used ipad air pop stacked ram instead uses chip-on-board mounting immediately adjacent dram covered metallic heat spreader similar apple a5x a6x a7 branch predictor claimed infringe 1998 patent october 14 2015 district judge found apple guilty infringing u.s. patent table based data speculation circuit parallel processing computer apple a7 a8 processors patent owned wisconsin alumni research foundation warf firm affiliated university wisconsin july 24 2017 apple ordered pay warf 506 million patent infringement apple filed appellate brief october 26 2017 u.s. court appeals federal circuit argued apple infringe patent owned wisconsin alumni research foundation september 28 2018 ruling overturned appeal award thrown u.s. federal circuit court appeals patent expired december 2016 images illustrations Target text information: ziilabs.ziilabs ziilabs global technology company producing line media-oriented application processors reference platforms enabling software series platforms named zms designed create products target range low-power consumer electronics embedded devices including android-based phones tablets ziilabs founded 1994 3dlabs became wholly owned subsidiary creative technology ltd 2002 january 2009 company re-branded ziilabs re-branding reflected 3dlabs focus supplying low-power media-rich application processors hardware platforms middleware rather 3d gpus previously case company announced first applications/media processor dms-02 2005 followed zms-05 zms-08 recently zms-20 zms-40 zms processors combine ziilabs ’ core asset stemcell computing array arm cores integrated peripheral functions create system chip soc 3dlabs company developed glint permedia gpus used personal workstation graphics cards 2002 company acquired intense3d group become vertically integrated graphics board vendor supplying workstation graphics card realizm brand 3dlabs stopped developing graphics gpus cards 2006 focus media processor business november 2012 creative technology limited announced entered agreement intel corporation intel license certain technology patents ziilabs inc. ltd acquire certain engineering resources assets related uk branch part 50 million deal ziilabs still wholly owned creative continues retain ownership stemcell media processor technologies patents continue supply support zms series chips customers company products include range arm-based zms processors feature so-called stemcell media processing architecture plus portfolio tablet reference platforms based in-house android board support package application software recent platform jaguar android reference tablet announced may 2011 core asset ziilabs zms chips seem array processing units called stemcells programmed perform media processing described 32-bit floating-point processing units likely form digital signal processor cores used accelerate various operations video codec 3d graphics handling zms processors handled programming array coprocessors job years number development platforms made introduced including zii development kits traditional large form factor systems I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,971	val

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