Split (1)

train · 11.7k rows

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1-hop neighbor's text information: opencube_technologies.opencube technologies open cube solutions llc french company headquartered toulouse member group evs broadcast equipment established april 2003 open cube technologies develops manufactures licenses supports wide range software hardware broadcast cinema industries active computing broadcast video opencube technologies provides mxf-format solutions mxf server mxf player mxf converter mxf toolkit media content management services opencube acquired evs broadcast equipment 2010 part evs media division company awarded 2008 satis salon international de l'audiovisuel paris product p2softhd customers airbus mtv 20th century fox Target text information: evs_broadcast_equipment.evs broadcast equipment evs broadcast equipment sa belgian company manufactures live outside broadcast digital video production systems xt3 production video servers enable creation editing exchange playout audio video feeds programming television networks consists primarily broadcasting prerecorded images recently stored tapes linear editing editing tape replaced digital media non-linear editing today digital technology hard disk non-linear definition common alternative clear confirmation migration towards technology years even though still take another 5 6 years hard disk penetration rate increase 30 70 television stations began migrating tapeless interoperable computer platforms beginning late 1990s video recorders rarely used nowadays live productions evs type digital media servers norm live broadcasting evs co-founded 1994 laurent minguet three years later company invested 30 capital private funds roundabout eur 4 million 1998 evs listed first time stock exchange initial eur 14.8 quotation per share comparable levels valued eur 204 million year evs acquired vse hardware subcontractor managed michel counson transaction vse received evs shares approximate eur 4.5 million value since evs become major broadcast actor focusing digital recording technologies live sport tv production evs core products primarily used outbroadcasting vans ob vans allow high-quality respectively slow-motion image replay evs revolutionised professional digital recording first introduce hard disk drive field instead traditional magnetic tape recording business led time sony panasonic establishing outbroadcasting sport production evs started using high value servers address tv studio production full range products 2002 strategic move contributed +40 uplift 2012 additionally evs founded xdc 2004 pioneer high definition cinema broadcasting restructured within dcinex group evs sold stake dcinex 2014 2001 laurent minguet stepped position director three years later gave position side decided leave role ceo director following board directors meeting held september 15 2011 transitional period evs managed board directors 2012 evs appoints joop janssen ceo 10 october 2014 board directors joop janssen mutually agreed end term office duties joop janssen muriel de lathouwer member board directors evs chairing strategy committee appointed president executive committee interim basis 5 january 2015 evs announced acquired scalable video system gmbh svs developing it-based vision mixers dyvi live sa company based brussels distributing products svs name dyvi 19 february 2015 evs broadcast equipment appoints muriel de lathouwer managing director ceo july 17 2018 board directors muriel de lathouwer mutually agreed end term office duties muriel de lathouwer evs headquarters administration production development located liège belgium 4 additional development centers found evs also sales support offices london los angeles new york dubai mexico paris munich madrid brescia beijing hong kong sydney mumbai I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	2,200	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: w._richard_stevens.w. richard stevens william richard rich stevens february 5 1951september 1 1999 northern rhodesia-born american author computer science books particular books unix tcp/ip richard stevens born 1951 luanshya northern rhodesia zambia father worked copper industry family later moved salt lake city hurley new mexico washington d.c. phalaborwa south africa stevens attended fishburne military school waynesboro virginia received bachelor degree aerospace engineering university michigan 1973 master degree 1978 phd 1982 systems engineering university arizona moved tucson 1975 employed kitt peak national observatory computer programmer 1982 1982 1990 vice president computing services health systems international new connecticut stevens moved back tucson 1990 pursued career author consultant also avid pilot part-time flight instructor 1970s stevens died 1999 age 48 2000 posthumously awarded usenix lifetime achievement award stevens also co-authored several ietf request comments rfc documents informational documents ipv6 updates berkeley sockets api standards document tcp congestion control 1-hop neighbor's text information: advanced_programming_in_the_unix_environment.advanced programming unix environment advanced programming unix environment computer programming book w. richard stevens describing application programming interface unix family operating systems book illustrates unix application programming c programming language first edition book published addison-wesley 1992 covered programming two popular families unix operating system berkeley software distribution particular 4.3 bsd 386bsd unix system v particularly svr4 book covers system calls operations single file descriptors special calls like ioctl operate file descriptors operations files directories covers stdio section c standard library parts library needed several chapters concern apis control processes process groups daemons inter-process communication signals one chapter devoted unix terminal control another pseudo terminal concept libraries like termcap curses build atop stevens adds three chapters giving concrete examples unix programming implements database library communicates postscript printer modem book cover network programming subject stevens 1990 book unix network programming subsequent three-volume tcp/ip illustrated stevens died 1999 leaving second edition incomplete increasing popularity technical diversification unix derivatives largely compatible systems like linux environment code coverage stevens original became increasingly outdated working stevens unfinished notes stephen a. rago completed second edition addison-wesley published 2005 added support freebsd linux sun solaris apple darwin added coverage multithreaded programming posix threads second edition features foreword dennis ritchie unix-themed dilbert strip scott adams book widely lauded well written well crafted comprehensive received hearty recommendation linux journal review osnews describes one best tech books ever published review second edition 1-hop neighbor's text information: link_layer.link layer computer networking link layer lowest layer internet protocol suite networking architecture internet described rfc 1122 rfc 1123 link layer group methods communications protocols operate link host physically connected link physical logical network component used interconnect hosts nodes network link protocol suite methods standards operate adjacent network nodes local area network segment wide area network connection despite different semantics layering tcp/ip osi link layer sometimes described combination data link layer layer 2 physical layer layer 1 osi model however layers tcp/ip descriptions operating scopes application host-to-host network link detailed prescriptions operating procedures data semantics networking technologies rfc 1122 exemplifies local area network protocols ethernet ieee 802 framing protocols point-to-point protocol ppp belong link layer local area networking standards ethernet ieee 802 specifications use terminology seven-layer osi model rather tcp/ip model tcp/ip model general consider physical specifications rather assumes working network infrastructure deliver media level frames link therefore rfc 1122 rfc 1123 definition tcp/ip model discuss hardware issues physical data transmission set standards aspects textbook authors supported interpretation physical data transmission aspects part link layer others assumed physical data transmission standards considered communication protocols part tcp/ip model authors assume hardware layer physical layer link layer several adopt osi term data link layer instead link layer modified description layering predecessor tcp/ip model arpanet reference model rfc 908 1982 aspects link layer referred several poorly defined terms network-access layer network-access protocol well network layer next higher layer called internetwork layer modern text books network-interface layer host-to-network layer network-access layer occur synonyms either link layer data link layer often including physical layer link layer tcp/ip model descriptive realm networking protocols operate local network segment link host connected protocol packets routed networks link layer includes protocols define communication local on-link network nodes fulfill purpose maintaining link states local nodes local network topology usually use protocols based framing packets specific link types core protocols specified internet engineering task force ietf layer address resolution protocol arp reverse address resolution protocol rarp neighbor discovery protocol ndp facility delivering similar functionality arp ipv6 since advent ipv6 open shortest path first ospf considered operate link level well although ipv4 version protocol considered internet layer is-is rfc 1142 another link-state routing protocol fits layer considering tcp/ip model however developed within osi reference stack layer 2 protocol internet standard link layer tcp/ip model often compared directly combination data link layer physical layer open systems interconnection osi protocol stack although congruent degree technical coverage protocols identical link layer tcp/ip still wider scope principle different concept terminology classification may observed certain protocols address resolution protocol arp confined link layer tcp/ip model often said fit osi data link layer network layer general direct strict comparisons avoided layering tcp/ip principal design criterion general considered harmful rfc 3439 another term sometimes encountered network access layer tries suggest closeness layer physical network however use misleading non-standard since link layer implies functions wider scope network access important link layer protocols used probe topology local network discover routers neighboring hosts i.e functions go well beyond network access Target text information: tcp/ip_illustrated.tcp/ip illustrated tcp/ip illustrated name series 3 books written w. richard stevens unlike traditional books explain rfc specifications stevens goes great detail using actual network traces describe protocol hence 'illustrated title first book series volume 1 protocols cited hundreds technical papers acm journals brief introduction tcp/ip stevens takes bottom-up approach describing protocol link layer working protocol stack second edition published 11/15/2011 500 illustrations combined 15,000 lines actual code 4.4bsd-lite release serves concrete examples concepts covered volume 1 volume goes detail four topics volume 2 examples 4.4bsd-lite used I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	98	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: apple_help_viewer.apple help viewer help viewer webkit based html viewer macos aimed displaying help files documentation found /system/library/coreservices/help viewer.app default file extension .help help index files generated help indexer macos applications typically use help viewer display help content rather custom system help viewer implementation mac os x 10.5 leopard found way rob griffiths list leopard criticisms apple changed software standalone application standard window interface one floating window always appears front application windows obscuring interface one seeking help see image although one close minimize help viewer window difficult consult help viewer simultaneously working application short changing size windows fit screen help viewer window also work exposé window management feature mission control os x 10.7 later workaround using defaults command accessible terminal 1-hop neighbor's text information: preference_pane.preference pane preference pane often abbreviated prefpane special dynamically loaded plugin macos introduced mac os x v10.0 purpose preference pane allow user set preferences specific application system means graphical user interface preference panes macos replacement control panels classic mac os prior mac os x v10.4 collections preference panes featured show button show panes collection customizable toolbar frequently-used preference panes could dragged mac os x v10.3 currently-active pane would also highlighted toolbar selected mac os x v10.4 functionality dropped favor plain show button back/forward history arrows system preferences application whose sole purpose loading various preference panes system configuration application written use prefpanes preference panes carry .prefpane file extension 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_connect.internet connect internet connect program mac os x allows user activate dial-up connections internet via isp vpn also provides simple way connect airport network latest version mac os x 10.4 internet connect application provides general tools detailed network pane system preferences allows user configure control systemwide network settings however mac os x 10.5 internet connect functions incorporated network pane system preferences application longer included use internet connect generally necessary macintosh connected internet ethernet device dsl cable internet service except manage connections subordinate bluetooth equipment Target text information: remote_install_mac_os_x.remote install mac os x remote install mac os x remote installer use macbook air laptops network works run macintosh windows-based pc optical drive connecting network client macbook air lacking optical drive perform system software installs remote install mac os x released part mac os x 10.5.2 february 12 2008 starting march 2009 version mac mini also supports remote install allowing dvd drive replaced second hard drive launch mac os x lion apple omitted remote install workaround enable target disk mode I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,521	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: mapreduce.mapreduce mapreduce programming model associated implementation processing generating big data sets parallel distributed algorithm cluster mapreduce program composed map procedure method performs filtering sorting sorting students first name queues one queue name reduce method performs summary operation counting number students queue yielding name frequencies mapreduce system also called infrastructure framework orchestrates processing marshalling distributed servers running various tasks parallel managing communications data transfers various parts system providing redundancy fault tolerance model specialization split-apply-combine strategy data analysis inspired map reduce functions commonly used functional programming although purpose mapreduce framework original forms key contributions mapreduce framework actual map reduce functions example resemble 1995 message passing interface standard reduce scatter operations scalability fault-tolerance achieved variety applications optimizing execution engine single-threaded implementation mapreduce usually faster traditional non-mapreduce implementation gains usually seen multi-threaded implementations multi-processor hardware use model beneficial optimized distributed shuffle operation reduces network communication cost fault tolerance features mapreduce framework come play optimizing communication cost essential good mapreduce algorithm mapreduce libraries written many programming languages different levels optimization popular open-source implementation support distributed shuffles part apache hadoop name mapreduce originally referred proprietary google technology since genericized 2014 google longer using mapreduce primary big data processing model development apache mahout moved capable less disk-oriented mechanisms incorporated full map reduce capabilities mapreduce framework processing parallelizable problems across large datasets using large number computers nodes collectively referred cluster nodes local network use similar hardware grid nodes shared across geographically administratively distributed systems use heterogeneous hardware processing occur data stored either filesystem unstructured database structured mapreduce take advantage locality data processing near place stored order minimize communication overhead mapreduce framework system usually composed three operations steps mapreduce allows distributed processing map reduction operations maps performed parallel provided mapping operation independent others practice limited number independent data sources and/or number cpus near source similarly set 'reducers perform reduction phase provided outputs map operation share key presented reducer time reduction function associative process often appears inefficient compared algorithms sequential multiple instances reduction process must run mapreduce applied significantly larger datasets single commodity server handle – large server farm use mapreduce sort petabyte data hours parallelism also offers possibility recovering partial failure servers storage operation one mapper reducer fails work rescheduled – assuming input data still available another way look mapreduce 5-step parallel distributed computation five steps logically thought running sequence – step starts previous step completed – although practice interleaved long final result affected many situations input data might already distributed sharded among many different servers case step 1 could sometimes greatly simplified assigning map servers would process locally present input data similarly step 3 could sometimes sped assigning reduce processors close possible map-generated data need process map reduce functions mapreduce defined respect data structured key value pairs map takes one pair data type one data domain returns list pairs different domain codice_3 → codice_4 map function applied parallel every pair keyed codice_5 input dataset produces list pairs keyed codice_6 call mapreduce framework collects pairs key codice_6 lists groups together creating one group key reduce function applied parallel group turn produces collection values domain codice_8 → codice_9 reduce call typically produces either one value v3 empty return though one call allowed return one value returns calls collected desired result list thus mapreduce framework transforms list key value pairs list values behavior different typical functional programming map reduce combination accepts list arbitrary values returns one single value combines values returned map necessary sufficient implementations map reduce abstractions order implement mapreduce distributed implementations mapreduce require means connecting processes performing map reduce phases may distributed file system options possible direct streaming mappers reducers mapping processors serve results reducers query canonical mapreduce example counts appearance word set documents document split words word counted map function using word result key framework puts together pairs key feeds call reduce thus function needs sum input values find total appearances word another example imagine database 1.1 billion people one would like compute average number social contacts person according age sql query could expressed using mapreduce k1 key values could integers 1 1100 representing batch 1 million records k2 key value could person age years computation could achieved using following functions mapreduce system would line 1100 map processors would provide corresponding 1 million input records map step would produce 1.1 billion n,1 records values ranging say 8 103 mapreduce system would line 96 reduce processors performing shuffling operation key/value pairs due fact need average per age provide millions corresponding input records reduce step would result much reduced set 96 output records would put final result file sorted count info record important processing reduced one time add count records computed average would wrong example reduce files 1 2 new file average 9 contacts 10-year-old person 9+9+9+9+9 /5 reduce file 3 lose count many records 've already seen end average 9.5 contacts 10-year-old person 9+10 /2 wrong correct answer 9.166 55 6 93+92+10*1 3+2+1 software framework architecture adheres open-closed principle code effectively divided unmodifiable frozen spots extensible hot spots frozen spot mapreduce framework large distributed sort hot spots application defines input reader divides input appropriate size 'splits practice typically 64 mb 128 mb framework assigns one split map function input reader reads data stable storage typically distributed file system generates key/value pairs common example read directory full text files return line record map function takes series key/value pairs processes generates zero output key/value pairs input output types map often different application word count map function would break line words output key/value pair word output pair would contain word key number instances word line value map function output allocated particular reducer application partition function sharding purposes partition function given key number reducers returns index desired reducer typical default hash key use hash value modulo number reducers important pick partition function gives approximately uniform distribution data per shard load-balancing purposes otherwise mapreduce operation held waiting slow reducers finish i.e reducers assigned larger shares non-uniformly partitioned data map reduce stages data shuffled parallel-sorted exchanged nodes order move data map node produced shard reduced shuffle sometimes take longer computation time depending network bandwidth cpu speeds data produced time taken map reduce computations input reduce pulled machine map ran sorted using application comparison function framework calls application reduce function unique key sorted order reduce iterate values associated key produce zero outputs word count example reduce function takes input values sums generates single output word final sum output writer writes output reduce stable storage mapreduce programs guaranteed fast main benefit programming model exploit optimized shuffle operation platform write map reduce parts program practice author mapreduce program however take shuffle step consideration particular partition function amount data written map function large impact performance scalability additional modules combiner function help reduce amount data written disk transmitted network mapreduce applications achieve sub-linear speedups specific circumstances designing mapreduce algorithm author needs choose good tradeoff computation communication costs communication cost often dominates computation cost many mapreduce implementations designed write communication distributed storage crash recovery tuning performance mapreduce complexity mapping shuffle sorting grouping key reducing taken account amount data produced mappers key parameter shifts bulk computation cost mapping reducing reducing includes sorting grouping keys nonlinear complexity hence small partition sizes reduce sorting time trade-off large number reducers may impractical influence split unit size marginal unless chosen particularly badly say 1mb gains mappers reading load local disks average minor processes complete quickly data fits main memory single machine small cluster using mapreduce framework usually effective since frameworks designed recover loss whole nodes computation write interim results distributed storage crash recovery expensive pays computation involves many computers long runtime computation task completes seconds restarted case error likelihood least one machine failing grows quickly cluster size problems implementations keeping data memory simply restarting computation node failures —when data small enough— non-distributed solutions often faster mapreduce system mapreduce achieves reliability parceling number operations set data node network node expected report back periodically completed work status updates node falls silent longer interval master node similar master server google file system records node dead sends node assigned work nodes individual operations use atomic operations naming file outputs check ensure parallel conflicting threads running files renamed possible also copy another name addition name task allowing side-effects reduce operations operate much way inferior properties regard parallel operations master node attempts schedule reduce operations node rack node holding data operated property desirable conserves bandwidth across backbone network datacenter implementations necessarily highly reliable example older versions hadoop namenode single point failure distributed filesystem later versions hadoop high availability active/passive failover namenode mapreduce useful wide range applications including distributed pattern-based searching distributed sorting web link-graph reversal singular value decomposition web access log stats inverted index construction document clustering machine learning statistical machine translation moreover mapreduce model adapted several computing environments like multi-core many-core systems desktop grids multi-cluster volunteer computing environments dynamic cloud environments mobile environments high-performance computing environments google mapreduce used completely regenerate google index world wide web replaced old ad hoc programs updated index ran various analyses development google since moved technologies percolator flumejava millwheel offer streaming operation updates instead batch processing allow integrating live search results without rebuilding complete index mapreduce stable inputs outputs usually stored distributed file system transient data usually stored local disk fetched remotely reducers david dewitt michael stonebraker computer scientists specializing parallel databases shared-nothing architectures critical breadth problems mapreduce used called interface low-level questioned whether really represents paradigm shift proponents claimed challenged mapreduce proponents claims novelty citing teradata example prior art existed two decades also compared mapreduce programmers codasyl programmers noting writing low-level language performing low-level record manipulation mapreduce use input files lack schema support prevents performance improvements enabled common database system features b-trees hash partitioning though projects pig piglatin sawzall apache hive ysmart hbase bigtable addressing problems greg jorgensen wrote article rejecting views jorgensen asserts dewitt stonebraker entire analysis groundless mapreduce never designed intended used database dewitt stonebraker subsequently published detailed benchmark study 2009 comparing performance hadoop mapreduce rdbms approaches several specific problems concluded relational databases offer real advantages many kinds data use especially complex processing data used across enterprise mapreduce may easier users adopt simple one-time processing tasks mapreduce programming paradigm also described danny hillis 1985 thesis widely-used time program connection machine special hardware support accelerate map reduce google granted patent mapreduce however claims patent granted mapreduce similar existing products example map reduce functionality easily implemented oracle pl/sql database oriented language supported developers transparently distributed database architectures clusterpoint xml database mongodb nosql database mapreduce tasks must written acyclic dataflow programs i.e stateless mapper followed stateless reducer executed batch job scheduler paradigm makes repeated querying datasets difficult imposes limitations felt fields machine learning iterative algorithms revisit single working set multiple times norm 1-hop neighbor's text information: r_(programming_language).r programming language r programming language free software environment statistical computing graphics supported r foundation statistical computing r language widely used among statisticians data miners developing statistical software data analysis polls data mining surveys studies scholarly literature databases show substantial increases popularity r ranks 20th tiobe index measure popularity programming languages gnu package source code r software environment written primarily c fortran r freely available gnu general public license pre-compiled binary versions provided various operating systems although r command line interface several graphical user interfaces rstudio integrated development environment r implementation programming language combined lexical scoping semantics inspired scheme created john chambers 1976 bell labs important differences much code written runs unaltered r created ross ihaka robert gentleman university auckland new zealand currently developed r development core team chambers member r named partly first names first two r authors partly play name s. project conceived 1992 initial version released 1995 stable beta version 2000 r libraries implement wide variety statistical graphical techniques including linear nonlinear modelling classical statistical tests time-series analysis classification clustering others r easily extensible functions extensions r community noted active contributions terms packages many r standard functions written r makes easy users follow algorithmic choices made computationally intensive tasks c c++ fortran code linked called run time advanced users write c c++ java .net python code manipulate r objects directly r highly extensible use user-submitted packages specific functions specific areas study due heritage r stronger object-oriented programming facilities statistical computing languages extending r also eased lexical scoping rules another strength r static graphics produce publication-quality graphs including mathematical symbols dynamic interactive graphics available additional packages r rd latex-like documentation format used supply comprehensive documentation online number formats hard copy r interpreted language users typically access command-line interpreter user types codice_1 r command prompt presses enter computer replies 4 shown calculation interpreted sum two single-element vectors resulting single-element vector prefix codice_2 indicates list elements following line starts first element vector feature useful output extends multiple lines like similar languages apl matlab r supports matrix arithmetic r data structures include vectors matrices arrays data frames similar tables relational database lists arrays stored column-major order r extensible object system includes objects among others regression models time-series geo-spatial coordinates scalar data type never data structure r. instead scalar represented vector length one many features r derive scheme r uses s-expressions represent data code functions first-class manipulated way data objects facilitating meta-programming allow multiple dispatch variables r lexically scoped dynamically typed function arguments passed value lazy -- say evaluated used function called r supports procedural programming functions functions object-oriented programming generic functions generic function acts differently depending classes arguments passed words generic function dispatches function method specific class object example r generic codice_3 function print almost every class object r simple codice_4 syntax although used mainly statisticians practitioners requiring environment statistical computation software development r also operate general matrix calculation toolbox – performance benchmarks comparable gnu octave matlab capabilities r extended user-created packages allow specialised statistical techniques graphical devices import/export capabilities reporting tools rmarkdown knitr sweave etc packages developed primarily r sometimes java c c++ fortran r packaging system also used researchers create compendia organise research data code report files systematic way sharing public archiving core set packages included installation r 15,000 additional packages available comprehensive r archive network cran bioconductor omegahat github repositories task views page subject list cran website lists wide range tasks fields finance genetics high performance computing machine learning medical imaging social sciences spatial statistics r applied packages available r also identified fda suitable interpreting data clinical research r package resources include crantastic community site rating reviewing cran packages r-forge central platform collaborative development r packages r-related software projects r-forge also hosts many unpublished beta packages development versions cran packages bioconductor project provides r packages analysis genomic data includes object-oriented data-handling analysis tools data affymetrix cdna microarray next-generation high-throughput sequencing methods list changes r releases maintained various news files cran highlights listed several major releases specialized integrated development environment ide r rstudio similar development interface r tools visual studio generic ides like eclipse also offer features work r. graphical user interfaces point-and-click approach include rattle gui r commander rkward common editors varying levels support r include emacs emacs speaks statistics vim nvim-r plugin neovim nvim-r plugin kate lyx notepad++ visual studio code winedt tinn-r. r functionality accessible several scripting languages python perl ruby f julia interfaces high-level programming languages like java .net c available well main r implementation written r c fortran several implementations aimed improving speed increasing extensibility closely related implementation pqr pretty quick r radford m. neal improved memory management support automatic multithreading renjin fastr java implementations r use java virtual machine cxxr rho riposte implementations r c++ renjin riposte pqr attempt improve performance using multiple processor cores form deferred evaluation alternative implementations experimental incomplete relatively users compared main implementation maintained r development core team tibco built runtime engine called terr part spotfire microsoft r open fully compatible r distribution modifications multi-threaded computations r vibrant active local communities worldwide users network share ideas learn growing number r events bringing users together conferences e.g user whyr conectar satrdays meetups well r-ladies groups promote gender diversity official annual gathering r users called user first event user 2004 may 2004 vienna austria skipping 2005 user conference held annually usually alternating locations europe north america subsequent conferences included future conferences planned follows r journal open access refereed journal r project statistical computing features short medium length articles use development r including packages programming tips cran news foundation news r comparable popular commercial statistical packages sas spss stata r available users charge free software license january 2009 new york times ran article charting growth r reasons popularity among data scientists threat poses commercial statistical packages sas june 2017 data scientist robert muenchen published in-depth comparison r software packages popularity data science software although r open-source project supported community developing companies strive provide commercial support and/or extensions customers section gives examples companies 2007 richard schultz martin schultz steve weston kirk mettler founded revolution analytics provide commercial support revolution r distribution r also includes components developed company major additional components include parallelr r productivity environment ide revoscaler big data analysis revodeployr web services framework ability reading writing data sas file format revolution analytics also offer distribution r designed comply established iq/oq/pq criteria enables clients pharmaceutical sector validate installation revolution r. 2015 microsoft corporation completed acquisition revolution analytics since integrated r programming language sql server 2016 sql server 2017 power bi azure sql database azure cortana intelligence microsoft r server visual studio 2017 october 2011 oracle announced big data appliance integrates r apache hadoop oracle linux nosql database exadata hardware oracle r enterprise became one two components oracle advanced analytics option alongside oracle data mining ibm offers support in-hadoop execution r provides programming model massively parallel in-database analytics r. tibco offers runtime-version r part spotfire mango offers validation package r validr make compliant drug approval agencies like fda agencies allow use statistical software submissions software validated either vendor sponsor following examples illustrate basic syntax language use command-line interface r generally preferred assignment operator arrow made two characters codice_5 although codice_6 usually used instead one r ’ strengths ease creating new functions objects function body remain local function data type may returned example user-created function short r code calculating mandelbrot set first 20 iterations equation z z c plotted different complex constants c example demonstrates 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_spark.apache spark apache spark open-source distributed general-purpose cluster-computing framework spark provides interface programming entire clusters implicit data parallelism fault tolerance originally developed university california berkeley amplab spark codebase later donated apache software foundation maintained since apache spark architectural foundation resilient distributed dataset rdd read-only multiset data items distributed cluster machines maintained fault-tolerant way dataframe api released abstraction top rdd followed dataset api spark 1.x rdd primary application programming interface api spark 2.x use dataset api encouraged even though rdd api deprecated rdd technology still underlies dataset api spark rdds developed 2012 response limitations mapreduce cluster computing paradigm forces particular linear dataflow structure distributed programs mapreduce programs read input data disk map function across data reduce results map store reduction results disk spark rdds function working set distributed programs offers deliberately restricted form distributed shared memory spark facilitates implementation iterative algorithms visit data set multiple times loop interactive/exploratory data analysis i.e. repeated database-style querying data latency applications may reduced several orders magnitude compared apache hadoop mapreduce implementation among class iterative algorithms training algorithms machine learning systems formed initial impetus developing apache spark apache spark requires cluster manager distributed storage system cluster management spark supports standalone native spark cluster hadoop yarn apache mesos kubernetes distributed storage spark interface wide variety including alluxio hadoop distributed file system hdfs mapr file system mapr-fs cassandra openstack swift amazon s3 kudu lustre file system custom solution implemented spark also supports pseudo-distributed local mode usually used development testing purposes distributed storage required local file system used instead scenario spark run single machine one executor per cpu core spark core foundation overall project provides distributed task dispatching scheduling basic i/o functionalities exposed application programming interface java python scala r centered rdd abstraction java api available jvm languages also usable non-jvm languages connect jvm julia interface mirrors functional/higher-order model programming driver program invokes parallel operations map filter reduce rdd passing function spark schedules function execution parallel cluster operations additional ones joins take rdds input produce new rdds rdds immutable operations lazy fault-tolerance achieved keeping track lineage rdd sequence operations produced reconstructed case data loss rdds contain type python java scala objects besides rdd-oriented functional style programming spark provides two restricted forms shared variables broadcast variables reference read-only data needs available nodes accumulators used program reductions imperative style typical example rdd-centric functional programming following scala program computes frequencies words occurring set text files prints common ones variant takes anonymous function performs simple operation single data item pair items applies argument transform rdd new rdd spark sql component top spark core introduced data abstraction called dataframes provides support structured semi-structured data spark sql provides domain-specific language dsl manipulate dataframes scala java python also provides sql language support command-line interfaces odbc/jdbc server although dataframes lack compile-time type-checking afforded rdds spark 2.0 strongly typed dataset fully supported spark sql well spark streaming uses spark core fast scheduling capability perform streaming analytics ingests data mini-batches performs rdd transformations mini-batches data design enables set application code written batch analytics used streaming analytics thus facilitating easy implementation lambda architecture however convenience comes penalty latency equal mini-batch duration streaming data engines process event event rather mini-batches include storm streaming component flink spark streaming support built-in consume kafka flume twitter zeromq kinesis tcp/ip sockets spark 2.x separate technology based datasets called structured streaming higher-level interface also provided support streaming spark mllib distributed machine-learning framework top spark core due large part distributed memory-based spark architecture much nine times fast disk-based implementation used apache mahout according benchmarks done mllib developers alternating least squares als implementations mahout gained spark interface scales better vowpal wabbit overview spark mllib exists many common machine learning statistical algorithms implemented shipped mllib simplifies large scale machine learning pipelines including graphx distributed graph-processing framework top apache spark based rdds immutable graphs immutable thus graphx unsuitable graphs need updated let alone transactional manner like graph database graphx provides two separate apis implementation massively parallel algorithms pagerank pregel abstraction general mapreduce-style api unlike predecessor bagel formally deprecated spark 1.6 graphx full support property graphs graphs properties attached edges vertices graphx viewed spark in-memory version apache giraph utilized hadoop disk-based mapreduce like apache spark graphx initially started research project uc berkeley amplab databricks later donated apache software foundation spark project spark initially started matei zaharia uc berkeley amplab 2009 open sourced 2010 bsd license 2013 project donated apache software foundation switched license apache 2.0 february 2014 spark became top-level apache project november 2014 spark founder m. zaharia company databricks set new world record large scale sorting using spark spark excess 1000 contributors 2015 making one active projects apache software foundation one active open source big data projects given popularity platform 2014 paid programs like general assembly free fellowships like data incubator started offering customized training courses spark deployed traditional on-premises data center well cloud cloud allows organizations deploy spark without need acquire hardware specific setup expertise providers managed spark solutions enterprise strategy group esg-global.com found 43 respondents considering cloud primary deployment spark top reasons customers perceived cloud advantage spark faster time deployment better availability frequent feature/functionality updates elasticity geographic coverage costs linked actual utilization Target text information: fold_(higher-order_function).fold higher-order function functional programming fold also termed reduce accumulate aggregate compress inject refers family higher-order functions analyze recursive data structure use given combining operation recombine results recursively processing constituent parts building return value typically fold presented combining function top node data structure possibly default values used certain conditions fold proceeds combine elements data structure hierarchy using function systematic way folds sense dual unfolds take seed value apply function corecursively decide progressively construct corecursive data structure whereas fold recursively breaks structure replacing results applying combining function node terminal values recursive results catamorphism versus anamorphism unfolds folds regarded consistently replacing structural components data structure functions values lists example built many functional languages two primitives list either empty list commonly called nil codice_1 constructed prefixing element front another list creating called cons node codice_2 resulting application codice_3 function written colon codice_4 haskell one view fold lists replacing nil end list specific value replacing cons specific function replacements viewed diagram another way perform structural transformation consistent manner order two links node flipped fed combining function pictures illustrate right left fold list visually also highlight fact codice_5 identity function lists shallow copy lisp parlance replacing cons codice_3 nil codice_7 change result left fold diagram suggests easy way reverse list codice_8 note parameters cons must flipped element add right hand parameter combining function another easy result see vantage-point write higher-order map function terms codice_9 composing function act elements codice_3 period operator denoting function composition way looking things provides simple route designing fold-like functions algebraic data types structures like various sorts trees one writes function recursively replaces constructors datatype provided functions constant values type provided values function generally referred catamorphism folding list codice_11 addition operator would result 15 sum elements list codice_11 rough approximation one think fold replacing commas list operation giving codice_13 example associative operation final result regardless parenthesization although specific way calculated different general case non-associative binary functions order elements combined may influence final result value lists two obvious ways carry either combining first element result recursively combining rest called right fold combining result recursively combining elements last one last element called left fold corresponds binary operator either right-associative left-associative haskell prolog terminology right fold sum would parenthesized codice_14 whereas left fold would parenthesized codice_15 practice convenient natural initial value case right fold used one reaches end list case left fold initially combined first element list example value 0 additive identity would chosen initial value giving codice_16 right fold codice_17 left fold multiplication initial choice 0 would n't work codice_18 identity element multiplication 1 would give us outcome codice_19 use initial value necessary combining function f asymmetrical types e.g codice_20 i.e type result different type list elements initial value must used type f result linear chain applications possible whether left- right-oriented determined types expected arguments combining function second argument must type result f could seen binary operation associates right vice versa function magma i.e symmetrical types codice_21 result type list elements type parentheses may placed arbitrary fashion thus creating tree nested sub-expressions e.g. codice_22 binary operation f associative value well-defined i.e. parenthesization although operational details calculated different significant impact efficiency f non-strict whereas linear folds node-oriented operate consistent manner node list tree-like folds whole-list oriented operate consistent manner across groups nodes one often wants choose identity element operation f initial value z initial value seems appropriate example one wants fold function computes maximum two parameters non-empty list get maximum element list variants codice_9 codice_24 use last first element list respectively initial value haskell several languages called codice_25 codice_26 1 making reference automatic provision initial element fact lists applied must least one element folds use type-symmetrical binary operation types arguments result must richard bird 2010 book proposes general fold function non-empty lists codice_27 transforms last element applying additional argument function value result type starting folding thus able use type-asymmetrical binary operation like regular codice_9 produce result type different list elements type using haskell example codice_24 codice_9 formulated equations list empty result initial value fold tail list using new initial value result applying f old initial value first element list empty result initial value z apply f first element result folding rest lists folded tree-like fashion finite indefinitely defined lists case codice_31 function avoid runaway evaluation indefinitely defined lists function codice_32 must always demand second argument value least and/or immediately see example presence lazy non-strict evaluation codice_9 immediately return application f head list recursive case folding rest list thus f able produce part result without reference recursive case right i.e. second argument rest result never demanded recursion stop e.g. allows right folds operate infinite lists contrast codice_24 immediately call new parameters reaches end list tail recursion efficiently compiled loop ca n't deal infinite lists — recurse forever infinite loop reached end list expression effect built codice_24 nested left-deepening codice_32-applications presented caller evaluated function codice_32 refer second argument first able produce part result without reference recursive case left i.e. first argument recursion would stop means codice_9 recurses right allows lazy combining function inspect list elements left conversely codice_24 recurses left allows lazy combining function inspect list elements right chooses e.g. reversing list also tail-recursive implemented using finite lists means left-fold reverse composed perform right fold tail-recursive way cf modification function codice_32 reverses order arguments i.e. tail-recursively building representation expression right-fold would build extraneous intermediate list structure eliminated continuation-passing style technique similarly codice_41 needed languages like haskell flipped order arguments combining function codice_24 unlike e.g. scheme order arguments used combining functions codice_24 another technical point case left folds using lazy evaluation new initial parameter evaluated recursive call made lead stack overflows one reaches end list tries evaluate resulting potentially gigantic expression reason languages often provide stricter variant left folding forces evaluation initial parameter making recursive call haskell codice_44 note apostrophe pronounced 'prime function codice_45 library one needs aware fact though forcing value built lazy data constructor wo n't force constituents automatically combined tail recursion folds approach efficiency loops ensuring constant space operation lazy evaluation final result impossible undesirable using haskell interpreter structural transformations fold functions perform illustrated constructing string infinite tree-like folding demonstrated e.g. recursive primes production unbounded sieve eratosthenes haskell function codice_46 operates ordered lists local manner efficiently produce set union codice_47 set difference finite lists e.g. merge sort duplicates-removing variety codice_48 could easily defined using tree-like folding function haskell 98 features mergesort\|codice_49 duplicates-preserving variant codice_46 functions codice_51 codice_52 could defined folding language left fold right fold left fold without initial value right fold without initial value unfold notes category higher-order functions category recursion category programming language comparisons category articles example haskell code category articles example scheme code category iteration programming I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,557	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: mysql.mysql mysql s-q-l open-source relational database management system rdbms name combination name co-founder michael widenius daughter sql abbreviation structured query language mysql free open-source software terms gnu general public license also available variety proprietary licenses mysql owned sponsored swedish company mysql ab bought sun microsystems oracle corporation 2010 oracle acquired sun widenius forked open-source mysql project create mariadb mysql component lamp web application software stack others acronym linux apache mysql perl/php/python mysql used many database-driven web applications including drupal joomla phpbb wordpress mysql also used many popular websites including facebook flickr mediawiki twitter youtube mysql written c c++ sql parser written yacc uses home-brewed lexical analyzer mysql works many system platforms including aix bsdi freebsd hp-ux ecomstation i5/os irix linux macos microsoft windows netbsd novell netware openbsd opensolaris os/2 warp qnx oracle solaris symbian sunos sco openserver sco unixware sanos tru64 port mysql openvms also exists mysql server software client libraries use dual-licensing distribution offered gpl version 2 proprietary license support obtained official manual free support additionally available different irc channels forums oracle offers paid support via mysql enterprise products differ scope services price additionally number third party organisations exist provide support services including mariadb percona mysql received positive reviews reviewers noticed performs extremely well average case developer interfaces documentation mention feedback real world via web sites like good also tested fast stable true multi-user multi-threaded sql database server mysql created swedish company mysql ab founded david axmark allan larsson michael monty widenius original development mysql widenius axmark began 1994 first version mysql appeared 23 may 1995 initially created personal usage msql based low-level language isam creators considered slow inflexible created new sql interface keeping api msql keeping api consistent msql system many developers able use mysql instead proprietarily licensed msql antecedent additional milestones mysql development included work version 6 stopped sun microsystems acquisition mysql cluster product uses version 7 decision made jump version 8 next major version number 15 june 2001 nusphere sued mysql ab tcx datakonsult ab original authors michael monty widenius david axmark u.s district court boston breach contract tortious interference third party contracts relationships unfair competition 2002 mysql ab sued progress nusphere copyright trademark infringement united states district court nusphere allegedly violated mysql ab copyright linking mysql gpl'ed code nusphere gemini table without compliance license preliminary hearing judge patti saris 27 february 2002 parties entered settlement talks eventually settled hearing fsf commented judge saris made clear sees gnu gpl enforceable binding license october 2005 oracle corporation acquired innobase oy finnish company developed third-party innodb storage engine allows mysql provide functionality transactions foreign keys acquisition oracle press release mentioned contracts make company software available mysql ab would due renewal presumably renegotiation time 2006 mysql users conference april 2006 mysql ab issued press release confirmed mysql ab innobase oy agreed multi-year extension licensing agreement february 2006 oracle corporation acquired sleepycat software makers berkeley db database engine providing basis another mysql storage engine little effect berkeley db widely used dropped due lack use mysql 5.1.12 pre-ga release mysql 5.1 released october 2006 january 2008 sun microsystems bought mysql ab 1 billion april 2009 oracle corporation entered agreement purchase sun microsystems owners mysql copyright trademark sun board directors unanimously approved deal also approved sun shareholders u.s. government 20 august 2009 14 december 2009 oracle pledged continue enhance mysql done previous four years movement oracle acquisition mysql ab save mysql oracle started one mysql ab founders monty widenius petition 50,000+ developers users called upon european commission block approval acquisition time free software opinion leaders including pamela jones groklaw jan wildeboer carlo piana also acted co-counsel merger regulation procedure advocated unconditional approval merger part negotiations european commission oracle committed mysql server continue least 2015 use dual-licensing strategy long used mysql ab proprietary gpl versions available antitrust eu pressuring divest mysql condition approval merger revealed wikileaks us department justice request oracle pressured eu approve merger unconditionally european commission eventually unconditionally approved oracle acquisition mysql ab 21 january 2010 january 2010 oracle acquisition mysql ab monty widenius started gpl-only fork mariadb mariadb based code base mysql server 5.5 aims maintain compatibility oracle-provided versions mysql offered two different editions open source mysql community server proprietary enterprise server mysql enterprise server differentiated series proprietary extensions install server plugins otherwise shares version numbering system built code base major features available mysql 5.6 developers release minor updates mysql server approximately every two months sources obtained mysql website mysql github repository gpl license using storage engines default innodb mysql comply full sql standard implemented functionality including foreign key references check constraints parsed ignored storage engines mysql version 8.0.15 mysql 5.7 triggers limited one per action timing meaning one trigger defined executed insert operation one insert table triggers defined views mysql database inbuilt functions like unix_timestamp return 0 03:14:07 utc 19 january 2038 recently attempt solve problem assigned internal queue mysql built installed manually source code commonly installed binary package unless special customizations required linux distributions package management system download install mysql minimal effort though configuration often required adjust security optimization settings though mysql began low-end alternative powerful proprietary databases gradually evolved support higher-scale needs well still commonly used small medium scale single-server deployments either component lamp-based web application standalone database server much mysql appeal originates relative simplicity ease use enabled ecosystem open source tools phpmyadmin medium range mysql scaled deploying powerful hardware multi-processor server gigabytes memory however limits far performance scale single server 'scaling larger scales multi-server mysql 'scaling deployments required provide improved performance reliability typical high-end configuration include powerful master database handles data write operations replicated multiple slaves handle read operations master server continually pushes binlog events connected slaves event failure slave promoted become new master minimizing downtime improvements performance achieved caching results database queries memory using memcached breaking database smaller chunks called shards spread across number distributed server clusters logical backup tool included community enterprise editions mysql supports backing storage engines mysql enterprise backup hot backup utility included part mysql enterprise subscription oracle offering native innodb hot backup well backup storage engines oracle mysql offers high availability solution mix tools including mysql router mysql shell based group replication open source tools mariadb offers similar offer terms products mysql also run cloud computing platforms microsoft azure amazon ec2 oracle cloud infrastructure common deployment models mysql cloud graphical user interface gui type interface allows users interact electronic devices programs graphical icons visual indicators secondary notation opposed text-based interfaces typed command labels text navigation guis easier learn command-line interfaces clis require commands typed keyboard third-party proprietary free graphical administration applications front ends available integrate mysql enable users work database structure data visually well-known front ends command-line interface means interacting computer program user issues commands program typing successive lines text command lines mysql ships many command line tools main interface client mysql utilities set utilities designed perform common maintenance administrative tasks originally included part mysql workbench utilities stand-alone download available oracle percona toolkit cross-platform toolkit mysql developed perl percona toolkit used prove replication working correctly fix corrupted data automate repetitive tasks speed servers percona toolkit included several linux distributions centos debian packages available fedora ubuntu well percona toolkit originally developed maatkit late 2011 maatkit longer developed mysql shell tool interactive use administration mysql database supports javascript python sql modes used administration access purposes many programming languages language-specific apis include libraries accessing mysql databases include mysql connector/net integration microsoft visual studio languages c vb commonly used jdbc driver java addition odbc interface called mysql connector/odbc allows additional programming languages support odbc interface communicate mysql database asp coldfusion htsql url-based query method also ships mysql adapter allowing direct interaction mysql database web client via structured urls drivers exists languages like python node.js variety mysql forks exist including following 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_platform,_enterprise_edition.java platform enterprise edition java enterprise edition java ee formerly java 2 platform enterprise edition j2ee currently jakarta ee set specifications extending java se 8 specifications enterprise features distributed computing web services java ee applications run reference runtimes microservices application servers handle transactions security scalability concurrency management components deploying java ee defined specification specification defines apis application programming interface interactions java community process specifications providers must meet certain conformance requirements order declare products java ee compliant examples contexts java ee referencing runtimes used e-commerce accounting banking information systems platform known java 2 platform enterprise edition j2ee version 1.2 name changed java platform enterprise edition java ee version 1.5 current version called java ee 8 java ee maintained oracle java community process september 12 2017 oracle corporation announced would submit java ee eclipse foundation eclipse top-level project named eclipse enterprise java ee4j eclipse foundation forced change name java ee oracle owns trademark name java february 26 2018 announced new name java ee jakarta ee java ee includes several specifications serve different purposes like generating web pages reading writing database transactional way managing distributed queues java ee apis include several technologies extend functionality base java se apis enterprise javabeans connectors servlets javaserver pages several web service technologies attempt limit footprint web containers physical conceptual terms web profile created subset java ee specifications java ee web profile comprises following although definition java ee implementations provide base level technologies namely java ee spec associated apis differ considerably respect extra features like connectors clustering fault tolerance high availability security etc installed size memory footprint startup time etc code sample shown demonstrates various technologies java ee 7 used together build web form editing user java ee web ui built using servlet javaserver pages jsp javaserver faces jsf facelets example uses jsf facelets explicitly shown input components use java ee bean validation api covers validate constraints assist view java ee uses concept called backing bean example uses contexts dependency injection cdi enterprise javabean ejb implement business logic enterprise javabean ejb dedicated technology java ee actual persistence jdbc java persistence api jpa used example uses ejb jpa explicitly shown jta used covers ejb control transactional behavior defining entity/model classes java ee provides java persistence api jpa expressing constraints entities provides bean validation api example uses technologies Target text information: agiloft.agiloft agiloft inc. technology company specializing business process management software redwood city california originally founded october 1990 integral solutions corporation colin earl agiloft started integral solutions corporation founded colin earl 1990 company worked development projects corporations developing software 1996 called supportwizard supportwizard designed help desk application 1999 officially supported mysql integral solutions continued build application adding call center crm functionality time company known name supportwizard software 2003 announced new revision software operating j2ee framework called enterprise wizard 2007 company offered platform version software called saaswizard users could automate business actions customization development continued enterprisewizard application operating top platform allowing users customize program web interface colin earl changed business software name agiloft 2012 2017 earl spoke proposed h1-b reforms stated one workers likelihood getting visa renewed return china agiloft low-code development platform prebuilt modules focus contract management service management platform configured via web-browser dropdown menus drag drop tools configure functions build new applications contract management portion software allows automation creation workflow renewal contracts used healthcare field software pc magazine editor choice award several years I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	11,375	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: hybrid_kernel.hybrid kernel hybrid kernel operating system kernel architecture attempts combine aspects benefits microkernel monolithic kernel architectures used computer operating systems traditional kernel categories monolithic kernels microkernels nanokernels exokernels seen extreme versions microkernels hybrid category controversial due similarity hybrid kernels ordinary monolithic kernels term dismissed linus torvalds simple marketing idea behind hybrid kernel kernel structure similar microkernel implement structure manner monolithic kernel contrast microkernel nearly operating system services hybrid kernel still kernel space none reliability benefits services user space microkernel however ordinary monolithic kernel none performance overhead message passing context switching kernel user mode normally comes microkernel one prominent example hybrid kernel microsoft windows nt kernel powers operating systems windows nt family including windows 10 windows server 2019 powers windows phone 8 windows phone 8.1 xbox one nt-based windows classified hybrid kernel macrokernel rather monolithic kernel emulation subsystems run user-mode server processes rather kernel mode monolithic kernel large number design goals resemble design goals mach particular separation os personalities general kernel design conversely reason nt microkernel system system components run address space kernel would case monolithic design traditional monolithic design would microkernel per se kernel would implement broadly similar functionality nt microkernel kernel-mode subsystems windows nt design includes many objectives mach archetypal microkernel system one important structure collection modules communicate via well-known interfaces small microkernel limited core functions first-level interrupt handling thread scheduling synchronization primitives allows possibility using either direct procedure calls interprocess communication ipc communicate modules hence potential location modules different address spaces example either kernel space server processes design goals shared mach included support diverse architectures kernel abstractions general enough allow multiple operating system personalities implemented top object-oriented organisation primary operating system personality windows windows api always present emulation subsystem implements windows personality called client/server runtime subsystem csrss.exe versions nt prior 4.0 subsystem process also contained window manager graphics device interface graphics device drivers performance reasons however version 4.0 later modules often implemented user mode even monolithic systems especially designed without internal graphics support run kernel-mode subsystem applications run nt written one os personalities usually windows api native nt api documentation publicly available exception routines used device driver development os personality implemented via set user-mode dlls see dynamic-link library mapped application processes address spaces required together emulation subsystem server process described previously applications access system services calling os personality dlls mapped address spaces turn call nt run-time library ntdll.dll also mapped process address space nt run-time library services requests trapping kernel mode either call kernel-mode executive routines make local procedure calls lpcs appropriate user-mode subsystem server processes turn use nt api communicate application processes kernel-mode subsystems xnu kernel apple inc. acquired developed use macos ios watchos tvos operating systems released free open source software part darwin operating system xnu acronym x unix originally developed next nextstep operating system xnu hybrid kernel combining version 2.5 mach kernel developed carnegie mellon university components 4.3bsd object-oriented api writing drivers called driver kit apple acquired next mach component upgraded osfmk 7.3 microkernel apple uses heavily modified osfmk 7.3 functioning hybrid kernel parts freebsd included osfmk 7.3 includes applicable code university utah mach 4 kernel applicable code many mach 3.0 variants sprouted original carnegie mellon university mach 3.0 kernel bsd components upgraded code freebsd project driver kit replaced c++ api writing drivers called i/o kit like modern kernels xnu hybrid containing features monolithic microkernels attempting make best use technologies message passing capability microkernels enabling greater modularity larger portions os benefit protected memory well retaining speed monolithic kernels certain critical tasks xnu runs arm part ios ia-32 x86-64 based processors 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: arm_architecture.arm architecture arm previously advanced risc machine originally acorn risc machine family reduced instruction set computing risc architectures computer processors configured various environments arm holdings develops architecture licenses companies design products implement one architecturesincluding systems-on-chips soc systems-on-modules som incorporate memory interfaces radios etc also designs cores implement instruction set licenses designs number companies incorporate core designs products processors risc architecture typically require fewer transistors complex instruction set computing cisc architecture x86 processors found personal computers improves cost power consumption heat dissipation characteristics desirable light portable battery-powered devicesincluding smartphones laptops tablet computers embedded systems supercomputers consume large amounts electricity arm could also power-efficient solution arm holdings periodically releases updates architecture architecture versions armv3 armv7 support 32-bit address space pre-armv3 chips made arm holdings formed used acorn archimedes 26-bit address space 32-bit arithmetic architectures 32-bit fixed-length instructions thumb version supports variable-length instruction set provides 32- 16-bit instructions improved code density older cores also provide hardware execution java bytecodes newer ones one instruction javascript released 2011 armv8-a architecture added support 64-bit address space 64-bit arithmetic new 32-bit fixed-length instruction set 100 billion arm processors produced arm widely used instruction set architecture instruction set architecture produced largest quantity currently widely used cortex cores older classic cores specialized securcore cores variants available include exclude optional capabilities british computer manufacturer acorn computers first developed acorn risc machine architecture arm 1980s use personal computers first arm-based products coprocessor modules bbc micro series computers successful bbc micro computer acorn computers considered move relatively simple mos technology 6502 processor address business markets like one soon dominated ibm pc launched 1981 acorn business computer abc plan required number second processors made work bbc micro platform processors motorola 68000 national semiconductor 32016 considered unsuitable 6502 powerful enough graphics-based user interface according sophie wilson processors tested time performed 4 mbit/second bandwidth testing available processors finding lacking acorn decided needed new architecture inspired papers berkeley risc project acorn considered designing processor visit western design center phoenix 6502 updated effectively single-person company showed acorn engineers steve furber sophie wilson need massive resources state-of-the-art research development facilities wilson developed instruction set writing simulation processor bbc basic ran bbc micro 6502 second processor convinced acorn engineers right track wilson approached acorn ceo hermann hauser requested resources hauser gave approval assembled small team implement wilson model hardware official acorn risc machine project started october 1983 chose vlsi technology silicon partner source roms custom chips acorn wilson furber led design implemented similar efficiency ethos 6502 key design goal achieving low-latency input/output interrupt handling like 6502 6502 memory access architecture let developers produce fast machines without costly direct memory access dma hardware first samples arm silicon worked properly first received tested 26 april 1985 first arm application second processor bbc micro helped developing simulation software finish development support chips vidc ioc memc sped cad software used arm2 development wilson subsequently rewrote bbc basic arm assembly language in-depth knowledge gained designing instruction set enabled code dense making arm bbc basic extremely good test arm emulator original aim principally arm-based computer achieved 1987 release acorn archimedes 1992 acorn queen award technology arm arm2 featured 32-bit data bus 26-bit address space 27 32-bit registers eight bits program counter register available purposes top six bits available 26-bit address space served status flags bottom two bits available program counter always word-aligned used setting modes address bus extended 32 bits arm6 program code still lie within first 64 mb memory 26-bit compatibility mode due reserved bits status flags arm2 transistor count 30,000 compared motorola six-year-older 68000 model around 40,000 much simplicity came lack microcode represents one-quarter one-third 68000 like cpus day including cache simplicity enabled low power consumption yet better performance intel 80286 successor arm3 produced 4 kb cache improved performance late 1980s apple computer vlsi technology started working acorn newer versions arm core 1990 acorn spun design team new company named advanced risc machines ltd. became arm ltd parent company arm holdings plc floated london stock exchange nasdaq 1998 new apple-arm work would eventually evolve arm6 first released early 1992 apple used arm6-based arm610 basis apple newton pda 1994 acorn used arm610 main central processing unit cpu riscpc computers dec licensed armv4 architecture produced strongarm 233 mhz cpu drew one watt newer versions draw far less work later passed intel part lawsuit settlement intel took opportunity supplement i960 line strongarm intel later developed high performance implementation named xscale since sold marvell transistor count arm core remained essentially throughout changes arm2 30,000 transistors arm6 grew 35,000 2005 98 mobile phones sold used least one arm processor 2010 producers chips based arm architectures reported shipments 6.1 billion arm-based processors representing 95 smartphones 35 digital televisions set-top boxes 10 mobile computers 2011 32-bit arm architecture widely used architecture mobile devices popular 32-bit one embedded systems 2013 10 billion produced arm-based chips found nearly 60 percent world ’ mobile devices arm holdings primary business selling ip cores licensees use create microcontrollers mcus cpus systems-on-chips based cores original design manufacturer combines arm core parts produce complete device typically one built existing semiconductor fabrication plants fabs low cost still deliver substantial performance successful implementation arm7tdmi hundreds millions sold atmel precursor design center arm7tdmi-based embedded system arm architectures used smartphones pdas mobile devices range armv5 armv7-a used low-end midrange devices armv8-a used current high-end devices 2009 manufacturers introduced netbooks based arm architecture cpus direct competition netbooks based intel atom according analyst firm ihs isuppli 2015 arm integrated circuits may 23 laptops arm holdings offers variety licensing terms varying cost deliverables arm holdings provides licensees integratable hardware description arm core well complete software development toolset compiler debugger software development kit right sell manufactured silicon containing arm cpu soc packages integrating arm core designs include nvidia tegra first three generations csr plc quatro family st-ericsson nova novathor silicon labs precision32 mcu texas instruments omap products samsung hummingbird exynos products apple a4 a5 a5x freescale i.mx fabless licensees wish integrate arm core chip design usually interested acquiring ready-to-manufacture verified semiconductor intellectual property core customers arm holdings delivers gate netlist description chosen arm core along abstracted simulation model test programs aid design integration verification ambitious customers including integrated device manufacturers idm foundry operators choose acquire processor ip synthesizable rtl verilog form synthesizable rtl customer ability perform architectural level optimisations extensions allows designer achieve exotic design goals otherwise possible unmodified netlist high clock speed low power consumption instruction set extensions etc. arm holdings grant licensee right resell arm architecture licensees may freely sell manufactured product chip devices evaluation boards complete systems merchant foundries special case allowed sell finished silicon containing arm cores generally hold right re-manufacture arm cores customers arm holdings prices ip based perceived value lower performing arm cores typically lower licence costs higher performing cores implementation terms synthesizable core costs hard macro blackbox core complicating price matters merchant foundry holds arm licence samsung fujitsu offer fab customers reduced licensing costs exchange acquiring arm core foundry in-house design services customer reduce eliminate payment arm upfront licence fee compared dedicated semiconductor foundries tsmc umc without in-house design services fujitsu/samsung charge two- three-times per manufactured wafer low mid volume applications design service foundry offers lower overall pricing subsidisation licence fee high volume mass-produced parts long term cost reduction achievable lower wafer pricing reduces impact arm nre non-recurring engineering costs making dedicated foundry better choice companies designed chips arm cores include amazon.com annapurna labs subsidiary analog devices apple appliedmicro macom technology solutions atmel broadcom cypress semiconductor freescale semiconductor nxp semiconductors huawei maxim integrated nvidia nxp qualcomm renesas samsung electronics st microelectronics texas instruments xilinx february 2016 arm announced built arm cortex technology licence often shortened built cortex boc licence licence allows companies partner arm make modifications arm cortex designs design modifications shared companies semi-custom core designs also brand freedom example kryo 280 companies current licensees built arm cortex technology include qualcomm companies also obtain arm architectural licence designing cpu cores using arm instruction sets cores must comply fully arm architecture companies designed cores implement arm architecture include apple appliedmicro broadcom cavium marvell nvidia qualcomm samsung electronics arm holdings provides list vendors implement arm cores design application specific standard products assp microprocessor microcontrollers arm cores used number products particularly pdas smartphones computing examples microsoft first generation surface surface 2 apple ipads asus eee pad transformer tablet computers several chromebook laptops others include apple iphone smartphone ipod portable media player canon powershot digital cameras nintendo switch hybrid 3ds handheld game consoles tomtom turn-by-turn navigation systems 2005 arm holdings took part development manchester university computer spinnaker used arm cores simulate human brain arm chips also used raspberry pi beagleboard beaglebone pandaboard single-board computers small inexpensive consume little power 32-bit arm architecture armv7-a implementing aarch32 see section armv8 widely used architecture mobile devices since 1995 arm architecture reference manual primary source documentation arm processor architecture instruction set distinguishing interfaces arm processors required support instruction semantics implementation details may vary architecture evolved time version seven architecture armv7 defines three architecture profiles although architecture profiles first defined armv7 arm subsequently defined armv6-m architecture used cortex m0/m0+/m1 subset armv7-m profile fewer instructions except m-profile 32-bit arm architecture specifies several cpu modes depending implemented architecture features moment time cpu one mode switch modes due external events interrupts programmatically original subsequent arm implementation hardwired without microcode like much simpler 8-bit 6502 processor used prior acorn microcomputers 32-bit arm architecture 64-bit architecture part includes following risc features compensate simpler design compared processors like intel 80286 motorola 68020 additional design features used arm includes integer arithmetic operations add subtract multiply versions architecture also support divide operations arm supports 32-bit × 32-bit multiplies either 32-bit result 64-bit result though cortex-m0 m0+ m1 cores n't support 64-bit results arm cores also support 16-bit × 16-bit 32-bit × 16-bit multiplies divide instructions included following arm architectures registers r0 r7 across cpu modes never banked registers r8 r12 across cpu modes except fiq mode fiq mode distinct r8 r12 registers r13 r14 banked across privileged cpu modes except system mode mode entered exception r13 r14 registers generally contain stack pointer return address function calls respectively aliases current program status register cpsr following 32 bits almost every arm instruction conditional execution feature called predication implemented 4-bit condition code selector predicate allow unconditional execution one four-bit codes causes instruction always executed cpu architectures condition codes branch instructions though predicate takes four 32 bits instruction code thus cuts significantly encoding bits available displacements memory access instructions avoids branch instructions generating code small codice_1 statements apart eliminating branch instructions preserves fetch/decode/execute pipeline cost one cycle per skipped instruction standard example conditional execution subtraction-based euclidean algorithm c programming language loop arm assembly loop effectively transformed coded avoids branches around codice_2 codice_3 clauses codice_4 codice_5 equal neither codice_6 instructions executed eliminating need conditional branch implement codice_7 check top loop example codice_8 less equal used one ways thumb code provides dense encoding remove four-bit selector non-branch instructions another feature instruction set ability fold shifts rotates data processing arithmetic logical register-register move instructions example c statement could rendered single-word single-cycle instruction results typical arm program denser expected fewer memory accesses thus pipeline used efficiently arm processor also features rarely seen risc architectures pc-relative addressing indeed 32-bit arm pc one 16 registers pre- post-increment addressing modes arm instruction set increased time early arm processors arm7tdmi example instruction store two-byte quantity arm7 earlier implementations three-stage pipeline stages fetch decode execute higher-performance designs arm9 deeper pipelines cortex-a8 thirteen stages additional implementation changes higher performance include faster adder extensive branch prediction logic difference arm7di arm7dmi cores example improved multiplier hence added arm architecture pre-armv8 provides non-intrusive way extending instruction set using coprocessors addressed using mcr mrc mrrc mcrr similar instructions coprocessor space divided logically 16 coprocessors numbers 0 15 coprocessor 15 cp15 reserved typical control functions like managing caches mmu operation processors one arm-based machines peripheral devices usually attached processor mapping physical registers arm memory space coprocessor space connecting another device bus turn attaches processor coprocessor accesses lower latency peripherals—for example xscale interrupt controller—are accessible ways memory coprocessors cases chip designers integrate hardware using coprocessor mechanism example image processing engine might small arm7tdmi core combined coprocessor specialised operations support specific set hdtv transcoding primitives modern arm processors include hardware debugging facilities allowing software debuggers perform operations halting stepping breakpointing code starting reset facilities built using jtag support though newer cores optionally support arm two-wire swd protocol arm7tdmi cores represented jtag debug support represented presence embeddedice debug module arm7 arm9 core generations embeddedice jtag de facto debug standard though architecturally guaranteed armv7 architecture defines basic debug facilities architectural level include breakpoints watchpoints instruction execution debug mode similar facilities also available embeddedice halt mode monitor mode debugging supported actual transport mechanism used access debug facilities architecturally specified implementations generally include jtag support separate arm coresight debug architecture architecturally required armv7 processors improve arm architecture digital signal processing multimedia applications dsp instructions added set signified e name armv5te armv5tej architectures e-variants also imply new instructions common digital signal processor dsp architectures include variations signed multiply–accumulate saturated add subtract count leading zeros introduced armv6 architecture precursor advanced simd also known neon jazelle dbx direct bytecode execution technique allows java bytecode executed directly arm architecture third execution state instruction set alongside existing arm thumb-mode support state signified j armv5tej architecture arm9ej-s arm7ej-s core names support state required starting armv6 except armv7-m profile though newer cores include trivial implementation provides hardware acceleration improve compiled code-density processors since arm7tdmi released 1994 featured thumb instruction set state tdmi indicates thumb feature state processor executes thumb instruction set compact 16-bit encoding subset arm instruction set thumb instructions directly mapped normal arm instructions space-saving comes making instruction operands implicit limiting number possibilities compared arm instructions executed arm instruction set state thumb 16-bit opcodes less functionality example branches conditional many opcodes restricted accessing half cpu general-purpose registers shorter opcodes give improved code density overall even though operations require extra instructions situations memory port bus width constrained less 32 bits shorter thumb opcodes allow increased performance compared 32-bit arm code less program code may need loaded processor constrained memory bandwidth unlike processor architectures variable length 16- 32-bit instructions cray-1 hitachi superh arm thumb instruction sets exist independently embedded hardware game boy advance typically small amount ram accessible full 32-bit datapath majority accessed via 16-bit narrower secondary datapath situation usually makes sense compile thumb code hand-optimise cpu-intensive sections using full 32-bit arm instructions placing wider instructions 32-bit bus accessible memory first processor thumb instruction decoder arm7tdmi arm9 later families including xscale included thumb instruction decoder includes instructions adopted hitachi superh 1992 licensed arm arm smallest processor families cortex m0 m1 implement 16-bit thumb instruction set maximum performance lowest cost applications thumb-2 technology introduced arm1156 core announced 2003 thumb-2 extends limited 16-bit instruction set thumb additional 32-bit instructions give instruction set breadth thus producing variable-length instruction set stated aim thumb-2 achieve code density similar thumb performance similar arm instruction set 32-bit memory thumb-2 extends thumb instruction set bit-field manipulation table branches conditional execution time arm instruction set extended maintain equivalent functionality instruction sets new unified assembly language ual supports generation either thumb arm instructions source code versions thumb seen armv7 processors essentially capable arm code including ability write interrupt handlers requires bit care use new if-then instruction permits four successive instructions execute based tested condition inverse compiling arm code ignored compiling thumb generates actual instruction example armv7 chips support thumb instruction set chips cortex-a series cortex-r series arm11 series support arm instruction set state thumb instruction set state chips cortex-m series support thumb instruction set thumbee erroneously called thumb-2ee arm documentation marketed jazelle rct runtime compilation target announced 2005 first appearing cortex-a8 processor thumbee fourth instruction set state making small changes thumb-2 extended instruction set changes make instruction set particularly suited code generated runtime e.g jit compilation managed execution environments thumbee target languages java c perl python allows jit compilers output smaller compiled code without impacting performance new features provided thumbee include automatic null pointer checks every load store instruction instruction perform array bounds check special instructions call handler addition utilises thumb-2 technology thumbee provides access registers r8-r15 jazelle/dbx java vm state held handlers small sections frequently called code commonly used implement high level languages allocating memory new object changes come repurposing handful opcodes knowing core new thumbee state 23 november 2011 arm holdings deprecated use thumbee instruction set armv8 removes support thumbee vfp vector floating point technology fpu floating-point unit coprocessor extension arm architecture implemented differently armv8 – coprocessors defined provides low-cost single-precision double-precision floating-point computation fully compliant ansi/ieee std 754-1985 standard binary floating-point arithmetic vfp provides floating-point computation suitable wide spectrum applications pdas smartphones voice compression decompression three-dimensional graphics digital audio printers set-top boxes automotive applications vfp architecture intended support execution short vector mode instructions operated vector element sequentially thus offer performance true single instruction multiple data simd vector parallelism vector mode therefore removed shortly introduction replaced much powerful neon advanced simd unit devices arm cortex-a8 cut-down vfplite module instead full vfp module require roughly ten times clock cycles per float operation pre-armv8 architecture implemented floating-point/simd coprocessor interface floating-point and/or simd units found arm-based processors using coprocessor interface include fpa fpe iwmmxt implemented software trapping could implemented hardware provide functionality vfp opcode-compatible debian gnu/linux derivatives ubuntu armhf arm hard float refers armv7 architecture including additional vfp3-d16 floating-point hardware extension thumb-2 software packages cross-compiler tools use armhf vs. arm/armel suffixes differentiate advanced simd extension aka neon mpe media processing engine combined 64- 128-bit simd instruction set provides standardized acceleration media signal processing applications neon included cortex-a8 devices optional cortex-a9 devices neon execute mp3 audio decoding cpus running 10 mhz run gsm adaptive multi-rate amr speech codec 13 mhz features comprehensive instruction set separate register files independent execution hardware neon supports 8- 16- 32- 64-bit integer single-precision 32-bit floating-point data simd operations handling audio video processing well graphics gaming processing neon simd supports 16 operations time neon hardware shares floating-point registers used vfp devices arm cortex-a8 cortex-a9 support 128-bit vectors execute 64 bits time whereas newer cortex-a15 devices execute 128 bits time projectne10 arm first open-source project inception acquired older project known mbed tls ne10 library set common useful functions written neon c compatibility library created allow developers use neon optimisations without learning neon also serves set highly optimised neon intrinsic assembly code examples common dsp arithmetic image processing routines source code available github security extensions marketed trustzone technology armv6kz later application profile architectures provides low-cost alternative adding another dedicated security core soc providing two virtual processors backed hardware based access control lets application core switch two states referred worlds reduce confusion names capability domains order prevent information leaking trusted world less trusted world world switch generally orthogonal capabilities processor thus world operate independently using core memory peripherals made aware operating world core may use provide access control secrets code device typically rich operating system run less trusted world smaller security-specialized code trusted world aiming reduce attack surface typical applications include drm functionality controlling use media arm-based devices preventing unapproved use device practice since specific implementation details proprietary trustzone implementations publicly disclosed review unclear level assurance provided given threat model immune attack open virtualization open source implementation trusted world architecture trustzone amd licensed incorporated trustzone technology secure processor technology enabled products amd apus include cortex-a5 processor handling secure processing fact cortex-a5 trustzone core included earlier amd products enabled due time constraints samsung knox uses trustzone purposes detecting modifications kernel security extension marketed trustzone armv8-m technology introduced armv8-m architecture armv6 arm architecture supports no-execute page protection referred xn execute never large physical address extension lpae extends physical address size 32 bits 40 bits added armv7-a architecture 2011 physical address size larger 44 bits cortex-a75 cortex-a65ae armv8-r armv8-m sub-architectures announced armv8-a sub-architecture share features armv8-a n't include 64-bit aarch64 instructions announced october 2011 armv8-a often called armv8 armv8-r also available represents fundamental change arm architecture adds optional 64-bit architecture e.g cortex-a32 32-bit armv8-a cpu armv8-a cpus support 64-bit unlike armv8-r named aarch64 associated new a64 instruction set aarch64 provides user-space compatibility armv7-a 32-bit architecture therein referred aarch32 old 32-bit instruction set named a32 thumb instruction set referred t32 64-bit counterpart armv8-a allows 32-bit applications executed 64-bit os 32-bit os control 64-bit hypervisor arm announced cortex-a53 cortex-a57 cores 30 october 2012 apple first release armv8-a compatible core apple a7 consumer product iphone 5s appliedmicro using fpga first demo armv8-a first armv8-a soc samsung exynos 5433 used galaxy note 4 features two clusters four cortex-a57 cortex-a53 cores big.little configuration run aarch32 mode aarch32 aarch64 armv8-a makes vfpv3/v4 advanced simd neon standard also adds cryptography instructions supporting aes sha-1/sha-256 finite field arithmetic aarch64 introduced armv8-a included subsequent versions armv8-a aarch64 included armv8-r armv8-m 32-bit architectures december 2014 armv8.1-a update incremental benefits v8.0 announced enhancements fell two categories changes instruction set changes exception model memory translation instruction set enhancements included following enhancements exception model memory translation system included following january 2016 armv8.2-a announced enhancements fell four categories scalable vector extension sve new extension armv8 allowing implementation choices vector lengths scale 128 2048 bits complementary extension replace neon 512-bit variant already implemented supercomputer based arm cpu prototype sve variant aims world highest-performing supercomputer goal beginning full operations around 2021 see arm holdings supercomputers e.g crays fujitsus sve optional extension armv8.2-a architecture newer supported gcc 8 compiler october 2016 armv8.3-a announced enhancements fell six categories armv8.3-a architecture supported least gcc 7 compiler armv8.4-a adds e.g sha3 sha512 sm3 sm4 crypto extensions improved virtualization support memory partitioning monitoring mpam capabilities new secure el2 state activity monitors dot product sdot udot instructions armv8.5-a adds e.g memory tagging extension mte branch target indicators bti reduce ability attacker execute arbitrary code random number generator instructions – providing deterministic true random numbers conforming various national international standards august 2 2019 google announced android would adopt memory tagging extension mte 2019 arm announced scalable vector extension 2 sve2 transactional memory extension tme sve2 builds sve scalable vectorization increased fine-grain data level parallelism dlp allow work done per instruction sve2 aims bring benefits wider range software including dsp multimedia simd code currently use neon llvm/clang 9.0 gcc 10.0 development codes updated support sve2 tme brings support hardware transactional memory htm hardware lock elision tle tme aims bring scalable concurrency increase coarse-grain thread level parallelism tlp allow work done per thread llvm/clang 9.0 gcc 10.0 development codes updated support tme platform security architecture psa architecture-agnostic security framework evaluation scheme intended help secure internet things iot devices built system-on-a-chip soc processors introduced arm 2017 annual techcon event first used arm cortex-m processor cores intended microcontroller use psa includes freely available threat models security analyses demonstrate process deciding security features common iot products psa also provides freely downloadable application programming interface api packages architectural specifications open-source firmware implementations related test suites psa certified offers multi-level security evaluation scheme chip vendors os providers iot device makers first 32-bit arm-based personal computer acorn archimedes ran interim operating system called arthur evolved risc os used later arm-based systems acorn vendors acorn machines also unix port called risc ix neither confused risc/os contemporary unix variant mips architecture 32-bit arm architecture supported large number embedded real-time operating systems including 32-bit arm architecture primary hardware environment mobile device operating systems previously discontinued 32-bit arm architecture supported risc os multiple unix-like operating systems including windows applications recompiled arm linked winelib wine project run 32-bit 64-bit arm linux freebsd compatible enough operating systems x86 binaries e.g specially compiled arm demonstrated arm using qemu wine linux work full speed capability winelib Target text information: longene.longene longene linux-based operating system kernel intended binary compatible application software device drivers made microsoft windows linux 1.0-rc2 consists linux kernel module implementing aspects windows kernel modified wine distribution designed take advantage native interface longene written c programming language free open source software licensed terms gnu general public license version 2 gplv2 although project alpha stage development 2015 many windows programs already work well official website gone august restored 2019 meanwhile source code remains available github longene aims add windows kernel mechanisms including system calls windows registry windows driver model deferred procedure call others linux kernel form new kernel new kernel allow linux windows applications device drivers work without virtualization emulation order prevent bloating function available reactos linux kernel linux implementation used functions implemented using linux loadable kernel modules loaded unloaded easily longene two sets system calls corresponding tables windows syscall set linux syscall set windows applications call syscall table via software interrupt int 0x2e linux applications call syscall table via int 0x80 longene project develop windows linux userland libraries libraries offered others projects wine reactos gnu ndiswrapper september 2005 longene project gained sponsorship insigma technology 浙大网新 china-based consulting corporation project leader decao mao 毛德操 proposed idea route longene wrote series articles market intellectual property rights techniques explain people needed project implement longene articles mao wrote compiled form white paper project according white paper implement longene one needs add several parts linux kernel longene uses wine base implementing windows api project re-implements wine modules use part joint kernel longene defers using wine modules sufficiently implemented project versions longene released several wine modules successfully implemented kernel new stable version used base implementing future modules windows api implemented wine developed modules scratch since longene kernel work windows nt kernel wine userspace kernel emulation wineserver needed device drivers longene imports ndiswrapper kernel modifications made ndiswrapper missing functionality windows driver model using reactos code reference windows driver kit implementation based reactos code uses combination redirecting drivers linux kernel resources additional libraries implement functions implemented linux earlier version unifiedkernel-2.6.13 released february 15 2006 version actualized windows system call mechanism developers currently working longene 2.0 support windows applications running non-x86 architecture hardware arm loongson additionally developers working amd64 support porting ndiswrapper code project yet implemented planned magic linux – magic linux chinese linux distribution based red hat linux version 2.1 magic linux released december 15 2008 includes main version dvd linux kernel 2.6.25.20 compact version cd linux kernel 2.6.25.20 longene version cd longene 0.2.2 minimum hardware requirements run I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,445	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: oracle_fusion_middleware.oracle fusion middleware oracle fusion middleware fmw also known fusion middleware consists several software products oracle corporation fmw spans multiple services including java ee developer tools integration services business intelligence collaboration content management fmw depends open standards bpel soap xml jms oracle fusion middleware provides software development deployment management service-oriented architecture soa includes oracle calls hot-pluggable architecture designed facilitate integration existing applications systems software vendors ibm microsoft sap ag many products included fmw banner qualify middleware products fusion middleware essentially represents re-branding many oracle products outside oracle core database applications-software offerings—compare oracle fusion oracle acquired many fmw products via acquisitions includes products bea systems stellent order provide standards-based software assist business process automation hp incorporated fmw service-oriented architecture soa portfolio oracle leveraged configurable network computing cnc technology acquired peoplesoft/jd edwards 2005 purchase oracle fusion applications based oracle fusion middleware finally released september 2010 according oracle 2013 120,000 customers using fusion middleware includes 35 world 50 largest companies 750 businessweek global 1000 fmw also supported 7,500 partners january 2008 oracle webcenter content formerly universal content management infoworld technology year award best enterprise content manager oracle soa suite winning award best enterprise service bus 2007 gartner wrote oracle fusion middleware reached degree completeness puts par cases ahead competing software stacks reported revenue suite us 1 billion fy06 estimating revenue genuinely middleware aspects us 740 million 1-hop neighbor's text information: open_architecture.open architecture open architecture type computer architecture software architecture intended make adding upgrading swapping components easy example ibm pc amiga 500 apple iie open architecture supporting plug-in cards whereas apple iic computer closed architecture open architecture systems may use standardized system bus s-100 pci isa may incorporate proprietary bus standard used apple ii dozen slots allow multiple hardware manufacturers produce add-ons user freely install contrast closed architectures expandable one two expansion ports using proprietary connector design may require license fee manufacturer enhancements may installable technicians specialized tools training computer platforms may include systems open closed architectures mac mini compact macintosh closed macintosh ii power macintosh g5 open desktop pcs open architecture nettops typically closed similarly open software architecture one additional software modules added basic framework provided architecture open apis application programming interfaces major software products way basic functionality products modified extended google apis examples second type open software architecture consists messages flow computer systems messages standard structure modified extended per agreements computer systems example ibm distributed data management architecture open architecture allows potential users see inside parts architecture without proprietary constraints typically open architecture publishes parts architecture developer integrator wants share open business processes involved open architecture may require license agreements entities sharing architecture information open architectures successfully implemented many diverse fields including us navy 1-hop neighbor's text information: service-oriented_architecture.service-oriented architecture service-oriented architecture soa style software design services provided components application components communication protocol network basic principles service-oriented architecture independent vendors products technologies service discrete unit functionality accessed remotely acted upon updated independently retrieving credit card statement online service four properties according one many definitions soa different services used conjunction provide functionality large software application principle soa shares modular programming service-oriented architecture integrates distributed separately-maintained -deployed software components enabled technologies standards facilitate components communication cooperation network especially ip network soa services use protocols describe pass parse messages using description metadata metadata describes functional characteristics service quality-of-service characteristics service-oriented architecture aims allow users combine large chunks functionality form applications built purely existing services combining ad hoc manner service presents simple interface requester abstracts away underlying complexity acting black box users also access independent services without knowledge internal implementation related buzzword service-orientation promotes loose coupling services soa separates functions distinct units services developers make accessible network order allow users combine reuse production applications services corresponding consumers communicate passing data well-defined shared format coordinating activity two services manifesto published service-oriented architecture october 2009 came six core values listed follows soa seen part continuum ranges older concept distributed computing modular programming soa current practices mashups saas cloud computing see offspring soa industry standards relating exact composition service-oriented architecture although many industry sources published principles include following soa building block play three roles service consumer–provider relationship governed standardized service contract business part functional part technical part service composition patterns two broad high-level architectural styles choreography orchestration lower level enterprise integration patterns bound particular architectural style continue relevant eligible soa design service-oriented architecture implemented web services done make functional building-blocks accessible standard internet protocols independent platforms programming languages services represent either new applications wrappers around existing legacy systems make network-enabled implementers commonly build soas using web services standards one example soap gained broad industry acceptance recommendation version 1.2 w3c world wide web consortium 2003 standards also referred web service specifications also provide greater interoperability protection lock-in proprietary vendor software one however also implement soa using service-based technology jini corba rest architectures operate independently specific technologies therefore implemented using wide range technologies including implementations use one protocols example might use file-system mechanism communicate data following defined interface specification processes conforming soa concept key independent services defined interfaces called perform tasks standard way without service foreknowledge calling application without application needing knowledge service actually performs tasks soa enables development applications built combining loosely coupled interoperable services services inter-operate based formal definition contract e.g. wsdl independent underlying platform programming language interface definition hides implementation language-specific service soa-based systems therefore function independently development technologies platforms java .net etc. services written c running .net platforms services written java running java ee platforms example consumed common composite application client applications running either platform also consume services running web services facilitate reuse managed environments also wrap cobol legacy systems present software services high-level programming languages bpel specifications ws-cdl ws-coordination extend service concept providing method defining supporting orchestration fine-grained services coarse-grained business services architects turn incorporate workflows business processes implemented composite applications portals service-oriented modeling soa framework identifies various disciplines guide soa practitioners conceptualize analyze design architect service-oriented assets service-oriented modeling framework somf offers modeling language work structure map depicting various components contribute successful service-oriented modeling approach illustrates major elements identify aspects service development scheme model enables practitioners craft project plan identify milestones service-oriented initiative somf also provides common modeling notation address alignment business organizations enterprise architects believe soa help businesses respond quickly cost-effectively changing market conditions style architecture promotes reuse macro service level rather micro classes level also simplify interconnection to—and usage of—existing legacy assets soa idea organization look problem holistically business overall control theoretically would mass developers using whatever tool sets might please rather would coding standard set within business also develop enterprise-wide soa encapsulates business-oriented infrastructure soa also illustrated highway system providing efficiency car drivers point everyone car highway anywhere things would limited disorganized attempt get anywhere quickly efficiently ibm vice president web services michael liebow says soa builds highways respects soa could regarded architectural evolution rather revolution captures many best practices previous software architectures communications systems example little development solutions use truly static bindings talk equipment network taken place embracing soa approach systems position stress importance well-defined highly inter-operable interfaces predecessors soa include component-based software engineering object-oriented analysis design ooad remote objects instance corba service comprises stand-alone unit functionality available via formally defined interface services kind nano-enterprises easy produce improve also services mega-corporations constructed coordinated work subordinate services mature rollout soa effectively defines api organization reasons treating implementation services separate projects larger projects include soa promises simplify testing indirectly services autonomous stateless fully documented interfaces separate cross-cutting concerns implementation organization possesses appropriately defined test data corresponding stub built reacts test data service built full set regression tests scripts data responses also captured service service tested 'black box using existing stubs corresponding services calls test environments constructed primitive out-of-scope services stubs remainder mesh test deployments full services interface fully documented full set regression test documentation becomes simple identify problems test services testing evolves merely validate test service operates according documentation finds gaps documentation test cases services within environment managing data state idempotent services complexity examples may prove useful aid documenting service level becomes useful documentation apis within java community process provide good examples exhaustive staff would typically use important subsets 'ossjsa.pdf file within jsr-89 exemplifies file soa conflated web services however web services one option implement patterns comprise soa style absence native binary forms remote procedure call rpc applications could run slowly require processing power increasing costs implementations incur overheads soa implemented using technologies example java business integration jbi windows communication foundation wcf data distribution service dds depend remote procedure calls translation xml time emerging open-source xml parsing technologies vtd-xml various xml-compatible binary formats promise significantly improve soa performance services implemented using json instead xml suffer performance concern stateful services require consumer provider share consumer-specific context either included referenced messages exchanged provider consumer constraint drawback could reduce overall scalability service provider service-provider needs retain shared context consumer also increases coupling service provider consumer makes switching service providers difficult ultimately critics feel soa services still constrained applications represent primary challenge faced service-oriented architecture managing metadata environments based soa include many services communicate among perform tasks due fact design may involve multiple services working conjunction application may generate millions messages services may belong different organizations even competing firms creating huge trust issue thus soa governance comes scheme things another major problem faced soa lack uniform testing framework tools provide required features testing services service-oriented architecture major causes difficulty see drops.dagstuhl.de additional challenges partial solutions research roadmap input regarding software service engineering tim o'reilly coined term web 2.0 describe perceived quickly growing set web-based applications topic experienced extensive coverage involves relationship web 2.0 service-oriented architectures soa philosophy encapsulating application logic services uniformly defined interface making publicly available via discovery mechanisms notion complexity-hiding reuse also concept loosely coupling services inspired researchers elaborate similarities two philosophies soa web 2.0 respective applications argue web 2.0 soa significantly different elements thus regarded parallel philosophies whereas others consider two concepts complementary regard web 2.0 global soa philosophies web 2.0 soa serve different user needs thus expose differences respect design also technologies used real-world applications however use-cases demonstrated potential combining technologies principles web 2.0 soa microservices modern interpretation service-oriented architectures used build distributed software systems services microservice architecture processes communicate network order fulfill goal services use technology agnostic protocols aid encapsulating choice language frameworks making choice concern internal service microservices new realisation implementation approach soa become popular since 2014 introduction devops also emphasize continuous deployment agile practices single commonly agreed definition microservices following characteristics principles found literature Target text information: oracle_fusion_applications.oracle fusion applications oracle fusion applications ofa enterprise resource planning software applications oracle corporation applications distributed across various product families including financial management human capital management customer relationship management supply chain management procurement governance project portfolio oracle fusion applications announced shortly oracle 18 billion usd acquisition spree peoplesoft jd edwards siebel systems 2005 oracle fusion applications envisioned pitched enterprise resource planning suite—a combination features functionalities taken oracle e-business suite jd edwards peoplesoft siebel product lines suite built top oracle fusion middleware technology stack layers implement oracle fusion architecture leverages capabilities service-oriented architecture oracle fusion applications launched september 2010 released one year later openworld 2011 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	4,199	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_love.robert love robert m. love born c. 1981 american author speaker google engineer open source software developer love best known contributions linux kernel notable work including preemptive kernel process scheduler kernel event layer virtual memory subsystem inotify google member android team helped launch first version platform love also active gnome community working networkmanager gnome volume manager project utopia beagle love born 1981 south florida attended graduated charles w. flanagan high school undergraduate studies attended university florida graduated bachelor arts mathematics bachelor science computer science still college love employed kernel hacker montavista software montavista worked procps several kernel-related projects including one notable preemptive kernel love began work ximian december 15 2003 first served senior engineer linux desktop group ximian spearheaded effort named project utopia better integrate hardware management linux desktop ximian acquisition novell love rose position chief architect suse linux enterprise desktop novell worked various kernel gnome projects including inotify beagle love resigned novell may 4 2007 work google mobile device platform android joining project announced engineered several kernel system-level solutions android including novel shared memory subsystem ashmem love continues work google director engineering search infrastructure love lives boston massachusetts love author linux kernel development third edition book understanding developing code linux kernel book widely regarded approachable well written translated several languages three editions published imprints pearson education also wrote linux system programming second edition subtitled talking directly kernel c library published o'reilly media work documents linux system call c library api love also coauthor linux nutshell comprehensive linux command reference also published o'reilly media linux nutshell awarded favorite linux book time linux journal love contributing editor linux journal author articles magazine love invited speak around world including linux.conf.au australia fosdem belgium guadec england keynote speaker love written co-written several books linux operating system 1-hop neighbor's text information: open_sound_system.open sound system open sound system oss interface making capturing sound unix unix-like operating systems based standard unix devices system calls i.e posix read write ioctl etc. term also sometimes refers software unix kernel provides oss interface thought device driver collection device drivers sound controller hardware goal oss allow writing sound-based applications agnostic underlying sound hardware oss created hannu savolainen distributed four license options three free software licences thus making oss free software api designed use traditional unix framework open read write ioctl via special devices instance default device sound input output /dev/dsp examples using shell project initially free software following project success savolainen contracted company 4front technologies made support newer sound devices improvements proprietary response eventually linux community abandoned oss/free implementation included kernel development effort switched replacement advanced linux sound architecture alsa linux distributions ubuntu chosen disable oss support kernels ignore bugs filed oss4 packages although oss support may re-enabled ubuntu spite several operating systems freebsd continued distribute previous versions oss continue maintain improve versions july 2007 4front technologies released sources oss cddl opensolaris gpl linux january 2008 4front technologies released oss freebsd bsd systems bsd license freebsd contains independently developed implementation oss api includes among things in-kernel resampling mixing vchans equalizer surround sound independent volume control application also supports bit-perfect mode netbsd openbsd support compatibility mode oss api providing codice_1 header file codice_2 library internally operate using native sun-like audio interface solaris opensolaris uses fork oss4 called boomer combines oss4 framework audio mixer together sun earlier sada /dev/audio api oss/3d plugin music players acts audio postprocessing engine supported players include winamp windows media player 9 later musicmatch sonique foobar2000 jetaudio xmms ported windows linux platforms unlike oss shareware 4front oss3d later renamed joesoft hear linux kernel historically two uniform sound apis used one oss alsa advanced linux sound architecture alsa available linux one implementation alsa interface alsa refers equally implementation interface oss audio api linux 2.4 series official kernel.org linux kernels alsa added starting 2.5 versions linux kernel authors marked oss deprecated 4front continued develop oss outside linux kernel alsa provides optional oss emulation mode appears programs oss similarly alsa emulation mode linux implementation oss oss api software criticized developers paul davis jack audio connection kit lennart poettering competing pulseaudio criticisms either specific linux implementation oss api addressed oss version 4 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux_foundation.linux foundation linux foundation lf non-profit technology consortium founded 2000 merger open source development labs free standards group standardize linux support growth promote commercial adoption also hosts promotes collaborative development open source software projects began 2000 open source development labs osdl became organization today osdl merged free standards group fsg linux foundation sponsors work linux creator linus torvalds lead maintainer greg kroah-hartman supported members cisco fujitsu hitachi huawei ibm intel microsoft nec oracle qualcomm samsung vmware well developers around world recent years linux foundation expanded services events training certification open source projects projects hosted linux foundation include open network automation platform onap hyperledger cloud native computing foundation cloud foundry foundation xen project many others origins linux foundation traced 1993 patrick d'cruze started linux international email list known li 1993 comdex bob young introduced mark bolzern li list shortly thereafter bolzern shared vision asked make members list bolzern funded li activities others eventually joined vision defined among things entity deal traditional public relations behalf linus torvalds file trademark behalf linus among many things described bolzern direction li became collaboration linux related vendors technologists heading single direction served everyone entire linux movement according original vision became clear bolzern could continue ceo workgroup solutions/linuxmall executive director linux international time perceived conflict interest mid 1994 bolzern young recruited jon maddog hall executive director position turn filed corporate paperwork behalf new board directors bolzern also remained board well continued leading trade show marketing efforts late 1999 included many trips press relations user groups bolzern maddog bolzern also organized managed launch linux pavilions major trade shows time uniforum comdex usenix eventually maddog helping establish atlanta linux showcase helped larry augustin li board member silicon valley linux user group create san francisco linux expo especially notable 94–98 timeframe anti-fraud linux trademark filing led li already included li suite projects mid 90s linux mark institute linux base standard certification programs trade show press relationships along actually vendor association page outlining linux international membership latter half 90s list presented alphabetical agreed order merit li linux bolzern maddog continued provide bulk funding 1998 augmented vendor individual membership fees individuals sponsors joined li vision 1999 li already become vendor-neutral 501c6 non-profit industry association linux linus torvalds blessing linus focused development technical excellence linux li primary purpose industry marketing organization also supported linux related certification programs along development essential projects education vision huge large vendors began come party expected sophistication thus help needed even bolzern distracted wife diagnosed cancer maddog becoming weary load everyone support augustin took action suggested another organization formed continue 2000 osdl founded appealing linux international board directors number fundamental projects still part linux foundation today osdl non-profit organization supported global consortium aimed accelerate deployment linux enterprise computing recognized center-of-gravity linux industry 9 jon maddog hall went different direction li.org 2003 linus torvalds creator freely available linux kernel announced would join organization osdl fellow work full-time future versions linux 2007 osdl merged free standards group another organization promoting adoption linux time jim zemlin headed fsg took executive director linux foundation remains today september 11 2011 linux foundation website taken due breach discovered 27 days prior including limited attendant subdomains linux foundation linux.com major parts including openprinting still offline october 20 2011 restoration complete january 4 2012 although one site linux developer network restored march 2014 linux foundation announced would begin building mooc program nonprofit education platform edx aim collaboration serve rapidly growing demand linux expertise vehicle available anyone anywhere world time point first offering basic introduction linux course library since expanded include intro cloud infrastructure technologies intro devops intro openstack november 16 2016 linux foundation announced microsoft traditionally seen competitor joined organization platinum member news widely recognized evidence industry-wide embrace open source software scott guthrie executive vice president microsoft cloud enterprise group explained company excited join linux foundation partner community help developers capitalize shift intelligent cloud mobile experiences linux foundation brought number notable changes open source industry 2017 inaugural open source summit los angeles collection open source guides enterprise created partnership todo group open source managers/executives announced provide transparency new open source projects looking solidify stance strategy staying power event also platform announce foundation chaoss project build platform analyzing open source projects despite rivalry rideshare market uber lyft displayed unity announcing two new projects cloud native computing foundation cncf umbrella open source summit january 23 2018 linux foundation announced six open source networking projects onap opnfv opendaylight fd.io pnda snas would united one umbrella project called lf networking fund lfn arpit joshipura formerly director networking orchestration foundation became executive director lfn heather kirksey formerly director opnfv became linux foundation vp nfv participation lfn voluntary networking projects free decide whether join fund projects continues maintain technical independence linux foundation dedicated building sustainable ecosystems around open source projects accelerate technology development commercial adoption home linux creator linus torvalds lead maintainer greg kroah-hartman provides neutral home linux kernel development protected accelerated years come also fosters innovation hosting collaborative events among linux technical community software developers industry end users solve pressing issues facing linux open source linux foundation supports linux community offering technical information education annual events open source leadership summit linux kernel developers summit open source summit formerly known linuxcon inaugurated september 2009 developer travel fund available introduced october 2017 community data license agreement cdla legal framework sharing data two initial cdla licenses march 3 2009 linux foundation announced would take management linux.com previous owners sourceforge inc site relaunched may 13 2009 shifting away previous incarnation news site become central source linux tutorials information software documentation answers across server desktop/netbook mobile embedded areas also includes directory linux software hardware much like linux linux.com plans rely community create drive content conversation linux foundation training program features instructors content straight leaders linux developer open source communities participants receive linux training vendor-neutral technically advanced created actual leaders linux development community linux foundation linux training courses online in-person events corporate onsite give attendees broad foundational knowledge networking needed thrive careers march 2014 linux foundation edx partnered offer free massive open online class titled introduction linux first series ongoing free offerings organizations whose current catalogue moocs include intro devops intro cloud foundry cloud native software architecture intro apache hadoop intro cloud infrastructure technologies intro openstack december 2015 linux foundation introduced self-paced course designed help prepare administrators openstack foundation certified openstack administrator exam part partnership microsoft announced december 2015 linux azure certification would awarded individuals pass microsoft exam 70-533 implementing microsoft azure infrastructure solutions linux foundation certified system administrator lfcs exam early 2017 annual open source leadership summit announced linux foundation would begin offering inclusive speaker orientation course partnership national center women information technology free course designed give participants practical skills promote inclusivity presentations patent commons consists patented software made available open source community software considered commons patent owner must guarantee developers sued infringement though may restrictions use patented code concept first given substance red hat 2001 published patent promise patent commons project launched november 15 2005 open source development labs osdl core project online patent commons reference library aggregating documenting information patent-related pledges legal solutions directed open-source software community project listed 53 patents linux foundation projects originally collaborative projects independently funded software projects harness power collaborative development fuel innovation across industries ecosystems 500 companies thousands developers around world contribute open source software projects september 2015 total lines source code present linux foundation collaborative projects 115,013,302 estimated total amount effort required retrace steps collaborative development projects 41,192.25 person years words would take 1,356 developers 30 years recreate code bases time total economic value development costs linux foundation collaborative projects estimated 5 billion continued investment open source projects growth number projects hosted number rose 15.6 billion september 2017 projects include alphabetical order alljoyn open source application framework connected devices services formed allseen alliance 2013 project sponsored independent linux foundation project open connectivity foundation ocf automotive grade linux agl collaborative open source project developing linux-based open platform connected car serve de facto standard industry although initially focused in-vehicle infotainment ivi agl roadmap includes instrument cluster heads display telematics autonomous driving goals agl provide june 30 2014 agl announced first release based tizen ivi primarily demo applications agl expanded first reference platform unified code base ucb distribution first ucb release nicknamed agile albacore released january 2016 leverages software components agl tizen genivi alliance ucb 2.0 nicknamed brilliant blowfish made available july 2016 included new features like rear seat display video playback audio routing application framework ucb 3.0 charming chinook released january 2017 agl plans support additional use cases instrument clusters telematics systems cgl workgroup main purpose interface network equipment providers carriers gather requirements produce specifications linux distribution vendors implement also serves use unimplemented requirements foster development projects assist upstream integration requirements cloud foundry open source multi cloud application platform service paas governed cloud foundry foundation 501 c 6 organization january 2015 cloud foundry foundation created independent not-for-profit linux foundation project foundation exists increase awareness adoption cloud foundry grow contributor community create cohesive strategy across member companies foundation serves neutral party holding cloud foundry intellectual property cloud native computing foundation cncf founded 2015 promote containers announced kubernetes 1.0 open source container cluster manager contributed foundation google seed technology founding members included google coreos mesosphere red hat twitter huawei intel cisco ibm docker univa vmware order establish qualified representatives technologies governed cncf program announced inaugural cloudnativeday toronto august 2016 serial entrepreneur dan kohn also helped launch cii project current executive director august 2018 google announced handing operational control project community kubernetes open source framework automating deployment managing applications containerized clustered environment aims provide better ways managing related distributed components across varied infrastructure originally designed google donated linux foundation form cloud native computing foundation kubernetes seed technology large diverse community supporting project made staying power robust older technologies ilk container network interface cni cloud native computing foundation project provides networking linux containers containerd industry-standard core container runtime currently available daemon linux windows manage complete container lifecycle host system 2015 docker donated oci specification linux foundation reference implementation called runc coredns dns server chains plugins cloud native computing foundation member project originally built lyft move architecture away monolith envoy high-performance open source edge service proxy makes network transparent applications lyft contributed envoy cloud native computing foundation september 2017 fluentd open source data collector allowing user unify data collection consumption better use understanding data grpc modern open source high performance rpc framework run environment project formed 2015 google decided open source next version rpc infrastructure stubby project number early large industry adopters square inc. netflix cisco created uber engineering jaeger open source distributed tracing system inspired google dapper paper openzipkin community used tracing microservice-based architectures including distributed context propagation distributed transaction monitoring root cause analysis service dependency analysis performance/latency optimization cloud native computing foundation technical oversight committee voted accept jaeger 12th hosted project september 2017 linkerd cncf member project providing resilient service mesh cloud native applications tool based jvm java virtual machine developers help improve communications among microservices notary open source project allows anyone trust arbitrary collections data opentracing cloud native computing foundation member project offers consistent expressive vendor-neutral apis popular platforms cloud native computing foundation member project prometheus cloud monitoring tool sponsored soundcloud early iterations tool currently used digital ocean ericsson coreos docker red hat google august 2018 tool designated graduated project cloud native computing foundation rkt cloud native computing foundation project pod-native container engine linux composable secure built standards update framework tuf helps developers secure new existing software update systems often found vulnerable many known attacks tuf addresses widespread problem providing comprehensive flexible security framework developers integrate software update system community health analytics open source software chaoss project announced 2017 open source summit north america los angeles overall project aims provide transparency health security metrics open-source projects code aurora forum consortium companies projects serving mobile wireless industry software projects concerns e.g android msm femto linux project llvm msm wlan linux-msm cord central office re-orchestrated datacenter combines sdn nfv cloud commodity infrastructure open building blocks project introduced on.lab june 2015 open networking summit team originally composed linux foundation onos project pmc-sierra sckipio started 2003 core embedded linux project aims provide vendor-neutral place establish core embedded linux technologies beyond linux foundation projects start linux foundation member company allowed apply membership core embedded linux project announced wake heartbleed fund support free open-source software projects critical functioning internet diamon workgroup works toward improving interoperability open source tools improve linux-based tracing profiling logging monitoring features according workgroup diamon aims accelerate development making easier work together common pieces data plane development kit consists libraries accelerate cpu architecture-running packet processing workloads according intel dpdk improve packet processing performance ten times started 2014 dronecode began open source collaborative project unite current future open source drone initiatives auspices linux foundation goal common shared open source stack unmanned aerial vehicles uavs chris anderson ceo 3d robotics founder diy drones serves chairman board directors lorenz meier creator px4 mavlink qgc pixhawk serves community representative board founded 2017 edgex foundry acts vendor-neutral interoperability framework hosted hardware os agnostic reference platform seeks enable ecosystem plug-and-play components uniting marketplace accelerating iot deployment project wants enable collaborators freely work open interoperable iot solutions existing self-created connectivity standards fast data project-referred fido provides io services framework next wave network storage software stack fd.io universal data plane fd.io runs completely user space said ed warnicke consulting engineer cisco chair fd.io technical steering committee fossology primarily project dedicated open source license compliance software system toolkit users able run licenses copyright export control scans command line database web ui provided compliance workflow frrouting frr ip routing protocol suite unix linux platforms incorporates protocol daemons bgp is-is ldp ospf pim rip hyperledger project global open source effort based around advancing cross-industry blockchain technologies addition hosted linux foundation backed finance banking iot supply chain manufacturing technology leaders project foundation fastest growing date boasting 115 members since founding 2016 may 2016 co-founder apache software foundation brian behlendorf joined project executive director io visor open source project community developers enable new way innovate develop share io networking functions advance io networking technologies address new requirements presented cloud computing internet things iot software-defined networking sdn network function virtualization nfv iotivity oss framework enabling seamless device-to-device connectivity aid internet things grows allseen alliance open connectivity foundation merged october 2016 iot projects alljoyn iotivity respectively continue operating linux foundation two projects collaborate support future versions ocf specification single iotivity implementation janusgraph aims continue open source development titandb graph database fork titandb distributed graph database originally released 2012 enable users find connections among large data sets composed billions vertices edges js foundation previously known jquery foundation according by-laws jsfoundation inc aims help development adoption important javascript technology foundation works facilitate collaboration within javascript development community foster javascript applications server-side projects providing best practices policies 2016 dojo foundation merged jquery foundation subsequently rebranded js foundation became linux foundation project notable projects supported js foundation include node-red appium jquery dojo toolkit qunit eslint grunt 2019 js foundation merged node.js foundation form new openjs foundation stated mission foster healthy growth javascript web ecosystem whole kinetic open storage project dedicated creating open source standard around ethernet-enabled key/value kinetic devices accessing drives creating standard expands available ecosystem software hardware systems developers project result alliance including major hard drive manufacturers- seagate toshiba western digital- addition cisco cleversafe dell digitalsense netapp open vstorage red hat scality linux standard base lsb joint project several linux distributions organizational structure linux foundation standardize software system structure filesystem hierarchy used linux operating system lsb based posix specification single unix specification several open standards extends certain areas according lsb lsb compliance may certified product certification procedure lsb specifies example standard libraries number commands utilities extend posix standard layout file system hierarchy run levels printing system including spoolers cups tools like foomatic several extensions x window system ltsi project created/supported hitachi lg electronics nec panasonic qualcomm atheros renesas electronics samsung electronics sony toshiba hosted linux foundation aims maintain common linux base use variety consumer electronics products similar linux foundation overall mission encouraging widespread adoption linux open source technology node.js foundation exists primarily accelerate development node.js platform foundation also operates open governance model heighten participation amongst vendors developers general node.js community structure gives enterprise users assurance innovation continuity without risk since launching 2015 foundation seen strong growth resulting new initiatives node security platform tool allowing continuous security monitoring node.js apps node interactive series professional conferences aimed today average node.js user node.js reports 3.5 million users annual growth rate 100 percent foundation among linux foundation fastest growing projects 2019 node.js foundation merged js foundation form new openjs foundation.. stated mission foster healthy growth javascript web ecosystem whole odpi hosts open source projects accelerate development delivery big data solutions.. aims deliver well-defined open source open data technologies run across distributed devices promotes technologies worldwide certification programs forms marketing onos open network operating system open source community mission bringing promise software-defined networking sdn communications service providers order make networks agile mobile data center applications better economics users providers oai committed standardizing rest apis described smartbear software donated swagger specification directly initiative new name specification openapi specification openbmc project collaborative open-source project whose goal produce open source implementation baseboard management controllers bmc firmware stack openchain project centered around managing enterprise compliance open source supply chains generally project described community effort establish best practices effective management open source software compliance 2015 docker coreos launched oci partnership linux foundation create set industry standards open around container formats runtime opendaylight leading open sdn platform aims accelerate adoption software-defined networking sdn network functions virtualization nfv service provider enterprise research networks openjs foundation founded 2019 merger js foundation node.js foundation stated mission foster healthy growth javascript web ecosystem providing neutral organization host projects collaboratively fund activities benefit ecosystem whole openjs foundation made 29 open source javascript projects including appium dojo jquery node.js webpack founding members included google microsoft ibm paypal godaddy joyent open mainframe project aims drive harmony across mainframe community developed shared tool sets resources project also endeavors heighten participation academic institutions educating mainframe linux engineers developers openmama open middleware agnostic messaging api lightweight vendor-neutral integration layer systems built top variety message-oriented middleware announced october 2017 goal openmessaging act vendor-neutral open standard distributed messaging/stream project supported alibaba verizon oath business unit others openprinting workgroup website belonging linux foundation provides documentation software support printing linux formed linuxprinting.org 2006 became part free standards group developed database lists wide variety printers various manufacturers database allows people give report support quality printer also give report support given linux printer vendor also created foomatic formerly cupsomatic script plugs common unix printing system cups opensds open source software defined storage controller journalist swapnil bhartiya explained cio formed create industry response address software-defined storage integration challenges goal driving enterprise adoption open standards supported storage users/vendors including dell huawei fujitsu hds vodafone oregon state university originally created nicira moving vmware eventually linux foundation ovs open source virtual switch supporting standard management interfaces protocols open network automation platform result open-o open ecomp projects merging april 2017 platform allows end users design manage automate services virtual functions open platform network function virtualization nfv aims carrier-grade integrated platform introduces new products services industry quickly 2016 project began internship program created working group end user advisory group founded users board pnda platform network data analytics platform scalable network analytics rounding data multiple sources network works apache spark crunch numbers order find useful patterns data effectively r consortium dedicated expanding use r language developing r consortium works r foundation organizations working broaden reach language consortium supported collection tech industry heavyweights including microsoft ibm oracle google esri real-time linux overall goal encouraging widespread adoption real time formed coordinate efforts mainline preempt rt assist maintainers continuing development work long-term support future research rt rethinkdb announced shutdown business linux foundation announced purchased intellectual property cloud native computing foundation project relicensed apache license aslv2 rethinkdb describes first open-source scalable json database built ground realtime web software package data exchange spdx project started 2010 create standard format communicating components licenses copyrights associated software packages part project team curates spdx license list defines list identifiers commonly found licenses exceptions used open source collaborative software streaming network analytics system project snas.io open source framework collect track millions routers peers prefixes routing objects real time snas.io linux foundation project announced may 2017 tizen free open-source standards-based software platform supported leading mobile operators device manufacturers silicon suppliers multiple device categories smartphones tablets netbooks in-vehicle infotainment devices smart tvs todo talk openly develop openly open source collective housed linux foundation helps companies interested open source collaborate better efficiently todo aims reach companies organizations want turn best open source projects programs todo group reaches across industries collaborate open source technical business leaders share best practices tools programs building dependable effective projects long term said jim zemlin collaboration summit 2016 xen project team global open source community develops xen hypervisor contributes linux pvops framework xen® cloud platform xen® arm yocto project open source collaboration project provides templates tools methods help create custom linux-based systems embedded products regardless hardware architecture founded 2010 collaboration among many hardware manufacturers open-source operating systems vendors electronics companies bring order chaos embedded linux development zephyr small real-time operating system connected resource-constrained devices supporting multiple architectures developed open source collaboration project released apache license 2.0 zephyr became project linux foundation february 2016 linux kernel community linux foundation hosts infrastructure organizes conferences linux kernel summit linux plumbers conference also hosts technical advisory board made linux kernel developers one developers appointed sit linux foundation board january 2016 linux foundation announced partnership goodwill central texas help hundreds disadvantaged individuals underserved communities variety backgrounds get training need start new lucrative careers linux fund deserving developers accelerate technical problem solving collaboration open source community linux foundation launched community developer travel fund sponsorships open elite community developers proven track record open source development achievement get funding attend technical events employers applications available core infrastructure initiative cii project managed linux foundation enables technology companies industry stakeholders esteemed developers collaboratively identify fund critical open source projects need assistance june 2015 organization announced financial support nearly 500,000 three new projects better support critical security elements global information infrastructure may 2016 cii launched best practice badge program raise awareness development processes project governance steps help projects better security outcomes may 2017 cii issued 100th badge passing project linux foundation open compliance program provides array programs open source software compliance focus initiative educate assist developers companies license requirements order build programs without friction program consists primarily self-administered training modules also meant include automated tools help programmatically identify license compliance issues june 2018 1000 members identify ideals mission linux foundation projects 500 silver members actively donate linux foundation funding linux foundation comes primarily platinum members paying us 500,000 per year according schedule lf bylaws adding us 4 million gold members contribute combined total us 1.6 million smaller members less april 2014 foundation collects annual fees worth least 6,245,000 usd linux foundation uses funds help fund infrastructure fellows including linus torvalds help develop linux kernel december 2018 100 donations received go towards funding diversity programs according organization web site linux foundation events creators maintainers practitioners important open source projects meet linux foundation events 2017 attract nearly 25,000 developers maintainers system administrators thought leaders business executives industry professionals 4,000 organizations across 85 countries many open source projects also co-locate events linux foundation events take advantage cross-community collaboration projects industry 2017 events cover various trends open source including big data cloud native containers iot networking security Target text information: perf_(linux).perf linux perf sometimes called perf_events perf tools originally performance counters linux pcl performance analyzing tool linux available linux kernel version 2.6.31 userspace controlling utility named codice_1 accessed command line provides number subcommands capable statistical profiling entire system kernel userland code supports hardware performance counters tracepoints software performance counters e.g hrtimer dynamic probes example kprobes uprobes 2012 two ibm engineers recognized perf along oprofile one two commonly used performance counter profiling tools linux interface perf utility kernel consists one syscall done via file descriptor mmapped memory region unlike lttng older versions oprofile service daemons needed functionality integrated kernel perf utility dumps raw data mmapped buffer disk buffer becomes filled according r. vitillo lbnl profiling performed perf involves low overhead architectures provide support hardware counters include x86 powerpc64 ultrasparc iii iv arm v5 v6 v7 cortex-a8 -a9 alpha ev56 superh usage last branch records branch tracing implementation available intel cpus since pentium 4 available patch since version 3.14 linux kernel mainline released march 31 2014 perf also supports running average power limit rapl power consumption measurements available feature certain intel cpus perf natively supported many popular linux distributions including red hat enterprise linux since version 6 released 2010 debian since squeeze version released 2011 perf used several subcommands documentation perf detailed 2014 example document events explain aliases often external tools used get names codes events perf tools also profile based true wall-clock time perf subsystem linux kernels 2.6.37 3.8.8 rhel6 kernel 2.6.32 contained security vulnerability cve-2013-2094 exploited gain root privileges local user problem due incorrect type used 32-bit int instead 64-bit event_id verification code path I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,637	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: hi-tech_crime_enquiry_cell.hi-tech crime enquiry cell hi-tech crime enquiry cell special unit kerala police kerala india began operations 5 may 2006 formed prevent detect defend serious organized high technology crimes unit organized purpose prevent investigate prosecute computer related crimes working government agencies private sector academic institutions foreign counterparts I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,539	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: network_driver_interface_specification.network driver interface specification network driver interface specification ndis application programming interface api network interface cards nics jointly developed microsoft 3com corporation mostly used microsoft windows however open-source ndiswrapper project evil driver wrapper projects allow many ndis-compliant nics used linux freebsd netbsd magnussoft zeta derivative beos supports number ndis drivers ndis forms logical link control llc sublayer upper sublayer osi data link layer layer 2 therefore ndis acts interface media access control mac sublayer lower sublayer data link layer network layer layer 3 ndis library functions often referred wrapper hides underlying complexity nic hardware serves standard interface level 3 network protocol drivers hardware level mac drivers ndis versions supported various windows versions follows traffic accepted nic controlled ndis miniport driver various protocols tcp/ip implemented ndis protocol drivers single miniport may associated one protocols means traffic coming miniport may received parallel several protocol drivers example winpcap adds second protocol driver selected miniport order capture incoming packets furthermore possible simulate several virtual nics implementing virtual miniport drivers send receive traffic single physical nic one example virtual miniport driver usage add virtual nics different virtual lan implementations assume drivers received buffers one must treat incoming buffers read driver changes packet content must allocate buffers miniport type hardware driver part windows driver model usb audio scsi network card adapters usually source binary compatible windows 98 windows 2000 hardware specific control access hardware specific bus class driver another driver type ndis intermediate driver intermediate drivers sit in-between mac ip layers control traffic accepted nic practice intermediate drivers implement miniport protocol interfaces miniport driver protocol driver actually communicate corresponding miniport protocol interfaces reside intermediate driver design enables adding several chained intermediate drivers miniport protocol drivers therefore driver vendors assume interface send traffic implemented last driver chain order write applications using ndis one use samples accompany microsoft windows driver kit wdk passthru sample good starting point intermediate drivers implements necessary details required driver type passes traffic next driver chain 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: uniform_driver_interface.uniform driver interface uniform driver interface udi defunct project developed several companies define portable interface device drivers uniform driver interface udi allowed device drivers portable across hardware platforms operating systems without changes driver source participation multiple os platform device hardware vendors udi intended first interface likely achieve portability wide scale udi provided encapsulating environment drivers well-defined interfaces isolated drivers os policies platform i/o bus dependencies principle allowed driver development totally independent os development addition udi architecture intended insulate drivers platform specifics byte-ordering dma implications multi-processing interrupt implementations i/o bus topologies udi could potentially benefit open source operating systems linux *bsd providing driver support companies open source/free software advocates feared udi would cause proliferation closed source drivers reduction open source support companies undermining purpose free software open source movements richard stallman leader free software movement claimed project benefit free software movement I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,648	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_microsystems.sun microsystems sun microsystems inc. american company sold computers computer components software information technology services created java programming language solaris operating system zfs network file system nfs sparc sun contributed significantly evolution several key computing technologies among unix risc processors thin client computing virtualized computing sun founded february 24 1982 height sun headquarters santa clara california part silicon valley former west campus agnews developmental center april 20 2009 announced oracle corporation would acquire sun 7.4 billion deal completed january 27 2010 sun products included computer servers workstations built risc-based sparc processor architecture well x86-based amd opteron intel xeon processors sun also developed storage systems suite software products including solaris operating system developer tools web infrastructure software identity management applications technologies included java platform nfs general sun proponent open systems particularly unix also major contributor open-source software evidenced 1 billion purchase 2008 mysql open-source relational database management system various times sun manufacturing facilities several locations worldwide including newark california hillsboro oregon linlithgow scotland however time company acquired oracle outsourced manufacturing responsibilities initial design became sun first unix workstation sun-1 conceived andy bechtolsheim graduate student stanford university palo alto california bechtolsheim originally designed sun workstation stanford university network communications project personal cad workstation designed around motorola 68000 processor advanced memory management unit mmu support unix operating system virtual memory support built first ones spare parts obtained stanford department computer science silicon valley supply houses february 24 1982 scott mcnealy andy bechtolsheim vinod khosla stanford graduate students founded sun microsystems bill joy berkeley primary developer berkeley software distribution bsd joined soon counted one original founders sun name derived initials stanford university network sun profitable first quarter july 1982 1983 sun known producing 68k-based systems high-quality graphics computers dec vax run 4.2bsd licensed computer design manufacturers typically used build multibus-based systems running unix unisoft sun initial public offering 1986 stock symbol sunw sun workstations later sun worldwide symbol changed 2007 java sun stated brand awareness associated java platform better represented company current strategy sun logo features four interleaved copies word sun form rotationally symmetric ambigram designed professor vaughan pratt also stanford initial version logo orange sides oriented horizontally vertically subsequently rotated stand one corner re-colored purple later blue dot-com bubble sun began making much money shares rose dramatically also began spending much hiring workers building genuine demand much web start-up companies anticipating business would never happen 2000 bubble burst sales sun important hardware division went free-fall customers closed shop auctioned high-end servers several quarters steep losses led executive departures rounds layoffs cost cutting december 2001 stock fell 1998 pre-bubble level 100 kept falling faster many tech companies year later dipped 10 tenth even 1990 bounced back 20 mid-2004 sun closed newark california factory consolidated manufacturing hillsboro oregon 2006 rest newark campus put market 2004 sun canceled two major processor projects emphasized high instruction-level parallelism operating frequency instead company chose concentrate processors optimized multi-threading multiprocessing ultrasparc t1 processor codenamed niagara company also announced collaboration fujitsu use japanese company processor chips mid-range high-end sun servers servers announced april 17 2007 m-series part sparc enterprise series february 2005 sun announced sun grid grid computing deployment offered utility computing services priced us 1 per cpu/hour processing per gb/month storage offering built upon existing 3,000-cpu server farm used internal r 10 years sun marketed able achieve 97 utilization august 2005 first commercial use grid announced financial risk simulations later launched first software service product january 2005 sun reported net profit 19 million fiscal 2005 second quarter first time three years followed net loss 9 million gaap basis third quarter 2005 reported april 14 2005 january 2007 sun reported net gaap profit 126 million revenue 3.337 billion fiscal second quarter shortly following news announced kohlberg kravis roberts kkr would invest 700 million company sun engineering groups bangalore beijing dublin grenoble hamburg prague st. petersburg tel aviv tokyo trondheim 2007–2008 sun posted revenue 13.8 billion 2 billion cash first-quarter 2008 losses 1.68 billion revenue fell 7 12.99 billion sun stock lost 80 value november 2007 november 2008 reducing company market value 3 billion falling sales large corporate clients sun announced plans lay 5,000 6,000 workers 15–18 work force expected save 700 million 800 million year result moves also taking 600 million charges may 11 2009 following shareholders held 100,000 common shares sun 9.50 per share offered oracle received amounts indicated acquisition closed first decade sun history company positioned products technical workstations competing successfully low-cost vendor workstation wars 1980s shifted hardware product line emphasize servers storage high-level telecom control systems operational support systems service predominantly used sun equipment sun originally used motorola 68000 family central processing units sun-1 sun-3 computer series sun-1 employed 68000 cpu sun-2 series 68010 sun-3 series based 68020 later sun-3x using 68030 1987 company began using sparc risc processor architecture design computer systems starting sun-4 line sparc initially 32-bit architecture sparc v7 introduction sparc v9 architecture 1995 added 64-bit extensions sun developed several generations sparc-based computer systems including sparcstation ultra sun blade series workstations sparcserver netra enterprise sun fire line servers early 1990s company began extend product line include large-scale symmetric multiprocessing servers starting four-processor sparcserver 600mp followed 8-processor sparcserver 1000 20-processor sparccenter 2000 based work done conjunction xerox parc 1995 company introduced sun ultra series machines equipped first 64-bit implementation sparc processors ultrasparc late 1990s transformation product line favor large 64-bit smp systems accelerated acquisition cray business systems division silicon graphics 32-bit 64-processor cray superserver 6400 related sparccenter led 64-bit sun enterprise 10000 high-end server otherwise known starfire september 2004 sun made available systems ultrasparc iv first multi-core sparc processor followed ultrasparc iv+ september 2005 revisions higher clock speeds 2007 cpus used powerful enterprise class high-end cc-numa servers developed sun sun fire e25k november 2005 sun launched ultrasparc t1 notable ability concurrently run 32 threads execution 8 processor cores intent drive efficient use cpu resources particular importance data centers increasing need reduce power air conditioning demands much comes heat generated cpus t1 followed 2007 ultrasparc t2 extended number threads per core 4 8 sun open sourced design specifications t1 t2 processors via opensparc project 2006 sun ventured blade server high density rack-mounted systems market sun blade distinct sun blade workstation april 2007 sun released sparc enterprise server products jointly designed sun fujitsu based fujitsu sparc64 vi later processors m-class sparc enterprise systems include high-end reliability availability features later t-series servers also badged sparc enterprise rather sun fire april 2008 sun released servers ultrasparc t2 plus smp capable version ultrasparc t2 available 2 4 processor configurations first coolthreads cpu multi-processor capability made possible build standard rack-mounted servers could simultaneously process massive 256 cpu threads hardware sun sparc enterprise t5440 considered record industry since 2010 development sun machines based sparc architecture including new sparc t-series servers sparc t3 t4 chips done part oracle corporation hardware division late 1980s sun also marketed intel 80386-based machine sun386i designed hybrid system running sunos time supporting dos applications remained market brief time follow-up 486i upgrade announced prototype units ever manufactured sun brief first foray x86 systems ended early 1990s decided concentrate sparc retire last motorola systems 386i products move dubbed mcnealy wood behind one arrowhead even sun kept hand x86 world release solaris pc compatibles began shipping 1993 1997 sun acquired diba inc. followed later acquisition cobalt networks 2000 aim building network appliances single function computers meant consumers sun also marketed network computer term popularized eventually trademarked oracle javastation diskless system designed run java applications although none business initiatives particularly successful cobalt purchase gave sun toehold return x86 hardware market 2002 sun introduced first general purpose x86 system lx50 based part previous cobalt system expertise also sun first system announced support linux well solaris 2003 sun announced strategic alliance amd produce x86/x64 servers based amd opteron processor followed shortly sun acquisition kealia startup founded original sun founder andy bechtolsheim focusing high-performance amd-based servers following year sun launched opteron-based sun fire v20z v40z servers java workstation w1100z w2100z workstations september 12 2005 sun unveiled new range opteron-based servers sun fire x2100 x4100 x4200 servers designed scratch team led bechtolsheim address heat power consumption issues commonly faced data centers july 2006 sun fire x4500 x4600 systems introduced extending line x64 systems support solaris also linux microsoft windows january 22 2007 sun announced broad strategic alliance intel intel endorsed solaris mainstream operating system mission critical unix xeon processor-based systems contributed engineering resources opensolaris sun began using intel xeon processor x64 server line starting sun blade x6250 server module introduced june 2007 may 5 2008 amd announced operating system research center osrc expanded focus include optimization sun opensolaris xvm virtualization products amd based processors although sun initially known hardware company software history began founding 1982 co-founder bill joy one leading unix developers time contributed vi editor c shell significant work developing tcp/ip bsd unix os sun later developed software java programming language acquired software staroffice virtualbox mysql sun used community-based open-source licensing major technologies support products open source technologies gnome-based desktop software called java desktop system originally code-named madhatter distributed solaris operating system one point linux sun supported java enterprise system middleware stack linux released source code solaris open-source common development distribution license via opensolaris community sun positioning includes commitment indemnify users software intellectual property disputes concerning software offers support services variety pricing bases including per-employee per-socket 2006 report prepared eu unu-merit stated sun largest corporate contributor open source movements world according report sun open source contributions exceed combined total next five largest commercial contributors sun best known unix systems reputation system stability consistent design philosophy sun first workstation shipped unisoft v7 unix later 1982 sun began providing sunos customized 4.1bsd unix operating system workstations late 1980s tapped sun help develop next release branded unix 1988 announced would purchase 20 stake sun unix system v release 4 svr4 jointly developed sun sun used svr4 foundation solaris 2.x became successor sunos 4.1.x later retrospectively named solaris 1.x mid-1990s ensuing unix wars largely subsided sold unix interests relationship two companies significantly reduced 1992 sun also sold interactive unix operating system acquired bought interactive systems corporation eastman kodak company popular unix variant pc platform major competitor market leader sco unix sun focus interactive unix diminished favor solaris sparc x86 systems dropped product 2001 sun dropped solaris 2.x version numbering scheme solaris 2.6 release 1997 following version branded solaris 7 first 64-bit release intended new ultrasparc cpus based sparc v9 architecture within next four years successors solaris 8 solaris 9 released 2000 2002 respectively following several years difficult competition loss server market share competitors linux-based systems sun began include linux part strategy 2002 sun supported red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server x64 systems companies canonical ltd. wind river systems montavista also supported versions linux sun sparc-based systems 2004 cultivated reputation one microsoft vocal antagonists sun entered joint relationship resolving various legal entanglements two companies receiving us 1.95 billion settlement payments sun supported microsoft windows x64 systems announced collaborative agreements microsoft including plans support virtualization environments 2005 company released solaris 10 new version included large number enhancements operating system well novel features previously unseen industry solaris 10 update releases continued next 8 years last release sun microsystems solaris 10 10/09 following updates released oracle new license agreement final release solaris 10 1/13 previously sun offered separate variant solaris called trusted solaris included augmented security features multilevel security least privilege access model solaris 10 included many capabilities trusted solaris time initial release solaris 10 11/06 included solaris trusted extensions give remaining capabilities needed make functional successor trusted solaris releasing solaris 10 source code opened cddl free software license developed open contributing opensolaris community sxce used svr4 .pkg packaging supported opensolaris releases used ips following acquisition sun oracle opensolaris continued develop open illumos illumos distributions oracle corporation continued develop opensolaris next solaris release changing back license proprietary released oracle solaris 11 november 2011 java platform developed sun james gosling early 1990s objective allowing programs function regardless device used sparking slogan write run anywhere wora objective entirely achieved prompting riposte write debug everywhere java regarded largely hardware- operating system-independent java initially promoted platform client-side applets running inside web browsers early examples java applications hotjava web browser hotjava views suite however since java successful server side internet platform consists three major parts java programming language java virtual machine jvm several java application programming interfaces apis design java platform controlled vendor user community java community process jcp java object-oriented programming language since introduction late 1995 became one world popular programming languages java programs compiled byte code executed jvm regardless environment java apis provide extensive set library routines apis evolved standard edition java se provides basic infrastructure gui functionality enterprise edition java ee aimed large software companies implementing enterprise-class application servers micro edition java used build software devices limited resources mobile devices november 13 2006 sun announced would licensing java implementation gnu general public license released java compiler jvm time february 2009 sun entered battle microsoft adobe systems promoted rival platforms build software applications internet javafx development platform music video applications builds java programming language 1999 sun acquired german software company star division office suite staroffice sun later released openoffice.org gnu lgpl sissl sun industry standards source license openoffice.org supported microsoft office file formats though perfectly available many platforms primarily linux microsoft windows mac os x solaris used open source community principal differences staroffice openoffice.org staroffice supported sun available either single-user retail box kit per-user blocks licensing enterprise included wider range fonts document templates commercial quality spellchecker staroffice also contained commercially licensed functions add-ons openoffice.org either replaced open-source free variants present packages native support opendocument format 2007 sun announced sun xvm virtualization datacenter automation product suite commodity hardware sun also acquired virtualbox 2008 earlier virtualization technologies sun like dynamic system domains dynamic reconfiguration specifically designed high-end sparc servers logical domains supports ultrasparc t1/t2/t2 plus server platforms sun marketed sun ops center provisioning software datacenter automation client side sun offered virtual desktop solutions desktop environments applications could hosted datacenter users accessing environments wide range client devices including microsoft windows pcs sun ray virtual display clients apple macintoshes pdas combination supported devices variety networks supported lan wan public internet virtual desktop products included sun ray server software sun secure global desktop sun virtual desktop infrastructure sun acquired mysql ab developer mysql database 2008 us 1 billion ceo jonathan schwartz mentioned blog optimizing performance mysql one priorities acquisition february 2008 sun began publish results mysql performance optimization work sun contributed postgresql project java platform sun contributed supported java db sun offered software products software development infrastructure services many developed house others came acquisitions including tarantella waveset technologies seebeyond vaau sun acquired many netscape non-browser software products part deal involving netscape merger aol software products initially offered iplanet brand sun-netscape alliance ended re-branded sun one sun open network environment sun java system sun middleware product branded java enterprise system jes marketed web application serving communication calendaring directory identity management service-oriented architecture sun open esb software suites available free charge systems running solaris red hat enterprise linux hp-ux windows support available optionally sun developed data center management software products included solaris cluster high availability software grid management package called sun grid engine firewall software sunscreen network equipment providers telecommunications customers sun developed sun netra high-availability suite sun produced compilers development tools sun studio brand building developing solaris linux applications sun entered software service saas market zembly social cloud-based computing platform project kenai open-source project hosting service sun sold storage systems complement system offerings also made several storage-related acquisitions june 2 2005 sun announced would purchase storage technology corporation storagetek us 4.1 billion cash 37.00 per share deal completed august 2005 2006 sun introduced sun storagetek 5800 system first application-aware programmable storage solution 2008 sun contributed source code storagetek 5800 system bsd license sun announced sun open storage platform 2008 built open source technologies late 2008 sun announced sun storage 7000 unified storage systems codenamed amber road transparent placement data systems solid-state drives ssd conventional hard drives managed zfs take advantage speed ssds economy conventional hard disks storage products included sun fire x4500 storage server sam-qfs filesystem storage management software sun marketed sun constellation system high-performance computing hpc even introduction sun constellation system 2007 sun products use many top500 systems supercomputing centers sun hpc clustertools product set message passing interface mpi libraries tools running parallel jobs solaris hpc clusters beginning version 7.0 sun switched implementation mpi open mpi donated engineering resources open mpi project sun participant openmp language committee sun studio compilers tools implemented openmp specification shared memory parallelization 2006 sun built tsubame supercomputer june 2008 fastest supercomputer asia sun built ranger texas advanced computing center tacc 2007 ranger peak performance 500 tflops 6th powerful supercomputer top500 list november 2008 sun announced opensolaris distribution integrated sun hpc products others notable sun employees included john gilmore whitfield diffie radia perlman marc tremblay sun early advocate unix-based networked computing promoting tcp/ip especially nfs reflected company motto network computer coined john gage james gosling led team developed java programming language jon bosak led creation xml specification w3c sun staff published articles company blog site staff encouraged use site blog aspect work personal life restrictions placed staff commercially confidential material jonathan i. schwartz one first ceos large companies regularly blog postings frequently quoted analyzed press 2005 sun microsystems one first fortune 500 companies instituted formal social media program sun sold oracle corporation 2009 5.6b sun staff asked share anecdotes experiences sun web site containing videos stories photographs 27 years sun made available september 2 2009 october sun announced second round thousands employees laid blamed partially delays approval merger transaction completed early 2010 january 2011 oracle agreed pay 46 million settle charges submitted false claims us federal government agencies paid kickbacks systems integrators february 2011 sun former menlo park california campus sold announced would become headquarters facebook sprawling facility built around enclosed courtyard nicknamed sun quentin september 1 2011 sun india legally became part oracle delayed due legal issues indian court 1-hop neighbor's text information: cen/xfs.cen/xfs cen/xfs xfs extensions financial services provides client-server architecture financial applications microsoft windows platform especially peripheral devices eftpos terminals atms unique financial industry international standard promoted european committee standardization known acronym cen hence cen/xfs standard based wosa extensions financial services wosa/xfs developed microsoft move standardized software base financial institutions increasingly interested ability pick choose application programs drive equipment xfs provides common api accessing manipulating various financial services devices regardless manufacturer chronology wosa/xfs changed name simply xfs standard adopted international cen/isss standards body however commonly called cen/xfs industry participants perceived benefit xfs similar java write run anywhere mantra often different hardware vendors different interpretations xfs standard result differences interpretation means applications typically use middleware even differences various platforms implementation xfs notable xfs middleware platforms include xfs test tools allow testing xfs applications middleware simulated hardware tools include sophisticated automatic regression testing capabilities providers xfs test tools include j/xfs alternative api cen/xfs windows specific also xpeak operating system independent based xml messages j/xfs written java objective provide platform agnostic client-server architecture financial applications especially peripheral devices used financial industry eftpos terminals atms move standardized software base financial institutions increasingly interested ability pick choose application programs drive equipment j/xfs provides common object oriented api pure java application wide range financial devices providing layer separation application device logic implemented using native j/xfs api wrapping existing implementation javapos cen/xfs j/xfs developed companies de la rue ibm ncr wincor nixdorf sun microsystems hosted monitored maintained european committee standardisation cen 1-hop neighbor's text information: xml.xml extensible markup language xml markup language defines set rules encoding documents format human-readable machine-readable w3c xml 1.0 specification several related specifications—all free open standards—define xml design goals xml emphasize simplicity generality usability across internet textual data format strong support via unicode different human languages although design xml focuses documents language widely used representation arbitrary data structures used web services several schema systems exist aid definition xml-based languages programmers developed many application programming interfaces apis aid processing xml data essence extensible markup languages necessary explained markup language example see markup language § xml standard generalized markup language hundreds document formats using xml syntax developed including rss atom soap svg xhtml xml-based formats become default many office-productivity tools including microsoft office office open xml openoffice.org libreoffice opendocument apple iwork xml also provided base language communication protocols xmpp applications microsoft .net framework use xml files configuration property lists implementation configuration storage built xml many industry data standards e.g hl7 ota fpml mismo niem etc based xml rich features xml schema specification many standards quite complex uncommon specification comprise several thousand pages publishing dita xml industry data standard xml used extensively underpin various publishing formats xml widely used services oriented architecture soa disparate systems communicate exchanging xml messages message exchange format standardised xml schema xsd also referred canonical schema xml come common use interchange data internet ietf superseded gave rules construction internet media types use sending xml also defines media types codice_1 codice_2 say data xml nothing semantics rfc 7303 also recommends xml-based languages given media types ending codice_3 example codice_4 svg guidelines use xml networked context appear rfc 3470 also known ietf bcp 70 document covering many aspects designing deploying xml-based language material section based xml specification exhaustive list constructs appear xml provides introduction key constructs often encountered day-to-day use xml documents consist entirely characters unicode repertoire except small number specifically excluded control characters character defined unicode may appear within content xml document xml includes facilities identifying encoding unicode characters make document expressing characters one reason another used directly unicode code points following ranges valid xml 1.0 documents xml 1.1 extends set allowed characters include plus remaining characters range u+0001–u+001f time however restricts use c0 c1 control characters u+0009 horizontal tab u+000a line feed u+000d carriage return u+0085 next line requiring written escaped form example u+0001 must written codice_22 equivalent case c1 characters restriction backwards incompatibility introduced allow common encoding errors detected code point u+0000 null character permitted xml 1.0 1.1 document unicode character set encoded bytes storage transmission variety different ways called encodings unicode defines encodings cover entire repertoire well-known ones include utf-8 utf-16 many text encodings predate unicode ascii iso/iec 8859 character repertoires almost every case subsets unicode character set xml allows use unicode-defined encodings encodings whose characters also appear unicode xml also provides mechanism whereby xml processor reliably without prior knowledge determine encoding used encodings utf-8 utf-16 necessarily recognized every xml parser xml provides escape facilities including characters problematic include directly example five predefined entities permitted unicode characters may represented numeric character reference consider chinese character 中 whose numeric code unicode hexadecimal 4e2d decimal 20,013 user whose keyboard offers method entering character could still insert xml document encoded either codice_32 codice_33 similarly string 3 jörg could encoded inclusion xml document codice_34 codice_35 permitted however null character one control characters excluded xml even using numeric character reference alternative encoding mechanism base64 needed represent characters comments may appear anywhere document outside markup comments appear xml declaration comments begin codice_36 end codice_37 compatibility sgml string -- double-hyphen allowed inside comments means comments nested ampersand special significance within comments entity character references recognized way represent characters outside character set document encoding example valid comment codice_38 xml 1.0 fifth edition xml 1.1 support direct use almost unicode character element names attributes comments character data processing instructions ones special symbolic meaning xml less-than sign following well-formed xml document including chinese armenian cyrillic characters xml specification defines xml document well-formed text meaning satisfies list syntax rules provided specification key points fairly lengthy list include definition xml document excludes texts contain violations well-formedness rules simply xml xml processor encounters violation required report errors cease normal processing policy occasionally referred draconian error handling stands notable contrast behavior programs process html designed produce reasonable result even presence severe markup errors xml policy area criticized violation postel law conservative send liberal accept xml specification defines valid xml document well-formed xml document also conforms rules document type definition dtd addition well-formed xml document may valid means contains reference document type definition dtd elements attributes declared dtd follow grammatical rules dtd specifies xml processors classified validating non-validating depending whether check xml documents validity processor discovers validity error must able report may continue normal processing dtd example schema grammar since initial publication xml 1.0 substantial work area schema languages xml schema languages typically constrain set elements may used document attributes may applied order may appear allowable parent/child relationships oldest schema language xml document type definition dtd inherited sgml dtds following benefits dtds following limitations two peculiar features distinguish dtds schema types syntactic support embedding dtd within xml documents defining entities arbitrary fragments text and/or markup xml processor inserts dtd xml document wherever referenced like character escapes dtd technology still used many applications ubiquity newer schema language described w3c successor dtds xml schema often referred initialism xml schema instances xsd xml schema definition xsds far powerful dtds describing xml languages use rich datatyping system allow detailed constraints xml document logical structure xsds also use xml-based format makes possible use ordinary xml tools help process xs schema element defines schema relax ng regular language xml next generation initially specified oasis standard part 2 regular-grammar-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl relax ng schemas may written either xml based syntax compact non-xml syntax two syntaxes isomorphic james clark conversion tool—trang—can convert without loss information relax ng simpler definition validation framework xml schema making easier use implement also ability use datatype framework plug-ins relax ng schema author example require values xml document conform definitions xml schema datatypes schematron language making assertions presence absence patterns xml document typically uses xpath expressions schematron standard part 3 rule-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl dsdl document schema definition languages multi-part iso/iec standard iso/iec 19757 brings together comprehensive set small schema languages targeted specific problems dsdl includes relax ng full compact syntax schematron assertion language languages defining datatypes character repertoire constraints renaming entity expansion namespace-based routing document fragments different validators dsdl schema languages vendor support xml schemas yet extent grassroots reaction industrial publishers lack utility xml schemas publishing schema languages describe structure particular xml format also offer limited facilities influence processing individual xml files conform format dtds xsds ability instance provide infoset augmentation facility attribute defaults relax ng schematron intentionally provide cluster specifications closely related xml developed starting soon initial publication xml 1.0 frequently case term xml used refer xml together one technologies come seen part xml core specifications conceived part xml core failed find wide adoption including xinclude xlink xpointer design goals xml include shall easy write programs process xml documents despite xml specification contains almost information programmers might go processing xml infoset specification provides vocabulary refer constructs within xml document provide guidance access information variety apis accessing xml developed used standardized existing apis xml processing tend fall categories stream-oriented facilities require less memory certain tasks based linear traversal xml document faster simpler alternatives tree-traversal data-binding apis typically require use much memory often found convenient use programmers include declarative retrieval document components via use xpath expressions xslt designed declarative description xml document transformations widely implemented server-side packages web browsers xquery overlaps xslt functionality designed searching large xml databases simple api xml sax lexical event-driven api document read serially contents reported callbacks various methods handler object user design sax fast efficient implement difficult use extracting information random xml since tends burden application author keeping track part document processed better suited situations certain types information always handled way matter occur document pull parsing treats document series items read sequence using iterator design pattern allows writing recursive descent parsers structure code performing parsing mirrors structure xml parsed intermediate parsed results used accessed local variables within functions performing parsing passed function parameters lower-level functions returned function return values higher-level functions examples pull parsers include data :edit :xml perl stax java programming language xmlpullparser smalltalk xmlreader php elementtree.iterparse python system.xml.xmlreader .net framework dom traversal api nodeiterator treewalker pull parser creates iterator sequentially visits various elements attributes data xml document code uses iterator test current item tell example whether start-tag end-tag text inspect attributes local name namespace values xml attributes value text etc also move iterator next item code thus extract information document traverses recursive-descent approach tends lend keeping data typed local variables code parsing sax instance typically requires parser manually maintain intermediate data within stack elements parent elements element parsed pull-parsing code straightforward understand maintain sax parsing code document object model dom api allows navigation entire document tree node objects representing document contents dom document created parser generated manually users limitations data types dom nodes abstract implementations provide programming language-specific bindings dom implementations tend memory intensive generally require entire document loaded memory constructed tree objects access allowed xml data binding binding xml documents hierarchy custom strongly typed objects contrast generic objects created dom parser approach simplifies code development many cases allows problems identified compile time rather run-time suitable applications document structure known fixed time application written example data binding systems include java architecture xml binding jaxb xml serialization .net framework xml serialization gsoap xml appeared first-class data type languages ecmascript xml e4x extension ecmascript/javascript language explicitly defines two specific objects xml xmllist javascript support xml document nodes xml node lists distinct objects use dot-notation specifying parent-child relationships e4x supported mozilla 2.5+ browsers though deprecated adobe actionscript adopted universally similar notations used microsoft linq implementation microsoft .net 3.5 scala uses java vm open-source xmlsh application provides linux-like shell special features xml manipulation similarly treats xml data type using notation resource description framework defines data type codice_42 hold wrapped canonical xml facebook produced extensions php javascript languages add xml core syntax similar fashion e4x namely xhp jsx respectively xml application profile sgml iso 8879 versatility sgml dynamic information display understood early digital media publishers late 1980s prior rise internet mid-1990s practitioners sgml gained experience then-new world wide web believed sgml offered solutions problems web likely face grew dan connolly added sgml list w3c activities joined staff 1995 work began mid-1996 sun microsystems engineer jon bosak developed charter recruited collaborators bosak well connected small community people experience sgml web xml compiled working group eleven members supported roughly 150-member interest group technical debate took place interest group mailing list issues resolved consensus failed majority vote working group record design decisions rationales compiled michael sperberg-mcqueen december 4 1997 james clark served technical lead working group notably contributing empty-element codice_43 syntax name xml names put forward consideration included magma minimal architecture generalized markup applications slim structured language internet markup mgml minimal generalized markup language co-editors specification originally tim bray michael sperberg-mcqueen halfway project bray accepted consulting engagement netscape provoking vociferous protests microsoft bray temporarily asked resign editorship led intense dispute working group eventually solved appointment microsoft jean paoli third co-editor xml working group never met face-to-face design accomplished using combination email weekly teleconferences major design decisions reached short burst intense work august november 1996 first working draft xml specification published design work continued 1997 xml 1.0 became w3c recommendation february 10 1998 xml profile iso standard sgml xml comes sgml unchanged sgml comes separation logical physical structures elements entities availability grammar-based validation dtds separation data metadata elements attributes mixed content separation processing representation processing instructions default angle-bracket syntax removed sgml declaration xml fixed delimiter set adopts unicode document character set sources technology xml tei text encoding initiative defined profile sgml use transfer syntax html elements synchronous resource document character sets separate resource encoding codice_44 attribute invented like http metadata accompanied resource rather needed declaration link ercs extended reference concrete syntax project spread standardization project regarding east asian documents project iso-related china/japan/korea document processing expert group basis xml 1.0 naming rules spread also introduced hexadecimal numeric character references concept references make available unicode characters support ercs xml html better sgml standard 8879 revised 1996 1998 websgml adaptations xml header followed iso hytime ideas developed discussion novel xml included algorithm encoding detection encoding header processing instruction target xml space attribute new close delimiter empty-element tags notion well-formedness opposed validity enables parsing without schema first formalized xml although implemented successfully electronic book technology dynatext software software university waterloo new oxford english dictionary project risp lisp sgml text processor uniscope tokyo us army missile command iads hypertext system mentor graphics context interleaf xerox publishing system two current versions xml first xml 1.0 initially defined 1998 undergone minor revisions since without given new version number currently fifth edition published november 26 2008 widely implemented still recommended general use second xml 1.1 initially published february 4 2004 day xml 1.0 third edition currently second edition published august 16 2006 contains features contentious intended make xml easier use certain cases main changes enable use line-ending characters used ebcdic platforms use scripts characters absent unicode 3.2 xml 1.1 widely implemented recommended use need particular features prior fifth edition release xml 1.0 differed xml 1.1 stricter requirements characters available use element attribute names unique identifiers first four editions xml 1.0 characters exclusively enumerated using specific version unicode standard unicode 2.0 unicode 3.2 fifth edition substitutes mechanism xml 1.1 future-proof reduces redundancy approach taken fifth edition xml 1.0 editions xml 1.1 certain characters forbidden names everything else allowed accommodate suitable name characters future unicode versions fifth edition xml names may contain characters balinese cham phoenician scripts among many others added unicode since unicode 3.2 almost unicode code point used character data attribute values xml 1.0 1.1 document even character corresponding code point defined current version unicode character data attribute values xml 1.1 allows use control characters xml 1.0 robustness control characters introduced xml 1.1 must expressed numeric character references x7f x9f allowed xml 1.0 xml 1.1 even required expressed numeric character references among supported control characters xml 1.1 two line break codes must treated whitespace whitespace characters control codes written directly discussion xml 2.0 although organization announced plans work project xml-sw sw skunkworks written one original developers xml contains proposals xml 2.0 might look like elimination dtds syntax integration namespaces xml base xml information set base standard world wide web consortium also xml binary characterization working group preliminary research use cases properties binary encoding xml information set working group chartered produce official standards since xml definition text-based itu-t iso using name fast infoset binary infoset avoid confusion see itu-t rec x.891 iso/iec 24824-1 xml extensions regularly criticized verbosity complexity redundancy mapping basic tree model xml type systems programming languages databases difficult especially xml used exchanging highly structured data applications primary design goal however xml data binding systems allow applications access xml data directly objects representing data structure data programming language used ensures type safety rather using dom sax retrieve data direct representation xml accomplished automatically creating mapping elements xml schema xsd document members class represented memory criticisms attempt refute claim xml self-describing language though xml specification makes claim json yaml s-expressions frequently proposed simpler alternatives see comparison data serialization formats focus representing highly structured data rather documents may contain highly structured relatively unstructured content however w3c standardized xml schema specifications offer broader range structured xsd data types compared simpler serialization formats offer modularity reuse xml namespace Target text information: xpeak.xpeak xpeak standard device management based xml platform agnostic initially focused financial applications restricted serves purpose apis like cen/xfs j/xfs restricted one operating system language since works client/server model using xml way homogenise communication application device services flexibility allows different parts whole business implemented different languages application various devices implemented java c++ still others device firmware designed based experiences cen/xfs j/xfs javapos instead using standards organization uses open source model develop architecture tools used project like base complete open source software solution named xpeaker way updated quickly openly users using internet means communication rather meetings requiring physical presence xpeak follows open source model participation project totally free moderated r open source foundation participated equal parts sun microsystems intecna initial code contribution responsibility cashware one leading companies devices connectivity use standards cen/xfs j/xfs xpeaker collection software projects integrally developed cashware philosophy open source commercialized dual license xpeaker public license commercial licence xpeaker includes following elements eclipse plugin permits made high level api access xpeak services xpeaking permits access said services different programming languages java c c++ c pascal I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,888	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: liteos.liteos huawei liteos lightweight real-time operating system open source operating system licensed bsd 3-clause license iot smart terminals microcontrollers different architectures arm m0/3/4/7 a7/17/53 arm9/11 x86 risc-v supported project huawei liteos part huawei 1+2+1 internet things solution featured number open source development kits industry offerings huawei liteos features lightweight low-power fast-response multi-sensor collaboration multi-protocol interconnect connectivity enabling iot terminals quickly access network huawei liteos make intelligent hardware development easier thereby accelerating realization interconnection things latest version v2.1 released may 2018 may 20 2015 huawei network conference huawei proposed 1+2+1 internet things solution release iot operating system named huawei liteos 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_real-time_operating_systems.comparison real-time operating systems list real-time operating systems rtos operating system time taken process input stimulus less time lapsed next input stimulus type 1-hop neighbor's text information: dsos.dsos dsos deep six operating system real-time operating system sometimes referred operating system kernel developed texas instruments geophysical services division gsi mid-1970s geophysical services division texas instruments main business search oil would collect data likely spots around world process data using high performance computers produce analyses guided oil companies toward promising sites drilling much oil sought found beneath ocean hence gsi maintained fleet ships collect seismic data remote regions world order properly essential ships navigated precisely find evidence oil ca n't mark x tree oil thousands feet ocean typically hundreds miles land decade gps existed thus processing load keep accurate picture considerable geonav systems used dsos frailey 1975 operating system performed required navigation addition collected processed stored seismic data received real-time name deep six operating system brainchild phil ward subsequently world-renowned gps expert time manager project slightly skeptical computer science professor dennis frailey insisted operating system solution problem hand sense system lived name according legend supposedly one ships hit old world war ii sea mine coast egypt sank navigated geonav dsos 1970s real-time applications use operating systems latter perceived adding much overhead typical computers time barely enough computing power handle tasks hand moreover software type written assembly language consequence real-time systems classic examples spaghetti code complex masses assembly language software using sorts machine-dependent tricks achieve maximum performance dsos ran texas instruments 980 minicomputer used marine navigation gsi fleet dsos created bring order chaos typical real-time system design time 980 time relatively powerful small computer offered memory protection multiple-priority interrupt capabilities dsos designed exploit features dsos frailey 1975 one pioneering efforts real-time operating systems incorporating many principles introduced time mainframe systems semaphores memory management task management software interrupts used clever scheme assure appropriate real-time performance providing many services previously uncommon real-time domain orderly way communicate external devices computer operators multitasking maintenance records disciplined form inter-task communication reliable real-time clock memory protection debugging support remained use least three decades demonstrated well designed operating system actually make real-time system faster vastly maintainable typical today almost real-time applications use operating systems type Target text information: nano-rk.nano-rk nano-rk wireless sensor networking real-time operating system rtos real-time operating system rtos carnegie mellon university designed run micro-controllers use sensor networks nano-rk supports fixed-priority fully preemptive scheduler fine-grained timing primitives support real-time task sets nano implies rtos small consuming 2 kb ram using 18 kb flash rk short resource kernel resource kernel provides reservations often system resources consumed example task might allowed execute 10 ms every 150 ms cpu reservation node might allowed transmit 10 network packets per minute network reservation reservations form virtual energy budget ensure node meets designed battery lifetime well protecting failed node generating excessive network traffic nano-rk open source written c runs atmel-based firefly sensor networking platform micaz motes well msp430 processor following article discusses tradeoffs associated using rtos sensor networks nanork takes advantage priority-based preemptive scheduling help honor real-time factor deterministic thus ensuring task timeliness synchronization due characteristic limited battery power wireless node nano-rk provides cpu network sensor efficiency use virtual energy reservations labeling system resource kernel energy reservations enforce energy communication budgets minimize negative impact node ’ operational lifetime unintentional errors malicious behavior nodes within network supports packet forwarding routing network scheduling protocols help light-weight wireless networking stack compared current sensor operating systems nano-rk provides rich functionality timeliness scheduling small-footprint embedded resource kernel rk static configuration nano-rk uses static design-time approach energy usage control dynamic task creation disallowed nano-rk requiring application developers set task reservation quotas/priorities static testbed design design allows developers create energy budget task order maintain application requirements well energy efficiency throughout system ’ lifetime using static configuration approach runtime configurations well power requirements predefined verified designer system deployed executed real world approach also helps guarantee stability small-footprint characteristics compared traditional rtoss watchdog timer support watchdog software timer triggers system reset action system hangs crucial faults extended period time watchdog mechanism bring system back nonresponsive state normal operation waiting timer goes subsequently rebooting device nano-rk watchdog timer tied directly processor ’ reset signal reboot error default enabled system boots reset time scheduler executes system fails respond within predefined time period system reboot run initialization instruction sequence hopefully regain control deep sleep mode another feature nano-rk deep sleep mode energy efficiency reasons eligible tasks run system powered given option enter deep sleep mode system deep sleep mode deep sleep timer wake system predefined latency period waking deep sleep mode next context swap time set guarantee cpu wakes time sensor node wish perform deep sleep also presented choice go low energy consumption state still managing peripherals nano-rk implemented double-linked list ready queue nodes within fixed-size array termed ready queue orders ready tasks decreasing order whichever task ’ priorities higher number tasks running within nano-rk implementation statically-configured testbed deployment ready queue size also fixed number tasks ready run fixed-length array named nrk readyq found within nrk defs.h file along two pointers reference two important cells within array free node pointer free node head node pointer head node point next cell array allocated current highest priority task ready run respectively core nano-rk static preemptive real-time scheduler priority-based energy efficient priority-based preemptive scheduling scheduler always selects highest priority task ready queue save energy tasks poll resource rather tasks blocked certain events unlocked events occur task ready queue system powered save energy system working one one task current task signified nrk cur task tcb running predefined period important job scheduler decide task run next long next task run scheduler triggered run I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,383	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: central_processing_unit.central processing unit central processing unit cpu also called central processor main processor electronic circuitry within computer carries instructions computer program performing basic arithmetic logic controlling input/output i/o operations specified instructions computer industry used term central processing unit least since early 1960s traditionally term cpu refers processor specifically processing unit control unit cu distinguishing core elements computer external components main memory i/o circuitry form design implementation cpus changed course history fundamental operation remains almost unchanged principal components cpu include arithmetic logic unit alu performs arithmetic logic operations processor registers supply operands alu store results alu operations control unit orchestrates fetching memory execution instructions directing coordinated operations alu registers components modern cpus microprocessors cpu contained single metal-oxide-semiconductor mos integrated circuit ic chip ic contains cpu may also contain memory peripheral interfaces components computer integrated devices variously called microcontrollers systems chip soc computers employ multi-core processor single chip containing two cpus called cores context one speak single chips sockets array processors vector processors multiple processors operate parallel unit considered central also exists concept virtual cpus abstraction dynamical aggregated computational resources early computers eniac physically rewired perform different tasks caused machines called fixed-program computers since term cpu generally defined device software computer program execution earliest devices could rightly called cpus came advent stored-program computer idea stored-program computer already present design j. presper eckert john william mauchly eniac initially omitted could finished sooner june 30 1945 eniac made mathematician john von neumann distributed paper entitled first draft report edvac outline stored-program computer would eventually completed august 1949 edvac designed perform certain number instructions operations various types significantly programs written edvac stored high-speed computer memory rather specified physical wiring computer overcame severe limitation eniac considerable time effort required reconfigure computer perform new task von neumann design program edvac ran could changed simply changing contents memory edvac however first stored-program computer manchester baby small-scale experimental stored-program computer ran first program 21 june 1948 manchester mark 1 ran first program night 16–17 june 1949 early cpus custom designs used part larger sometimes distinctive computer however method designing custom cpus particular application largely given way development multi-purpose processors produced large quantities standardization began era discrete transistor mainframes minicomputers rapidly accelerated popularization integrated circuit ic ic allowed increasingly complex cpus designed manufactured tolerances order nanometers miniaturization standardization cpus increased presence digital devices modern life far beyond limited application dedicated computing machines modern microprocessors appear electronic devices ranging automobiles cellphones sometimes even toys von neumann often credited design stored-program computer design edvac design became known von neumann architecture others konrad zuse suggested implemented similar ideas so-called harvard architecture harvard mark completed edvac also used stored-program design using punched paper tape rather electronic memory key difference von neumann harvard architectures latter separates storage treatment cpu instructions data former uses memory space modern cpus primarily von neumann design cpus harvard architecture seen well especially embedded applications instance atmel avr microcontrollers harvard architecture processors relays vacuum tubes thermionic tubes commonly used switching elements useful computer requires thousands tens thousands switching devices overall speed system dependent speed switches tube computers like edvac tended average eight hours failures whereas relay computers like slower earlier harvard mark failed rarely end tube-based cpus became dominant significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed reliability problems early synchronous cpus ran low clock rates compared modern microelectronic designs clock signal frequencies ranging 100 khz 4 mhz common time limited largely speed switching devices built design complexity cpus increased various technologies facilitated building smaller reliable electronic devices first improvement came advent transistor transistorized cpus 1950s 1960s longer built bulky unreliable fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes relays improvement complex reliable cpus built onto one several printed circuit boards containing discrete individual components 1964 ibm introduced ibm system/360 computer architecture used series computers capable running programs different speed performance significant time electronic computers incompatible one another even made manufacturer facilitate improvement ibm used concept microprogram often called microcode still sees widespread usage modern cpus system/360 architecture popular dominated mainframe computer market decades left legacy still continued similar modern computers like ibm zseries 1965 digital equipment corporation dec introduced another influential computer aimed scientific research markets pdp-8 transistor-based computers several distinct advantages predecessors aside facilitating increased reliability lower power consumption transistors also allowed cpus operate much higher speeds short switching time transistor comparison tube relay increased reliability dramatically increased speed switching elements almost exclusively transistors time cpu clock rates tens megahertz easily obtained period additionally discrete transistor ic cpus heavy usage new high-performance designs like simd single instruction multiple data vector processors began appear early experimental designs later gave rise era specialized supercomputers like made cray inc fujitsu ltd. period method manufacturing many interconnected transistors compact space developed integrated circuit ic allowed large number transistors manufactured single semiconductor-based die chip first basic non-specialized digital circuits gates miniaturized ics cpus based building block ics generally referred small-scale integration ssi devices ssi ics ones used apollo guidance computer usually contained dozen transistors build entire cpu ssi ics required thousands individual chips still consumed much less space power earlier discrete transistor designs ibm system/370 follow-on system/360 used ssi ics rather solid logic technology discrete-transistor modules dec pdp-8/i ki10 pdp-10 also switched individual transistors used pdp-8 pdp-10 ssi ics extremely popular pdp-11 line originally built ssi ics eventually implemented lsi components became practical mosfet metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor also known mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs 1959 demonstrated 1960 led development mos metal-oxide-semiconductor integrated circuit proposed kahng 1961 fabricated fred heiman steven hofstein rca 1962 high scalability much lower power consumption higher density bipolar junction transistors mosfet made possible build high-density integrated circuits lee boysel published influential articles including 1967 manifesto described build equivalent 32-bit mainframe computer relatively small number large-scale integration circuits lsi way build lsi chips chips hundred gates build using mos semiconductor manufacturing process either pmos logic nmos logic cmos logic however companies continued build processors bipolar transistor–transistor logic ttl chips bipolar junction transistors faster mos chips 1970s companies datapoint continued build processors ttl chips early 1980s 1960s mos ics slower initially considered useful applications required low power following development silicon-gate mos technology federico faggin fairchild semiconductor 1968 mos ics largely replaced bipolar ttl standard chip technology early 1970s microelectronic technology advanced increasing number transistors placed ics decreasing number individual ics needed complete cpu msi lsi ics increased transistor counts hundreds thousands 1968 number ics required build complete cpu reduced 24 ics eight different types ic containing roughly 1000 mosfets stark contrast ssi msi predecessors first lsi implementation pdp-11 contained cpu composed four lsi integrated circuits advances mos ic technology led invention microprocessor early 1970s since introduction first commercially available microprocessor intel 4004 1971 first widely used microprocessor intel 8080 1974 class cpus almost completely overtaken central processing unit implementation methods mainframe minicomputer manufacturers time launched proprietary ic development programs upgrade older computer architectures eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors backward-compatible older hardware software combined advent eventual success ubiquitous personal computer term cpu applied almost exclusively microprocessors several cpus denoted cores combined single processing chip previous generations cpus implemented discrete components numerous small integrated circuits ics one circuit boards microprocessors hand cpus manufactured small number ics usually one overall smaller cpu size result implemented single die means faster switching time physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance allowed synchronous microprocessors clock rates ranging tens megahertz several gigahertz additionally ability construct exceedingly small transistors ic increased complexity number transistors single cpu many fold widely observed trend described moore law proven fairly accurate predictor growth cpu ic complexity 2016 complexity size construction general form cpus changed enormously since 1950 basic design function changed much almost common cpus today accurately described von neumann stored-program machines moore law longer holds concerns arisen limits integrated circuit transistor technology extreme miniaturization electronic gates causing effects phenomena like electromigration subthreshold leakage become much significant newer concerns among many factors causing researchers investigate new methods computing quantum computer well expand usage parallelism methods extend usefulness classical von neumann model fundamental operation cpus regardless physical form take execute sequence stored instructions called program instructions executed kept kind computer memory nearly cpus follow fetch decode execute steps operation collectively known instruction cycle execution instruction entire process repeats next instruction cycle normally fetching next-in-sequence instruction incremented value program counter jump instruction executed program counter modified contain address instruction jumped program execution continues normally complex cpus multiple instructions fetched decoded executed simultaneously section describes generally referred classic risc pipeline quite common among simple cpus used many electronic devices often called microcontroller largely ignores important role cpu cache therefore access stage pipeline instructions manipulate program counter rather producing result data directly instructions generally called jumps facilitate program behavior like loops conditional program execution use conditional jump existence functions processors instructions change state bits flags register flags used influence program behaves since often indicate outcome various operations example processors compare instruction evaluates two values sets clears bits flags register indicate one greater whether equal one flags could used later jump instruction determine program flow first step fetch involves retrieving instruction represented number sequence numbers program memory instruction location address program memory determined program counter pc stores number identifies address next instruction fetched instruction fetched pc incremented length instruction contain address next instruction sequence often instruction fetched must retrieved relatively slow memory causing cpu stall waiting instruction returned issue largely addressed modern processors caches pipeline architectures see instruction cpu fetches memory determines cpu decode step performed circuitry known instruction decoder instruction converted signals control parts cpu way instruction interpreted defined cpu instruction set architecture isa often one group bits field within instruction called opcode indicates operation performed remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required operation operands operands may specified constant value called immediate value location value may processor register memory address determined addressing mode cpu designs instruction decoder implemented hardwired unchangeable circuit others microprogram used translate instructions sets cpu configuration signals applied sequentially multiple clock pulses cases memory stores microprogram rewritable making possible change way cpu decodes instructions fetch decode steps execute step performed depending cpu architecture may consist single action sequence actions action various parts cpu electrically connected perform part desired operation action completed typically response clock pulse often results written internal cpu register quick access subsequent instructions cases results may written slower less expensive higher capacity main memory example addition instruction executed arithmetic logic unit alu inputs connected pair operand sources numbers summed alu configured perform addition operation sum operand inputs appear output alu output connected storage e.g. register memory receive sum clock pulse occurs sum transferred storage resulting sum large i.e. larger alu output word size arithmetic overflow flag set hardwired cpu circuitry set basic operations perform called instruction set operations may involve example adding subtracting two numbers comparing two numbers jumping different part program basic operation represented particular combination bits known machine language opcode executing instructions machine language program cpu decides operation perform decoding opcode complete machine language instruction consists opcode many cases additional bits specify arguments operation example numbers summed case addition operation going complexity scale machine language program collection machine language instructions cpu executes actual mathematical operation instruction performed combinational logic circuit within cpu processor known arithmetic logic unit alu general cpu executes instruction fetching memory using alu perform operation storing result memory beside instructions integer mathematics logic operations various machine instructions exist loading data memory storing back branching operations mathematical operations floating-point numbers performed cpu floating-point unit fpu control unit cu component cpu directs operation processor tells computer memory arithmetic logic unit input output devices respond instructions sent processor directs operation units providing timing control signals computer resources managed cu directs flow data cpu devices john von neumann included control unit part von neumann architecture modern computer designs control unit typically internal part cpu overall role operation unchanged since introduction arithmetic logic unit alu digital circuit within processor performs integer arithmetic bitwise logic operations inputs alu data words operated called operands status information previous operations code control unit indicating operation perform depending instruction executed operands may come internal cpu registers external memory may constants generated alu input signals settled propagated alu circuitry result performed operation appears alu outputs result consists data word may stored register memory status information typically stored special internal cpu register reserved purpose address generation unit agu sometimes also called address computation unit acu execution unit inside cpu calculates addresses used cpu access main memory address calculations handled separate circuitry operates parallel rest cpu number cpu cycles required executing various machine instructions reduced bringing performance improvements performing various operations cpus need calculate memory addresses required fetching data memory example in-memory positions array elements must calculated cpu fetch data actual memory locations address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations addition subtraction modulo operations bit shifts often calculating memory address involves one general-purpose machine instruction necessarily decode execute quickly incorporating agu cpu design together introducing specialized instructions use agu various address-generation calculations offloaded rest cpu often executed quickly single cpu cycle capabilities agu depend particular cpu architecture thus agus implement expose address-calculation operations also include advanced specialized instructions operate multiple operands time furthermore cpu architectures include multiple agus one address-calculation operation executed simultaneously bringing performance improvements capitalizing superscalar nature advanced cpu designs example intel incorporates multiple agus sandy bridge haswell microarchitectures increase bandwidth cpu memory subsystem allowing multiple memory-access instructions executed parallel high-end microprocessors desktop laptop server computers memory management unit translating logical addresses physical ram addresses providing memory protection paging abilities useful virtual memory simpler processors especially microcontrollers usually n't include mmu cpu cache hardware cache used central processing unit cpu computer reduce average cost time energy access data main memory cache smaller faster memory closer processor core stores copies data frequently used main memory locations cpus different independent caches including instruction data caches data cache usually organized hierarchy cache levels l1 l2 l3 l4 etc. modern fast cpus specialized exceptions multiple levels cpu caches first cpus used cache one level cache unlike later level 1 caches split l1d data l1i instructions almost current cpus caches split l1 cache also l2 caches larger processors l3 caches well l2 cache usually split acts common repository already split l1 cache every core multi-core processor dedicated l2 cache usually shared cores l3 cache higher-level caches shared cores split l4 cache currently uncommon generally dynamic random-access memory dram rather static random-access memory sram separate die chip also case historically l1 bigger chips allowed integration generally cache levels possible exception last level extra level cache tends bigger optimized differently types caches exist counted towards cache size important caches mentioned translation lookaside buffer tlb part memory management unit mmu cpus caches generally sized powers two 4 8 16 etc kib mib larger non-l1 sizes although ibm z13 96 kib l1 instruction cache cpus synchronous circuits means employ clock signal pace sequential operations clock signal produced external oscillator circuit generates consistent number pulses second form periodic square wave frequency clock pulses determines rate cpu executes instructions consequently faster clock instructions cpu execute second ensure proper operation cpu clock period longer maximum time needed signals propagate move cpu setting clock period value well worst-case propagation delay possible design entire cpu way moves data around edges rising falling clock signal advantage simplifying cpu significantly design perspective component-count perspective however also carries disadvantage entire cpu must wait slowest elements even though portions much faster limitation largely compensated various methods increasing cpu parallelism see however architectural improvements alone solve drawbacks globally synchronous cpus example clock signal subject delays electrical signal higher clock rates increasingly complex cpus make difficult keep clock signal phase synchronized throughout entire unit led many modern cpus require multiple identical clock signals provided avoid delaying single signal significantly enough cause cpu malfunction another major issue clock rates increase dramatically amount heat dissipated cpu constantly changing clock causes many components switch regardless whether used time general component switching uses energy element static state therefore clock rate increases energy consumption causing cpu require heat dissipation form cpu cooling solutions one method dealing switching unneeded components called clock gating involves turning clock signal unneeded components effectively disabling however often regarded difficult implement therefore see common usage outside low-power designs one notable recent cpu design uses extensive clock gating ibm powerpc-based xenon used xbox 360 way power requirements xbox 360 greatly reduced another method addressing problems global clock signal removal clock signal altogether removing global clock signal makes design process considerably complex many ways asynchronous clockless designs carry marked advantages power consumption heat dissipation comparison similar synchronous designs somewhat uncommon entire asynchronous cpus built without using global clock signal two notable examples arm compliant amulet mips r3000 compatible minimips rather totally removing clock signal cpu designs allow certain portions device asynchronous using asynchronous alus conjunction superscalar pipelining achieve arithmetic performance gains altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs perform comparable better level synchronous counterparts evident least excel simpler math operations combined excellent power consumption heat dissipation properties makes suitable embedded computers every cpu represents numerical values specific way example early digital computers represented numbers familiar decimal base 10 numeral system values others employed unusual representations ternary base three nearly modern cpus represent numbers binary form digit represented two-valued physical quantity high low voltage related numeric representation size precision integer numbers cpu represent case binary cpu measured number bits significant digits binary encoded integer cpu process one operation commonly called word size bit width data path width integer precision integer size cpu integer size determines range integer values directly operate example 8-bit cpu directly manipulate integers represented eight bits range 256 2 discrete integer values integer range also affect number memory locations cpu directly address address integer value representing specific memory location example binary cpu uses 32 bits represent memory address directly address 2 memory locations circumvent limitation various reasons cpus use mechanisms bank switching allow additional memory addressed cpus larger word sizes require circuitry consequently physically larger cost consume power therefore generate heat result smaller 4- 8-bit microcontrollers commonly used modern applications even though cpus much larger word sizes 16 32 64 even 128-bit available higher performance required however benefits larger word size larger data ranges address spaces may outweigh disadvantages cpu internal data paths shorter word size reduce size cost example even though ibm system/360 instruction set 32-bit instruction set system/360 model 30 model 40 8-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required four cycles one 8 bits operands even though motorola 68000 series instruction set 32-bit instruction set motorola 68000 motorola 68010 16-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required two cycles gain advantages afforded lower higher bit lengths many instruction sets different bit widths integer floating-point data allowing cpus implementing instruction set different bit widths different portions device example ibm system/360 instruction set primarily 32 bit supported 64-bit floating point values facilitate greater accuracy range floating point numbers system/360 model 65 8-bit adder decimal fixed-point binary arithmetic 60-bit adder floating-point arithmetic many later cpu designs use similar mixed bit width especially processor meant general-purpose usage reasonable balance integer floating point capability required description basic operation cpu offered previous section describes simplest form cpu take type cpu usually referred subscalar operates executes one instruction one two pieces data time less one instruction per clock cycle process gives rise inherent inefficiency subscalar cpus since one instruction executed time entire cpu must wait instruction complete proceeding next instruction result subscalar cpu gets hung instructions take one clock cycle complete execution even adding second execution unit see improve performance much rather one pathway hung two pathways hung number unused transistors increased design wherein cpu execution resources operate one instruction time possibly reach scalar performance one instruction per clock cycle however performance nearly always subscalar less one instruction per clock cycle attempts achieve scalar better performance resulted variety design methodologies cause cpu behave less linearly parallel referring parallelism cpus two terms generally used classify design techniques methodology differs ways implemented well relative effectiveness afford increasing cpu performance application one simplest methods used accomplish increased parallelism begin first steps instruction fetching decoding prior instruction finishes executing simplest form technique known instruction pipelining used almost modern general-purpose cpus pipelining allows one instruction executed given time breaking execution pathway discrete stages separation compared assembly line instruction made complete stage exits execution pipeline retired pipelining however introduce possibility situation result previous operation needed complete next operation condition often termed data dependency conflict cope additional care must taken check sorts conditions delay portion instruction pipeline occurs naturally accomplishing requires additional circuitry pipelined processors complex subscalar ones though significantly pipelined processor become nearly scalar inhibited pipeline stalls instruction spending one clock cycle stage improvement upon idea instruction pipelining led development method decreases idle time cpu components even designs said superscalar include long instruction pipeline multiple identical execution units load-store units arithmetic-logic units floating-point units address generation units superscalar pipeline multiple instructions read passed dispatcher decides whether instructions executed parallel simultaneously dispatched available execution units resulting ability several instructions executed simultaneously general instructions superscalar cpu able dispatch simultaneously waiting execution units instructions completed given cycle difficulty design superscalar cpu architecture lies creating effective dispatcher dispatcher needs able quickly correctly determine whether instructions executed parallel well dispatch way keep many execution units busy possible requires instruction pipeline filled often possible gives rise need superscalar architectures significant amounts cpu cache also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction speculative execution register renaming out-of-order execution transactional memory crucial maintaining high levels performance attempting predict branch path conditional instruction take cpu minimize number times entire pipeline must wait conditional instruction completed speculative execution often provides modest performance increases executing portions code may needed conditional operation completes out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges order instructions executed reduce delays due data dependencies also case single instruction stream multiple data stream—a case lot data type processed— modern processors disable parts pipeline single instruction executed many times cpu skips fetch decode phases thus greatly increases performance certain occasions especially highly monotonous program engines video creation software photo processing case portion cpu superscalar part part suffers performance penalty due scheduling stalls intel p5 pentium two superscalar alus could accept one instruction per clock cycle fpu could accept one instruction per clock cycle thus p5 integer superscalar floating point superscalar intel successor p5 architecture p6 added superscalar capabilities floating point features therefore afforded significant increase floating point instruction performance simple pipelining superscalar design increase cpu ilp allowing single processor complete execution instructions rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle modern cpu designs least somewhat superscalar nearly general purpose cpus designed last decade superscalar later years emphasis designing high-ilp computers moved cpu hardware software interface isa strategy long instruction word vliw causes ilp become implied directly software reducing amount work cpu must perform boost ilp thereby reducing design complexity another strategy achieving performance execute multiple threads processes parallel area research known parallel computing flynn taxonomy strategy known multiple instruction stream multiple data stream mimd one technology used purpose multiprocessing mp initial flavor technology known symmetric multiprocessing smp small number cpus share coherent view memory system scheme cpu additional hardware maintain constantly up-to-date view memory avoiding stale views memory cpus cooperate program programs migrate one cpu another increase number cooperating cpus beyond handful schemes non-uniform memory access numa directory-based coherence protocols introduced 1990s smp systems limited small number cpus numa systems built thousands processors initially multiprocessing built using multiple discrete cpus boards implement interconnect processors processors interconnect implemented single chip technology known chip-level multiprocessing cmp single chip multi-core processor later recognized finer-grain parallelism existed single program single program might several threads functions could executed separately parallel earliest examples technology implemented input/output processing direct memory access separate thread computation thread general approach technology introduced 1970s systems designed run multiple computation threads parallel technology known multi-threading mt approach considered cost-effective multiprocessing small number components within cpu replicated support mt opposed entire cpu case mp mt execution units memory system including caches shared among multiple threads downside mt hardware support multithreading visible software mp thus supervisor software like operating systems undergo larger changes support mt one type mt implemented known temporal multithreading one thread executed stalled waiting data return external memory scheme cpu would quickly context switch another thread ready run switch often done one cpu clock cycle ultrasparc t1 another type mt simultaneous multithreading instructions multiple threads executed parallel within one cpu clock cycle several decades 1970s early 2000s focus designing high performance general purpose cpus largely achieving high ilp technologies pipelining caches superscalar execution out-of-order execution etc trend culminated large power-hungry cpus intel pentium 4 early 2000s cpu designers thwarted achieving higher performance ilp techniques due growing disparity cpu operating frequencies main memory operating frequencies well escalating cpu power dissipation owing esoteric ilp techniques cpu designers borrowed ideas commercial computing markets transaction processing aggregate performance multiple programs also known throughput computing important performance single thread process reversal emphasis evidenced proliferation dual core processor designs notably intel newer designs resembling less superscalar p6 architecture late designs several processor families exhibit cmp including x86-64 opteron athlon 64 x2 sparc ultrasparc t1 ibm power4 power5 well several video game console cpus like xbox 360 triple-core powerpc design playstation 3 7-core cell microprocessor less common increasingly important paradigm processors indeed computing general deals data parallelism processors discussed earlier referred type scalar device name implies vector processors deal multiple pieces data context one instruction contrasts scalar processors deal one piece data every instruction using flynn taxonomy two schemes dealing data generally referred single instruction stream multiple data stream simd single instruction stream single data stream sisd respectively great utility creating processors deal vectors data lies optimizing tasks tend require operation example sum dot product performed large set data classic examples types tasks include multimedia applications images video sound well many types scientific engineering tasks whereas scalar processor must complete entire process fetching decoding executing instruction value set data vector processor perform single operation comparatively large set data one instruction possible application tends require many steps apply one operation large set data early vector processors cray-1 associated almost exclusively scientific research cryptography applications however multimedia largely shifted digital media need form simd general-purpose processors become significant shortly inclusion floating-point units started become commonplace general-purpose processors specifications implementations simd execution units also began appear general-purpose processors early simd specifications like hp multimedia acceleration extensions max intel mmx integer-only proved significant impediment software developers since many applications benefit simd primarily deal floating-point numbers progressively developers refined remade early designs common modern simd specifications usually associated one isa notable modern examples include intel sse powerpc-related altivec also known vmx cloud computing involve subdividing cpu operation virtual central processing units vcpus host virtual equivalent physical machine virtual system operating several physical machines operating tandem managed whole grouped computing memory resources form cluster systems possible dynamically add remove cluster resources available host cluster level partitioned resources pools fine granularity performance speed processor depends among many factors clock rate generally given multiples hertz instructions per clock ipc together factors instructions per second ips cpu perform many reported ips values represented peak execution rates artificial instruction sequences branches whereas realistic workloads consist mix instructions applications take longer execute others performance memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance issue barely considered mips calculations problems various standardized tests often called benchmarks purposesuch specinthave developed attempt measure real effective performance commonly used applications processing performance computers increased using multi-core processors essentially plugging two individual processors called cores sense one integrated circuit ideally dual core processor would nearly twice powerful single core processor practice performance gain far smaller 50 due imperfect software algorithms implementation increasing number cores processor i.e dual-core quad-core etc increases workload handled means processor handle numerous asynchronous events interrupts etc take toll cpu overwhelmed cores thought different floors processing plant floor handling different task sometimes cores handle tasks cores adjacent single core enough handle information due specific capabilities modern cpus simultaneous multithreading uncore involve sharing actual cpu resources aiming increased utilization monitoring performance levels hardware use gradually became complex task response cpus implement additional hardware logic monitors actual use various parts cpu provides various counters accessible software example intel performance counter monitor technology 1-hop neighbor's text information: restriction_of_hazardous_substances_directive.restriction hazardous substances directive restriction hazardous substances directive 2002/95/ec rohs 1 short directive restriction use certain hazardous substances electrical electronic equipment adopted february 2003 european union rohs 1 directive took effect 1 july 2006 required enforced became law member state directive restricts exceptions use six hazardous materials manufacture various types electronic electrical equipment closely linked waste electrical electronic equipment directive weee 2002/96/ec sets collection recycling recovery targets electrical goods part legislative initiative solve problem huge amounts toxic electronic waste speech rohs often spelled pronounced refers eu standard unless otherwise qualified european union member state adopt enforcement implementation policies using directive guide rohs often referred lead-free directive restricts use following ten substances dehp bbp dbp dibp added part directive eu 2015/863 published 31 march 2015 pbb pbde flame retardants used several plastics hexavalent chromium used chrome plating chromate coatings primers chromic acid maximum permitted concentrations non-exempt products 0.1 1000 ppm except cadmium limited 0.01 100 ppm weight restrictions homogeneous material product means limits apply weight finished product even component single substance could theoretically separated mechanically — example sheath cable tinning component lead example radio composed case screws washers circuit board speakers etc screws washers case may made homogenous materials components comprise multiple sub-components many different types material instance circuit board composed bare printed circuit board pcb integrated circuits ic resistors capacitors switches etc switch composed case lever spring contacts pins etc. may made different materials contact might composed copper strip surface coating loudspeaker composed permanent magnet copper wire paper etc everything identified homogeneous material must meet limit turns case made plastic 2,300 ppm 0.23 pbb used flame retardant entire radio would fail requirements directive effort close rohs 1 loopholes may 2006 european commission asked review two currently excluded product categories monitoring control equipment medical devices future inclusion products must fall rohs compliance addition commission entertains requests deadline extensions exclusions substance categories substance location weight new legislation published official journal july 2011 supersedes exemption note batteries included within scope rohs however europe batteries european commission 1991 battery directive 91/157/eec recently increased scope approved form new battery directive version 2003/0282 cod official submitted published eu official journal first battery directive addressed possible trade barrier issues brought disparate european member states implementation new directive explicitly highlights improving protecting environment negative effects waste contained batteries also contains programme ambitious recycling industrial automotive consumer batteries gradually increasing rate manufacturer-provided collection sites 45 2016 also sets limits 5 ppm mercury 20 ppm cadmium batteries except used medical emergency portable power-tool devices though setting quantitative limits quantities lead lead–acid nickel nickel–cadmium batteries cites need restrict substances provide recycling 75 batteries substances also provisions marking batteries symbols regard metal content recycling collection information directive applies equipment defined section weee directive following numeric categories apply apply fixed industrial plant tools compliance responsibility company puts product market defined directive components sub-assemblies responsible product compliance course given fact regulation applied homogeneous material level data substance concentrations needs transferred supply chain final producer ipc standard recently developed published facilitate data exchange ipc-1752 enabled two pdf forms free use rohs applies products eu whether made within eu imported certain exemptions apply updated occasion eu rohs restricted substances used broad array consumer electronics products examples components contained lead include cadmium found many components examples include plastic pigmentation nickel–cadmium nicd batteries cds photocells used night lights mercury used lighting applications automotive switches examples include fluorescent lamps mercury tilt switches rarely used nowadays hexavalent chromium used metal finishes prevent corrosion polybrominated biphenyls diphenyl ethers/oxides used primarily flame retardants rohs efforts reduce hazardous materials electronics motivated part address global issue consumer electronics waste newer technology arrives ever-increasing rate consumers discarding obsolete products sooner ever waste ends landfills countries like china recycled fashion-conscious mobile market 98 million u.s. cell phones took last call 2005 told epa estimates u.s. year 1.5 1.9 million tons computers tvs vcrs monitors cell phones equipment discarded sources electronic waste tallied could total 50 million tons year worldwide according un environment programme american electronics sent offshore countries like ghana west africa guise recycling may harm good adult child workers jobs poisoned heavy metals metals returning u.s. u.s. right shipping large quantities leaded materials china china world major manufacturing center dr. jeffrey weidenhamer says chemistry professor ashland university ohio surprising things coming full circle 're getting contaminated products back addition high-tech waste problem rohs reflects contemporary research past 50 years biological toxicology acknowledges long-term effects low-level chemical exposure populations new testing capable detecting much smaller concentrations environmental toxicants researchers associating exposures neurological developmental reproductive changes rohs environmental laws contrast historical contemporary law seek address acute toxicology direct exposure large amounts toxic substances causing severe injury death united states environmental protection agency epa published life-cycle assessment lca environmental impacts lead-free tin–lead solder used electronic products bar solders lead-free solders considered tin/copper alternative lowest best scores paste solders bismuth/tin/silver lowest impact scores among lead-free alternatives every category except non-renewable resource consumption paste bar solders lead-free solder alternatives lower better lca score toxicity categories tin/lead solder primarily due toxicity lead amount lead leaches printed wiring board assemblies determined leachability study conducted partnership study results providing industry objective analysis life-cycle environmental effects leading candidate alternative lead-free solders allowing industry consider environmental concerns along traditionally evaluated parameters cost performance assessment also allowing industry redirect efforts toward products processes reduce solders environmental footprint including energy consumption releases toxic chemicals potential risks human health environment another life-cycle assessment ikp university stuttgart shows similar results epa study ban concentrations brominated flame retardants bfr 0.1 plastics affected plastics recycling products include recycled plastics become critical know bfr concentration plastics either tracing origins recycled plastics establish bfr concentrations measuring bfr concentrations samples plastics high bfr concentrations costly handle discard whereas plastics levels 0.1 value recyclable materials number analytical techniques rapid measurement bfr concentrations x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy confirm presence bromine br indicate bfr concentration specific molecule ion attachment mass spectrometry iams used measure bfr concentrations plastics bfr ban significantly affected upstream plastic material selection downstream plastic material recycling rohs 2 directive 2011/65/eu evolution original directive became law 21 july 2011 took effect 2 january 2013 addresses substances original directive improving regulatory conditions legal clarity requires periodic re-evaluations facilitate gradual broadening requirements cover additional electronic electrical equipment cables spare parts ce logo indicates compliance rohs 2 declaration conformity detailed see 2012 final report european commission revealed eu member states considered toys scope primary rohs 1 directive 2002/95/ec irrespective whether primary secondary functions using electric currents electromagnetic fields implementation rohs 2 rohs recast directive 2011/65/eu concerned member states comply new regulation key difference recast necessary demonstrate conformity similar way lvd emc directives able show compliance sufficiently detailed files ensuring implemented production criminal offence like ce marking directives mandates production control traceability technical files describes 2 methods achieving presumption conformity directive 2011/65/eu article 16.2 either technical files include test data materials standard accepted official journal directive used currently standard en50581 risk based method reduce amount test data required harmonised standards list rohs2 ojeu c363/6 one consequences requirement demonstrate conformity requirement know exemption use component otherwise possible know compliance product placed market point time product must 'compliant many understand 'compliance varies depending exemptions force quite possible make non-compliant product 'compliant components compliance must calculated day placing market reality means knowing exemption status components using stock old status parts expire date exemptions directive 2011/65/eu article 7.b referring decision 768/2008/ec module internal production control system manage could seen lack diligence criminal prosecution could occur uk instrument 2012 n. 3032 section 39 penalties rohs 2 also dynamic approach exemptions creating automatic expiration exemptions renewed requests industry additionally new substances added controlled list 4 new substances expected controlled 2019 mean greater information control update systems required differences include new responsibilities importers distributors markings improve traceability technical files part nlf directives make supply chain active part policing directive 2011/65/eu articles 7 9 10 recent additional amendment 2017/2102 2011/65 rohs 2 directive 2011/65/eu contains allowance add new materials 4 materials highlighted attention original version amendment 2015/863 adds four additional substances annex ii 2011/65/eu 3/4 new restrictions recommended investigation original directive ref para 10 preamble another reason simple component rohs compliance statements acceptable compliance requirements vary depending date product placed market ref en50581:2012 additional four substances restriction evidence requirements shall applied products placed market 22 july 2019 except exemptions permit stated annex iii. although time writing exemptions exist applied materials four additional substances maximum permitted concentrations non-exempt products 0.1 new substances also listed reach candidate list dehp authorised manufacturing use substance eu annexe xiv reach 80 exemptions quite broad exemptions automatically expire 5 7 years unless renewed according hewlett packard european union gradually narrowing scope expiring many current rohs exemptions addition likely new substance restrictions introduced next several years exemptions medical devices exempt original directive rohs 2 narrowed exemption scope active implantable medical devices category 4h vitro diagnostic devices ivdd medical devices included automotive vehicles exempt category 4f vehicles instead addressed end life vehicles directive directive 2000/53/ec products within scope rohs 2 directive must display ce mark manufacturers name address serial batch number parties needing know detailed compliance information find eu declaration conformity product created manufacturer brand owner responsible design eu representative regulation also requires actors supply chain product importer distributors keep check document well ensuring conformance process followed correct language translation instructions provided manufacturer must keep certain documentation demonstrate conformity known technical file technical records directive requires manufacturer demonstrate conformity use test data materials following harmonised standard en50581:2012 standard time writing regulators may request file likely specific data likely large rohs require specific product labelling many manufacturers adopted compliance marks reduce confusion visual indicators included explicit rohs compliant labels green leaves check marks pb-free markings chinese rohs labels lower case e within circle arrows also imply compliance rohs 2 attempts address issue requiring aforementioned ce mark whose use policed trading standards enforcement agency states permitted indication rohs compliance ce mark closely related weee waste electrical electronic equipment directive became law simultaneously rohs depicts waste-can logo x often accompanies ce mark new substance restrictions considered introduction next years include phthalates brominated flame retardants bfrs chlorinated flame retardants cfrs pvc california passed electronic waste recycling act 2003 ewra law prohibits sale electronic devices 1 january 2007 prohibited sold eu rohs directive across much narrower scope includes lcds crts like covers four heavy metals restricted rohs ewra also restricted material disclosure requirement effective 1 january 2010 california lighting efficiency toxics reduction act applies rohs general purpose lights i.e lamps bulbs tubes electric devices provide functional illumination indoor residential indoor commercial outdoor use us states cities debating whether adopt similar laws several states mercury pbde bans already worldwide standards certification available qc 080000 standard governed national standards authority ireland ensure control hazardous substances industrial applications 2012 sweden chemicals agency kemi electrical safety authority tested 63 consumer electronics products found 12 compliance kemi claims similar testing results prior years eleven products contained prohibited levels lead one polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants details seven companies passed swedish prosecutors kemi says levels non-compliance rohs similar previous years remain high rohs environmental standard electronic product developers aware manufacturers find cheaper single bill materials product distributed worldwide instead customising product fit country specific environmental laws therefore develop standards allow strictest allowable substances example ibm forces suppliers complete product content declaration form document compliance environmental standard 'baseline environmental requirements materials parts products ibm logo hardware products thus ibm banned decabde even though formerly rohs exemption material overturned european court 2008 similarly hewlett-packard environmental standard adverse effects product quality reliability plus high cost compliance especially small business cited criticisms directive well early research indicating life cycle benefits lead-free solder versus traditional solder materials mixed criticism earlier came industry resistant change misunderstanding solders soldering processes deliberate misinformation espoused resist perceived non-tariff barrier created european bureaucrats many believe industry stronger experience better understanding science technologies involved one criticism rohs restriction lead cadmium address prolific applications costly electronics industry comply specifically total lead used electronics makes 2 world lead consumption 90 lead used batteries covered battery directive mentioned requires recycling limits use mercury cadmium restrict lead another criticism less 4 lead landfills due electronic components circuit boards approximately 36 due leaded glass cathode ray tube monitors televisions contain 2 kg per screen common lead-free solder systems higher melting point e.g 30 °c typical difference tin-silver-copper alloys wave soldering temperatures approximately ~255 °c however temperature typical lead free solders longer wetting times eutectic pb/sn 37:63 solder additionally wetting force typically lower disadvantageous hole filling advantageous situations closely spaced components care must taken selection rohs solders formulations harder less ductility increasing likelihood cracks instead plastic deformation typical lead-containing solders cracks occur due thermal mechanical forces acting components circuit board former common manufacturing latter field rohs solders exhibit advantages disadvantages respects dependent packaging formulation editor conformity magazine wondered 2005 transition lead-free solder would affect long-term reliability electronic devices systems especially applications mission-critical consumer products citing possible breaches due environmental factors like oxidation 2005 farnell/newark inone rohs legislation technical manual cites lead-free solder issues potential reliability concerns addressed annex item 7 rohs directive granting specific exemptions regulation 2010 issues raised directive first implemented 2003 reliability effects less known another potential problem lead-free high tin-based solders may face growth tin whiskers thin strands tin grow make contact adjacent trace developing short circuit historically tin whiskers associated handful failures including nuclear power plant shutdown pacemaker incident pure tin plating used however failures pre-date rohs also involve consumer electronics therefore may employ rohs-restricted substances desired help mitigate potential problems lead-free manufacturers using variety approaches tin-zinc formulations produce non-conducting whiskers formulations reduce growth although halt growth completely circumstances fortunately experience thus far suggests deployed instances rohs compliant products failing due whisker growth dr. ronald lasky dartmouth college reports rohs force 15 months 400b rohs-compliant products produced products field significant numbers tin whisker-related failures reported whisker growth occurs slowly time unpredictable fully understood time may true test efforts whisker growth even observable lead-based solders albeit much smaller scale countries exempted medical telecommunication infrastructure products legislation however may moot point since electronic component manufacturers convert production lines producing lead-free parts conventional parts eutectic tin-lead solder simply available even military aerospace industrial users extent solder involved least partially mitigated many lead-free components compatibility lead-containing solder processes leadframe-based components quad flat packages qfp small outline integrated circuits soic small outline packages sop gull wing leads generally compatible since finish part leads contributes small amount material finished joint however components ball grid arrays bga come lead-free solder balls leadless parts often compatible lead-containing processes de minimis exemptions e.g. micro-businesses economic effect anticipated least attempts mitigating effect made another form economic effect cost product failures switch rohs compliance example tin whiskers responsible 5 failure rate certain components swiss swatch watches 2006 prior july implementation rohs reportedly triggering us 1 billion recall swatch responded applying exemption rohs compliance denied rohs helps reduce damage people environment third-world countries much today high-tech waste ends use lead-free solders components reduces risks electronics industry workers prototype manufacturing operations contact solder paste longer represents health hazard used contrary predictions widespread component failure reduced reliability rohs first anniversary july 2007 passed little fanfare contemporary consumer electronics rohs compliant 2013 millions compliant products use worldwide many electronics companies keep rohs status pages corporate websites example amd website states although lead containing solder completely eliminated applications today amd engineers developed effective technical solutions reduce lead content microprocessors chipsets ensure rohs compliance minimizing costs maintaining product features change fit functional electrical performance specifications quality reliability standards rohs compliant products expected identical compared current packages rohs printed circuit board finishing technologies surpassing traditional formulations fabrication thermal shock solder paste printability contact resistance aluminium wire bonding performance nearing performance attributes properties lead-free solder high temperature resilience used prevent failures harsh field conditions conditions include operating temperatures test cycles range −40 °c +150 °c severe vibration shock requirements automobile manufacturers turning rohs solutions electronics move engine bay one major differences lead-containing lead-free solder pastes flow solder liquid state lead-containing solder lower surface tension tends move slightly attach exposed metal surfaces touch part liquid solder lead-free solder conversely tends stay place liquid state attaches exposed metal surfaces liquid solder touches lack flow – typically seen disadvantage lead lower quality electrical connections – used place components tightly used placed due properties lead-containing solders example motorola reports new rohs wireless device assembly techniques ... enabling smaller thinner lighter unit motorola q phone would possible without new solder lead-free solder allows tighter pad spacing research new alloys technologies allowing companies release rohs products currently exempt compliance e.g computer servers ibm announced rohs solution high lead solder joints thought remain permanent exemption lead-free packaging technology ... offers economical advantages relation traditional bumping processes solder waste reduction use bulk alloys quicker time-to-market products much lower chemical usage rate test measurement vendors national instruments also started produce rohs-compliant products despite devices category exempt rohs directive 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: 1chipmsx.1chipmsx one chip msx 1chipmsx d4 enterprise distributional name ese msx system 3 re-implementation msx-2 home computer uses single fpga implement electronics except ram msx-2 including msx-music scc+ audio extensions system housed transparent blue plastic box used standard monitor tv pc keyboard original msx cartridges inserted well sd mmc memory cards external storage medium even though lacks 3.5 disk drive disks supported emulation memory card including support booting msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx equipped two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code ese msx system 3 designed ese artists factory distributed 1chipmsx d4 enterprise supposed distributed outside japan bazix however due rohs regulations europe claimed could distributed europe original form european market wait adapted version would produced bazix distributed europe bazix however violation rohs ever proven identifiable components pcb power supply rohs-compliant bazix stopped representative msx association thus bring 1chipmsx western market end msx association dissolved due dispute parties involved resulting shift intellectual property rights concerning msx msx licensing corporation bazix also dissolved dispute made end efforts ambitions bring 1chipmsx western market along projects also dependent japanese partners included also default specifications implemented msx system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,197	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: unix-like.unix-like unix-like sometimes referred unx nix operating system one behaves manner similar unix system necessarily conforming certified version single unix specification unix-like application one behaves like corresponding unix command shell standard defining term difference opinion possible degree given operating system application unix-like term include free open-source operating systems inspired bell labs unix designed emulate features commercial proprietary work-alikes even versions based licensed unix source code may sufficiently unix-like pass certification bear unix trademark open group owns unix trademark administers single unix specification unix name used certification mark approve construction unix-like consider misuse trademark guidelines require unix presented uppercase otherwise distinguished surrounding text strongly encourage using branding adjective generic word system discourage use hyphenated phrases parties frequently treat unix genericized trademark add wildcard character name make abbreviation like unx nix since unix-like systems often unix-like names aix a/ux hp-ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix xinu xnu patterns literally match many system names still generally recognized refer unix descendant work-alike system even completely dissimilar names darwin/macos illumos/solaris freebsd 2007 wayne r. gray sued dispute status unix trademark lost case lost appeal court upholding trademark ownership unix-like systems started appear late 1970s early 1980s many proprietary versions idris 1978 unos 1982 coherent 1983 uniflex 1985 aimed provide businesses functionality available academic users unix allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing unix 1979 variety proprietary systems developed based including aix hp-ux irix sunos tru64 ultrix xenix largely displaced proprietary clones growing incompatibility among systems led creation interoperability standards including posix single unix specification various free low-cost unrestricted substitutes unix emerged 1980s 1990s including 4.4bsd linux minix turn basis commercial unix-like systems bsd/os macos several versions mac os x/macos running intel-based mac computers certified single unix specification bsd variants descendants unix developed university california berkeley unix source code bell labs however bsd code base evolved since replacing code since bsd variants certified compliant single unix specification referred unix-like rather unix dennis ritchie one original creators unix expressed opinion unix-like systems linux de facto unix systems eric s. raymond rob landley suggested three kinds unix-like systems systems historical connection codebase commercial unix systems fall category bsd systems descendants work done university california berkeley late 1970s early 1980s systems original code still trace ancestry designs systemslargely commercial naturehave determined open group meet single unix specification allowed carry unix name systems commercial derivatives system v code base one form another although apple macos 10.5 later bsd variant certified systems ibm z/os earned trademark posix compatibility layer otherwise inherently unix systems many ancient unix systems longer meet definition broadly unix-like system behaves manner roughly consistent unix specification including program manages login command line sessions specifically refer systems linux minix behave similarly unix system genetic trademark connection code base free/open-source implementations unix design whether genetic unix fall restricted definition third category due expense obtaining open group certification costs thousands dollars commercial closed source systems around 2001 linux given opportunity get certification including free help posix chair andrew josey symbolic price one dollar activities make linux posix-compliant josey prepared list differences posix standard linux standard base specification august 2005 project shut missing interest lsb work group non-unix-like operating systems provide unix-like compatibility layer variable degrees unix-like functionality means windows-unix interoperability include 1-hop neighbor's text information: ettercap_(software).ettercap software ettercap free open source network security tool man-in-the-middle attacks lan used computer network protocol analysis security auditing runs various unix-like operating systems including linux mac os x bsd solaris microsoft windows capable intercepting traffic network segment capturing passwords conducting active eavesdropping number common protocols original developers later founded hacking team ettercap works putting network interface promiscuous mode arp poisoning target machines thereby act 'man middle unleash various attacks victims ettercap plugin support features extended adding new plugins ettercap supports active passive dissection many protocols including ciphered ones provides many features network host analysis ettercap offers four modes operation addition software also offers following features ettercap also ability actively passively find poisoners lan 1-hop neighbor's text information: arp_spoofing.arp spoofing computer networking arp spoofing arp cache poisoning arp poison routing technique attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol arp messages onto local area network generally aim associate attacker mac address ip address another host default gateway causing traffic meant ip address sent attacker instead arp spoofing may allow attacker intercept data frames network modify traffic stop traffic often attack used opening attacks denial service man middle session hijacking attacks attack used networks use arp requires attacker direct access local network segment attacked address resolution protocol arp widely used communications protocol resolving internet layer addresses link layer addresses internet protocol ip datagram sent one host another local area network destination ip address must resolved mac address transmission via data link layer another host ip address known mac address needed broadcast packet sent local network packet known arp request destination machine ip arp request responds arp reply contains mac address ip arp stateless protocol network hosts automatically cache arp replies receive regardless whether network hosts requested even arp entries yet expired overwritten new arp reply packet received method arp protocol host authenticate peer packet originated behavior vulnerability allows arp spoofing occur basic principle behind arp spoofing exploit lack authentication arp protocol sending spoofed arp messages onto lan arp spoofing attacks run compromised host lan attacker machine connected directly target lan generally goal attack associate attacker host mac address ip address target host traffic meant target host sent attacker host attacker may choose inspect packets spying forwarding traffic actual default destination avoid discovery modify data forwarding man-in-the-middle attack launch denial-of-service attack causing packets network dropped simplest form certification use static read-only entries critical services arp cache host ip address-to-mac address mappings local arp cache may statically entered hosts n't need transmit arp requests entries exist static entries provide security spoofing result maintenance efforts address mappings systems network must generated distributed scale large network since mapping set pair machines resulting n n arp entries configured n machines present machine must arp entry every machine network n-1 arp entries n machines software detects arp spoofing generally relies form certification cross-checking arp responses uncertified arp responses blocked techniques may integrated dhcp server dynamic static ip addresses certified capability may implemented individual hosts may integrated ethernet switches network equipment existence multiple ip addresses associated single mac address may indicate arp spoof attack although legitimate uses configuration passive approach device listens arp replies network sends notification via email arp entry changes antiarp also provides windows-based spoofing prevention kernel level arpstar linux module kernel 2.6 linksys routers drops invalid packets violate mapping contains option repoison/heal virtualized environment kvm also provides security mechanism prevent mac spoofing guest running host additionally ethernet adapters provides mac vlan anti-spoofing features openbsd watches passively hosts impersonating local host notifies case attempt overwrite permanent entry operating systems react differently linux ignores unsolicited replies hand uses responses requests machines update cache solaris accepts updates entries timeout microsoft windows behavior arp cache configured several registry entries hkey_local_machine\system\currentcontrolset\services\tcpip\parameters arpcachelife arpcacheminreferencelife arpuseethersnap arptrsingleroute arpalwayssourceroute arpretrycount techniques used arp spoofing also used implement redundancy network services example software allows backup server issue gratuitous arp request order take defective server transparently offer redundancy arp spoofing often used developers debug ip traffic two hosts switch use host host b communicating ethernet switch traffic would normally invisible third monitoring host m. developer configures mac address b b mac address also configures forward packets monitor traffic exactly man-in-the-middle attack tools used carry arp spoofing attacks Target text information: arpon.arpon arpon arp handler inspection computer software project improve network security attracted interest among network managers academic researchers frequently cited means protecting arp-based attacks address resolution protocol arp security issues include man middle mitm attack arp spoofing arp cache poisoning arp poison routing attacks arpon host-based solution make arp standardized protocol secure order avoid man middle mitm attack arp spoofing arp cache poisoning arp poison routing attack possible using three kinds anti arp spoofing techniques goal arpon therefore provide secure efficient network daemon provides sarpi darpi harpi anti arp spoofing technique thus making arp standardized protocol secure foreign intrusion I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,295	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: jack_audio_connection_kit.jack audio connection kit jack audio connection kit jack recursive acronym professional sound server daemon provides real-time low-latency connections audio midi data applications use api jack developed community open-source developers led paul davis open source award 2004 work key piece infrastructure de facto standard professional audio software linux since inception 2002 server free software licensed gnu gpl library licensed permissive gnu lgpl jack use alsa portaudio coreaudio ffado oss hardware back-ends additionally dummy driver useful sound output desired e.g offline rendering audio-over-udp driver exist runs linux macos solaris windows ios freebsd openbsd netbsd jack api standardized consensus two compatible implementations exist jack1 implemented plain c maintenance mode jack2 originally jackdmp re-implementation c++ led stéphane letz aggressive development introduced multi-processor scalability support operating systems linux scheduling requirements jack achieve sufficiently low latencies one driving forces behind real-time optimization effort linux kernel 2.6 series whose initial latency performance disappointing compared older 2.4 series real-time tuning work culminated numerous scheduling improvements mainline kernel creation -rt branch intrusive optimizations release 2.6.24 later config_preempt_rt patch 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: ffado.ffado free firewire audio drivers ffado project provide open-source drivers firewire sound interfaces linux project began freebob driver specifically firewire audio devices based technology made bridgeco use interface named bebob current version allows devices accessed via jack audio connection kit jack following presentation paper 2007 linux audio conference outlining future project march 26 2007 announced project would renamed ffado drivers rewritten include support firewire audio chipsets I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,499	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: selective_repeat_arq.selective repeat arq selective repeat arq/selective reject arq specific instance automatic repeat-request arq protocol used solve sequence number dilemma communications selective repeat part automatic repeat-request arq selective repeat sender sends number frames specified window size even without need wait individual ack receiver go-back-n arq receiver may selectively reject single frame may retransmitted alone contrasts forms arq must send every frame point receiver accepts out-of-order frames buffers sender individually retransmits frames timed may used protocol delivery acknowledgement message units may used protocol delivery subdivided message sub-units used protocol delivery messages sending process continues send number frames specified window size even frame loss unlike go-back-n arq receiving process continue accept acknowledge frames sent initial error general case sliding window protocol transmit receive window sizes greater 1 receiver process keeps track sequence number earliest frame received sends number every acknowledgement ack sends frame sender reach receiver sender continues send subsequent frames emptied window receiver continues fill receiving window subsequent frames replying time ack containing sequence number earliest missing frame sender sent frames window re-sends frame number given acks continues left size sending receiving windows must equal half maximum sequence number assuming sequence numbers numbered 0 n −1 avoid miscommunication cases packets dropped understand consider case acks destroyed receiving window larger half maximum sequence number possibly even packets present timeouts duplicates recognized sender moves window every packet acknowledged used protocol delivery subdivided messages works somewhat differently non-continuous channels messages may variable length standard arq hybrid arq protocols may treat message single unit alternately selective retransmission may employed conjunction basic arq mechanism message first subdivided sub-blocks typically fixed length process called packet segmentation original variable length message thus represented concatenation variable number sub-blocks standard arq message whole either acknowledged acked negatively acknowledged naked arq selective transmission ack response would additionally carry bit flag indicating identity sub-block successfully received arq selective retransmission sub-divided messages retransmission diminishes length needing contain sub-blocks linked channel models variable length messages probability error-free reception diminishes inverse proportion increasing message length words easier receive short message longer message therefore standard arq techniques involving variable length messages increased difficulty delivering longer messages repeat full length selective re-transmission applied variable length messages completely eliminates difficulty delivering longer messages successfully delivered sub-blocks retained transmission number outstanding sub-blocks following transmissions diminishes selective repeat implemented udp transmission transmission control protocol uses variant go-back-n arq ensure reliable transmission data internet protocol provide guaranteed delivery packets selective acknowledgement sack extension may also use selective repeat arq itu-t g.hn standard provides way create high-speed 1 gigabit/s local area network using existing home wiring power lines phone lines coaxial cables uses selective repeat arq ensure reliable transmission noisy media g.hn employs packet segmentation sub-divide messages smaller units increase probability one received correctly stanag 5066 profile hf radio data communications uses selective repeat arq maximum window size 128 protocol-data units pdus 1-hop neighbor's text information: flow_control_(data).flow control data data communications flow control process managing rate data transmission two nodes prevent fast sender overwhelming slow receiver provides mechanism receiver control transmission speed receiving node overwhelmed data transmitting node flow control distinguished congestion control used controlling flow data congestion actually occurred flow control mechanisms classified whether receiving node sends feedback sending node flow control important possible sending computer transmit information faster rate destination computer receive process happen receiving computers heavy traffic load comparison sending computer receiving computer less processing power sending computer stop-and-wait flow control simplest form flow control method message broken multiple frames receiver indicates readiness receive frame data sender waits receipt acknowledgement ack every frame specified time called time receiver sends ack let sender know frame data received correctly sender send next frame ack frame ack lost transmission frame re-transmitted re-transmission process known arq automatic repeat request problem stop-and wait one frame transmitted time often leads inefficient transmission sender receives ack transmit new packet time sender channel unutilised pros advantage method flow control simplicity cons sender needs wait ack every frame transmits source inefficiency particularly bad propagation delay much longer transmission delay stop wait also create inefficiencies sending longer transmissions longer transmissions sent likely chance error protocol messages short errors likely detected early inefficiency created single messages broken separate frames makes transmission longer method flow control receiver gives transmitter permission transmit data window full window full transmitter must stop transmitting receiver advertises larger window sliding-window flow control best utilized buffer size limited pre-established typical communication sender receiver receiver allocates buffer space n frames n buffer size frames sender send receiver accept n frames without wait acknowledgement sequence number assigned frames order help keep track frames receive acknowledgement receiver acknowledges frame sending acknowledgement includes sequence number next frame expected acknowledgement announces receiver ready receive n frames beginning number specified sender receiver maintain called window size window less equal buffer size sliding window flow control far better performance stop-and-wait flow control example wireless environment data rates low noise level high waiting acknowledgement every packet transferred feasible therefore transferring data bulk would yield better performance terms higher throughput sliding window flow control point point protocol assuming entity tries communicate current data transfer complete window maintained sender indicates frames send sender sends frames window waits acknowledgement opposed acknowledging every frame sender shifts window corresponding sequence number thus indicating frames within window starting current sequence number sent automatic repeat request arq algorithm used error correction negative acknowledgement nak causes retransmission word error well next n–1 words value n usually chosen time taken transmit n words less round trip delay transmitter receiver back therefore buffer needed receiver normalized propagation delay tp length l propagation velocity v tt bitrate r framerate f get utilization must define window size n n greater equal 2a 1 utilization 1 full utilization transmission channel less 2a 1 equation must used compute utilization selective repeat connection oriented protocol transmitter receiver window sequence numbers protocol maximum number messages sent without acknowledgement window becomes full protocol blocked acknowledgement received earliest outstanding message point transmitter clear send messages section geared towards idea comparing stop-and-wait sliding window subsets go back n selective repeat error free formula_1 errors formula_2 define throughout average number blocks communicated per transmitted block convenient calculate average number transmissions necessary communicate block quantity denote 0 determine equation formula_3 transmit flow control may occur transmission rate may controlled network dte requirements transmit flow control occur independently two directions data transfer thus permitting transfer rates one direction different transfer rates direction transmit flow control flow control performed common rs-232 pairs control lines usually referred hardware flow control hardware flow control typically handled dte master end first raising asserting line command side example hardware flow control half-duplex radio modem computer interface case controlling software modem computer may written give priority incoming radio signals outgoing data computer paused lowering cts modem detects reception conversely xon/xoff usually referred software flow control open-loop flow control mechanism characterized feedback receiver transmitter simple means control widely used allocation resources must prior reservation hop-to-hop type open-loop flow control inherent problems maximizing utilization network resources resource allocation made connection setup using cac connection admission control allocation made using information already old news lifetime connection often over-allocation resources reserved unused capacities wasted open-loop flow control used atm cbr vbr ubr services see traffic contract congestion control open-loop flow control incorporates two controls controller regulator regulator able alter input variable response signal controller open-loop system feedback feed forward mechanism input output signals directly related increased traffic variability also lower arrival rate system higher loss rate open control system controllers operate regulators regular intervals assurance output variable maintained desired level may cheaper use model open-loop model unstable closed-loop flow control mechanism characterized ability network report pending network congestion back transmitter information used transmitter various ways adapt activity existing network conditions closed-loop flow control used abr see traffic contract congestion control transmit flow control described form closed-loop flow control system incorporates basic control elements sensor transmitter controller regulator sensor used capture process variable process variable sent transmitter translates variable controller controller examines information respect desired value initiates correction action required controller communicates regulator action needed ensure output variable value matching desired value therefore high degree assurance output variable maintained desired level closed-loop control system feedback feed forward system feedback closed-loop system feed-back mechanism directly relates input output signals feed-back mechanism monitors output variable determines additional correction required output variable value fed backward used initiate corrective action regulator control loops industry feedback type feed-forward closed loop system measured process variable input variable measured signal used fashion feedback system closed-loop model produces lower loss rate queuing delays well results congestion-responsive traffic closed-loop model always stable number active lows bounded sliding window 1-hop neighbor's text information: acknowledgement_(data_networks).acknowledgement data networks data networking telecommunications computer buses acknowledgement ack signal passed communicating processes computers devices signify acknowledgement receipt message part communications protocol negative-acknowledgement nak nack signal sent reject previously received message indicate kind error acknowledgements negative acknowledgements inform sender receiver state adjust state accordingly oftentimes data messages telecommunications contain checksums verify integrity payload header checksums work way single bit data corrupted checksum would different value provide inexpensive way check probable signal integrity message received invalid checksum data received would different checksum message receiver know information corrupted often checksums employed corrupted message received either served ack signal served nak signal ascii code used communicate computer terminals terminal send enquiry character request condition receiver character respond ack 0000110 6 indicate operating normally nak 0010101 15 indicate error condition unicode provides visible symbols characters u+2406 ␆ u+2415 ␕ many protocols acknowledgement-based meaning positively acknowledge receipt messages internet transmission control protocol tcp example acknowledgement-based protocol computers communicate via tcp received packets acknowledged sending back packet ack bit set tcp protocol allows acknowledgements included data sent opposite direction protocols send single acknowledgement per packet information protocols tcp zmodem allow many packets transmitted receiving acknowledgement procedure necessary fill high bandwidth-delay product links large number bytes flight protocols nak-based meaning respond messages problem examples include reliable multicast protocols send nak receiver detects missing packets still protocols make use naks acks binary synchronous communications bisync adaptive link rate energy-efficient ethernet examples still protocols rc-5 user datagram protocol udp x10 protocols perform blind transmission acknowledgement often transmitting message multiple times hopes least one copy message gets acknowledgement function used automatic repeat request arq function acknowledgement frames numbered coordination frames received sent transmitter allows transmitter avoid overflow underrun receiver become aware missed frames binary synchronous communications nak used indicate transmission error detected previously received block receiver ready accept retransmission block bisync use single ack character two control sequences alternate even/odd block acknowledgement computer buses dedicated acknowledge wire control bus used acknowledge bus operations dack used isa dma datack used stebus data transfer acknowledge pin motorola 68000 inspired title dtack grounded etc computer buses always acknowledge every write writes use posted write i²c serial bus time slot acknowledgment bit byte Target text information: go-back-n_arq.go-back-n arq go-back-n arq specific instance automatic repeat request arq protocol sending process continues send number frames specified window size even without receiving acknowledgement ack packet receiver special case general sliding window protocol transmit window size n receive window size 1 transmit n frames peer requiring ack receiver process keeps track sequence number next frame expects receive sends number every ack sends receiver discard frame exact sequence number expects either duplicate frame already acknowledged out-of-order frame expects receive later resend ack last correct in-order frame sender sent frames window detect frames since first lost frame outstanding go back sequence number last ack received receiver process fill window starting frame continue process go-back-n arq efficient use connection stop-and-wait arq since unlike waiting acknowledgement packet connection still utilized packets sent words time would otherwise spent waiting packets sent however method also results sending frames multiple times – frame lost damaged ack acknowledging lost damaged frame following frames window even received without error re-sent avoid selective repeat arq used examples assume infinite number sequence request numbers things keep mind choosing value n I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	1,154	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: kernel_debugger.kernel debugger kernel debugger debugger present operating system kernels ease debugging kernel development kernel developers kernel debugger might stub implementing low-level operations full-blown debugger gdb running another machine sending commands stub serial line network connection might provide command line used directly machine debugged operating systems operating system kernels contain kernel debugger 1-hop neighbor's text information: systemtap.systemtap computing systemtap codice_1 scripting language tool dynamically instrumenting running production linux kernel-based operating systems system administrators use systemtap extract filter summarize data order enable diagnosis complex performance functional problems systemtap consists free open-source software includes contributions red hat ibm intel hitachi oracle community members systemtap debuted 2005 red hat enterprise linux 4 update 2 technology preview four years development systemtap 1.0 released 2009 tracepoints cpython vm jvm added systemtap 1.2 systemtap files written systemtap language saved codice_2 files run codice_1 command-line system carries number analysis passes script allowing run scripts may executed one three backends selected codice_4 option default loadable kernel module fullest capability inspect manipulate part system therefore requires privilege another backend based dynamic program analysis library dyninst instrument user user-space programs requires least privilege newest backend based ebpf byte-code limited linux kernel interpreter capabilities requires intermediate level privilege case module unloaded script finished running scripts generally focus events starting finishing script compiled-in probe points linux tracepoints execution functions statements kernel user-space guru mode scripts may also embedded c may run codice_5 command-line option however use guru mode discouraged systemtap release includes probe points designed remove need guru-mode scripts guru mode required order permit scripts modify state instrumented software apply types emergency security fixes systemtap release 1.7 software implements new stapsys group privilege level following script shows applications setting tcp socket options system options set whether option set successfully many examples shipped systemtap also real-world examples systemtap use war stories page systemtap attach dtrace markers compiled application using macros codice_6 header file Target text information: kernel_marker.kernel marker kernel markers static kernel instrumentation support mechanism linux kernel source code allowing special tools lttng systemtap trace information exposed probe points kernel markers declared kernel code one-liners form name marker unique name format_string describes remaining arguments types marker depending whether probe connected code wants hook trace point first calls register probe callback marker point pdata private data value code wants pass probe later probe turned using using markers negligible overhead thanks part immediate values another support mechanism embeds switches code dynamically turned without using memory reference thus saving cache lines initial motivation create static instrumentation infrastructure large performance overhead induced predating dynamic instrumentation mechanism kprobe mechanism depends breakpoints static instrumentation also easily survive source code changes markers source code kernel markers consisted essentially c preprocessing macro added instrumented function branch function call neither stack setup function call executed instrumentation enabled identifying branch executing stack setup function call unlikely using gcc built-in expect hint given compiler position tracing instructions away cache lines involved standard kernel execution two kernel markers drawbacks identified led replacement tracepoints patch-set implementing merged version 2.6.24 released january 24 2008 address issues regarding kernel markers mathieu desnoyers original author implemented simpler type-safe version static probe points named tracepoints patch-set implementing tracepoints merged version 2.6.28 released december 25 2008 starting kernel markers slowly removed kernel sources eventually fully removed linux kernel 2.6.32 released december 3 2009 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,255	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_diagnostics.microsoft diagnostics msd microsoft diagnostics software tool developed microsoft assist diagnostics 1990s-era computers users primarily deployed tool provide detailed technical information user software hardware print gathered information usually use support technicians troubleshooting resolving problems assumptions made program valid late 1990s handle plug-and-play usb new technologies appeared around 2000 pc dos 6.1 codice_1 provides similar functionality commercial alternatives include manifest codice_2 quarterdeck qemm codice_3 first shipped microsoft word windows later included windows 3 ms-dos 6 windows 9x cd-roms os/2 windows nt contain code forked dos dos 5 level versions codice_3 included correspond era i.e version 2.0 windows nt 3 4 codice_5 program similar features however dos/windows specific functions replaced similar windows nt concerns codice_6 included resource kits provides print functionality codice_3 codice_5 since nt 5 windows 2000 codice_9 loader codice_10 users generally started program dos command prompt using command codice_11 starting program dos window either windows os/2 shows dos details allocated dos session machine general aspects system codice_3 provided technical information microsoft replaced codice_3 codice_10 similar features targets recent machines first appeared ms-word later distributed plus windows 95 windows 98. codice_10 windows xp stores system history wmi xml files codice_16 interest backward compatibility codice_5 became loader codice_18 1-hop neighbor's text information: graphics_device_interface.graphics device interface graphics device interface gdi microsoft windows application programming interface core operating system component responsible representing graphical objects transmitting output devices monitors printers gdi responsible tasks drawing lines curves rendering fonts handling palettes directly responsible drawing windows menus etc task reserved user subsystem resides user32.dll built atop gdi systems components similar gdi example macos quartz x window system xlib/xcb gdi significant advantages direct methods accessing hardware perhaps scaling capabilities abstract representation target devices using gdi easy draw multiple devices screen printer expect proper reproduction case capability center see get applications microsoft windows simple games require fast graphics rendering may use gdi however gdi relatively hard use advanced animation lacks notion synchronizing individual video frames video card lacks hardware rasterization 3d etc modern games usually use directx opengl instead let programmers exploit features modern hardware device context dc used define attributes text images output screen printer actual context maintained gdi handle device context hdc obtained output written released elements written gdi uses bresenham line drawing algorithm draw aliased lines gdi present initial release windows ms-dos programs hitherto manipulated graphics hardware using software interrupts sometimes via video bios manipulating video memory directly code written way expects user video memory tenable windowed system like microsoft windows multiple applications would want write subwindows concurrently byte december 1983 discussed microsoft plans system output graphics printers monitors code forthcoming first release windows introduction windows xp gdi complemented c++-based gdi+ subsystem gdi+ adds anti-aliased 2d graphics floating point coordinates gradient shading complex path management intrinsic support modern graphics-file formats like jpeg png support composition affine transformations 2d view pipeline gdi+ uses argb values represent color use features apparent windows xp user interface several applications microsoft paint windows picture fax viewer photo printing wizard pictures slideshow screensaver presence basic graphics layer greatly simplifies implementations vector-graphics systems flash svg gdi+ included versions windows windows xp gdi+ dynamic library also shipped application used older versions windows windows 98 windows nt 4.0 onwards additional text processing resolution independence capabilities gdi+ text rendering performed cpu nearly order magnitude slower hardware accelerated gdi chris jackson published tests indicating piece text rendering code written could render 99,000 glyphs per second gdi code using gdi+ rendered 16,600 glyphs per second microsoft .net class library provides managed interface gdi+ via codice_1 namespace gdi+ similar purpose structure apple quickdraw gx subsystem open-source libart cairo libraries windows vista windows applications including gdi gdi+ applications run new compositing engine desktop window manager dwm built atop windows display driver model gdi rendering implemented canonical display driver cdd.dll draws system memory surfaces redirected dwm gdi longer hardware-accelerated video card driver however due nature desktop composition internal management moving bitmaps transparency anti-aliasing gdi+ handled dwm core operations like window moves faster responsive underlying content need re-rendered application windows 7 includes gdi hardware acceleration blitting operations windows display driver model v1.1 improves gdi performance canonical display driver allows dwm engine use local video memory compositing thereby reducing system memory footprint increasing performance graphics operations primitive gdi operations still hardware-accelerated unlike direct2d november 2009 amd nvidia released wddm v1.1 compatible video drivers gdi+ continues rely software rendering windows 7 gdi printer winprinter analogous winmodem printer designed accept output host computer running gdi windows host computer print processing gdi software renders page bitmap sent software printer driver usually supplied printer manufacturer processing particular printer printer combination gdi driver bidirectional receive information printer whether ready print paper ink non-gdi printers require hardware firmware memory page rendering gdi printer uses host computer making cheaper manufacture similar non-gdi printer manufacturers produce essentially printer version compatible printer control language pcl postscript cheaper gdi-only version cases lowest-cost models given manufacturer range support gdi printer control language accept input device suitable driver gdi printer requires pc running windows compatible hardware operating systems general gdi printers compatible hardware print servers although servers built-in processing capability making compatible specified gdi printers gdi printers made available computers network connected shared printers computer running windows generic gdi drivers pnm2ppa written make gdi printers compatible non-windows operating systems freebsd guarantee particular gdi printer supported order allow simpler creation drivers winprinters microsoft universal printer driver created allows printer vendors write generic printer description gpd minidrivers describe printer capabilities command set plaintext rather kernel mode driver development time window opened consumes gdi objects complexity window increases additional features buttons images gdi object usage also increases many objects use windows unable draw gdi objects leading misbehaving software frozen unresponsive program operation many applications also incorrectly coded fail release gdi objects use adds problem total available gdi objects varies one version windows next windows 95 98 millennium limit 1,200 total objects windows 2000 limit 16,384 objects windows xp vista windows 7 configurable limit via registry defaults 10,000 objects per process theoretical maximum 65,536 entire session windows 8 8.1 increase gdi object limit 65,536 per user logon session earlier versions windows windows 3.1 windows 98 included resource meter program allow user monitor much total system gdi resources use unfortunately resource meter consumed gdi objects later versions windows 2000 windows xp report gdi object usage program task manager tell user total gdi capacity available overflowing gdi capacity affect windows preventing new windows opening menus displaying alert boxes appearing situation difficult clear potentially require forced hard-reset system since prevents core system programs functioning windows 8 8.1 forced logoffs occur result gdi capacity overflow instead hard reboot example forcing frozen process end using task manager normally makes sure alert window appear free gdi windows beeps error alert choice appear gdi-overflowing processes terminated unless user uses taskkill command direct2d directwrite designed replace gdi/gdi+ uniscribe respectively screen-oriented rendering shipped windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 well windows vista windows server 2008 platform update installed wpf/uwp based-application win2d gdi like class library developed microsoft downloaded inside visual studio using nuget win2d easy-to-use windows runtime api immediate mode 2d graphics rendering gpu acceleration 1-hop neighbor's text information: enhanced_write_filter.enhanced write filter enhanced write filter ewf component windows xp embedded windows embedded standard 7 stores volume changes another medium instead applying original volume ewf allows writes discarded committed original volume later either directly inaction based configuration minimizes writes specified hard disk ewf fbwf file-based write filter become popular enthusiast computing way decreasing wear solid-state drives netbooks carpcs ewf three main operating modes ewf disk ewf ram ewf ram reg mode location ewf volume stores configuration overlay volume stores file changes different ewf disk stores overlay data outside primary disk allowing external disk compactflash used overlay ewf volume stored unpartitioned space disk ewf ram stores overlay data ram ewf volume unpartitioned space disk ewf ram reg ewf ram except ewf volume stored windows registry case appropriation ewf carpcs often based windows xp smaller footprint used similar effect windows vista netbooks diminish write activity enhance lifespan solid state drives due changes windows vista however disk mode used unlike commercial ram disks ewf reclaim ram files deleted ewf ram ewf ram reg mode memory consumed ever increases eventually system free space crash automatic adjustment daylight saving time compatible ewf causing incorrect time settings reboot Target text information: windows_imaging_format.windows imaging format windows imaging format wim file-based disk image format developed microsoft help deploy windows vista subsequent versions windows operating system family well windows fundamentals legacy pcs like disk image formats wim file contains set files associated filesystem metadata however unlike sector-based formats iso vhd wim file-based fundamental unit information wim file primary advantages file-based hardware independence single-instance storage file referenced multiple times filesystem tree since files stored inside single wim file overhead opening closing many individual files reduced cost reading writing many thousands individual files local disk negated hardware software-based disk caching well sequential reading writing data wim files contain multiple disk images referenced either numerical index unique name due use single-instance storage successive disk image common previous images added wim file less new data added wim also split spanned multiple parts .swm extension wim images made bootable windows boot loader supports booting windows within wim file windows setup dvd windows vista later use wim files case boot.wim contains bootable version windows pe installation performed setup files held install.wim imagex command-line tool used create edit deploy windows disk images windows imaging format distributed part free windows automated installation kit waik starting windows vista windows setup uses waik api install windows first distributed prototype imagex build 6.0.4007.0 main.030212-2037 allowed microsoft oem partners experiment imaging technology developed parallel longhorn alpha prototypes first introduced milestone 4 longhorn project used later builds longhorn build 6.0.5384.4 added significant advantages previous versions like read-only read/write folder mounting capabilities splitting multiple image files swm wim filter driver latest lzx compression algorithms used since pre-rc release candidates windows vista deployment image service management tool dism tool introduced windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 perform servicing tasks windows installation image online image i.e one user running offline image within folder wim file features include mounting unmounting images querying installed device drivers offline image adding device driver offline image possible repair dism image using either windows installation cd windows update windows server 2012 windows 8 dism incorporated majority imagex functions imagex still needed image capture however dism deprecated imagex windows 8 since april 30 2012 open source library handling wim format available library used unix-like systems well windows thanks project gnu/linux distributions imagex clone called wimlib-imagex allows mounting wim images managing read/write like file system wim images basically using lzx compression algorithm accessed using file archivers like 7-zip operating systems might support format still possible convert .wim images commonly used iso image using windows assessment deployment kit windows I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,874	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_speech_recognition.windows speech recognition windows speech recognition wsr speech recognition component developed microsoft windows vista operating system enables use voice commands control desktop user interface dictate text electronic documents email navigate websites perform keyboard shortcuts operate mouse cursor also supports creation custom macros perform additional tasks wsr locally-processed speech recognition platform rely cloud computing accuracy dictation recognition adapts based user context grammar input speech samples training sessions vocabulary dictation provides personal dictionary allows users include exclude words expressions optionally record pronunciations increase recognition accuracy windows search wsr also optionally analyze collect text documents email handwritten input tablet pc contextualize disambiguate terms adapt personalize recognizer custom language models adapt recognizer specific context phonetics terminology users particular occupational fields legal medical also supported wsr developed integrated component windows vista windows previously supported speech recognition limited individual applications windows media player microsoft office xp introduced speech recognition support limited internet explorer office windows vista majority integrated applications controlled speech office 2007 later versions office rely wsr replacing separate office speech recognition present windows 7 windows 8 windows 8.1 windows rt windows 10 microsoft involved speech recognition speech synthesis research many years 1993 microsoft hired xuedong huang carnegie mellon university lead speech development efforts company research eventually led development speech api introduced 1994 speech recognition also used microsoft products prior wsr versions microsoft office including office xp office 2003 provided speech recognition capabilities among internet explorer office applications installation office also enabled limited speech functionality windows 98 windows windows nt 4.0 windows 2000 2002 tablet pc edition windows xp included speech recognition tablet pc input panel microsoft plus windows xp expansion package enabled voice commands used windows media player however support limited individual applications windows vista windows include integrated speech recognition capabilities 2002 windows hardware engineering conference winhec 2002 microsoft announced windows vista known codename longhorn would include advances speech recognition features microphone array support features part company goal provide consistent quality audio infrastructure natural continuous speech recognition discrete command control bill gates stated 2003 professional developers conference pdc 2003 microsoft would build speech capabilities system -- big advance 'longhorn recognition synthesis real-time pre-release builds throughout development windows vista included speech engine training features pdc 2003 developer presentation dedicated user input stated windows vista would also include user interface microphone feedback control well separate user configuration training features microsoft later clarified extent speech recognition would integrated stated pre-release software development kit common speech scenarios like speech-enabling menus buttons enabled system-wide winhec 2004 microsoft listed wsr part longhorn mobile pc strategy improve productivity winhec 2005 microsoft emphasized accessibility new mobility scenarios improvements speech user experience unlike speech support included windows xp integrated tablet pc input panel required switching separate commanding dictation modes windows vista would introduce dedicated interface speech input desktop unify separate speech modes users could previously speak command dictating vice versa without first switching two modes microsoft also stated windows vista would improve dictation accuracy support additional languages microphone arrays demonstration winhec 2005 focused email dictation correction editing commands presentation microphone arrays also shown windows vista beta 1 later included integrated speech recognition application incentivize company employees analyze wsr software glitches provide feedback development microsoft offered opportunity testers win premium model xbox 360 video game console july 27 2006 operating system release manufacturing rtm notable incident involving wsr occurred demonstration microsoft resulted unintended output dear aunt let set double killer delete select several attempts dictate led consecutive output errors incident subject significant derision among analysts journalists audience microsoft later revealed issues due audio gain glitch caused speech recognizer distort dictated words glitch fixed windows vista release early 2007 reports surfaced wsr might vulnerable attack could allow attackers play audio computer speakers thereby using capabilities perform undesired user operations target computer first vulnerability discovered windows vista general availability microsoft stated attack theoretically possible would meet number prerequisites successful target system would speech recognition feature properly configured activated speakers microphone connected targeted system would need turned exploit would require software interpret commands without user noticing—an unlikely scenario affected system would perform visible interface operations produce audible feedback mitigating factors include dictation clarity microphone feedback placement user account control exploit nature also would able perform privileged operations users protected administrators without explicit consent windows 7 microsoft introduced several changes improve user experience recognizer updated use microsoft ui automation—substantially enhancing performance—and recognition engine uses wasapi audio stack enables support echo cancellation document harvester optionally analyzes collects text email documents contextualize disambiguate user terms improved performance updated run periodically background instead recognizer startup sleep mode also seen performance improvements address security issues windows 7 introduces new voice activation option—enabled default—that turns recognizer users speak stop listening instead putting recognizer sleep windows 7 also introduces option submit speech training data microsoft improve future recognizer versions windows 7 introduced optional dictation scratchpad interface functions temporary document users dictate type text insertion applications compatible text services framework wsr previously provided enable dictation everywhere option windows vista wsr used control metro user interface windows 8 windows 8.1 windows rt commands open charms bar press windows c display commands metro-style apps press windows z perform tasks e.g. change celsius msn weather display installed apps listed start screen apps wsr featured settings application starting windows 10 april 2018 update version 1803 change first appeared insider preview build 17083 april 2018 update also introduces new ++ keyboard shortcut activate wsr wsr allows user control computer including operating system desktop user interface voice commands applications including bundled windows also controlled voice commands using speech recognition users dictate text within documents email forms control operating system user interface perform keyboard shortcuts move mouse cursor wsr uses local speech profile store information user voice accuracy speech recognition increases use helps feature adapt user grammar speech patterns vocabulary word usage speech recognition also includes tutorial improve accuracy optionally review user personal documents—including email—to improve command dictation accuracy individual speech profiles created per-user basis backups profiles performed via windows easy transfer wsr supports following languages chinese traditional chinese simplified english u.s. english u.k. french german japanese spanish wsr relies speech api developed microsoft third-party applications must support text services framework wsr interface consists status area displays instructions information commands e.g. command heard recognizer status recognizer voice meter displays visual feedback volume levels status area represents current state wsr total three modes listed respective meanings colors recognizer listening mode button denote various modes operation blue listening blue-gray sleeping gray turned yellow user switches context e.g. desktop taskbar voice command misinterpreted status area also display custom user information part windows speech recognition macros alternates panel disambiguation interface displays list items interpreted relevant user spoken word word phrase user desired insert application listed among results user speak corresponding number word phrase results confirm choice speaking ok insert within application alternates panel also appear launching applications speaking commands refer one item e.g. speaking start internet explorer may list web browser version browser add-ons disabled however exactmatchoverpartialmatch windows registry entry limit commands items exact names one instance included results listed common wsr commands words italics indicate word substituted desired item e.g. word direction scroll direction command substituted word start typing command enables wsr interpret dictation commands keyboard shortcuts mousegrid command enables users control mouse cursor overlaying numbers across nine regions screen regions gradually narrow user speaks number region focus desired interface element reached regions user interact based commands including click number region moves mouse cursor desired region clicks mark number region allows item computer icon region selected clicked previous click command user also simultaneously interact multiple regions mousegrid applications interface elements present identifiable commands still controlled asking system overlay numbers top show numbers command active speaking overlaid number selects item user open perform operations show numbers designed users could interact items readily identifiable wsr enables dictation text operating system applications dictation mistake occurs corrected speaking correct word correct alternates panel appear provide suggestions correction suggestions selected speaking number corresponding number suggestion list speaking ok. desired item listed among suggestions user speak might appear alternatively users speak spell 'll spell speak desired item per-letter basis users use personal alphabet nato phonetic alphabet spelling multiple words sentence corrected simultaneously example user speaks dictating recognizer interprets word thing user state correct thing correct words english language 100,000 words recognized default wsr includes personal dictionary allows users include exclude certain words expressions dictation user adds word beginning capital letter dictionary user specify whether always capitalized capitalization depends context word spoken users also record pronunciations words added dictionary increase recognition accuracy words written via stylus tablet pc windows handwriting recognition feature also stored information stored within dictionary included part user speech profile wsr supports custom macros supplementary application microsoft enables additional natural language commands example functionality email macro released microsoft enables natural language command user state send email contact subject opens microsoft outlook compose new message designated contact subject automatically inserted microsoft also released sample macros speech dictionary windows media player microsoft powerpoint speech synthesis switch multiple microphones customize various aspects audio device configuration volume levels general natural language queries weather forecast time date answers queries spoken via speech synthesizer users developers create macros based text transcription substitution application execution support command-line arguments keyboard shortcuts emulation existing voice commands combination items xml jscript vbscript supported macros limited individual applications desired rules macros defined programmatically macro load must stored speech macros folder within current user documents directory macros digitally signed default user certificate available ensure commands corrupted loaded third-parties one available administrator create certificate use macros utility also includes security levels prohibit unsigned macros loaded prompt users sign macros load unsigned macros wsr uses microsoft speech recognizer 8.0 changed since windows vista dictation found 93.6 accurate without training mark hachman senior editor pc world —a rate accurate competing software according microsoft rate accuracy trained 99 hachman commented microsoft publicly discuss wsr attributing 2006 incident development windows vista users knowing documents could dictated within windows introduction cortana 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_system_assessment_tool.windows system assessment tool windows system assessment tool winsat module microsoft windows vista windows 7 windows 8 windows 10 available control panel performance information tools except windows 8.1 windows 10 measures various performance characteristics capabilities hardware running reports windows experience index wei score wei includes five subscores processor memory 2d graphics 3d graphics disk basescore equal lowest subscores average subscores winsat reports wei scores scale 1.0 5.9 windows vista 7.9 windows 7 9.9 windows 8 windows 10 wei enables users match computer hardware performance performance requirements software example aero graphical user interface automatically enabled unless system wei score 3 higher wei also used show part system would expected provide greatest increase performance upgraded example computer lowest subscore memory would benefit ram upgrade adding faster hard drive component detailed raw performance information like actual disk bandwidth obtained invoking codice_1 command line also allows specific tests re-run obtaining wei score command line done invoking codice_2 also updates value stored codice_3 xml files stored easily hacked report fake performance values wei also available applications api configure function hardware performance taking advantage capabilities without becoming unacceptably slow windows experience index score displayed windows 8.1 onwards graphical user interface winsat removed versions windows although command line winsat tool still exists operates correctly along final score launching command shell games according article pc pro microsoft removed winsat gui order promote idea kinds hardware run windows 8 equally well 2003 game developers conference dean lester microsoft general manager windows graphics gaming stated interview gamespot microsoft intended focus improvements pc gaming experience part new gaming initiative next version windows windows vista codenamed longhorn lester stated part initiative operating system would include games folder would centralize settings pertinent gamers among features display driver streamlining parental controls games ability start windows game directly optical media installation—in manner similar games designed video game console microsoft would also require new method displaying system requirements retail packaging windows games rating system would categorize games based numerical system 2004 lester expanded microsoft intentions stating company would work hardware manufacturers create pcs windows vista used level system designate performance capabilities system hardware xbox 360 peripherals would fully compatible operating system windows experience index feature windows vista relies measurements taken winsat provide accurate assessment system capabilities—these capabilities presented form rating higher rating indicates better performance preliminary design elements created microsoft robert stein 2004 suggest winsat intended rate user hardware out-of-box experience design decision would retained operating system release manufacturing windows hardware engineering conference 2005 microsoft formally unveiled existence winsat presented technology games one would allow windows vista make decisions whether enable desktop composition based machine hardware capabilities winsat would remain key focus throughout development operating system release manufacturing winsat windows vista windows 7 performs following tests running tests show progress bar working background animation aero glass deactivated windows vista windows 7 testing tool properly assess graphics card cpu windows 8 winsat runs maintenance scheduler every week default schedule 1am sundays maintenance scheduler collates various os tasks schedule computer randomly interrupted individual tasks scheduler wakes computer sleep runs scheduled tasks puts computer back sleep weekly task winsat runs long enough detect hardware changes tests run winsat simply ends existing scores must valid winsat perform tests laptop battery-operated 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_10_mobile_version_history.windows 10 mobile version history windows 10 mobile mobile operating system developed microsoft released manufacturing november 20 2015 made generally available march 17 2016 october 2017 microsoft announced would pause active development windows 10 mobile last feature update fall creators update future development windows 10 mobile limited maintenance releases security patches windows 10 mobile november update also known version 1511 codenamed threshold 2 first major update windows 10 mobile one series updates threshold codenames carries build number 10.0.10586 released public november 12 2015 update reached end service january 9 2018 windows 10 mobile anniversary update also known version 1607 codenamed redstone 1 second major update windows 10 mobile first series updates redstone codenames carries build number 10.0.14393 first preview released february 19 2016 released public august 16 2016 update reached end service release build 14393.2551 october 9 2018 windows 10 mobile creators update also known version 1703 codenamed redstone 2 third major update windows 10 mobile second series updates redstone codenames carries build number 10.0.15063 first preview released insiders august 17 2016 released public april 25 2017 update reached end service release build 15063.1868 june 11 2019 windows 10 mobile fall creators update also known version 1709 codenamed redstone 3 third major update windows 10 mobile third series updates redstone codenames carries build number 10.0.15254 despite sharing codename version number pc version windows 10 fall creators update redstone 3 update still build part redstone 2 branch first preview released insiders april 14 2017 released public october 24 2017 update set reached end service december 10 2019 Target text information: ntfs_reparse_point.ntfs reparse point ntfs reparse point type ntfs file system object available ntfs v3.0 found windows 2000 later versions reparse points provide way extend ntfs filesystem reparse point contains reparse tag data interpreted filesystem filter identified tag microsoft includes several default tags including ntfs symbolic links directory junction points volume mount points unix domain sockets also reparse points used placeholders files moved windows 2000 remote storage hierarchical storage system also act hard links n't limited point files volume point directories local volume general windows vista supports new symbolic link capability replaces windows 2000 windows xp junction points designed aid migration application compatibility unix operating systems unlike junction point symbolic link also point file remote smb network path additionally ntfs symbolic link implementation provides full support cross-filesystem links however functionality enabling cross-host symbolic links requires remote system also support effectively limits support windows vista later windows operating systems hard links use mft entry original file adding hard link creates new name attribute increases hard link count newly created file count equals one deleting hard link removes appropriate name decreases hard link count count goes zero system deletes file freeing allocated disk space releasing mft record name attributes independent deleting moving renaming file n't affect hard links volume mount points similar unix mount points root another file system attached directory ntfs allows additional file systems mounted without requiring separate drive letter codice_11 codice_12 volume mounted top existing directory another volume contents previously listed directory become invisible replaced content root directory mounted volume mounted volume could still drive letter assigned separately file system allow volumes mutually mounted volume mount points made either persistent remounted automatically system reboot persistent must manually remounted reboot mounted volumes may use file systems ntfs possibly security settings remapping access rights according remote file system policy directory junctions similar volume mount points reference directories file system instead volumes instance directory codice_13 directory junction attribute contains link codice_14 automatically refer directory codice_14 accessed user-mode application function conceptually similar symbolic links directories unix except target ntfs must always another directory typical unix file systems allow target symbolic link type file directory junctions created command codice_16 removed codice_17 console prompt persistent resolved server side share security realm local system domain parent volume mounted security settings contents content target directory however junction may distinct security settings unlinking directory junction delete files target directory directory junctions installed default windows vista compatibility previous versions windows codice_18 root directory system drive links codice_19 physical directory root directory volume however hidden default security settings set windows explorer refuse open within shell applications except local built-in system user local administrators group user accounts used system software installers additional security restriction probably made avoid users finding apparent duplicate files joined directories deleting error semantics directory junctions hardlinks reference counting used target contents even referenced container directory junctions soft links persist even target directory removed working limited form symbolic links additional restriction location target optimized version allowing faster processing reparse point implemented less overhead newer ntfs symbolic links resolved server side found remote shared directories symbolic links soft links introduced windows vista symbolic links resolved client side symbolic link shared target subject access restrictions client server symbolic links created either files created codice_20 directories created codice_21 unlike unix symbolic links semantic link must provided created link target however need exist available symbolic link created symbolic link accessed target checked availability ntfs also check correct type file directory return not-found error existing target wrong type also reference shared directories remote hosts files subdirectories within shared directories target mounted immediately boot temporarily demand opening openfile createfile api definition persistent ntfs volume created types symbolic links removed files using codice_22 command line prompt batch distributed link tracking allows applications track files shell shortcuts ole links even renamed moved another volume within machine domain workgroup tracking implemented system service uses object identifier oid index stored metafile application requests track file directory tracking service creates oid entry points file file rename copy move operation ntfs v3 volume also copies object id allows tracking service eventually find target file several directories different similar files files may identical content single instance storage allows identical files merged one file create references merged file sis consists file system filter manages copies modification merges files user space service groveler searches files identical need merging sis mainly designed remote installation servers may multiple installation images contain many identical files sis allows consolidated unlike example hard links file remains distinct changes one copy file leave others unaltered similar copy-on-write technique memory copying really done one copy modified hierarchical storage management means transferring files used period time less expensive storage media file next accessed reparse point file determines needed retrieves storage nss activex document storage technology since discontinued microsoft allowed activex documents stored multi-stream format activex uses internally nss file system filter loaded used process multiple streams transparently application file transferred non-ntfs formatted disk volume would also transfer multiple streams single stream windows 10 build 17063 stable release version 1803 microsoft introduced unix domain sockets windows realized using afunix.sys kernel driver new reparse point filesystem unix domain sockets common bsd linux systems since ages seen standard inter process communication systems therefore introduction windows allow simplified adoption code cross platform portability stuxnet part series win32 exploits uses ntfs junction points part overall mode operation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	3,170	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing.orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing telecommunications orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing ofdm method encoding digital data multiple carrier frequencies ofdm developed popular scheme wideband digital communication used applications digital television audio broadcasting dsl internet access wireless networks power line networks 4g mobile communications coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing cofdm forward error correction convolutional coding time/frequency interleaving applied signal transmitted done overcome errors mobile communication channels affected multipath propagation doppler effects cofdm introduced alard 1986 digital audio broadcasting eureka project 147 practice ofdm become used combination coding interleaving terms cofdm ofdm co-apply common applications ofdm frequency-division multiplexing fdm scheme used digital multi-carrier modulation method ofdm introduced chang bell labs 1966 numerous closely spaced orthogonal subcarrier signals overlapping spectra emitted carry data demodulation based fast fourier transform algorithms ofdm improved weinstein ebert 1971 introduction guard interval providing better orthogonality transmission channels affected multipath propagation subcarrier signal modulated conventional modulation scheme quadrature amplitude modulation phase-shift keying low symbol rate maintains total data rates similar conventional single-carrier modulation schemes bandwidth main advantage ofdm single-carrier schemes ability cope severe channel conditions example attenuation high frequencies long copper wire narrowband interference frequency-selective fading due multipath without complex equalization filters channel equalization simplified ofdm may viewed using many slowly modulated narrowband signals rather one rapidly modulated wideband signal low symbol rate makes use guard interval symbols affordable making possible eliminate intersymbol interference isi use echoes time-spreading analog television visible ghosting blurring respectively achieve diversity gain i.e signal-to-noise ratio improvement mechanism also facilitates design single frequency networks sfns several adjacent transmitters send signal simultaneously frequency signals multiple distant transmitters may re-combined constructively sparing interference traditional single-carrier system following list summary existing ofdm-based standards products details see usage section end article ofdm-based multiple access technology ofdma also used several 4g pre-4g cellular networks mobile broadband standards next generation wlan advantages disadvantages listed discussed characteristics principles operation section conceptually ofdm specialized frequency-division multiplexing fdm method additional constraint subcarrier signals within communication channel orthogonal one another ofdm subcarrier frequencies chosen subcarriers orthogonal meaning cross-talk sub-channels eliminated inter-carrier guard bands required greatly simplifies design transmitter receiver unlike conventional fdm separate filter sub-channel required orthogonality requires subcarrier spacing formula_1 hertz seconds useful symbol duration receiver-side window size k positive integer typically equal 1 stipulates carrier frequency undergoes k complete cycles per symbol period previous carrier therefore n subcarriers total passband bandwidth b ≈ n ·δ f hz orthogonality also allows high spectral efficiency total symbol rate near nyquist rate equivalent baseband signal i.e near half nyquist rate double-side band physical passband signal almost whole available frequency band used ofdm generally nearly 'white spectrum giving benign electromagnetic interference properties respect co-channel users ofdm requires accurate frequency synchronization receiver transmitter frequency deviation subcarriers longer orthogonal causing inter-carrier interference ici i.e. cross-talk subcarriers frequency offsets typically caused mismatched transmitter receiver oscillators doppler shift due movement doppler shift alone may compensated receiver situation worsened combined multipath reflections appear various frequency offsets much harder correct effect typically worsens speed increases important factor limiting use ofdm high-speed vehicles order mitigate ici scenarios one shape subcarrier order minimize interference resulting non-orthogonal subcarriers overlapping example low-complexity scheme referred wcp-ofdm weighted cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing consists using short filters transmitter output order perform potentially non-rectangular pulse shaping near perfect reconstruction using single-tap per subcarrier equalization ici suppression techniques usually increase drastically receiver complexity orthogonality allows efficient modulator demodulator implementation using fft algorithm receiver side inverse fft sender side although principles benefits known since 1960s ofdm popular wideband communications today way low-cost digital signal processing components efficiently calculate fft time compute inverse-fft fft transform take less time symbol example dvb-t means computation done less -point fft may approximated computational demand approximately scales linearly fft size double size fft needs double amount time vice versa comparison intel pentium iii cpu 1.266 ghz able calculate fft using fftw intel pentium 1.6 ghz intel core duo 3.0 ghz one key principle ofdm since low symbol rate modulation schemes i.e. symbols relatively long compared channel time characteristics suffer less intersymbol interference caused multipath propagation advantageous transmit number low-rate streams parallel instead single high-rate stream since duration symbol long feasible insert guard interval ofdm symbols thus eliminating intersymbol interference guard interval also eliminates need pulse-shaping filter reduces sensitivity time synchronization problems cyclic prefix transmitted guard interval consists end ofdm symbol copied guard interval guard interval transmitted followed ofdm symbol reason guard interval consists copy end ofdm symbol receiver integrate integer number sinusoid cycles multipaths performs ofdm demodulation fft standards ultrawideband interest transmitted power cyclic prefix skipped nothing sent guard interval receiver mimic cyclic prefix functionality copying end part ofdm symbol adding beginning portion effects frequency-selective channel conditions example fading caused multipath propagation considered constant flat ofdm sub-channel sub-channel sufficiently narrow-banded i.e. number sub-channels sufficiently large makes frequency domain equalization possible receiver far simpler time-domain equalization used conventional single-carrier modulation ofdm equalizer multiply detected subcarrier fourier coefficient ofdm symbol constant complex number rarely changed value fundamental level simpler digital equalizers better require fewer operations translates fewer round-off errors equalizer round-off errors viewed numerical noise inevitable differential modulation dpsk dqpsk applied subcarrier equalization completely omitted since non-coherent schemes insensitive slowly changing amplitude phase distortion sense improvements fir equalization using ffts partial ffts leads mathematically closer ofdm ofdm technique easier understand implement sub-channels independently adapted ways varying equalization coefficients switching different qam constellation patterns error-correction schemes match individual sub-channel noise interference characteristics subcarriers ofdm symbols may carry pilot signals measurement channel conditions i.e. equalizer gain phase shift subcarrier pilot signals training symbols preambles may also used time synchronization avoid intersymbol interference isi frequency synchronization avoid inter-carrier interference ici caused doppler shift ofdm initially used wired stationary wireless communications however increasing number applications operating highly mobile environments effect dispersive fading caused combination multi-path propagation doppler shift significant last decade research done equalize ofdm transmission doubly selective channels ofdm invariably used conjunction channel coding forward error correction almost always uses frequency and/or time interleaving frequency subcarrier interleaving increases resistance frequency-selective channel conditions fading example part channel bandwidth fades frequency interleaving ensures bit errors would result subcarriers faded part bandwidth spread bit-stream rather concentrated similarly time interleaving ensures bits originally close together bit-stream transmitted far apart time thus mitigating severe fading would happen travelling high speed however time interleaving little benefit slowly fading channels stationary reception frequency interleaving offers little benefit narrowband channels suffer flat-fading whole channel bandwidth fades time reason interleaving used ofdm attempt spread errors bit-stream presented error correction decoder decoders presented high concentration errors decoder unable correct bit errors burst uncorrected errors occurs similar design audio data encoding makes compact disc cd playback robust classical type error correction coding used ofdm-based systems convolutional coding often concatenated reed-solomon coding usually additional interleaving top time frequency interleaving mentioned two layers coding implemented choice reed-solomon coding outer error correction code based observation viterbi decoder used inner convolutional decoding produces short error bursts high concentration errors reed-solomon codes inherently well suited correcting bursts errors newer systems however usually adopt near-optimal types error correction codes use turbo decoding principle decoder iterates towards desired solution examples error correction coding types include turbo codes ldpc codes perform close shannon limit additive white gaussian noise awgn channel systems implemented codes concatenated either reed-solomon example mediaflo system bch codes dvb-s2 system improve upon error floor inherent codes high signal-to-noise ratios resilience severe channel conditions enhanced information channel sent return-channel based feedback information adaptive modulation channel coding power allocation may applied across subcarriers individually subcarrier latter case particular range frequencies suffers interference attenuation carriers within range disabled made run slower applying robust modulation error coding subcarriers term dmt denotes ofdm-based communication systems adapt transmission channel conditions individually subcarrier means so-called bit-loading examples adsl vdsl upstream downstream speeds varied allocating either fewer carriers purpose forms rate-adaptive dsl use feature real time bitrate adapted co-channel interference bandwidth allocated whichever subscriber needs ofdm primary form considered digital modulation technique multi-user channel access method since used transferring one bit stream one communication channel using one sequence ofdm symbols however ofdm combined multiple access using time frequency coding separation users orthogonal frequency-division multiple access ofdma frequency-division multiple access achieved assigning different ofdm sub-channels different users ofdma supports differentiated quality service assigning different number subcarriers different users similar fashion cdma thus complex packet scheduling media access control schemes avoided ofdma used ofdma also candidate access method ieee 802.22 wireless regional area networks wran project aims designing first cognitive radio-based standard operating vhf-low uhf spectrum tv spectrum multi-carrier code division multiple access mc-cdma also known ofdm-cdma ofdm combined cdma spread spectrum communication coding separation users co-channel interference mitigated meaning manual fixed channel allocation fca frequency planning simplified complex dynamic channel allocation dca schemes avoided ofdm-based wide-area broadcasting receivers benefit receiving signals several spatially dispersed transmitters simultaneously since transmitters destructively interfere limited number subcarriers whereas general actually reinforce coverage wide area beneficial many countries permits operation national single-frequency networks sfn many transmitters send signal simultaneously channel frequency sfns use available spectrum effectively conventional multi-frequency broadcast networks mfn program content replicated different carrier frequencies sfns also result diversity gain receivers situated midway transmitters coverage area increased outage probability decreased comparison mfn due increased received signal strength averaged subcarriers although guard interval contains redundant data means reduces capacity ofdm-based systems broadcasting systems deliberately use long guard interval order allow transmitters spaced farther apart sfn longer guard intervals allow larger sfn cell-sizes rule thumb maximum distance transmitters sfn equal distance signal travels guard interval — instance guard interval 200 microseconds would allow transmitters spaced 60 km apart single frequency network form transmitter macrodiversity concept used dynamic single-frequency networks dsfn sfn grouping changed timeslot timeslot ofdm may combined forms space diversity example antenna arrays mimo channels done ieee 802.11 wireless lan standards ofdm signal exhibits high peak-to-average power ratio papr independent phases subcarriers mean often combine constructively handling high papr requires non-linearity signal chain cause intermodulation distortion linearity requirement demanding especially transmitter rf output circuitry amplifiers often designed non-linear order minimise power consumption practical ofdm systems small amount peak clipping allowed limit papr judicious trade-off consequences however transmitter output filter required reduce out-of-band spurs legal levels effect restoring peak levels clipped clipping effective way reduce papr although spectral efficiency ofdm attractive terrestrial space communications high papr requirements far limited ofdm applications terrestrial systems crest factor cf db ofdm system n uncorrelated subcarriers cf crest factor db subcarrier cf 3.01 db sine waves used bpsk qpsk modulation example dvb-t signal 2k mode composed 1705 subcarriers qpsk-modulated giving crest factor 35.32 db many crest factor reduction techniques developed dynamic range required fm receiver dab require comparison extra bit per sample increases dynamic range performance communication system measured terms power efficiency bandwidth efficiency power efficiency describes ability communication system preserve bit error rate ber transmitted signal low power levels bandwidth efficiency reflects efficiently allocated bandwidth used defined throughput data rate per hertz given bandwidth large number subcarriers used bandwidth efficiency multicarrier system ofdm using optical fiber channel defined factor 2 two polarization states fiber formula_9 symbol rate giga symbol per second gsps formula_10 bandwidth ofdm signal saving bandwidth using multicarrier modulation orthogonal frequency division multiplexing bandwidth multicarrier system less comparison single carrier system hence bandwidth efficiency multicarrier system larger single carrier system 1 dbm increase receiver power get 76.7 improvement bandwidth efficiency using multicarrier transmission technique section describes simple idealized ofdm system model suitable time-invariant awgn channel ofdm carrier signal sum number orthogonal subcarriers baseband data subcarrier independently modulated commonly using type quadrature amplitude modulation qam phase-shift keying psk composite baseband signal typically used modulate main rf carrier formula_11 serial stream binary digits inverse multiplexing first demultiplexed formula_12 parallel streams one mapped possibly complex symbol stream using modulation constellation qam psk etc. note constellations may different streams may carry higher bit-rate others inverse fft computed set symbols giving set complex time-domain samples samples quadrature-mixed passband standard way real imaginary components first converted analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters dacs analogue signals used modulate cosine sine waves carrier frequency formula_13 respectively signals summed give transmission signal formula_14 receiver picks signal formula_15 quadrature-mixed baseband using cosine sine waves carrier frequency also creates signals centered formula_16 low-pass filters used reject baseband signals sampled digitised using analog-to-digital converters adcs forward fft used convert back frequency domain returns formula_12 parallel streams converted binary stream using appropriate symbol detector streams re-combined serial stream formula_18 estimate original binary stream transmitter formula_12 subcarriers used subcarrier modulated using formula_20 alternative symbols ofdm symbol alphabet consists formula_21 combined symbols low-pass equivalent ofdm signal expressed formula_23 data symbols formula_12 number subcarriers formula_25 ofdm symbol time subcarrier spacing formula_26 makes orthogonal symbol period property expressed formula_28 denotes complex conjugate operator formula_29 kronecker delta avoid intersymbol interference multipath fading channels guard interval length formula_30 inserted prior ofdm block interval cyclic prefix transmitted signal interval formula_31 equals signal interval formula_32 ofdm signal cyclic prefix thus low-pass signal either real complex-valued real-valued low-pass equivalent signals typically transmitted baseband—wireline applications dsl use approach wireless applications low-pass signal typically complex-valued case transmitted signal up-converted carrier frequency formula_13 general transmitted signal represented ofdm used key features common ofdm-based systems presented following table ofdm used adsl connections follow ansi t1.413 g.dmt itu g.992.1 standards called discrete multitone modulation dmt dsl achieves high-speed data connections existing copper wires ofdm also used successor standards adsl2 adsl2+ vdsl vdsl2 g.fast adsl2 uses variable subcarrier modulation ranging bpsk 32768qam adsl terminology referred bit-loading bit per tone 1 15 bits per subcarrier long copper wires suffer attenuation high frequencies fact ofdm cope frequency selective attenuation narrow-band interference main reasons frequently used applications adsl modems ofdm used many powerline devices extend digital connections power wiring adaptive modulation particularly important noisy channel electrical wiring medium speed smart metering modems prime g3 use ofdm modest frequencies 30–100 khz modest numbers channels several hundred order overcome intersymbol interference power line environment ieee 1901 standards include two incompatible physical layers use ofdm itu-t g.hn standard provides high-speed local area networking existing home wiring power lines phone lines coaxial cables based phy layer specifies ofdm adaptive modulation low-density parity-check ldpc fec code ofdm extensively used wireless lan man applications including ieee 802.11a/g/n wimax ieee 802.11a/g/n operating 2.4 5 ghz bands specifies per-stream airside data rates ranging 6 54 mbit/s devices use ht mode added 802.11n top 20 mhz per-stream rate increased 72.2 mbit/s option data rates 13.5 150 mbit/s using 40 mhz channel four different modulation schemes used bpsk qpsk 16-qam 64-qam along set error correcting rates 1/2–5/6 multitude choices allows system adapt optimum data rate current signal conditions ofdm also used wimedia/ecma-368 standard high-speed wireless personal area networks 3.1–10.6 ghz ultrawideband spectrum see multiband-ofdm much europe asia adopted ofdm terrestrial broadcasting digital television dvb-t dvb-h t-dmb radio eureka 147 dab digital radio mondiale hd radio t-dmb directive european commission television services transmitted viewers european community must use transmission system standardized recognized european standardization body standard developed codified dvb project digital video broadcasting dvb framing structure channel coding modulation digital terrestrial television customarily referred dvb-t standard calls exclusive use cofdm modulation dvb-t widely used europe elsewhere terrestrial digital tv ground segments digital audio radio service sdars systems used xm satellite radio sirius satellite radio transmitted using coded ofdm cofdm word coded comes use forward error correction fec question relative technical merits cofdm versus 8vsb terrestrial digital television subject controversy especially european north american technologists regulators united states rejected several proposals adopt cofdm-based dvb-t system digital television services instead opted 8vsb vestigial sideband modulation operation one major benefits provided cofdm rendering radio broadcasts relatively immune multipath distortion signal fading due atmospheric conditions passing aircraft proponents cofdm argue resists multipath far better 8vsb early 8vsb dtv digital television receivers often difficulty receiving signal also cofdm allows single-frequency networks possible 8vsb however newer 8vsb receivers far better dealing multipath hence difference performance may diminish advances equalizer design cofdm also used radio standards digital audio broadcasting dab standard digital audio broadcasting vhf frequencies digital radio mondiale drm standard digital broadcasting shortwave medium wave frequencies 30 mhz drm+ recently introduced standard digital audio broadcasting vhf frequencies 30 174 mhz usa uses alternate standard proprietary system developed ibiquity dubbed hd radio however uses cofdm underlying broadcast technology add digital audio medium wave fm broadcasts digital radio mondiale hd radio classified in-band on-channel systems unlike eureka 147 dab digital audio broadcasting uses separate vhf uhf frequency bands instead band-segmented transmission orthogonal frequency division multiplexing bst-ofdm system proposed japan isdb-t isdb-tsb isdb-c broadcasting systems improves upon cofdm exploiting fact ofdm carriers may modulated differently others within multiplex forms cofdm already offer kind hierarchical modulation though bst-ofdm intended make flexible 6 mhz television channel may therefore segmented different segments modulated differently used different services possible example send audio service segment includes segment composed number carriers data service another segment television service yet another segment—all within 6 mhz television channel furthermore may modulated different parameters example audio data services could optimized mobile reception television service optimized stationary reception high-multipath environment ultra-wideband uwb wireless personal area network technology may also use ofdm multiband ofdm mb-ofdm uwb specification advocated wimedia alliance formerly multiband ofdm alliance mboa wimedia alliance two merged one competing uwb radio interfaces fast low-latency access seamless handoff orthogonal frequency division multiplexing flash-ofdm also referred f-ofdm based ofdm also specified higher protocol layers developed flarion purchased qualcomm january 2006 flash-ofdm marketed packet-switched cellular bearer compete gsm 3g networks example 450 mhz frequency bands previously used nmt-450 c-net c450 1g analogue networks mostly decommissioned europe licensed flash-ofdm operators finland license holder digita began deployment nationwide 450 wireless network parts country since april 2007 purchased datame 2011 february 2012 datame announced would upgrade 450 mhz network competing cdma2000 technology slovak telekom slovakia offers flash-ofdm connections maximum downstream speed 5.3 mbit/s maximum upstream speed 1.8 mbit/s coverage 70 percent slovak population flash-ofdm network switched majority slovakia 30 september 2015 t-mobile germany used flash-ofdm backhaul wi-fi hotspots deutsche bahn ice high speed trains 2005 2015 switching umts lte american wireless carrier nextel communications field tested wireless broadband network technologies including flash-ofdm 2005 sprint purchased carrier 2006 decided deploy mobile version wimax based scalable orthogonal frequency division multiple access sofdma technology citizens telephone cooperative launched mobile broadband service based flash-ofdm technology subscribers parts virginia march 2006 maximum speed available 1.5 mbit/s service discontinued april 30 2009 ofdm become interesting technique power line communications plc area research wavelet transform introduced replace dft method creating orthogonal frequencies due advantages wavelets offer particularly useful noisy power lines instead using idft create sender signal wavelet ofdm uses synthesis bank consisting formula_36-band transmultiplexer followed transform function receiver side analysis bank used demodulate signal bank contains inverse transform followed another formula_36-band transmultiplexer relationship transform functions example w-ofdm uses perfect reconstruction cosine modulated filter bank pr-cmfb extended lapped transform elt used wavelet tf thus formula_42 formula_43 given two functions respective inverses used modulate demodulate given input sequence case dft wavelet transform creates orthogonal waves formula_47 formula_48 ... formula_49 orthogonality ensures interfere sent simultaneously receiver formula_50 formula_51 ... formula_52 used reconstruct data sequence w-ofdm evolution standard ofdm certain advantages mainly sidelobe levels w-ofdm lower results less ici well greater robustness narrowband interference two properties especially useful plc lines n't shielded em-noise creates noisy channels noise spikes comparison two modulation techniques also reveals complexity algorithms remains approximately 1-hop neighbor's text information: orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing.orbital angular momentum multiplexing orbital angular momentum oam multiplexing physical layer method multiplexing signals carried electromagnetic waves using orbital angular momentum electromagnetic waves distinguish different orthogonal signals orbital angular momentum one two forms angular momentum light oam distinct confused light spin angular momentum spin angular momentum light offers two orthogonal quantum states corresponding two states circular polarization demonstrated equivalent combination polarization multiplexing phase shifting oam hand relies extended beam light higher quantum degrees freedom come extension oam multiplexing thus access potentially unbounded set states offer much larger number channels subject constraints real-world optics although oam multiplexing promises significant improvements bandwidth used concert existing modulation multiplexing schemes still experimental technique far demonstrated laboratory following early claim oam exploits new quantum mode information propagation technique become controversial however nowadays understood particular form tightly modulated mimo multiplexing strategy obeying classical information theoretic bounds oam multiplexing demonstrated using light beams free space early 2004 since research oam proceeded two areas radio frequency optical transmission experiment 2011 demonstrated oam multiplexing two incoherent radio signals distance 442 m. claimed oam improve achieved conventional linear-momentum based rf systems already use mimo since theoretical work suggests radio frequencies conventional mimo techniques shown duplicate many linear-momentum properties oam-carrying radio beam leaving little extra performance gain november 2012 reports disagreement basic theoretical concept oam multiplexing radio frequencies research groups tamburini thide many different camps communications engineers physicists declaring belief oam multiplexing implementation mimo others holding assertion oam multiplexing distinct experimentally confirmed phenomenon 2014 group researchers described implementation communication link 8 millimetre-wave channels multiplexed using combination oam polarization-mode multiplexing achieve aggregate bandwidth 32 gbit/s distance 2.5 metres results agree well predictions severely limited distances made edfors et al industrial interest long-distance microwave oam multiplexing seems diminishing since 2015 original promoters oam-based communication radio frequencies including siae microelettronica published theoretical investigation showing real gain beyond traditional spatial multiplexing terms capacity overall antenna occupation oam multiplexing used optical domain 2012 researchers demonstrated oam-multiplexed optical transmission speeds 2.5 tbits/s using 8 distinct oam channels single beam light short free-space path roughly one metre work ongoing applying oam techniques long-range practical free-space optical communication links oam multiplexing implemented existing long-haul optical fiber systems since systems based single-mode fibers inherently support oam states light instead few-mode multi-mode fibers need used additional problem oam multiplexing implementation caused mode coupling present conventional fibers cause changes spin angular momentum modes normal conditions changes orbital angular momentum fibers bent stressed mode instability direct-detection oam multiplexing yet realized long-haul communications 2012 transmission oam states 97 purity 20 meters special fibers demonstrated researchers boston university later experiments shown stable propagation modes distances 50 meters improvements distance subject ongoing work ongoing research making oam multiplexing work future fibre-optic transmission systems includes possibility using similar techniques used compensate mode rotation optical polarization multiplexing alternative direct-detection oam multiplexing computationally complex coherent-detection mimo digital signal processing dsp approach used achieve long-haul communication strong mode coupling suggested beneficial coherent-detection-based systems paper bozinovic et al published science 2013 claims successful demonstration oam-multiplexed fiber-optic transmission system 1.1 km test path test system capable using 4 different oam channels simultaneously using fiber vortex refractive-index profile also demonstrated combined oam wdm using apparatus using two oam modes 2014 articles g. milione et al h. huang et al claimed first successful demonstration oam-multiplexed fiber-optic transmission system 5 km conventional optical fiber i.e. optical fiber circular core graded index profile contrast work bozinovic et al. used custom optical fiber vortex refractive-index profile work g. milione et al h. huang et al showed oam multiplexing could used commercially available optical fibers using digital mimo post-processing correct mode mixing within fiber method sensitive changes system change mixing modes propagation changes bending fiber requires substantial computation resources scale larger numbers independent modes shows great promise 2018 zengji yue haoran ren shibiao wei jiao lin min gu royal melbourne institute technology miniaturised technology shrinking size large dinner table small chip could integrated communications networks chip could predict increase capacity fibre-optic cables least 100-fold likely higher technology developed 1-hop neighbor's text information: pulse-code_modulation.pulse-code modulation pulse-code modulation pcm method used digitally represent sampled analog signals standard form digital audio computers compact discs digital telephony digital audio applications pcm stream amplitude analog signal sampled regularly uniform intervals sample quantized nearest value within range digital steps linear pulse-code modulation lpcm specific type pcm quantization levels linearly uniform contrast pcm encodings quantization levels vary function amplitude a-law algorithm μ-law algorithm though pcm general term often used describe data encoded lpcm pcm stream two basic properties determine stream fidelity original analog signal sampling rate number times per second samples taken bit depth determines number possible digital values used represent sample early electrical communications started sample signals order multiplex samples multiple telegraphy sources convey single telegraph cable american inventor moses g. farmer conveyed telegraph time-division multiplexing tdm early 1853 electrical engineer w. m. miner 1903 used electro-mechanical commutator time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals also applied technology telephony obtained intelligible speech channels sampled rate 3500–4300 hz lower rates proved unsatisfactory 1920 bartlane cable picture transmission system used telegraph signaling characters punched paper tape send samples images quantized 5 levels 1926 paul m. rainey western electric patented facsimile machine transmitted signal using 5-bit pcm encoded opto-mechanical analog-to-digital converter machine go production british engineer alec reeves unaware previous work conceived use pcm voice communication 1937 working international telephone telegraph france described theory advantages practical application resulted reeves filed french patent 1938 us patent granted 1943 time reeves started working telecommunications research establishment first transmission speech digital techniques sigsaly encryption equipment conveyed high-level allied communications world war ii 1943 bell labs researchers designed sigsaly system became aware use pcm binary coding already proposed reeves 1949 canadian navy datar system ferranti canada built working pcm radio system able transmit digitized radar data long distances pcm late 1940s early 1950s used cathode-ray plate electrode encoding perforations oscilloscope beam swept horizontally sample rate vertical deflection controlled input analog signal causing beam pass higher lower portions perforated plate plate collected passed beam producing current variations binary code one bit time rather natural binary grid goodall later tube perforated produce glitch-free gray code produced bits simultaneously using fan beam instead scanning beam united states national inventors hall fame honored bernard m. oliver claude shannon inventors pcm described communication system employing pulse code modulation filed 1946 1952 granted 1956 another patent title filed john r. pierce 1945 issued 1948 three published philosophy pcm 1948 t-carrier system introduced 1961 uses two twisted-pair transmission lines carry 24 pcm telephone calls sampled 8 khz 8-bit resolution development improved capacity call quality compared previous frequency-division multiplexing schemes 1967 first pcm recorder developed nhk research facilities japan 30 khz 12-bit device used compander similar dbx noise reduction extend dynamic range stored signals video tape recorder 1969 nhk expanded system capabilities 2-channel stereo 32 khz 13-bit resolution january 1971 using nhk pcm recording system engineers denon recorded first commercial digital recordings 1972 denon unveiled first 8-channel digital recorder dn-023r used 4-head open reel broadcast video tape recorder record 47.25 khz 13-bit pcm audio 1977 denon developed portable pcm recording system dn-034r like dn-023r recorded 8 channels 47.25 khz used 14-bits emphasis making equivalent 15.5 bits 1973 adaptive differential pulse-code modulation adpcm developed p. cummiskey nikil jayant james l. flanagan compact disc cd brought pcm consumer audio applications introduction 1982 cd uses 44,100 hz sampling frequency 16-bit resolution stores 80 minutes stereo audio per disc pcm method encoding typically used uncompressed digital audio diagram sine wave red curve sampled quantized pcm sine wave sampled regular intervals shown vertical lines sample one available values y-axis chosen pcm process commonly implemented single integrated circuit called analog-to-digital converter adc produces fully discrete representation input signal blue points easily encoded digital data storage manipulation several pcm streams could also multiplexed larger aggregate data stream generally transmission multiple streams single physical link one technique called time-division multiplexing tdm widely used notably modern public telephone system electronics involved producing accurate analog signal discrete data similar used generating digital signal devices digital-to-analog converters dacs produce voltage current depending type represents value presented digital inputs output would generally filtered amplified use recover original signal sampled data demodulator apply procedure modulation reverse sampling period demodulator reads next value transitions output signal new value result transitions signal gains significant amount high-frequency energy due aliasing effects remove undesirable frequencies demodulator passes signal reconstruction filter suppress energy outside expected frequency range greater nyquist frequency formula_1 common sample depths lpcm 8 16 20 24 bits per sample lpcm encodes single sound channel support multichannel audio depends file format relies synchronization multiple lpcm streams two channels stereo common format systems support 8 audio channels 7.1 surround common sampling frequencies 48 khz used dvd format videos 44.1 khz used compact discs sampling frequencies 96 khz 192 khz used equipment benefits debated nyquist–shannon sampling theorem shows pcm devices operate without introducing distortions within designed frequency bands provide sampling frequency least twice highest frequency contained input signal example telephony usable voice frequency band ranges approximately 300 hz 3400 hz effective reconstruction voice signal telephony applications therefore typically uses 8000 hz sampling frequency twice highest usable voice frequency regardless potential sources impairment implicit pcm system forms pcm combine signal processing coding older versions systems applied processing analog domain part analog-to-digital process newer implementations digital domain simple techniques largely rendered obsolete modern transform-based audio compression techniques telephony standard audio signal single phone call encoded 8,000 samples per second 8 bits giving 64 kbit/s digital signal known ds0 default signal compression encoding ds0 either μ-law mu-law pcm north america japan a-law pcm europe rest world logarithmic compression systems 12- 13-bit linear pcm sample number mapped 8-bit value system described international standard g.711 circuit costs high loss voice quality acceptable sometimes makes sense compress voice signal even adpcm algorithm used map series 8-bit µ-law a-law pcm samples series 4-bit adpcm samples way capacity line doubled technique detailed g.726 standard later found even compression possible additional standards published international standards describe systems ideas covered privately owned patents thus use standards requires payments patent holders adpcm techniques used voice ip communications pcm either return-to-zero rz non-return-to-zero nrz nrz system synchronized using in-band information must long sequences identical symbols ones zeroes binary pcm systems density 1-symbols called ones-density ones-density often controlled using precoding techniques run length limited encoding pcm code expanded slightly longer code guaranteed bound ones-density modulation channel cases extra framing bits added stream guarantee least occasional symbol transitions another technique used control ones-density use scrambler polynomial raw data tend turn raw data stream stream looks pseudo-random raw stream recovered exactly reversing effect polynomial case long runs zeroes ones still possible output considered unlikely enough within normal engineering tolerance cases long term dc value modulated signal important building dc offset tend bias detector circuits operating range case special measures taken keep count cumulative dc offset modify codes necessary make dc offset always tend back zero many codes bipolar codes pulses positive negative absent typical alternate mark inversion code non-zero pulses alternate positive negative rules may violated generate special symbols used framing special purposes word pulse term pulse-code modulation refers pulses found transmission line perhaps natural consequence technique evolved alongside two analog methods pulse width modulation pulse position modulation information encoded represented discrete signal pulses varying width position respectively respect pcm bears little resemblance forms signal encoding except used time division multiplexing numbers pcm codes represented electrical pulses device performs coding decoding function telephone circuit called codec Target text information: modulation.modulation electronics telecommunications modulation process varying one properties periodic waveform called carrier signal modulating signal typically contains information transmitted radio systems 20th century used frequency modulation fm amplitude modulation radio broadcast modulator device performs modulation demodulator sometimes detector demod device performs demodulation inverse modulation modem modulator–demodulator perform operations aim analog modulation transfer analog baseband lowpass signal example audio signal tv signal analog bandpass channel different frequency example limited radio frequency band cable tv network channel aim digital modulation transfer digital bit stream analog communication channel example public switched telephone network bandpass filter limits frequency range 300–3400 hz limited radio frequency band analog digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing fdm several low pass information signals transferred simultaneously shared physical medium using separate passband channels several different carrier frequencies aim digital baseband modulation methods also known line coding transfer digital bit stream baseband channel typically non-filtered copper wire serial bus wired local area network aim pulse modulation methods transfer narrowband analog signal example phone call wideband baseband channel schemes bit stream another digital transmission system music synthesizers modulation may used synthesize waveforms extensive overtone spectrum using small number oscillators case carrier frequency typically order much lower modulating waveform see frequency modulation synthesis ring modulation synthesis analog modulation modulation applied continuously response analog information signal common analog modulation techniques include digital modulation analog carrier signal modulated discrete signal digital modulation methods considered digital-to-analog conversion corresponding demodulation detection analog-to-digital conversion changes carrier signal chosen finite number alternative symbols modulation alphabet simple example telephone line designed transferring audible sounds example tones digital bits zeros ones computers may however communicate telephone line means modems representing digital bits tones called symbols four alternative symbols corresponding musical instrument generate four different tones one time first symbol may represent bit sequence 00 second 01 third 10 fourth 11 modem plays melody consisting 1000 tones per second symbol rate 1000 symbols/second 1000 baud since tone i.e. symbol represents message consisting two digital bits example bit rate twice symbol rate i.e 2000 bits per second similar technique used dial-up modems opposed dsl modems according one definition digital signal modulated signal digital signal according another definition modulation form digital-to-analog conversion textbooks would consider digital modulation schemes form digital transmission synonymous data transmission would consider analog transmission fundamental digital modulation techniques based keying qam in-phase signal one example cosine waveform quadrature phase signal q example sine wave amplitude modulated finite number amplitudes summed seen two-channel system channel using ask resulting signal equivalent combination psk ask methods phases frequencies amplitudes assigned unique pattern binary bits usually phase frequency amplitude encodes equal number bits number bits comprises symbol represented particular phase frequency amplitude alphabet consists formula_1 alternative symbols symbol represents message consisting n bits symbol rate also known baud rate formula_2 symbols/second baud data rate formula_3 bit/second example alphabet consisting 16 alternative symbols symbol represents 4 bits thus data rate four times baud rate case psk ask qam carrier frequency modulated signal constant modulation alphabet often conveniently represented constellation diagram showing amplitude signal x-axis amplitude q signal y-axis symbol psk ask sometimes also fsk often generated detected using principle qam q signals combined complex-valued signal jq j imaginary unit resulting called equivalent lowpass signal equivalent baseband signal complex-valued representation real-valued modulated physical signal so-called passband signal rf signal general steps used modulator transmit data receiver side demodulator typically performs common digital communication systems design modulator demodulator must done simultaneously digital modulation schemes possible transmitter-receiver pair prior knowledge data encoded represented communications system digital communication systems modulator transmitter demodulator receiver structured perform inverse operations non-coherent modulation methods require receiver reference clock signal phase synchronized sender carrier signal case modulation symbols rather bits characters data packets asynchronously transferred opposite coherent modulation common digital modulation techniques msk gmsk particular cases continuous phase modulation indeed msk particular case sub-family cpm known continuous-phase frequency shift keying cpfsk defined rectangular frequency pulse i.e linearly increasing phase pulse one-symbol-time duration total response signaling ofdm based idea frequency-division multiplexing fdm multiplexed streams parts single original stream bit stream split several parallel data streams transferred sub-carrier using conventional digital modulation scheme modulated sub-carriers summed form ofdm signal dividing recombining help handling channel impairments ofdm considered modulation technique rather multiplex technique since transfers one bit stream one communication channel using one sequence so-called ofdm symbols ofdm extended multi-user channel access method orthogonal frequency-division multiple access ofdma multi-carrier code division multiple access mc-cdma schemes allowing several users share physical medium giving different sub-carriers spreading codes different users two kinds rf power amplifier switching amplifiers class amplifiers cost less use less battery power linear amplifiers output power however work relatively constant-amplitude-modulation signals angle modulation fsk psk cdma qam ofdm nevertheless even though switching amplifiers completely unsuitable normal qam constellations often qam modulation principle used drive switching amplifiers fm waveforms sometimes qam demodulators used receive signals put switching amplifiers automatic digital modulation recognition intelligent communication systems one important issues software defined radio cognitive radio according incremental expanse intelligent receivers automatic modulation recognition becomes challenging topic telecommunication systems computer engineering systems many civil military applications moreover blind recognition modulation type important problem commercial systems especially software defined radio usually systems extra information system configuration considering blind approaches intelligent receivers reduce information overload increase transmission performance obviously knowledge transmitted data many unknown parameters receiver signal power carrier frequency phase offsets timing information etc. blind identification modulation made fairly difficult becomes even challenging real-world scenarios multipath fading frequency-selective time-varying channels two main approaches automatic modulation recognition first approach uses likelihood-based methods assign input signal proper class another recent approach based feature extraction term digital baseband modulation digital baseband transmission synonymous line codes methods transfer digital bit stream analog baseband channel a.k.a lowpass channel using pulse train i.e discrete number signal levels directly modulating voltage current cable serial bus common examples unipolar non-return-to-zero nrz manchester alternate mark inversion ami codings pulse modulation schemes aim transferring narrowband analog signal analog baseband channel two-level signal modulating pulse wave pulse modulation schemes also allow narrowband analog signal transferred digital signal i.e. quantized discrete-time signal fixed bit rate transferred underlying digital transmission system example line code modulation schemes conventional sense since channel coding schemes considered source coding schemes cases analog-to-digital conversion techniques analog-over-analog methods analog-over-digital methods I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	7,400	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: opensmtpd.opensmtpd opensmtpd also known openbsd smtp server unix daemon implementing simple mail transfer protocol deliver messages local machine relay smtp servers publicly released 17 march 2013 version number 5.3 development since late 2008 opensmtpd primarily developed gilles chehade eric faurot charles longeau part openbsd project design goals include security reliability ease configuration support common use cases source code available isc license portable version like openssh developed child project adds portability code openbsd version releases separately portable version initiated charles longeau adds support multiple operating systems including netbsd freebsd dragonfly bsd several linux distributions development opensmtpd motivated combination issues current smtp daemons difficult configuration complicated difficult audit code unsuitable licensing opensmtpd designed solve problems make mail exchanges accessible wider user-base period development opensmtpd first appeared openbsd 4.6 first release shipped openbsd 5.3 2 october 2015 results security audit released version 5.4.4p1 audited nine issues found result opensmtpd 5.7.2 released address issues opensmtpd attempt openbsd team produce smtp daemon implementation secure reliable high performance simple security audit trivial set administer code designed keep memory cpu disk requirements low possible admitted large mail systems intended run low-end machines trade-offs made higher memory usage would bring indisputable benefits design goals opensmtpd security ease use performance security opensmtpd achieved robust validity check network input path use bounded buffer operations via strlcpy privilege separation mitigate effects possible security bugs exploiting daemon privilege escalation order simplify use smtp opensmtpd implements smaller set functionalities available smtp daemons objective provide enough features satisfy typical usage risk unsuitability esoteric niche requirements 1-hop neighbor's text information: gordano_messaging_suite.gordano messaging suite gms gms commercial mail groupware server developed gordano ltd runs windows linux solaris aix originally called ntmail first commercially available mail windows platform products rebranded gordano messaging suite august 2002 reflect support additional hardware platforms operating systems features gms include encrypted access using ssl anti-virus anti-spam protection over-the-air handheld synchronization web based webmail calendaring interfaces plugin microsoft outlook allowing microsoft exchange style functionality administration performed web browser using http native support full groupware features exists clients reviews version 15 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_information_services.internet information services internet information services iis formerly internet information server extensible web server created microsoft use windows nt family iis supports http http/2 https ftp ftps smtp nntp integral part windows nt family since windows nt 4.0 though may absent editions e.g windows xp home edition active default first microsoft web server research project european microsoft windows nt academic centre emwac part university edinburgh scotland distributed freeware however since emwac server unable handle volume traffic going microsoft.com microsoft forced develop web server iis almost every version iis released either alongside version microsoft windows versions iis prior 7.0 running client operating systems supported 10 simultaneous connections single website microsoft criticized vendors web server software including o'reilly associates netscape licensing early versions windows nt workstation edition os permitted ten simultaneous tcp/ip connections whereas expensive server edition otherwise additional features permitted unlimited connections bundled iis implied intended discourage consumers running alternative web server packages cheaper edition netscape wrote open letter antitrust division u.s. department justice regarding distinction product licensing asserted technical merit o'reilly showed user could remove enforced limits meant cripple nt 4.0 workstation web server two registry key changes trivial configuration file tweaking iis 6.0 higher support following authentication mechanisms iis 7.0 modular architecture modules also called extensions added removed individually modules required specific functionality installed iis 7 includes native modules part full installation modules individual features server uses process requests include following iis 7.5 includes following additional enhanced security features authentication changed slightly iis 6.0 iis 7 notably anonymous user named iusr_ machinename built-in account vista future operating systems named iusr notably iis 7 authentication mechanism isolated module installed uninstalled iis 8.0 offers new features targeted performance easier administration new features iis 8.5 several improvements related performance large-scale scenarios used commercial hosting providers microsoft cloud offerings also several added features related logging troubleshooting new features iis express lightweight 4.5–6.6 mb version iis available standalone freeware server may installed windows xp service pack 3 subsequent versions microsoft windows iis 7.5 express supports http https protocols portable stores configuration per-user basis require administrative privileges attempts avoid conflicting existing web servers machine iis express downloaded separately part webmatrix visual studio 2012 later visual studio 2010 earlier web developers developing asp.net apps used asp.net development server codenamed cassini default iis express serves local traffic iis releases new feature modules major version releases add new functionality following extensions available iis 7.5 according netcraft february 2014 iis market share sites 32.80 making second popular web server world behind apache http server 38.22 netcraft showed rising trend market share iis since 2012 14 february 2014 however w3techs shows different results according w3techs iis third used web server behind apache http server 1st place nginx furthermore shows consistently falling trend iis use since february 2013 netcraft data february 2017 indicates iis market share top million busiest sites 10.19 making third popular web server world behind apache 41.41 nginx 28.34 iis 4 iis 5 affected ca-2001-13 security vulnerability led infamous code red attack however versions 6.0 7.0 reported issues specific vulnerability iis 6.0 microsoft opted change behaviour pre-installed isapi handlers many culprits vulnerabilities 4.0 5.0 thus reducing attack surface iis addition iis 6.0 added feature called web service extensions prevents iis launching program without explicit permission administrator default iis 5.1 earlier run websites single process running context system account windows account administrative rights 6.0 request handling processes run context network service account significantly fewer privileges vulnerability feature custom code wo n't necessarily compromise entire system given sandboxed environment worker processes run iis 6.0 also contained new kernel http stack codice_1 stricter http request parser response cache static dynamic content according secunia iis 7 total six resolved vulnerabilities iis 6 total eleven vulnerabilities one still unpatched unpatched security advisory severity rating 2 5 june 2007 google study 80 million domains concluded iis market share 23 time iis servers hosted 49 world malware apache servers whose market share 66 study also observed geographical location dirty servers suggested cause could use unlicensed copies windows could obtain security updates microsoft blog post 28 april 2009 microsoft noted supplies security updates everyone without genuine verification 2013 mass surveillance disclosures made widely known iis particularly bad supporting perfect forward secrecy pfs especially used conjunction internet explorer possessing one long term asymmetric secret keys used establish https session make easier derive short term session key decrypt conversation even later time diffie–hellman key exchange dhe elliptic curve diffie–hellman key exchange ecdhe 2013 ones known property 30 firefox opera chromium browser sessions use nearly 0 apple safari microsoft internet explorer sessions Target text information: qpopper.qpopper qpopper one oldest popular server implementations pop3 free open-source server distributed bsd style license common choice internet service providers schools corporations organizations included several linux unix distributions qpopper longer maintained final version 4.1.0 released 2011 qpopper distributed qualcomm source code parties offer pre-compiled pre-configured versions various platforms qpopper ran wide variety platforms including virtually unix linux distribution mac os x even windows cygwin qpopper generally recognized fast stable secure commonly used standard unix mbox format inboxes spools also supported homedir mail mbox linear format messages stored sequentially qpopper supports number optimizations improve speed scalability including cache file maintain mailbox state sessions several optional i/o techniques qpopper started popper around 1989 university california berkeley qualcomm took 1993 renamed qpopper qualcomm original goal promote availability correct modern servers eudora mail client use also provide platform newer extensions I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	10,248	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: bcpl.bcpl bcpl basic combined programming language procedural imperative structured computer programming language originally intended writing compilers languages bcpl longer common use however influence still felt stripped syntactically changed version bcpl called b language c programming language based bcpl introduced several features many modern programming languages including using curly braces delimit code blocks bcpl designed small simple compilers could written reputedly compilers could run 16 kilobytes original compiler written bcpl easily portable bcpl thus popular choice bootstrapping system major reason compiler portability lay structure split two parts front end parsed source generated o-code back end took o-code translated code target machine 1/5 compiler code needed rewritten support new machine task usually took 2 5 man-months approach became common practice later e.g pascal java language unusual one data type word fixed number bits usually chosen align architecture machine word adequate capacity represent valid storage address many machines time data type 16-bit word choice later proved significant problem bcpl used machines smallest addressable item word byte machines larger word sizes 32-bit 64-bit interpretation value determined operators used process values example codice_1 added two values together treating integers codice_2 indirected value effectively treating pointer order work implementation provided type checking hungarian notation developed help programmers avoid inadvertent type errors mismatch bcpl word orientation byte-oriented hardware addressed several ways one providing standard library routines packing unpacking words byte strings later two language features added bit-field selection operator infix byte indirection operator denoted codice_3 bcpl handles bindings spanning separate compilation units unique way user-declarable global variables instead global vector similar blank common fortran data shared different compilation units comprises scalars pointers vectors stored pre-arranged place global vector thus header files files included compilation using get directive become primary means synchronizing global data compilation units containing global directives present lists symbolic names paired number associates name corresponding numerically addressed word global vector well variables global vector contains bindings external procedures makes dynamic loading compilation units simple achieve instead relying link loader underlying implementation effectively bcpl gives programmer control linking process global vector also made simple replace augment standard library routines program could save pointer global vector original routine replace pointer alternative version alternative might call original part processing could used quick ad hoc debugging aid bcpl first brace programming language braces survived syntactical changes become common means denoting program source code statements practice limited keyboards day source programs often used sequences codice_4 codice_5 place symbols codice_6 codice_7 single-line codice_8 comments bcpl adopted c reappeared c++ later c99 book bcpl language compiler describes philosophy bcpl follows programs run using martin richards current version cintsys december 2018 libhdr start writef must changed lower case avoid errors print factorials count solutions n queens problem bcpl first implemented martin richards university cambridge 1967 bcpl response difficulties predecessor cambridge programming language later renamed combined programming language cpl designed early 1960s richards created bcpl removing features full language make compilation difficult first compiler implementation ibm 7094 compatible time-sharing system ctss written richards visiting project mac massachusetts institute technology mit spring 1967 language first described paper presented 1969 spring joint computer conference bcpl rumored originally stood bootstrap cambridge programming language cpl never created since development stopped bcpl acronym later reinterpreted bcpl book bcpl language original hello world program written first mud also written bcpl mud1 several operating systems written partially wholly bcpl example tripos earliest versions amigados bcpl also initial language used seminal xerox parc alto project first modern personal computer among projects bravo document preparation system written bcpl early compiler bootstrapped 1969 starting paper tape o-code martin richards atlas 2 compiler targeted ict 1900 series two machines different word-lengths 48 vs 24 bits different character encodings different packed string representations—and successful bootstrapping increased confidence practicality method late 1970 implementations existed honeywell 635 honeywell 645 ibm 360 pdp-10 tx-2 cdc 6400 univac 1108 pdp-9 kdf 9 atlas 2 1974 dialect bcpl implemented bbn without using intermediate o-code initial implementation cross-compiler hosted bbn tenex pdp-10s directly targeted pdp-11s used bbn implementation second generation imps used arpanet also version produced bbc micro mid-1980s richards computer products company started john richards brother dr. martin richards bbc domesday project made use language versions bcpl amstrad cpc amstrad pcw computers also released 1986 uk software house arnor ltd. macbcpl released apple macintosh 1985 topexpress ltd kensington england design philosophy bcpl strongly influenced b turn influenced c. programmers time debated whether eventual successor c would called next letter alphabet p next letter parent language name language accepted c successor c++ codice_9 c increment operator although programming language also exists 1979 implementations bcpl existed least 25 architectures language gradually fell favour c became popular non-unix systems martin richards maintains modern version bcpl website last updated 2018 set run various systems including linux freebsd mac os x raspberry pi latest distribution includes graphics sound libraries comprehensive manual pdf format continues program including research musical automated score following 1-hop neighbor's text information: high-level_programming_language.high-level programming language computer science high-level programming language programming language strong abstraction details computer contrast low-level programming languages may use natural language elements easier use may automate even hide entirely significant areas computing systems e.g memory management making process developing program simpler understandable using lower-level language amount abstraction provided defines high-level programming language 1960s high-level programming languages using compiler commonly called autocodes examples autocodes cobol fortran first high-level programming language designed computers plankalkül created konrad zuse however implemented time original contributions largely isolated developments due world war ii aside language influence superplan language heinz rutishauser also degree algol first significantly widespread high-level language fortran machine-independent development ibm earlier autocode systems algol defined 1958 1960 committees european american computer scientists introduced recursion well nested functions lexical scope also first language clear distinction value name-parameters corresponding semantics algol also introduced several structured programming concepts while-do if-then-else constructs syntax first described formal notation – backus–naur form bnf roughly period cobol introduced records also called structs lisp introduced fully general lambda abstraction programming language first time high-level language refers higher level abstraction machine language rather dealing registers memory addresses call stacks high-level languages deal variables arrays objects complex arithmetic boolean expressions subroutines functions loops threads locks abstract computer science concepts focus usability optimal program efficiency unlike low-level assembly languages high-level languages language elements translate directly machine native opcodes features string handling routines object-oriented language features file input/output may also present one thing note high-level programming languages languages allow programmer detached separated machine unlike low-level languages like assembly machine language high-level programming amplify programmer instructions trigger lot data movements background without knowledge responsibility power executing instructions handed machine programmer high-level languages intend provide features standardize common tasks permit rich debugging maintain architectural agnosticism low-level languages often produce efficient code optimization specific system architecture abstraction penalty cost high-level programming techniques pay unable optimize performance use certain hardware n't take advantage certain low-level architectural resources high-level programming exhibits features like generic data structures operations run-time interpretation intermediate code files often result execution far operations necessary higher memory consumption larger binary program size reason code needs run particularly quickly efficiently may require use lower-level language even higher-level language would make coding easier many cases critical portions program mostly high-level language hand-coded assembly language leading much faster efficient simply reliably functioning optimised program however growing complexity modern microprocessor architectures well-designed compilers high-level languages frequently produce code comparable efficiency low-level programmers produce hand higher abstraction may allow powerful techniques providing better overall results low-level counterparts particular settings high-level languages designed independent specific computing system architecture facilitates executing program written language computing system compatible support interpreted jit program high-level languages improved designers develop improvements cases new high-level languages evolve one others goal aggregating popular constructs new improved features example scala maintains backward compatibility java means programs libraries written java continue usable even programming shop switches scala makes transition easier lifespan high-level coding indefinite contrast low-level programs rarely survive beyond system architecture written without major revision engineering 'trade-off 'abstraction penalty examples high-level programming languages active use today include python visual basic delphi perl php ecmascript ruby c java many others terms high-level low-level inherently relative decades ago c language similar languages often considered high-level supported concepts expression evaluation parameterised recursive functions data types structures assembly language considered low-level today many programmers might refer c low-level lacks large runtime-system garbage collection etc basically supports scalar operations provides direct memory addressing therefore readily blends assembly language machine level cpus microcontrollers assembly language may regarded higher level often still one-to-one used without macros representation machine code supports concepts constants limited expressions sometimes even variables procedures data structures machine code turn inherently slightly higher level microcode micro-operations used internally many processors three general modes execution modern high-level languages note languages strictly interpreted languages compiled languages rather implementations language behavior use interpreting compiling example algol 60 fortran interpreted even though typically compiled similarly java shows difficulty trying apply labels languages rather implementations java compiled bytecode executed either interpreting java virtual machine jvm compiling typically just-in-time compiler hotspot jvm moreover compiling transcompiling interpreting strictly limited description compiler artifact binary executable il assembly alternatively possible high-level language directly implemented computer – computer directly executes hll code known high-level language computer architecture – computer architecture designed targeted specific high-level language burroughs large systems target machines algol 60 example 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_operating_systems.list operating systems list operating systems computer operating systems categorized technology ownership licensing working state usage many characteristics practice many groupings may overlap criteria inclusion notability shown either existing wikipedia article citation reliable source non-unix operating systems still confirmed see also mobile operating systems Target text information: mesa_(programming_language).mesa programming language mesa programming language developed late 1970s xerox palo alto research center palo alto california united states language name pun based upon programming language catchphrases time mesa high level programming language mesa algol-like language strong support modular programming every library module least two source files definitions file specifying library interface plus one program files specifying implementation procedures interface use library program higher-level library must import definitions mesa compiler type-checks uses imported entities combination separate compilation type-checking unusual time mesa introduced several innovations language design implementation notably handling software exceptions thread synchronization incremental compilation mesa developed xerox alto one first personal computers graphical user interface however alto system software written bcpl mesa system programming language later xerox star workstations globalview desktop environment xerox parc later developed cedar superset mesa mesa cedar major influence design important languages modula-2 java important vehicle development dissemination fundamentals guis networked environments advances xerox contributed field computer science mesa originally designed computer systems laboratory csl branch xerox palo alto research center alto experimental micro-coded workstation initially spread confined parc universities xerox donated altos mesa later adopted systems programming language xerox commercial workstations xerox 8010 xerox star dandelion xerox 6085 daybreak particular pilot operating system secondary development environment called xerox development environment xde allowed developers debug operating system pilot well viewpoint gui applications using world swap mechanism allowed entire state world swapped allowed low level system crashes paralyzed whole system debugged technique scale well large application images several megabytes pilot/mesa world later releases moved away world swap view micro-coded machines phased favor sparc workstations intel pcs running mesa princops emulator basic hardware instruction set mesa compiled stack-machine language purportedly highest code density ever achieved roughly 4 bytes per high-level language statement touted 1981 paper implementors xerox systems development department development arm parc tuned instruction set published paper resultant code density mesa taught via mesa programming course took people wide range technology xerox available time ended programmer writing hack workable program designed useful actual example hack bwsmagnifier written 1988 allowed people magnify sections workstation screen defined resizable window changeable magnification factor trained mesa programmers xerox well versed fundamental guis networking exceptions multi-threaded programming almost decade became standard tools trade within xerox mesa eventually superseded cedar programming language many mesa programmers developers left xerox 1985 went dec systems research center used experience mesa design modula-2+ later modula-3 mesa strongly typed programming language type-checking across module boundaries enough flexibility type system heap allocators could written mesa strict separation interface implementation mesa allows true incremental compilation encourages architecture- platform-independent programming also simplified source-level debugging including remote debugging via ethernet mesa rich exception handling facilities four types exceptions support thread synchronization via monitors mesa first language implement monitor broadcast concept introduced pilot operating system mesa imperative algebraic syntax based algol pascal rather bcpl c instance compound commands indicated keywords rather braces mesa keywords written uppercase due peculiarity ascii variant used parc alto character set included left-pointing arrow ← rather underscore result alto programmers including using mesa smalltalk etc conventionally used camelcase compound identifiers practice incorporated parc standard programming style hand availability left-pointing arrow allowed use assignment operator originally algol mesa designers wanted implement exception facility hired recent m.s graduate colorado written thesis exception handling facilities algorithmic languages led richest exception facility time primitives language type-safe checks verify full coverage signal handling uncaught exceptions common cause bugs released software xerox parc later developed cedar superset mesa number additions including garbage collection better string support called ropes later native compiler sun sparc workstations importantly cedar contained type-safe subset compiler subset-checking mode ensure deterministic execution memory leaks conformant cedar code mesa precursor programming language cedar cedar main additions garbage collection dynamic types limited form type parameterization special syntax identify type-safe parts multi-module software package I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	7,158	test
[''] Target text information: recovery_procedure.recovery procedure telecommunication recovery procedure process attempts bring system back normal operating state examples I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,108	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: lisp_(programming_language).lisp programming language lisp historically lisp family computer programming languages long history distinctive fully parenthesized prefix notation originally specified 1958 lisp second-oldest high-level programming language widespread use today fortran older one year lisp changed since early days many dialects existed history today best-known general-purpose lisp dialects clojure common lisp scheme lisp originally created practical mathematical notation computer programs influenced notation alonzo church lambda calculus quickly became favored programming language artificial intelligence ai research one earliest programming languages lisp pioneered many ideas computer science including tree data structures automatic storage management dynamic typing conditionals higher-order functions recursion self-hosting compiler read–eval–print loop name lisp derives list processor linked lists one lisp major data structures lisp source code made lists thus lisp programs manipulate source code data structure giving rise macro systems allow programmers create new syntax new domain-specific languages embedded lisp interchangeability code data gives lisp instantly recognizable syntax program code written s-expressions parenthesized lists function call syntactic form written list function operator name first arguments following instance function takes three arguments would called john mccarthy developed lisp 1958 massachusetts institute technology mit mccarthy published design paper communications acm 1960 entitled recursive functions symbolic expressions computation machine part showed simple operators notation functions one build turing-complete language algorithms information processing language first ai language 1955 1956 already included many concepts list-processing recursion came used lisp mccarthy original notation used bracketed m-expressions would translated s-expressions example m-expression equivalent s-expression lisp implemented programmers rapidly chose use s-expressions m-expressions abandoned m-expressions surfaced short-lived attempts mlisp horace enea cgol vaughan pratt lisp first implemented steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions two assembly language macros ibm 704 became primitive operations decomposing lists contents address part register number contents decrement part register number register used refer registers computer central processing unit cpu lisp dialects still use operations return first item list rest list respectively first complete lisp compiler written lisp implemented 1962 tim hart mike levin mit compiler introduced lisp model incremental compilation compiled interpreted functions intermix freely language used hart levin memo much closer modern lisp style mccarthy earlier code lisp difficult system implement compiler techniques stock hardware 1970s garbage collection routines developed mit graduate student daniel edwards made practical run lisp general-purpose computing systems efficiency still problem led creation lisp machines dedicated hardware running lisp environments programs 1980s 1990s great effort made unify work new lisp dialects mostly successors maclisp zetalisp nil new implementation lisp single language new language common lisp somewhat compatible dialects replaced book common lisp language notes compatibility various constructs 1994 ansi published common lisp standard ansi x3.226-1994 information technology programming language common lisp since inception lisp closely connected artificial intelligence research community especially pdp-10 systems lisp used implementation programming language micro planner used famous ai system shrdlu 1970s ai research spawned commercial offshoots performance existing lisp systems became growing issue sixty-year history lisp spawned many variations core theme s-expression language moreover given dialect may several implementations—for instance dozen implementations common lisp differences dialects may quite visible—for instance common lisp uses keyword codice_1 name function scheme uses codice_2 within dialect standardized however conforming implementations support core language different extensions libraries declined somewhat 1990s lisp experienced resurgence interest 2000 new activity focused around implementations common lisp scheme emacs lisp clojure racket includes development new portable libraries applications many new lisp programmers inspired writers paul graham eric s. raymond pursue language others considered antiquated new lisp programmers often describe language eye-opening experience claim substantially productive languages increase awareness may contrasted ai winter lisp brief gain mid-1990s dan weinreb lists survey common lisp implementations eleven actively maintained common lisp implementations scieneer common lisp new commercial implementation forked cmucl first release 2002 open source community created new supporting infrastructure cliki wiki collects common lisp related information common lisp directory lists resources lisp popular irc channel allows sharing commenting code snippets support lisppaste irc bot written lisp planet lisp collects contents various lisp-related blogs lispforum users discuss lisp topics lispjobs service announcing job offers weekly news service weekly lisp news common-lisp.net hosting site open source common lisp projects quicklisp library manager common lisp fifty years lisp 1958–2008 celebrated lisp50 oopsla regular local user meetings boston vancouver hamburg events include european common lisp meeting european lisp symposium international lisp conference scheme community actively maintains twenty implementations several significant new implementations chicken gambit gauche ikarus larceny ypsilon developed 2000s decade revised report algorithmic language scheme standard scheme widely accepted scheme community scheme requests implementation process created lot quasi standard libraries extensions scheme user communities individual scheme implementations continue grow new language standardization process started 2003 led rrs scheme standard 2007 academic use scheme teaching computer science seems declined somewhat universities longer using scheme computer science introductory courses mit uses python instead scheme undergraduate computer science program mitx massive open online course several new dialects lisp arc hy nu liskell lfe lisp flavored erlang parser julia implemented femtolisp dialect scheme julia inspired scheme often considered lisp common lisp scheme represent two major streams lisp development languages embody significantly different design choices common lisp successor maclisp primary influences lisp machine lisp maclisp nil s-1 lisp spice lisp scheme many features lisp machine lisp large lisp dialect used program lisp machines designed efficiently implementable personal computer workstation common lisp general-purpose programming language thus large language standard including many built-in data types functions macros language elements object system common lisp object system common lisp also borrowed certain features scheme lexical scoping lexical closures common lisp implementations available targeting different platforms llvm java virtual machine x86-64 powerpc alpha arm motorola 68000 mips operating systems windows macos linux solaris freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd heroku scheme statically scoped properly tail-recursive dialect lisp programming language invented guy l. steele jr. gerald jay sussman designed exceptionally clear simple semantics different ways form expressions designed decade earlier common lisp scheme minimalist design much smaller set standard features certain implementation features tail-call optimization full continuations specified common lisp wide variety programming paradigms including imperative functional message passing styles find convenient expression scheme scheme continues evolve series standards revised report algorithmic language scheme series scheme requests implementation clojure recent dialect lisp targets mainly java virtual machine common language runtime clr python vm ruby vm yarv compiling javascript designed pragmatic general-purpose language clojure draws considerable influences haskell places strong emphasis immutability clojure provides access java frameworks libraries optional type hints type inference calls java avoid reflection enable fast primitive operations lisp dialects used scripting languages many applications best-known emacs lisp emacs editor autolisp later visual lisp autocad nyquist audacity scheme lilypond potential small size useful scheme interpreter makes particularly popular embedded scripting examples include siod tinyscheme successfully embedded gimp image processor generic name script-fu librep lisp interpreter john harper originally based emacs lisp language embedded sawfish window manager lisp first language structure program code represented faithfully directly standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed homoiconicity thus lisp functions manipulated altered even created within lisp program without lower-level manipulations generally considered one main advantages language regard expressive power makes language suitable syntactic macros metacircular evaluation conditional using if–then–else syntax invented mccarthy fortran context proposed inclusion algol made part algol 58 specification lisp mccarthy used general cond -structure algol 60 took if–then–else popularized lisp deeply influenced alan kay leader research team developed smalltalk xerox parc turn lisp influenced smalltalk later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features inheritance classes encapsulating instances message passing etc 1970s flavors object system introduced concept multiple inheritance mixin common lisp object system provides multiple inheritance multimethods multiple dispatch first-class generic functions yielding flexible powerful form dynamic dispatch served template many subsequent lisp including scheme object systems often implemented via metaobject protocol reflective metacircular design object system defined terms lisp second language smalltalk still one languages possess metaobject system many years later alan kay suggested result confluence features smalltalk lisp could regarded properly conceived object-oriented programming systems lisp introduced concept automatic garbage collection system walks heap looking unused memory progress modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms generational garbage collection stimulated use lisp edsger w. dijkstra 1972 turing award lecture said largely resource requirements respect early computing hardware including early microprocessors lisp become popular outside ai community fortran algol-descended c language suitability complex dynamic applications lisp enjoying resurgence popular interest 2010s lisp expression oriented language unlike languages distinction made expressions statements code data written expressions expression evaluated produces value common lisp possibly multiple values embedded expressions value data type mccarthy 1958 paper introduced two types syntax symbolic expressions s-expressions sexps mirror internal representation code data meta expressions m-expressions express functions s-expressions m-expressions never found favor almost lisps today use s-expressions manipulate code data use parentheses lisp immediately obvious difference programming language families result students long given lisp nicknames lost stupid parentheses lots irritating superfluous parentheses however s-expression syntax also responsible much lisp power syntax extremely regular facilitates manipulation computer however syntax lisp limited traditional parentheses notation extended include alternative notations example xmlisp common lisp extension employs metaobject protocol integrate s-expressions extensible markup language xml reliance expressions gives language great flexibility lisp functions written lists processed exactly like data allows easy writing programs manipulate programs metaprogramming many lisp dialects exploit feature using macro systems enables extension language almost without limit lisp list written elements separated whitespace surrounded parentheses example list whose elements three atoms values implicitly typed respectively two integers lisp-specific data type called symbol declared empty list also represented special atom entity lisp atom list expressions written lists using prefix notation first element list name function name macro lambda expression name special operator see remainder list arguments example function returns arguments list expression evaluates list quote preceding example special operator returns argument without evaluating unquoted expressions recursively evaluated enclosing expression evaluated example evaluates list note third argument list lists nested arithmetic operators treated similarly expression evaluates 10 equivalent infix notation would lisp notion operators implemented algol-derived languages arithmetic operators lisp variadic functions n-ary able take number arguments c-style '++ increment operator sometimes implemented name incf giving syntax equivalent setq x x 1 returning new value x special operators sometimes called special forms provide lisp control structure example special operator takes three arguments first argument non-nil evaluates second argument otherwise evaluates third argument thus expression evaluates course would useful non-trivial expression substituted place lisp also provides logical operators operators short circuit evaluation return first nil non-nil argument respectively evaluate james another special operator used bind variables values evaluated within expression operator also used create functions arguments list arguments expression expressions function evaluates returned value value last expression evaluated expression evaluates function applied takes one argument binds returns number one greater argument lambda expressions treated differently named functions invoked way therefore expression evaluates 're function application execute anonymous function passing value 5 named functions created storing lambda expression symbol using defun macro original lisp two fundamental data types atoms lists list finite ordered sequence elements element either atom list atom number symbol symbol essentially unique named item written alphanumeric string source code used either variable name data item symbolic processing example list contains three elements symbol list number 2 essential difference atoms lists atoms immutable unique two atoms appeared different places source code written exactly way represented object whereas list separate object could altered independently lists could distinguished lists comparison operators data types introduced later lisp dialects programming styles evolved concept atom lost importance many dialects still retained predicate atom legacy compatibility defining true object cons lisp list implemented singly linked list cell list called cons scheme pair composed two pointers called car cdr respectively equivalent fields discussed article linked list many data structures built cons cells one basic called proper list proper list either special empty list symbol cons points datum may another cons structure list points another proper list given cons taken head linked list car points first element list cdr points rest list reason functions also called referring conses part linked list rather say tree thus lisp list atomic object instance container class c++ java would list nothing aggregate linked conses variable refers given list simply pointer first cons list traversal list done cdring list taking successive cdrs visit cons list using several higher-order functions map function list conses lists universal lisp systems common misconception lisp data structures fact simplistic lisps data structures vectors arrays hash tables structures forth parenthesized s-expressions represent linked list structures several ways represent list s-expression cons written dotted-pair notation car cdr longer proper list might written dotted-pair notation conventionally abbreviated list notation improper list may written combination two – list three conses whose last cdr i.e. list fully specified form lisp provides many built-in procedures accessing controlling lists lists created directly procedure takes number arguments returns list arguments way lists constructed cons pairs procedure used add element front list note procedure asymmetric handles list arguments lists constructed procedure appends two lists one another lisp lists linked lists appending two lists asymptotic time complexity formula_1 lisp lists simple linked lists share structure one another say two lists tail final sequence conses instance execution following common lisp code lists respectively however tail structure lists copy cons cells pointing memory locations lists sharing structure rather copying give dramatic performance improvement however technique interact undesired ways functions alter lists passed arguments altering one list replacing affect changes thereby also changes – possibly unexpected result source bugs functions alter arguments documented destructive reason aficionados functional programming avoid destructive functions scheme dialect favors functional style names destructive functions marked cautionary exclamation point bang —such read set car bang replaces car cons common lisp dialect destructive functions commonplace equivalent named replace car function rarely seen however common lisp includes special facility make easier define use destructive functions frequent style common lisp write code functionally without destructive calls prototyping add destructive calls optimization safe lisp evaluates expressions entered user symbols lists evaluate usually simpler expression – instance symbol evaluates value variable names evaluates however forms evaluate entering lisp returns expression also marked prevent evaluated necessary symbols lists role special operator abbreviation one quotation mark instance usually entering symbol returns value corresponding variable error variable refer literal symbol enter usually common lisp scheme also support backquote operator termed quasiquote scheme entered character grave accent almost plain quote except allows expressions evaluated values interpolated quoted list comma unquote comma-at splice operators variable value evaluates evaluates backquote often used defining macro expansions self-evaluating forms quoted forms lisp equivalent literals may possible modify values mutable literals program code instance function returns quoted form code calls function modifies form may alter behavior function subsequent iterations modifying quoted form like generally considered bad style defined ansi common lisp erroneous resulting undefined behavior compiled files file-compiler coalesce similar constants put write-protected memory etc. lisp formalization quotation noted douglas hofstadter gödel escher bach others example philosophical idea self-reference lisp family splits use dynamic static a.k.a lexical scope clojure common lisp scheme make use static scoping default newlisp picolisp embedded languages emacs autocad use dynamic scoping since version 24.1 emacs uses dynamic lexical scoping fundamental distinction lisp languages lisp textual representation program simply human-readable description internal data structures linked lists symbols number characters etc would used underlying lisp system lisp uses implement powerful macro system like macro languages c macro returns code compiled however unlike c macros macros lisp functions exploit full power lisp lisp code structure lists macros built list-processing functions language short anything lisp data structure lisp macros code contrast languages parser output purely internal language implementation manipulated programmer feature makes easy develop efficient languages within languages example common lisp object system implemented cleanly language extension using macros means application needs different inheritance mechanism use different object system stark contrast languages example java support multiple inheritance reasonable way add simplistic lisp implementations list structure directly interpreted run program function literally piece list structure traversed interpreter executing however substantial lisp systems also include compiler compiler translates list structure machine code bytecode execution code run fast code compiled conventional languages c. macros expand compilation step thus offer interesting options program needs precomputed table macro might create table compile time compiler need output table need call code create table run time lisp implementations even mechanism codice_3 allows code present compile time macro would need present emitted module lisp languages often used interactive command line may combined integrated development environment ide user types expressions command line directs ide transmit lisp system lisp reads entered expressions evaluates prints result reason lisp command line called read–eval–print loop repl basic operation repl follows simplistic description omits many elements real lisp quoting macros function accepts textual s-expressions input parses internal data structure instance type text prompt translates linked list three elements symbol number 1 number 2 happens list also valid piece lisp code evaluated car list names function—the addition operation note read single symbol read number one hundred twenty-three read string 123 function evaluates data returning zero lisp data result evaluation mean interpretation lisp systems compile every expression native machine code simple however describe evaluation interpretation evaluate list whose car names function first evaluates arguments given cdr applies function arguments case function addition applying argument list yields answer result evaluation symbol evaluates value symbol foo data like string 123 evaluates string list evaluates list 1 2 3 job function represent output user simple result trivial expression evaluated piece list structure would require traverse list print s-expression implement lisp repl necessary implement three functions infinite-loop function naturally implementation complex since must also implement special operators like done basic repl one line code lisp repl typically also provides input editing input history error handling interface debugger lisp usually evaluated eagerly common lisp arguments evaluated applicative order 'leftmost innermost scheme order arguments undefined leaving room optimization compiler lisp originally control structures many added language evolution lisp original conditional operator precursor later structures programmers scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion scheme commonality academic computer science led students believe tail recursion common way write iterations lisp incorrect oft-seen lisp dialects imperative-style iteration constructs scheme loop common lisp complex expressions moreover key issue makes objective rather subjective matter scheme makes specific requirements handling tail calls thus reason use tail recursion generally encouraged scheme practice expressly supported language definition contrast ansi common lisp require optimization commonly termed tail call elimination thus fact tail recursive style casual replacement use traditional iteration constructs discouraged common lisp matter stylistic preference potentially one efficiency since apparent tail call common lisp may compile simple jump program correctness since tail recursion may increase stack use common lisp risking stack overflow lisp control structures special operators equivalent languages syntactic keywords expressions using operators surface appearance function calls differ arguments necessarily evaluated—or case iteration expression may evaluated contrast major programming languages lisp allows implementing control structures using language several control structures implemented lisp macros even macro-expanded programmer wants know work common lisp scheme operators non-local control flow differences operators deepest differences two dialects scheme supports re-entrant continuations using procedure allows program save later restore particular place execution common lisp support re-entrant continuations support several ways handling escape continuations often algorithm expressed lisp either imperative functional style noted scheme tends favor functional style using tail recursion continuations express control flow however imperative style still quite possible style preferred many common lisp programmers may seem familiar programmers used structured languages c preferred schemers closely resembles pure-functional languages haskell lisp early heritage list processing wide array higher-order functions relating iteration sequences many cases explicit loop would needed languages like loop c lisp task accomplished higher-order function true many functional programming languages good example function scheme called common lisp called given function one lists applies function successively lists elements order collecting results new list applies function corresponding pair list elements yielding result examples common lisp code basic hello world program lisp syntax lends naturally recursion mathematical problems enumeration recursively defined sets simple express notation evaluate number factorial alternative implementation takes less stack space previous version underlying lisp system optimizes tail recursion contrast iterative version uses common lisp macro following function reverses list lisp built-in reverse function thing various object systems models built top alongside lisp including 1-hop neighbor's text information: cpmulator.cpmulator cpmulator program emulate cp/m operating system x86 dos program developed 1984 keystone software development company owned operated jay sprenkle nec v20 processor released year guaranteed hardware compatible intel 8088 reviewing instruction timing math operations instruction addressing hardware determined could slightly speed existing 8088 based ibm pc machines keystone software started advertising pc speedup kits pcweek magazine cpu socketed ibm pc could easily replaced practice programs received 5 speed increase math intensive much improved one customer reported monte carlo simulation nuclear reactor much faster double checked results could n't believe finished cpmulator developed release v20 processor also able emulate intel 8080 instruction set hardware opened possibility running older code new ibm machines cpmulator designed modify cp/m binaries make run native 8088 dos programs code put cpu emulation mode prefixed cp/m executable calls cp/m operating system intercepted translated dos operating system calls program would leave 8080 emulation mode make operating system call translate results cp/m standards returned emulation mode continue original program product went production class machines became prevalent nec produced v series pin pin compatible version 80286 processor 1-hop neighbor's text information: preemption_(computing).preemption computing computing preemption act temporarily interrupting task carried computer system without requiring cooperation intention resuming task later time changes executed task known context switches normally carried privileged task part system known preemptive scheduler power preempt interrupt later resume tasks system given system design operations performed system may preemptible usually applies kernel functions service interrupts permitted run completion would tend produce race conditions resulting deadlock barring scheduler preempting tasks processing kernel functions simplifies kernel design expense system responsiveness distinction user mode kernel mode determines privilege level within system may also used distinguish whether task currently preemptible modern systems preemptive kernels designed permit tasks preempted even kernel mode examples systems solaris 2.0/sunos 5.0 windows nt linux kernel 2.6.x newer aix bsd systems netbsd since version 5 term preemptive multitasking used distinguish multitasking operating system permits preemption tasks cooperative multitasking system wherein processes tasks must explicitly programmed yield need system resources simple terms preemptive multitasking involves use interrupt mechanism suspends currently executing process invokes scheduler determine process execute next therefore processes get amount cpu time given time preemptive multitasking operating system kernel also initiate context switch satisfy scheduling policy priority constraint thus preempting active task general preemption means prior seizure high priority task instance seizes currently running task known preemptive scheduling term preemptive multitasking sometimes mistakenly used intended meaning specific referring instead class scheduling policies known time-shared scheduling time-sharing preemptive multitasking allows computer system reliably guarantee process regular slice operating time also allows system rapidly deal important external events like incoming data might require immediate attention one another process specific time processes grouped two categories waiting input output called i/o bound fully utilizing cpu cpu bound early systems processes would often poll busywait waiting requested input disk keyboard network input time process performing useful work still maintained complete control cpu advent interrupts preemptive multitasking i/o bound processes could blocked put hold pending arrival necessary data allowing processes utilize cpu arrival requested data would generate interrupt blocked processes could guaranteed timely return execution although multitasking techniques originally developed allow multiple users share single machine soon became apparent multitasking useful regardless number users many operating systems mainframes single-user personal computers no-user control systems like robotic spacecraft recognized usefulness multitasking support variety reasons multitasking makes possible single user run multiple applications time run background processes retaining control computer period time process allowed run preemptive multitasking system generally called time slice quantum scheduler run every time slice choose next process run length time slice critical balancing system performance vs process responsiveness time slice short scheduler consume much processing time time slice long processes take longer respond input interrupt scheduled allow operating system kernel switch processes time slices expire effectively allowing processor time shared number tasks giving illusion dealing tasks parallel simultaneously operating system controls design called multi-tasking system today nearly operating systems support preemptive multitasking including current versions windows macos linux including android ios earliest operating systems available home users featuring preemptive multitasking sinclair qdos 1984 amiga os 1985 ran motorola 68000-family microprocessors without memory management amiga os used dynamic loading relocatable code blocks hunks amiga jargon multitask preemptively processes flat address space early pc operating systems ms-dos pc dos support multitasking however alternative operating systems mp/m-86 1981 concurrent cp/m-86 support preemptive multitasking unix-like systems including minix coherent provided preemptive multitasking 1980s-era personal computers later dos versions natively supporting preemptive multitasking/multithreading include concurrent dos multiuser dos novell dos later called caldera opendos dr-dos 7.02 higher since concurrent dos 386 could also run multiple dos programs concurrently virtual dos machines earliest version windows support limited form preemptive multitasking windows 2.1x used intel 80386 virtual 8086 mode run dos applications virtual 8086 machines commonly known dos boxes could preempted windows 95 98 32-bit applications made preemptive running one separate address space 16-bit applications remained cooperative backward compatibility windows 3.1x protected mode kernel virtual device drivers ran preemptively 16-bit applications non-preemptive shared address space preemptive multitasking always supported windows nt versions os/2 native applications unix unix-like systems linux bsd macos vms os/360 many operating systems designed use academic medium-to-large business markets although plans upgrade cooperative multitasking found classic mac os preemptive model preemptive api exist mac os 9 although limited sense abandoned favor mac os x called macos hybrid old mac system style nextstep operating system based mach kernel derived part bsd always provided unix-like preemptive multitasking Target text information: gary_kildall.gary kildall gary arlen kildall may 19 1942 – july 11 1994 american computer scientist microcomputer entrepreneur created cp/m operating system founded digital research inc. dri kildall one first people see microprocessors fully capable computers rather equipment controllers organize company around concept also co-hosted pbs tv show computer chronicles although career computing spanned two decades mainly remembered connection ibm unsuccessful attempt 1980 license cp/m ibm personal computer gary kildall born grew seattle washington family operated seamanship school father joseph kildall captain norwegian heritage mother emma half-swedish gary grandmother born långbäck sweden skellefteå municipality emigrated canada 23 years age gary attended university washington uw hoping become mathematics teacher became increasingly interested computer technology receiving degree fulfilled draft obligation united states navy teaching naval postgraduate school nps monterey california within hour drive silicon valley kildall heard first commercially available microprocessor intel 4004 bought one processors began writing experimental programs learn processors worked intel consultant days kildall briefly returned uw finished doctorate computer science 1972 resumed teaching nps published paper introduced theory data-flow analysis used today optimizing compilers continued experiment microcomputers emerging technology floppy disks intel lent systems using 8008 8080 processors 1973 developed first high-level programming language microprocessors called pl/m created cp/m year enable 8080 control floppy drive combining first time essential components computer microcomputer scale demonstrated cp/m intel intel little interest chose market pl/m instead kildall wife dorothy established company originally called intergalactic digital research later renamed digital research inc market cp/m advertisements hobbyist magazines digital research licensed cp/m imsai 8080 popular clone altair 8800 manufacturers licensed cp/m became de facto standard support increasing number hardware variations response kildall pioneered concept bios set simple programs stored computer hardware rom eprom chip enabled cp/m run different systems without modification cp/m quick success took kildall surprise slow update high density floppy disks hard disk drives hardware manufacturers talked creating rival operating system kildall started rush project develop cp/m 2 1981 peak popularity cp/m ran 3,000 different computer models dri 5.4 million yearly revenues ibm presided john r. opel approached digital research 1980 bill gates suggestion negotiate purchase forthcoming version cp/m called cp/m-86 ibm pc gary left negotiations wife dorothy usually colleague developer mp/m operating system tom rolander used gary private airplane deliver software manufacturer bill godbout ibm representatives would explain purpose visit insisted dorothy sign non-disclosure agreement advice dri attorney gerry davis dorothy refused sign agreement without gary approval gary returned afternoon tried move discussion ibm forward accounts disagree whether signed non-disclosure agreement well ever met ibm representatives various reasons given two companies failing reach agreement dri products might unwilling sell main product ibm one-time payment rather usual royalty-based plan dorothy might believed company could deliver cp/m-86 ibm proposed schedule company busy developing implementation pl/i programming language data general also possible ibm representatives might annoyed dri spent hours considered routine formality according kildall ibm representatives took flight florida night dorothy took vacation negotiated flight reaching handshake agreement ibm lead negotiator jack sams insisted never met gary one ibm colleague confirmed sams said time accepted someone else group might flight noted flew back seattle talk microsoft sams related story gates already agreed provide basic interpreter several programs pc gates impression story gary capriciously went flying would later tell reporters sams left gates task finding usable operating system weeks later proposed using operating system 86-dos—an independently developed operating system implemented kildall cp/m api—from seattle computer products scp paul allen negotiated licensing deal scp allen 86-dos adapted ibm hardware ibm shipped ibm pc dos kildall obtained copy pc dos examined concluded infringed cp/m asked gerry davis legal options available davis told intellectual property law software clear enough sue instead kildall threatened ibm legal action ibm responded proposal offer cp/m-86 option pc return release liability kildall accepted believing ibm new system like previous personal computers would significant commercial success ibm pc introduced ibm sold operating system unbundled option one operating system options pc dos priced us 40 pc dos seen practically necessary option software titles required without ibm pc limited built-in cassette basic cp/m-86 shipped months later six times expensive 240 sold poorly dos enjoyed far less software support loss ibm deal gary dorothy found pressure bring experienced management gary influence company waned worked various experimental research projects version cp/m multitasking mp/m implementation logo programming language hoped logo educational dialect lisp would supplant basic education seeing demonstration apple lisa kildall oversaw creation dri graphical user interface called gem novell acquired dri 1991 deal netted millions kildall kildall also pursued computing-related projects outside dri seven years 1983 1990 co-hosted public television program side called computer chronicles followed trends personal computing 1984 started another company activenture adapted optical disc technology computer use early 1985 renamed knowledgeset released first computer encyclopedia june 1985 cd-rom version grolier academic american encyclopedia named electronic encyclopedia later acquired banta corporation kildall final business venture known prometheus light sound pls based austin texas developed home pbx system integrated land-line telephones mobile phones kildall colleagues recall creative easygoing adventurous addition flying loved sports cars auto racing boating lifelong love sea although kildall preferred leave ibm affair past known work afterward continually faced comparisons bill gates well fading memories contributions legend grew around fateful ibm-dri meeting encouraged gates various journalists suggesting kildall irresponsibly taken day recreational flight became tired constantly refute story later years occasional private expressions bitterness overshadowed microsoft kildall annoyed university washington asked distinguished graduate attend computer science program anniversary 1992 gave keynote speech gates dropout harvard response started writing memoir computer connections memoir distributed friends expressed frustration people seem value elegance software said gates divisive manipulative user taken much industry appendix called dos plain simple theft first 26 system calls worked cp/m accused ibm contriving price difference pc dos cp/m-86 order marginalize cp/m journalist harold evans used memoir source chapter kildall 2004 book made america concluding microsoft robbed kildall inventions ibm veterans pc project disputed book description events microsoft described one-sided inaccurate august 2016 kildall family made first part memoir available public selling dri novell made kildall wealthy man moved west lake hills suburb austin austin house lakeside property stalls several sports cars plus video studio basement kildall owned flew learjet least one boat lake austin also participated volunteer efforts assist children hiv/aids owned mansion panoramic ocean view pebble beach california near headquarters dri july 8 1994 kildall fell monterey california biker bar hit head exact circumstances injury remain unclear alcoholic later years various sources claimed fell chair fell steps assaulted walked franklin street bar grill wearing harley-davidson leathers checked hospital twice died three days later community hospital monterey peninsula autopsy next day conclusively determine cause death cp/m usenet faq says concussed fall died heart attack connection two unclear buried evergreen washelli memorial park north seattle following announcement kildall death bill gates commented one original pioneers pc revolution creative computer scientist excellent work although competitors always tremendous respect contributions pc industry untimely death unfortunate work missed march 1995 kildall posthumously honored software publishers association software information industry association contributions microcomputer industry april 2014 city pacific grove installed commemorative plaque outside kildall former residence also served early headquarters digital research I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,548	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: information_assurance.information assurance information assurance ia practice assuring information managing risks related use processing storage transmission information data systems processes used purposes information assurance includes protection integrity availability authenticity non-repudiation confidentiality user data uses physical technical administrative controls accomplish tasks focused predominantly information digital form full range ia encompasses digital also analog physical form protections apply data transit physical electronic forms well data rest various types physical electronic storage facilities ia best thought superset information security i.e umbrella term business outcome information risk management information assurance ia process getting right information right people right time ia benefits business use information risk management trust management resilience appropriate architecture system safety security increases utility information authorized users reduces utility information unauthorized strongly related field information security also business continuity ia relates business level strategic risk management information related systems rather creation application security controls therefore addition defending malicious hackers code e.g. viruses ia practitioners consider corporate governance issues privacy regulatory standards compliance auditing business continuity disaster recovery relate information systems information security draws primarily computer science ia interdisciplinary field requiring expertise business accounting user experience fraud examination forensic science management science systems engineering security engineering criminology addition computer science information assurance also term used governments including government united kingdom provision holistic security information systems use term interdisciplinary approach set somewhat lessened security/ systems engineering business continuity/ enterprise resilience forensic investigation threat analysis considered management science accounting criminology considered developing mitigation risks developed risk assessments conducted hmg information assurance standard 1 2 replaced hmg information security standard 2 sets principles requirements risk management accordance principles one information assurance standards currently used within uk public sector information assurance process typically begins enumeration classification information assets protected next ia practitioner perform risk assessment assets vulnerabilities information assets determined order enumerate threats capable exploiting assets assessment considers probability impact threat exploiting vulnerability asset impact usually measured terms cost asset stakeholders sum products threats impact probability occurring total risk information asset risk assessment complete ia practitioner develops risk management plan plan proposes countermeasures involve mitigating eliminating accepting transferring risks considers prevention detection response threats framework published standards organization nist rmf risk cobit pci dss iso/iec 27002 may guide development countermeasures may include technical tools firewalls anti-virus software policies procedures requiring controls regular backups configuration hardening employee training security awareness organizing personnel dedicated computer emergency response team cert computer security incident response team csirt cost benefit countermeasure carefully considered thus ia practitioner seek eliminate risks possible manage cost-effective way risk management plan implemented tested evaluated often means formal audits ia process iterative one risk assessment risk management plan meant periodically revised improved based data gathered completeness effectiveness number international national bodies issue standards information assurance practices policies procedures uk include information assurance advisory council information assurance collaboration group information assurance also evolved due social media 1-hop neighbor's text information: hmg_infosec_standard_no.1.hmg infosec standard no.1 hmg information assurance standard no.1 usually abbreviated is1 security standard applied government computer systems uk standard used assess – suggest responses – technical risks confidentiality integrity availability government information modelling technique used standard adaptation domain based security confidentiality terms is1 apply information protectively marked may still used assess risks integrity availability information uk cabinet office security policy framework requires ict systems manage government information interconnected assessed identify technical risks is1 standard method mandated previous versions security policy framework methods may used results is1 assessment responses risks recorded using hmg information assurance standard no.2 usually abbreviated is2 concerns risk management relevant accreditation government computer systems cesg provides is1 risk assessment tools hmg is2 full accreditation statement based hmg is1 itshc security health check deloitte subsequent remediation recipero interface recipero nmpr uk government pnc systems used track mobile devices law enforcement purposes posted publicly public hmg is2 full accreditation statement based actual itshc deloitte case puts auditor reputation line way confidential statement 1-hop neighbor's text information: institute_of_information_security_professionals.institute information security professionals institute information security professionals iisp independent non-profit body governed members principal objective advancing professionalism information security practitioners thereby professionalism industry whole primary aim institute provide universally accepted focal point information security profession institute information security professionals membership representing 8,000 individuals globally throughout industry academia government iisp offices evesham worcestershire southwark london institute hqs based evesham close cyber-hubs cheltenham malvern institute run members elected board directors dr alastair macwillson chairman one main activities act accreditation authority industry part government investment cyber security iisp consortium including crest rhul appointed ncsc provide certification uk government information assurance ia professionals consortium awarded licence issue cesg certified professional ccp mark based skills framework part certification scheme driven ncsc ia arm gchq full membership institute information security professional standard endorses knowledge experience professionalism individual field award membership levels competency-based sets apart purely knowledge-based qualifications awarded professionals demonstrate breadth depth knowledge substantial practical experience iisp number regional branches developed members based london united kingdom institute established 2006 information security professionals 2007 institute developed iisp skills framework framework describes range competencies expected information security information assurance professionals effective performance roles developed collaboration private public sector organisations academics security leaders 2012 part government investment cyber security iisp consortium appointed ncsc formally cesg provide certification uk government information assurance ia professionals iisp defined set information security skills skill levels skill definitions supplemented ncsc enable certification bodies make formal assessments others make informal assessments ia skill levels Target text information: cesg_listed_adviser_scheme.cesg listed adviser scheme cesg listed adviser scheme programme run cesg provide pool information assurance consultants government departments public-sector bodies uk clas consultants advised systems handle protectively marked information including secret instance may advised gsi accreditation clas consultants held security clearance least sc clas consultants developed risk assessments line is1 risk management accreditation document sets rmads line is2 2011 entry clas closed replacement system designed 2013 'new clas implemented open membership 'new clas required members cesg certified professionals clas closed january 2016 cesg certified professional ccp scheme recognises expertise working information assurance cyber security arenas government industry sets standard ia professionals working sector provides rigorous independent assessment competence ia professionals ccp status endorsement ia expertise confirms information risk support business managed balanced pragmatic way clas closed ccp cesg-approved credential applies individual professionals rather companies I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,423	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: rootkit.rootkit rootkit collection computer software typically malicious designed enable access computer area software otherwise allowed example unauthorized user often masks existence existence software term rootkit concatenation root traditional name privileged account unix-like operating systems word kit refers software components implement tool term rootkit negative connotations association malware rootkit installation automated attacker install obtained root administrator access obtaining access result direct attack system i.e exploiting known vulnerability privilege escalation password obtained cracking social engineering tactics like phishing installed becomes possible hide intrusion well maintain privileged access key root administrator access full control system means existing software modified including software might otherwise used detect circumvent rootkit detection difficult rootkit may able subvert software intended find detection methods include using alternative trusted operating system behavioral-based methods signature scanning difference scanning memory dump analysis removal complicated practically impossible especially cases rootkit resides kernel reinstallation operating system may available solution problem dealing firmware rootkits removal may require hardware replacement specialized equipment term rootkit root kit originally referred maliciously modified set administrative tools unix-like operating system granted root access intruder could replace standard administrative tools system rootkit intruder could obtain root access system whilst simultaneously concealing activities legitimate system administrator first-generation rootkits trivial detect using tools tripwire compromised access information lane davis steven dake wrote earliest known rootkit 1990 sun microsystems sunos unix operating system lecture gave upon receiving turing award 1983 ken thompson bell labs one creators unix theorized subverting c compiler unix distribution discussed exploit modified compiler would detect attempts compile unix codice_1 command generate altered code would accept user correct password additional backdoor password known attacker additionally compiler would detect attempts compile new version compiler would insert exploits new compiler review source code codice_1 command updated compiler would reveal malicious code exploit equivalent rootkit first documented computer virus target personal computer discovered 1986 used cloaking techniques hide brain virus intercepted attempts read boot sector redirected elsewhere disk copy original boot sector kept time dos-virus cloaking methods became sophisticated advanced techniques including hooking low-level disk int 13h bios interrupt calls hide unauthorized modifications files first malicious rootkit windows nt operating system appeared 1999 trojan called ntrootkit created greg hoglund followed hackerdefender 2003 first rootkit targeting mac os x appeared 2009 stuxnet worm first target programmable logic controllers plc 2005 sony bmg published cds copy protection digital rights management software called extended copy protection created software company first 4 internet software included music player silently installed rootkit limited user ability access cd software engineer mark russinovich created rootkit detection tool rootkitrevealer discovered rootkit one computers ensuing scandal raised public awareness rootkits cloak rootkit hid user file starting sys soon russinovich report malware appeared took advantage vulnerability affected systems one bbc analyst called public relations nightmare sony bmg released patches uninstall rootkit exposed users even serious vulnerability company eventually recalled cds united states class-action lawsuit brought sony bmg greek wiretapping case 2004-05 also referred greek watergate involved illegal telephone tapping 100 mobile phones vodafone greece network belonging mostly members greek government top-ranking civil servants taps began sometime near beginning august 2004 removed march 2005 without discovering identity perpetrators intruders installed rootkit targeting ericsson axe telephone exchange according ieee spectrum first time rootkit observed special-purpose system case ericsson telephone switch rootkit designed patch memory exchange running enable wiretapping disabling audit logs patch commands list active processes active data blocks modify data block checksum verification command backdoor allowed operator sysadmin status deactivate exchange transaction log alarms access commands related surveillance capability rootkit discovered intruders installed faulty update caused sms texts undelivered leading automated failure report generated ericsson engineers called investigate fault discovered hidden data blocks containing list phone numbers monitored along rootkit illicit monitoring software modern rootkits elevate access rather used make another software payload undetectable adding stealth capabilities rootkits classified malware payloads bundled malicious example payload might covertly steal user passwords credit card information computing resources conduct unauthorized activities small number rootkits may considered utility applications users example rootkit might cloak cd-rom-emulation driver allowing video game users defeat anti-piracy measures require insertion original installation media physical optical drive verify software legitimately purchased rootkits payloads many uses instances rootkits provide desired functionality may installed intentionally behalf computer user least five types rootkit ranging lowest level firmware highest privileges least privileged user-based variants operate ring 3 hybrid combinations may occur spanning example user mode kernel mode user-mode rootkits run ring 3 along applications user rather low-level system processes number possible installation vectors intercept modify standard behavior application programming interfaces apis inject dynamically linked library .dll file windows .dylib file mac os x processes thereby able execute inside target process spoof others sufficient privileges simply overwrite memory target application injection mechanisms include kernel-mode rootkits run highest operating system privileges ring 0 adding code replacing portions core operating system including kernel associated device drivers operating systems support kernel-mode device drivers execute privileges operating system many kernel-mode rootkits developed device drivers loadable modules loadable kernel modules linux device drivers microsoft windows class rootkit unrestricted security access difficult write complexity makes bugs common bugs code operating kernel level may seriously impact system stability leading discovery rootkit one first widely known kernel rootkits developed windows nt 4.0 released phrack magazine 1999 greg hoglund kernel rootkits especially difficult detect remove operate security level operating system thus able intercept subvert trusted operating system operations software antivirus software running compromised system equally vulnerable situation part system trusted rootkit modify data structures windows kernel using method known direct kernel object manipulation dkom method used hide processes kernel mode rootkit also hook system service descriptor table ssdt modify gates user mode kernel mode order cloak similarly linux operating system rootkit modify system call table subvert kernel functionality common rootkit creates hidden encrypted filesystem hide malware original copies files infected operating systems evolving counter threat kernel-mode rootkits example 64-bit editions microsoft windows implement mandatory signing kernel-level drivers order make difficult untrusted code execute highest privileges system kernel-mode rootkit variant called bootkit infect startup code like master boot record mbr volume boot record vbr boot sector way used attack full disk encryption systems example attack disk encryption evil maid attack attacker installs bootkit unattended computer envisioned scenario maid sneaking hotel room victims left hardware bootkit replaces legitimate boot loader one control typically malware loader persists transition protected mode kernel loaded thus able subvert kernel example stoned bootkit subverts system using compromised boot loader intercept encryption keys passwords recently alureon rootkit successfully subverted requirement 64-bit kernel-mode driver signing windows 7 modifying master boot record although malware sense something user n't want certain vista loader windows loader software work similar way injecting acpi slic system licensed internal code table ram-cached version bios boot order defeat windows vista windows 7 activation process vector attack rendered useless non-server versions windows 8 use unique machine-specific key system used one machine many antivirus companies provide free utilities programs remove bootkits rootkits created type ii hypervisors academia proofs concept exploiting hardware virtualization features intel vt amd-v type rootkit runs ring -1 hosts target operating system virtual machine thereby enabling rootkit intercept hardware calls made original operating system unlike normal hypervisors load operating system load operating system promoting virtual machine hypervisor rootkit make modifications kernel target subvert however mean detected guest operating system example timing differences may detectable cpu instructions subvirt laboratory rootkit developed jointly microsoft university michigan researchers academic example virtual machine–based rootkit vmbr blue pill software another 2009 researchers microsoft north carolina state university demonstrated hypervisor-layer anti-rootkit called hooksafe provides generic protection kernel-mode rootkits windows 10 introduced new feature called device guard takes advantage virtualization provide independent external protection operating system rootkit-type malware firmware rootkit uses device platform firmware create persistent malware image hardware router network card hard drive system bios rootkit hides firmware firmware usually inspected code integrity john heasman demonstrated viability firmware rootkits acpi firmware routines pci expansion card rom october 2008 criminals tampered european credit card-reading machines installed devices intercepted transmitted credit card details via mobile phone network march 2009 researchers alfredo ortega anibal sacco published details bios-level windows rootkit able survive disk replacement operating system re-installation months later learned laptops sold legitimate rootkit known absolute computrace absolute lojack laptops preinstalled many bios images anti-theft technology system researchers showed turned malicious purposes intel active management technology part intel vpro implements out-of-band management giving administrators remote administration remote management remote control pcs involvement host processor bios even system powered remote administration includes remote power-up power-down remote reset redirected boot console redirection pre-boot access bios settings programmable filtering inbound outbound network traffic agent presence checking out-of-band policy-based alerting access system information hardware asset information persistent event logs information stored dedicated memory hard drive accessible even os pc powered functions require deepest level rootkit second non-removable spy computer built around main computer sandy bridge future chipsets ability remotely kill restore lost stolen pc via 3g hardware rootkits built chipset help recover stolen computers remove data render useless also present privacy security concerns undetectable spying redirection management hackers might gain control rootkits employ variety techniques gain control system type rootkit influences choice attack vector common technique leverages security vulnerabilities achieve surreptitious privilege escalation another approach use trojan horse deceiving computer user trusting rootkit installation program benign—in case social engineering convinces user rootkit beneficial installation task made easier principle least privilege applied since rootkit explicitly request elevated administrator-level privileges classes rootkits installed someone physical access target system rootkits may also installed intentionally owner system somebody authorized owner e.g purpose employee monitoring rendering subversive techniques unnecessary malicious rootkit installations commercially driven pay-per-install ppi compensation method typical distribution installed rootkit takes active measures obscure presence within host system subversion evasion standard operating system security tools application programming interface apis used diagnosis scanning monitoring rootkits achieve modifying behavior core parts operating system loading code processes installation modification drivers kernel modules obfuscation techniques include concealing running processes system-monitoring mechanisms hiding system files configuration data uncommon rootkit disable event logging capacity operating system attempt hide evidence attack rootkits theory subvert operating system activities perfect rootkit thought similar perfect crime one nobody realizes taken place rootkits also take number measures ensure survival detection cleaning antivirus software addition commonly installing ring 0 kernel-mode complete access system include polymorphism changing signature hard detect stealth techniques regeneration disabling turning anti-malware software installing virtual machines may easier researchers discover analyze fundamental problem rootkit detection operating system subverted particularly kernel-level rootkit trusted find unauthorized modifications components actions requesting list running processes list files directory trusted behave expected words rootkit detectors work running infected systems effective rootkits defect camouflage run lower user-mode privileges detection software kernel computer viruses detection elimination rootkits ongoing struggle sides conflict detection take number different approaches including looking virus signatures e.g antivirus software integrity checking e.g digital signatures difference-based detection comparison expected vs. actual results behavioral detection e.g monitoring cpu usage network traffic kernel-mode rootkits detection considerably complex requiring careful scrutiny system call table look hooked functions malware may subverting system behavior well forensic scanning memory patterns indicate hidden processes unix rootkit detection offerings include zeppoo chkrootkit rkhunter ossec windows detection tools include microsoft sysinternals rootkitrevealer avast antivirus sophos anti-rootkit f-secure radix gmer windowsscope rootkit detectors prove effective ultimately contribute ineffectiveness malware authors adapt test code escape detection well-used tools detection examining storage suspect operating system operational miss rootkits recognised checking software rootkit active suspicious behavior suppressed conventional anti-malware software running rootkit operational may fail rootkit hides effectively best reliable method operating-system-level rootkit detection shut computer suspected infection check storage booting alternative trusted medium e.g rescue cd-rom usb flash drive technique effective rootkit actively hide presence running behavioral-based approach detecting rootkits attempts infer presence rootkit looking rootkit-like behavior example profiling system differences timing frequency api calls overall cpu utilization attributed rootkit method complex hampered high incidence false positives defective rootkits sometimes introduce obvious changes system alureon rootkit crashed windows systems security update exposed design flaw code logs packet analyzer firewall intrusion prevention system may present evidence rootkit behaviour networked environment antivirus products rarely catch viruses public tests depending used extent even though security software vendors incorporate rootkit detection products rootkit attempt hide antivirus scan stealth detector may notice rootkit attempts temporarily unload system signature detection fingerprinting still find combined approach forces attackers implement counterattack mechanisms retro routines attempt terminate antivirus programs signature-based detection methods effective well-published rootkits less specially crafted custom-root rootkits another method detect rootkits compares trusted raw data tainted content returned api example binaries present disk compared copies within operating memory operating systems in-memory image identical on-disk image results returned file system windows registry apis checked raw structures underlying physical disks—however case former valid differences introduced operating system mechanisms like memory relocation shimming rootkit may detect presence difference-based scanner virtual machine latter commonly used perform forensic analysis adjust behaviour differences detected difference-based detection used russinovich rootkitrevealer tool find sony drm rootkit code signing uses public-key infrastructure check file modified since digitally signed publisher alternatively system owner administrator use cryptographic hash function compute fingerprint installation time help detect subsequent unauthorized changes on-disk code libraries however unsophisticated schemes check whether code modified since installation time subversion prior time detectable fingerprint must re-established time changes made system example installing security updates service pack hash function creates message digest relatively short code calculated bit file using algorithm creates large changes message digest even smaller changes original file recalculating comparing message digest installed files regular intervals trusted list message digests changes system detected monitored—as long original baseline created malware added more-sophisticated rootkits able subvert verification process presenting unmodified copy file inspection making code modifications memory reconfiguration registers later compared white list expected values code performs hash compare extend operations must also protected—in context notion immutable root-of-trust holds first code measure security properties system must trusted ensure rootkit bootkit compromise system fundamental level forcing complete dump virtual memory capture active rootkit kernel dump case kernel-mode rootkit allowing offline forensic analysis performed debugger resulting dump file without rootkit able take measures cloak technique highly specialized may require access non-public source code debugging symbols memory dumps initiated operating system always used detect hypervisor-based rootkit able intercept subvert lowest-level attempts read memory—a hardware device one implements non-maskable interrupt may required dump memory scenario virtual machines also make easier analyze memory compromised machine underlying hypervisor rootkits avoid infecting virtual machines reason manual removal rootkit often difficult typical computer user number security-software vendors offer tools automatically detect remove rootkits typically part antivirus suite microsoft monthly windows malicious software removal tool able detect remove classes rootkits also windows defender offline remove rootkits runs trusted environment operating system starts antivirus scanners bypass file system apis vulnerable manipulation rootkit instead access raw file system structures directly use information validate results system apis identify differences may caused rootkit experts believe reliable way remove re-install operating system trusted media antivirus malware removal tools running untrusted system may ineffective well-written kernel-mode rootkits booting alternative operating system trusted media allow infected system volume mounted potentially safely cleaned critical data copied off—or alternatively forensic examination performed lightweight operating systems windows pe windows recovery console windows recovery environment bartpe live distros used purpose allowing system cleaned even type nature rootkit known manual repair may impractical re-installing operating system applications safer simpler quicker like much malware used attackers many rootkit implementations shared easily available internet uncommon see compromised system sophisticated publicly available rootkit hides presence unsophisticated worms attack tools apparently written inexperienced programmers rootkits available internet originated exploits academic proofs concept demonstrate varying methods hiding things within computer system taking unauthorized control often fully optimized stealth rootkits sometimes leave unintended evidence presence even rootkits used attack often effective rootkits keylogging features gameguard installed part online commercial games system hardening represents one first layers defence rootkit prevent able install applying security patches implementing principle least privilege reducing attack surface installing antivirus software standard security best practices effective classes malware new secure boot specifications like unified extensible firmware interface designed address threat bootkits even vulnerable security features offer utilized server systems remote server attestation using technologies intel trusted execution technology txt provide way verifying servers remain known good state example microsoft bitlocker encryption data-at-rest verifies servers known good state bootup privatecore vcage software offering secures data-in-use memory avoid bootkits rootkits verifying servers known good state bootup privatecore implementation works concert intel txt locks server system interfaces avoid potential bootkits rootkits 1-hop neighbor's text information: amazingports.amazingports amazingports linux-based software product customized use firewall captive portal billing system hotspots project started 2001 amazingports mainly deployed access control system private public networks deployed single hotspot controller airports hotels private locations hospitals used internet cafes europe 2002 together intel used city-wide wi-fi project 2004 internet roaming 2002 amazingports created 2001 initial vision building free networks later company refocused provided technology network builders company implemented service-oriented provisioning 2002 first implement 802.11a public hotspots europe 2009 2010 administrative system updated features include 1-hop neighbor's text information: dr._web.dr web dr.web software suite developed russian anti-malware company doctor web first released 1992 became first anti-virus service russia company also offers anti-spam solutions used yandex scan e-mail attachments also features add-on major browsers checks links online version dr web dr.web withdrawn av tests virus bulletin vb100 around 2008 stating believe virus scans viruses different subject real world malware attacks staunch anti-adware policy led software developers complaints dr web treated virus free applications virus receive responds dr web try contact dr web resolve issue dr.web discovered trojan backdoor.flashback variant affected 600,000 macs dr.web discovered trojan.skimer.18 trojan works like atm software skimmer trojan intercept transmit bank card information processed atms well data stored card pin code dr.web discovered ransomware linux.encoder.1 affected 2,000 linux users linux.encoder.2 discovered later turned earlier version ransomware doctor web received threat supposedly trojan writers criminal organization sponsoring malware development promotion march 31 two arson attacks carried igor daniloff anti-virus laboratory st. petersburg company received second threat doctor web released statement company considers duty provide users ultimate protection encroachments cybercriminals consequently efforts aimed identifying studying atm threats atm shield Target text information: zonealarm.zonealarm zonealarm internet security software company provides consumer antivirus firewall products zonealarm developed zone labs acquired march 2004 check point zonealarm firewall security products include inbound intrusion detection system well ability control programs create outbound connections august 2015 zonealarm introduced 100 virus-free guarantee extreme security product zonealarm program access controlled way zones network connections divided trusted zone generally includes user local area network share resources files printers internet zone includes everything trusted zone user specify permissions trusted zone client trusted zone server internet zone client internet zone server give program attempts access internet e.g running first time alternatively zonealarm ask user give program permission first access attempt true vector internet monitor also known truevector security engine windows service core zonealarm processes list image name vsmon.exe monitors internet traffic generates alerts disallowed access operating system firewall osfirewall monitors programs generates alerts perform suspicious behaviors osfirewall useful preventing rootkits spyware smartdefense advisor name zonealarm give service available versions helps user certain types alert using database trusted program signatures provide user advice allowing denying internet access response program requests current free version zonealarm ad paid version pops every single time turn computer short delay free pro editions zonealarm firewall designated pcmag editor ’ choice 2017 january 2006 zonealarm reportedly sending data company servers covert fashion developer dismissed allegations zonealarm spying clients saying issue related software updates would fixed december 2007 browser toolbar shipped zonealarm opt-out well received removed later versions software september 2 2010 free version zonealarm started showing global virus alert popup scareware tactic get users switch paid security suite popup turned zonealarm marketing team uproar disgruntled users many uninstalled software I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,049	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: python_(programming_language).python programming language python interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language created guido van rossum first released 1991 python design philosophy emphasizes code readability notable use significant whitespace language constructs object-oriented approach aim help programmers write clear logical code small large-scale projects python dynamically typed garbage-collected supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming python often described batteries included language due comprehensive standard library python conceived late 1980s successor abc language python 2.0 released 2000 introduced features like list comprehensions garbage collection system capable collecting reference cycles python 3.0 released 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible much python 2 code run unmodified python 3 due concern amount code written python 2 support python 2.7 last release 2.x series extended 2020 language developer guido van rossum shouldered sole responsibility project july 2018 shares leadership member five-person steering council python interpreters available many operating systems global community programmers develops maintains cpython open source reference implementation non-profit organization python software foundation manages directs resources python cpython development python conceived late 1980s guido van rossum centrum wiskunde informatica cwi netherlands successor abc language inspired setl capable exception handling interfacing amoeba operating system implementation began december 1989 van rossum continued python lead developer july 12 2018 announced permanent vacation responsibilities python benevolent dictator life title python community bestowed upon reflect long-term commitment project chief decision-maker january 2019 active python core developers elected brett cannon nick coghlan barry warsaw carol willing van rossum five-member steering council lead project python 2.0 released 16 october 2000 many major new features including cycle-detecting garbage collector support unicode python 3.0 released 3 december 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible many major features backported python 2.6.x 2.7.x version series releases python 3 include codice_1 utility automates least partially translation python 2 code python 3 python 2.7 end-of-life date initially set 2015 postponed 2020 concern large body existing code could easily forward-ported python 3 january 2017 google announced work python 2.7 go transcompiler improve performance concurrent workloads python multi-paradigm programming language object-oriented programming structured programming fully supported many features support functional programming aspect-oriented programming including metaprogramming metaobjects magic methods many paradigms supported via extensions including design contract logic programming python uses dynamic typing combination reference counting cycle-detecting garbage collector memory management also features dynamic name resolution late binding binds method variable names program execution python design offers support functional programming lisp tradition codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 functions list comprehensions dictionaries sets generator expressions standard library two modules itertools functools implement functional tools borrowed haskell standard ml language core philosophy summarized document zen python pep 20 includes aphorisms rather functionality built core python designed highly extensible compact modularity made particularly popular means adding programmable interfaces existing applications van rossum vision small core language large standard library easily extensible interpreter stemmed frustrations abc espoused opposite approach python strives simpler less-cluttered syntax grammar giving developers choice coding methodology contrast perl one way motto python embraces one—and preferably one—obvious way design philosophy alex martelli fellow python software foundation python book author writes describe something 'clever considered compliment python culture python developers strive avoid premature optimization reject patches non-critical parts cpython reference implementation would offer marginal increases speed cost clarity speed important python programmer move time-critical functions extension modules written languages c use pypy just-in-time compiler cython also available translates python script c makes direct c-level api calls python interpreter important goal python developers keeping fun use reflected language name—a tribute british comedy group monty python—and occasionally playful approaches tutorials reference materials examples refer spam eggs famous monty python sketch instead standard foo bar common neologism python community pythonic wide range meanings related program style say code pythonic say uses python idioms well natural shows fluency language conforms python minimalist philosophy emphasis readability contrast code difficult understand reads like rough transcription another programming language called unpythonic users admirers python especially considered knowledgeable experienced often referred pythonists pythonistas pythoneers python meant easily readable language formatting visually uncluttered often uses english keywords languages use punctuation unlike many languages use curly brackets delimit blocks semicolons statements optional fewer syntactic exceptions special cases c pascal python uses whitespace indentation rather curly brackets keywords delimit blocks increase indentation comes certain statements decrease indentation signifies end current block thus program visual structure accurately represents program semantic structure feature also sometimes termed off-side rule python statements include among others python support tail call optimization first-class continuations according guido van rossum never however better support coroutine-like functionality provided 2.5 extending python generators 2.5 generators lazy iterators information passed unidirectionally generator python 2.5 possible pass information back generator function python 3.3 information passed multiple stack levels python expressions similar languages c java python distinction expressions statements rigidly enforced contrast languages common lisp scheme ruby leads duplicating functionality example statements part expression list comprehensions lambda expressions expressions contain statements particular case assignment statement codice_78 form part conditional expression conditional statement advantage avoiding classic c error mistaking assignment operator codice_79 equality operator codice_36 conditions codice_81 syntactically valid probably unintended c code codice_82 causes syntax error python methods objects functions attached object class syntax codice_83 normal methods functions syntactic sugar codice_84 python methods explicit codice_85 parameter access instance data contrast implicit codice_85 codice_87 object-oriented programming languages e.g. c++ java objective-c ruby python uses duck typing typed objects untyped variable names type constraints checked compile time rather operations object may fail signifying given object suitable type despite dynamically typed python strongly typed forbidding operations well-defined example adding number string rather silently attempting make sense python allows programmers define types using classes often used object-oriented programming new instances classes constructed calling class example codice_88 codice_89 classes instances metaclass codice_90 instance allowing metaprogramming reflection version 3.0 python two kinds classes old-style new-style syntax styles difference whether class codice_91 inherited directly indirectly new-style classes inherit codice_91 instances codice_90 versions python 2 python 2.2 onwards kinds classes used old-style classes eliminated python 3.0 long term plan support gradual typing python 3.5 syntax language allows specifying static types checked default implementation cpython experimental optional static type checker named mypy supports compile-time type checking python usual c language arithmetic operators codice_50 codice_95 codice_96 codice_33 codice_58 also codice_34 exponentiation e.g codice_100 codice_101 new matrix multiply codice_35 operator included version 3.5 additionally unary operator codice_103 essentially inverts bits one argument integers means codice_104 operators include bitwise shift operators codice_105 shifts codice_106 left codice_107 places codice_108 codice_109 shifts codice_106 right codice_107 places codice_112 behavior division changed significantly time division integers produces accurate floating point results rounding towards negative infinity though different languages adds consistency instance means equation codice_126 always true also means equation codice_127 valid positive negative values codice_128 however maintaining validity equation means result codice_129 expected half-open interval 0 b codice_130 positive integer lie interval b 0 codice_130 negative python provides codice_132 function rounding float nearest integer tie-breaking versions 3 use round-away-from-zero codice_133 1.0 codice_134 −1.0 python 3 uses round even codice_135 2 codice_136 2 python allows boolean expressions multiple equality relations manner consistent general use mathematics example expression codice_137 tests whether codice_128 less codice_130 codice_130 less codice_141 c-derived languages interpret expression differently c expression would first evaluate codice_142 resulting 0 1 result would compared codice_141 python extensive built-in support arbitrary precision arithmetic integers transparently switched machine-supported maximum fixed-precision usually 32 64 bits belonging python type codice_144 arbitrary precision belonging python type codice_145 needed latter l suffix textual representation python 3 distinction codice_144 codice_145 types eliminated behavior entirely contained codice_144 class codice_149 type/class module codice_150 since version 2.4 provides decimal floating point numbers arbitrary precision several rounding modes codice_151 type module codice_152 since version 2.6 provides arbitrary precision rational numbers due python extensive mathematics library third-party library numpy extends native capabilities frequently used scientific scripting language aid problems numerical data processing manipulation python large standard library commonly cited one greatest strengths provides tools suited many tasks internet-facing applications many standard formats protocols mime http supported includes modules creating graphical user interfaces connecting relational databases generating pseudorandom numbers arithmetic arbitrary precision decimals manipulating regular expressions unit testing parts standard library covered specifications example web server gateway interface wsgi implementation codice_153 follows pep 333 modules specified code internal documentation test suites supplied however standard library cross-platform python code modules need altering rewriting variant implementations python implementations including cpython include read–eval–print loop repl permitting function command line interpreter user enters statements sequentially receives results immediately shells including idle ipython add abilities auto-completion session state retention syntax highlighting well standard desktop integrated development environments web browser-based ides sagemath intended developing science math-related python programs pythonanywhere browser-based ide hosting environment canopy ide commercial python ide emphasizing scientific computing cpython reference implementation python written c meeting c89 standard several select c99 features compiles python programs intermediate bytecode executed virtual machine cpython distributed large standard library written mixture c native python available many platforms including windows modern unix-like systems platform portability one earliest priorities pypy fast compliant interpreter python 2.7 3.5 just-in-time compiler brings significant speed improvement cpython stackless python significant fork cpython implements microthreads use c memory stack thus allowing massively concurrent programs pypy also stackless version micropython circuitpython python 3 variants optimised microcontrollers includes lego mindstorms ev3 just-in-time python compilers developed unsupported 2005 nokia released python interpreter series 60 mobile phones named pys60 includes many modules cpython implementations additional modules integrate symbian operating system project kept up-to-date run variants s60 platform several third-party modules available nokia n900 also supports python gtk widget libraries enabling programs written run target device several compilers high-level object languages either unrestricted python restricted subset python language similar python source language performance comparison various python implementations non-numerical combinatorial workload presented euroscipy '13 python development conducted largely python enhancement proposal pep process primary mechanism proposing major new features collecting community input issues documenting python design decisions python coding style covered pep 8 outstanding peps reviewed commented python community steering council enhancement language corresponds development cpython reference implementation mailing list python-dev primary forum language development specific issues discussed roundup bug tracker maintained python.org development originally took place self-hosted source-code repository running mercurial python moved github january 2017 cpython public releases come three types distinguished part version number incremented many alpha beta release-candidates also released previews testing final releases although rough schedule release often delayed code ready python development team monitors state code running large unit test suite development using buildbot continuous integration system community python developers also contributed 86,000 software modules python package index pypi official repository third-party python libraries major academic conference python pycon also special python mentoring programmes pyladies python name derived british comedy group monty python python creator guido van rossum enjoyed developing language monty python references appear frequently python code culture example metasyntactic variables often used python literature spam eggs instead traditional foo bar official python documentation also contains various references monty python routines prefix py- used show something related python examples use prefix names python applications libraries include pygame binding sdl python commonly used create games pyqt pygtk bind qt gtk python respectively pypy python implementation originally written python python api documentation generators include since 2003 python consistently ranked top ten popular programming languages tiobe programming community index third popular language behind java c selected programming language year 2007 2010 2018 empirical study found scripting languages python productive conventional languages c java programming problems involving string manipulation search dictionary determined memory consumption often better java much worse c c++ large organizations use python include wikipedia google yahoo cern nasa facebook amazon instagram spotify smaller entities like ilm ita social news networking site reddit written entirely python python serve scripting language web applications e.g. via mod_wsgi apache web server web server gateway interface standard api evolved facilitate applications web frameworks like django pylons pyramid turbogears web2py tornado flask bottle zope support developers design maintenance complex applications pyjs ironpython used develop client-side ajax-based applications sqlalchemy used data mapper relational database twisted framework program communications computers used example dropbox libraries numpy scipy matplotlib allow effective use python scientific computing specialized libraries biopython astropy providing domain-specific functionality sagemath mathematical software notebook interface programmable python library covers many aspects mathematics including algebra combinatorics numerical mathematics number theory calculus python successfully embedded many software products scripting language including finite element method software abaqus 3d parametric modeler like freecad 3d animation packages 3ds max blender cinema 4d lightwave houdini maya modo motionbuilder softimage visual effects compositor nuke 2d imaging programs like gimp inkscape scribus paint shop pro musical notation programs like scorewriter capella gnu debugger uses python pretty printer show complex structures c++ containers esri promotes python best choice writing scripts arcgis also used several video games adopted first three available programming languages google app engine two java go python commonly used artificial intelligence projects help libraries like tensorflow keras scikit-learn scripting language modular architecture simple syntax rich text processing tools python often used natural language processing many operating systems include python standard component ships linux distributions amigaos 4 freebsd package netbsd openbsd package macos used command line terminal many linux distributions use installers written python ubuntu uses ubiquity installer red hat linux fedora use anaconda installer gentoo linux uses python package management system portage python used extensively information security industry including exploit development sugar software one laptop per child xo developed sugar labs written python raspberry pi single-board computer project adopted python main user-programming language libreoffice includes python intends replace java python python scripting provider core feature since version 4.0 7 february 2013 python design philosophy influenced many programming languages python development practices also emulated languages example practice requiring document describing rationale issues surrounding change language python pep also used tcl erlang python received tiobe programming language year awards 2007 2010 2018 award given language greatest growth popularity year measured tiobe index 1-hop neighbor's text information: scipy.scipy scipy pronounced /ˈsaɪpaɪ'/ sigh pie free open-source python library used scientific computing technical computing scipy contains modules optimization linear algebra integration interpolation special functions fft signal image processing ode solvers tasks common science engineering scipy builds numpy array object part numpy stack includes tools like matplotlib pandas sympy expanding set scientific computing libraries numpy stack similar users applications matlab gnu octave scilab numpy stack also sometimes referred scipy stack scipy also family conferences users developers tools scipy united states euroscipy europe scipy.in india enthought originated scipy conference united states continues sponsor many international conferences well host scipy website scipy library currently distributed bsd license development sponsored supported open community developers also supported numfocus community foundation supporting reproducible accessible science scipy package key algorithms functions core python scientific computing capabilities available sub-packages include basic data structure used scipy multidimensional array provided numpy module numpy provides functions linear algebra fourier transforms random number generation generality equivalent functions scipy numpy also used efficient multidimensional container data arbitrary datatypes allows numpy seamlessly speedily integrate wide variety databases older versions scipy used numeric array type deprecated favor newer numpy array code 1990s python extended include array type numerical computing called numeric package eventually replaced travis oliphant wrote numpy 2006 blending numeric numarray started 2001 2000 growing number extension modules increasing interest creating complete environment scientific technical computing 2001 travis oliphant eric jones pearu peterson merged code written called resulting package scipy newly created package provided standard collection common numerical operations top numeric array data structure shortly thereafter fernando pérez released ipython enhanced interactive shell widely used technical computing community john hunter released first version matplotlib 2d plotting library technical computing since scipy environment continued grow packages tools technical computing 1-hop neighbor's text information: fortran.fortran fortran formerly fortran derived formula translation general-purpose compiled imperative programming language especially suited numeric computation scientific computing originally developed ibm 1950s scientific engineering applications fortran came dominate area programming early continuous use six decades computationally intensive areas numerical weather prediction finite element analysis computational fluid dynamics computational physics crystallography computational chemistry popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers fortran encompasses lineage versions evolved add extensions language usually retaining compatibility prior versions successive versions added support structured programming processing character-based data fortran 77 array programming modular programming generic programming fortran 90 high performance fortran fortran 95 object-oriented programming fortran 2003 concurrent programming fortran 2008 fortran design basis many programming languages among better known basic based fortran ii number syntax cleanups notably better logical structures changes work easily interactive environment names earlier versions language fortran 77 conventionally spelled all-capitals fortran 77 last version use lowercase letters keywords strictly non-standard capitalization dropped referring newer versions beginning fortran 90 official language standards refer language fortran rather all-caps fortran late 1953 john w. backus submitted proposal superiors ibm develop practical alternative assembly language programming ibm 704 mainframe computer backus historic fortran team consisted programmers richard goldberg sheldon f. best harlan herrick peter sheridan roy nutt robert nelson irving ziller harold stern lois haibt david sayre concepts included easier entry equations computer idea developed j. halcombe laning demonstrated laning zierler system 1952 programmers chess players chosen work ibm thought logical minds draft specification ibm mathematical formula translating system completed november 1954 first manual fortran appeared october 1956 first fortran compiler delivered april 1957 first optimizing compiler customers reluctant use high-level programming language unless compiler could generate code performance comparable hand-coded assembly language community skeptical new method could possibly outperform hand-coding reduced number programming statements necessary operate machine factor 20 quickly gained acceptance john backus said 1979 interview think ibm employee magazine much work come lazy n't like writing programs working ibm 701 writing programs computing missile trajectories started work programming system make easier write programs language widely adopted scientists writing numerically intensive programs encouraged compiler writers produce compilers could generate faster efficient code inclusion complex number data type language made fortran especially suited technical applications electrical engineering 1960 versions fortran available ibm 709 650 1620 7090 computers significantly increasing popularity fortran spurred competing computer manufacturers provide fortran compilers machines 1963 40 fortran compilers existed reasons fortran considered first widely used cross-platform programming language development fortran paralleled early evolution compiler technology many advances theory design compilers specifically motivated need generate efficient code fortran programs initial release fortran ibm 704 contained 32 statements including arithmetic statement reminiscent readily implementable three-way comparison instruction cas compare accumulator storage available 704 statement provided way compare numbers testing difference attendant risk overflow deficiency later overcome logical facilities introduced fortran iv statement used originally optionally give branch probabilities three branch cases arithmetic statement first fortran compiler used weighting perform compile time monte carlo simulation generated code results used optimize placement basic blocks memory sophisticated optimization time monte carlo technique documented backus et al paper original implementation fortran automatic coding system fundamental unit program basic block basic block stretch program one entry point one exit point purpose section 4 prepare section 5 table predecessors pred table enumerates basic blocks lists every basic block basic blocks immediate predecessor flow together absolute frequency basic block link table obtained running program monte-carlo fashion outcome conditional transfers arising if-type statements computed go determined random number generator suitably weighted according whatever frequency statements provided many years later statement effect code treated comment statement since compilers longer kind compile-time simulation similar fate befallen compiler hints several programming languages example c keyword first fortran compiler reported diagnostic information halting program error found outputting error code console code could looked programmer error messages table operator manual providing brief description problem later error handling subroutine handle users error division zero developed nasa incorporated giving users feedback line code error appeared development disk files text editors terminals programs often entered keypunch keyboard onto 80-column punched cards one line card resulting deck cards would fed card reader compiled punched card codes included lower-case letters many special characters special versions ibm 026 keypunch offered would correctly print re-purposed special characters used fortran reflecting punched card input practice fortran programs originally written fixed-column format first 72 columns read twelve 36-bit words letter c column 1 caused entire card treated comment ignored compiler otherwise columns card divided four fields columns 73 80 could therefore used identification information punching sequence number text could used re-order cards stack cards dropped though practice reserved stable production programs ibm 519 could used copy program deck add sequence numbers early compilers e.g. ibm 650 additional restrictions due limitations card readers keypunches could programmed tab column 7 skip column 72 later compilers relaxed fixed-format restrictions requirement eliminated fortran 90 standard within statement field whitespace characters blanks ignored outside text literal allowed omitting spaces tokens brevity including spaces within identifiers clarity example valid identifier equivalent 101010do101i=1,101 valid statement equivalent 10101 101 1 101 zero column 6 treated space 101010do101i=1.101 instead 10101 do101i 1.101 assignment 1.101 variable called do101i note slight visual difference comma period hollerith strings originally allowed format data statements prefixed character count letter h e.g. allowing blanks retained within character string miscounts problem ibm fortran ii appeared 1958 main enhancement support procedural programming allowing user-written subroutines functions returned values parameters passed reference common statement provided way subroutines access common global variables six new statements introduced next years fortran ii would also add support data types early fortran compilers supported recursion subroutines early computer architectures supported concept stack directly support subroutine calls return location often stored one fixed location adjacent subroutine code e.g ibm 1130 specific machine register ibm 360 et seq allows recursion stack maintained software return address stored stack call made restored call returns although specified fortran 77 many f77 compilers supported recursion option burroughs mainframes designed recursion built-in default became standard fortran 90 via new keyword recursive program heron formula reads data tape reel containing three 5-digit integers b c input type declarations available variables whose name starts j k l n fixed-point i.e integers otherwise floating-point since integers processed example names variables start letter name variable must start letter continue letters digits limit six characters fortran ii b c represent sides triangle plane geometry program execution end error code stop 1 otherwise output line printed showing input values b c followed computed area triangle floating-point number occupying ten spaces along line output showing 2 digits decimal point .2 f10.2 format statement label 601 c area triangle standard square root function c input tape reader unit 5 integer input c output line printer unit 6 real output c input error display error output code 1 job control listing c ia ib ic may negative zero c furthermore sum two sides triangle c must greater third side check c using heron formula calculate c area triangle ibm also developed fortran iii 1958 allowed inline assembly code among features however version never released product like 704 fortran fortran ii fortran iii included machine-dependent features made code written unportable machine machine early versions fortran provided vendors suffered disadvantage fortran provided ibm 1401 computer innovative 63-phase compiler ran entirely core memory 8000 six-bit characters compiler could run tape 2200-card deck used tape disk storage kept program memory loaded overlays gradually transformed place executable form described haines article reprinted edited editions anatomy compiler ibm manual fortran specifications operating procedures ibm 1401 executable form entirely machine language rather floating-point arithmetic sub-scripting input/output function references interpreted preceding ucsd pascal p-code two decades ibm later provided fortran iv compiler 1400 series computers starting 1961 result customer demands ibm began development fortran iv removed machine-dependent features fortran ii adding new features data type logical boolean expressions logical statement alternative arithmetic statement fortran iv eventually released 1962 first ibm 7030 stretch computer followed versions ibm 7090 ibm 7094 later ibm 1401 1966 1965 fortran iv supposed compliant standard developed american standards association x3.4.3 fortran working group 1966 1968 ibm offered several fortran iv compilers system/360 named letters indicated minimum amount memory complier needed run letters f g h matched codes used system/360 model numbers indicate memory size letter increment factor two larger time fortran iv started become important educational tool implementations university waterloo watfor watfiv created simplify complex compile link processes earlier compilers perhaps significant development early history fortran decision american standards association american national standards institute ansi form committee sponsored bema business equipment manufacturers association develop american standard fortran resulting two standards approved march 1966 defined two languages fortran based fortran iv served de facto standard basic fortran based fortran ii stripped machine-dependent features fortran defined first standard officially denoted x3.9-1966 became known fortran 66 although many continued term fortran iv language standard largely based fortran 66 effectively became first industry-standard version fortran fortran 66 included release fortran 66 standard compiler vendors introduced several extensions standard fortran prompting ansi committee x3j3 1969 begin work revising 1966 standard sponsorship cbema computer business equipment manufacturers association formerly bema final drafts revised standard circulated 1977 leading formal approval new fortran standard april 1978 new standard called fortran 77 officially denoted x3.9-1978 added number significant features address many shortcomings fortran 66 revision standard number features removed altered manner might invalidate formerly standard-conforming programs removal allowable alternative x3j3 time since concept deprecation yet available ansi standards 24 items conflict list see appendix a2 x3.9-1978 addressed loopholes pathological cases permitted prior standard rarely used small number specific capabilities deliberately removed dimension 10,5 control data corporation computers another version fortran 77 called minnesota fortran mnf designed especially student use variations output constructs special uses commons data statements optimizations code levels compiling detailed error listings extensive warning messages debugs development revised standard succeed fortran 77 would repeatedly delayed standardization process struggled keep rapid changes computing programming practice meantime standard fortran nearly fifteen years fortran 77 would become historically important dialect important practical extension fortran 77 release mil-std-1753 1978 specification developed u.s. department defense standardized number features implemented fortran 77 compilers included ansi fortran 77 standard features would eventually incorporated fortran 90 standard ieee 1003.9 posix standard released 1991 provided simple means fortran 77 programmers issue posix system calls 100 calls defined document allowing access posix-compatible process control signal handling file system control device control procedure pointing stream i/o portable manner much-delayed successor fortran 77 informally known fortran 90 prior fortran 8x finally released iso/iec standard 1539:1991 1991 ansi standard 1992 addition changing official spelling fortran fortran major revision added many new features reflect significant changes programming practice evolved since 1978 standard unlike prior revision fortran 90 removed features appendix b.1 says list deleted features standard empty standard-conforming fortran 77 program also standard-conforming fortran 90 either standard usable define behavior small set features identified obsolescent expected removed future standard functionalities early version features performed new fortran 95 features kept simplify porting old programs may eventually deleted fortran 95 published officially iso/iec 1539-1:1997 minor revision mostly resolve outstanding issues fortran 90 standard nevertheless fortran 95 also added number extensions notably high performance fortran specification number intrinsic functions extended example argument added intrinsic several features noted fortran 90 obsolescent removed fortran 95 important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15581 enhanced data type facilities informally known allocatable tr specification defined enhanced use arrays prior availability fully fortran 2003-compliant fortran compilers uses include arrays derived type components procedure dummy argument lists function return values arrays preferable -based arrays arrays guaranteed fortran 95 deallocated automatically go scope eliminating possibility memory leakage addition elements allocatable arrays contiguous aliasing issue optimization array references allowing compilers generate faster code case pointers another important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15580 floating-point exception handling informally known ieee tr specification defined support ieee floating-point arithmetic floating point exception handling addition mandatory base language defined iso/iec 1539-1 1997 fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules together compose multi-part international standard iso/iec 1539 according standards developers optional parts describe self-contained features requested substantial body users and/or implementors deemed sufficient generality required standard-conforming fortran compilers nevertheless standard-conforming fortran provide options must provided accordance description facilities appropriate part standard fortran 2003 officially published iso/iec 1539-1:2004 major revision introducing many new features comprehensive summary new features fortran 2003 available fortran working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg5 official web site article major enhancements revision include important supplement fortran 2003 iso technical report tr-19767 enhanced module facilities fortran report provided sub-modules make fortran modules similar modula-2 modules similar ada private child sub-units allows specification implementation module expressed separate program units improves packaging large libraries allows preservation trade secrets publishing definitive interfaces prevents compilation cascades iso/iec 1539-1:2010 informally known fortran 2008 approved september 2010 fortran 95 minor upgrade incorporating clarifications corrections fortran 2003 well introducing select new capabilities new capabilities include final draft international standard fdis available document n1830 important supplement fortran 2008 iso technical specification ts 29113 interoperability fortran c submitted iso may 2012 approval specification adds support accessing array descriptor c allows ignoring type rank arguments latest revision language fortran 2018 earlier referred fortran 2015 significant revision released november 28 2018 fortran 2018 incorporates two previously published technical specifications additional changes new features include support iso/iec/ieee 60559:2011 latest version ieee floating point standard 2019 hexadecimal input/output implicit none enhancements changes although 1968 journal article authors basic already described fortran old-fashioned fortran use several decades vast body fortran software daily use throughout scientific engineering communities jay pasachoff wrote 1984 physics astronomy students simply learn fortran much exists fortran seems unlikely scientists change pascal modula-2 whatever 1993 cecil e. leith called fortran mother tongue scientific computing adding replacement possible language may remain forlorn hope primary language intensive super-computing tasks astronomy climate modeling computational chemistry computational economics computational fluid dynamics computational physics data analysis hydrological modeling numerical linear algebra numerical libraries lapack imsl nag optimization satellite simulation structural engineering weather prediction many floating-point benchmarks gauge performance new computer processors cfp2006 floating-point component spec cpu2006 benchmarks written fortran apart modern codes computational science generally use large program libraries metis graph partitioning petsc trilinos linear algebra capabilities dune fenics mesh finite element support generic libraries since early 2000s many widely used support libraries also implemented c recently c++ hand high-level languages matlab python r become popular particular areas computational science consequently growing fraction scientific programs also written higher-level languages reason facilities inter-operation c added fortran 2003 enhanced iso/iec technical specification 29113 incorporated fortran 2018 shift popularity programming languages also evident selection applications spec cpu 2000 spec cpu 2006 floating point benchmarks software nasa probes voyager 1 voyager 2 originally written fortran 5 later ported fortran 77. software still written fortran ported c. precise characteristics syntax fortran 95 discussed fortran 95 language features portability problem early days agreed upon standard even ibm reference manual computer companies vied differentiate offerings others providing incompatible features standards improved portability 1966 standard provided reference syntax semantics vendors continued provide incompatible extensions although careful programmers coming realize use incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems therefore using programs pfort verifier 1977 standard national bureau standards nist published fips pub 69 processors purchased u.s. government required diagnose extensions standard rather offer two processors essentially every compiler eventually least option diagnose extensions incompatible extensions portability problem numerical calculations important take account characteristics arithmetic addressed fox et al context 1966 standard port library ideas therein became widely used eventually incorporated 1990 standard way intrinsic inquiry functions widespread almost universal adoption ieee 754 standard binary floating-point arithmetic essentially removed problem access computing environment e.g. program command line environment variables textual explanation error conditions remained problem addressed 2003 standard large collections library software could described loosely related engineering scientific calculations graphics libraries written c therefore access presented portability problem addressed incorporation c interoperability 2003 standard possible relatively easy write entirely portable program fortran even without recourse preprocessor fortran 5 marketed data general corp late 1970s early 1980s nova eclipse mv line computers optimizing compiler quite good minicomputers time language closely resembles fortran 66 name pun earlier fortran iv fortran v distributed control data corporation 1968 cdc 6600 series language based upon fortran iv univac also offered compiler 1100 series known fortran v. spinoff univac fortran v athena fortran fortran 6 visual fortran 2001 licensed compaq microsoft licensed compaq visual fortran provided visual studio 5 environment interface compaq v6 v6.1 vendors high-performance scientific computers e.g. burroughs control data corporation cdc cray honeywell ibm texas instruments univac added extensions fortran take advantage special hardware features instruction cache cpu pipelines vector arrays example one ibm fortran compilers h extended iup level optimization reordered machine code instructions keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously another example cfd special variant fortran designed specifically illiac iv supercomputer running nasa ames research center ibm research labs also developed extended fortran-based language called vectran processing vectors matrices object-oriented fortran object-oriented extension fortran data items grouped objects instantiated executed parallel available sun iris ipsc ncube longer supported machine-specific extensions either disappeared time elements incorporated main standards major remaining extension openmp cross-platform extension shared memory programming one new extension coarray fortran intended support parallel programming transit name reduced version ibm 704 fortran language implemented ibm 650 using translator program developed carnegie late 1950s following comment appears ibm reference manual transit automatic coding system c28-4038 copyright 1957 1959 ibm fortran system designed complex machine 650 consequently 32 statements found fortran programmer reference manual acceptable transit system addition certain restrictions fortran language added however none restrictions make source program written transit incompatible fortran system 704 permissible statements ten subroutines could used one program transit statements limited columns 7 56 punched cards used input output ibm 650 three passes required translate source code language compile statements soap assembly language finally produce object program could loaded machine run program using punched cards data input outputting results onto punched cards two versions existed 650s 2000 word memory drum transit transit ii latter machines equipped indexing registers automatic floating point decimal bi-quinary arithmetic appendix manual included wiring diagrams ibm 533 card reader/punch control panel prior fortran 77 number preprocessors commonly used provide friendlier language advantage preprocessed code could compiled machine standard fortran compiler preprocessors would typically support structured programming variable names longer six characters additional data types conditional compilation even macro capabilities popular preprocessors included flecs iftran mortran sftran s-fortran ratfor ratfiv ratfor ratfiv example implemented c-like language outputting preprocessed code standard fortran 66 despite advances fortran language preprocessors continue used conditional compilation macro substitution one earliest versions fortran introduced '60s popularly used colleges universities developed supported distributed university waterloo watfor based largely fortran iv student using watfor could submit batch fortran job syntax errors program would move straight execution simplification allowed students concentrate program syntax semantics execution logic flow rather dealing submission job control language jcl compile/link-edit/execution successive process es complexities mainframe/minicomputer environment side simplified environment watfor good choice programmers needing expanded abilities host processor e.g. watfor typically limited access i/o devices watfor succeeded watfiv later versions lrltran developed lawrence radiation laboratory provide support vector arithmetic dynamic storage among extensions support systems programming distribution included ltss operating system fortran-95 standard includes optional part 3 defines optional conditional compilation capability capability often referred coco many fortran compilers integrated subsets c preprocessor systems simscript application specific fortran preprocessor modeling simulating large discrete systems f programming language designed clean subset fortran 95 attempted remove redundant unstructured deprecated features fortran statement f retains array features added fortran 90 removes control statements made obsolete structured programming constructs added fortran 77 fortran 90 f described creators compiled structured array programming language especially well suited education scientific computing lahey fujitsu teamed create fortran microsoft .net framework silverfrost ftn95 also capable creating .net code following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation array-based operations two features introduced fortran 90 particularly noteworthy absence loops statements manipulating array mathematical operations applied array whole also apparent use descriptive variable names general code formatting conform contemporary programming style example computes average data entered interactively program average end program average fortran standards committee meeting name fortran 77 chosen satirical technical proposal incorporated official distribution bearing title letter considered harmful proposal purported address confusion sometimes arises letter numeral zero eliminating letter allowable variable names however method proposed eliminate letter character set entirely thereby retaining 48 number lexical characters colon increased 49 considered beneficial would promote structured programming making impossible use notorious statement troublesome statements would also eliminated noted might invalidate existing programs probably non-conforming anyway assumed-length arrays added dispute appropriate character separate upper lower bounds comment examining arguments dr. walt brainerd penned article entitled astronomy vs. gastroenterology proponents suggested using star asterisk others favored colon fortran 77 earlier versions variable names beginning letters i–n default type integer variables starting letters defaulted real although programmers could override defaults explicit declaration led joke fortran god real unless declared integer Target text information: scientificpython.scientificpython scientificpython open source library scientific tools python programming language development started 1995 updated since october 1 2014 library includes qt tk widget toolkits provided building cross-platform graphical user interfaces scientificpython released cecill main developer maintainer scientificpython konrad hinsen orléans university uses building block research code particular molecular modeling toolkit mmtk software nmoldyn uses molecular dynamics trajectories predict neutron scattering spectra outside particular application context users likely prefer package scipy seen dynamic evolution decade 2000–2010 involving several active developers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,208	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: privilege_(computing).privilege computing computing privilege defined delegation authority perform security-relevant functions computer system privilege allows user perform action security consequences examples various privileges include ability create new user install software change kernel functions users delegated extra levels control called privileged users lack privileges defined unprivileged regular normal users privileges either automatic granted applied automatic privilege exists requirement permission perform action example systems people required log system use logging require privilege systems implement file protection ms-dos essentially give unlimited privilege perform action file granted privilege exists result presenting credential privilege granting authority usually accomplished logging system username password username password supplied correct user granted additional privileges privilege applied either executed program issuing request advanced privileges running program apply additional privileges example user applying additional privileges provided sudo command run command root user kerberos authentication system modern processor architectures multiple cpu modes allows os run different privilege levels processors two levels user supervisor i386+ processors four levels 0 3 least privileges tasks tagged privilege level resources segments pages ports etc privileged instructions tagged demanded privilege level task tries use resource execute privileged instruction processor determines whether permission protection fault interrupt generated prevents user tasks damaging os computer programming exceptions related privileged instruction violations may caused array accessed bounds invalid pointer dereferenced invalid memory location referenced privileged location one controlling device input/output particularly likely occur programming languages c use pointer arithmetic check array bounds automatically unix-like systems superuser commonly known 'root owns privileges ordinary users granted enough permissions accomplish common tasks unix systems built-in security features users set new user account administrative procedures user “ root ” special user something called super-user anything system high degree power necessary fully administer unix system also allows user make mistake cause system problems unprivileged users usually windows nt-based systems privileges delegated varying degrees delegations defined using local security policy manager secpol.msc following abbreviated list default assignments windows defines number administrative privileges assigned individually users and/or groups account user holds privileges granted either directly indirectly group memberships upon installation number groups accounts created privileges granted however grants changed later time though group policy unlike linux privileges implicitly permanently granted specific account administrative privileges e.g taking ownership restoring arbitrary files powerful used malicious intent could allow entire system compromised user account control default since windows vista windows strip user token privileges login thus user logs account broad system privileges he/she still running system privileges whenever user wants perform administrative actions requiring system privileges he/she elevated process launching elevated process user made aware his/her administrative privileges asserted prompt requiring his/her consent holding privileges actually required keeping principle least privilege elevated processes run full privileges user full privileges system even privileges user may still required particular process thus completely least privilege dos-based windows windows 98 windows 95 previous versions non-nt windows operated fat filesystem support filesystem permissions. therefore privileges effectively defeated windows nt-based systems use ntfs file system names used windows source code end either privilege logonright led confusion full set rights privileges called microsoft currently uses term user rights past terms also used microsoft privilege rights logon user rights nt-rights 1-hop neighbor's text information: register_renaming.register renaming computer architecture register renaming technique abstracts logical registers physical registers every logical register set physical registers associated programmer assembly language refers instance logical register codice_1 processor transposes name one specific physical register fly physical registers opaque referenced directly via canonical names technique used eliminate false data dependencies arising reuse registers successive instructions real data dependencies elimination false data dependencies reveals instruction-level parallelism instruction stream exploited various complementary techniques superscalar out-of-order execution better performance register machine programs composed instructions operate values instructions must name values order distinguish one another typical instruction might say “ add formula_1 formula_2 put result formula_3 ” instruction formula_1 formula_2 formula_3 names storage locations order compact instruction encoding processor instruction sets small set special locations referred special names registers example x86 instruction set architecture 8 integer registers x86-64 16 many riscs 32 ia-64 128 smaller processors names locations correspond directly elements register file different instructions may take different amounts time example processor may able execute hundreds instructions single load main memory progress shorter instructions executed load outstanding finish first thus instructions finishing original program order out-of-order execution used recent high-performance cpus achieve speed gains consider piece code running out-of-order cpu instructions final three lines independent first three instructions processor finish r1 ≔ 2048 preceding 1032 ≔ r1 done otherwise would write wrong value restriction eliminated changing names registers last three instruction executed parallel first three program run faster obliterating stalling due false data dependency many high-performance cpus implement renaming hardware achieve additional parallelism targets without appropriate data-flow detection good compilers would detect independent instruction sequences choose different registers code generation one instruction references particular location operand either reading input writing output executing instructions order different original program order lead three kinds data hazards instead delaying write reads completed two copies location maintained old value new value reads precede program order write new value provided old value even reads follow write provided new value false dependency broken additional opportunities out-of-order execution created reads need old value satisfied discarded essential concept behind register renaming anything read written renamed general-purpose floating-point registers discussed flag status registers even individual status bits commonly renamed well memory locations also renamed although commonly done extent practiced register renaming transmeta crusoe processor gated store buffer form memory renaming programs refrained reusing registers immediately would need register renaming instruction sets e.g. ia-64 specify large numbers registers specifically reason however limitations approach code size increases important program code larger instruction cache misses often processor stalls waiting new instructions machine language programs specify reads writes limited set registers specified instruction set architecture isa instance alpha isa specifies 32 integer registers 64 bits wide 32 floating-point registers 64 bits wide architectural registers programs written processors running alpha instruction set specify operations reading writing 64 registers programmer stops program debugger observe contents 64 registers status registers determine progress machine one particular processor implements isa alpha 21264 80 integer 72 floating-point physical registers alpha 21264 chip 80 physically separate locations store results integer operations 72 locations store results floating point operations following text describes two styles register renaming distinguished circuit holds data ready execution unit renaming schemes machine converts architectural registers referenced instruction stream tags architectural registers might specified 3 5 bits tags usually 6 8 bit number rename file must read port every input every instruction renamed every cycle write port every output every instruction renamed every cycle size register file generally grows square number ports rename file usually physically large consumes significant power tag-indexed register file style one large register file data values containing one register every tag example machine 80 physical registers would use 7 bit tags 48 possible tag values case unused style instruction issued execution unit tags source registers sent physical register file values corresponding tags read sent execution unit reservation station style many small associative register files usually one inputs execution unit operand instruction issue queue place value one register files style instruction issued execution unit register file entries corresponding issue queue entry read forwarded execution unit reorder buffers data-less data-ful willamette rob rob entries point registers physical register file prf also contain book keeping also first order design done andy glew illinois harrm p6 rob rob entries contain data separate prf data values rob copied rob rrf retirement one small detail temporal locality rob entries i.e. instructions close together von neumann instruction sequence write back close together time may possible perform write combining rob entries fewer ports separate rob/prf would clear makes difference since prf banked robs usually n't associative logic certainly none robs designed andy glew cams keith diefendorff insisted robs complex associative logic many years first rob proposal may cams renaming style used mips r10000 alpha 21264 fp section amd athlon renaming stage every architectural register referenced read write looked architecturally-indexed remap file file returns tag ready bit tag non-ready queued instruction write yet executed read operands tag takes place architectural register instruction every register write new tag pulled free tag fifo new mapping written remap file future instructions reading architectural register refer new tag tag marked unready instruction yet executed previous physical register allocated architectural register saved instruction reorder buffer fifo holds instructions program order decode graduation stages instructions placed various issue queues instructions executed tags results broadcast issue queues match tags tags non-ready source operands match means operand ready remap file also matches tags mark corresponding physical registers ready operands instruction issue queue ready instruction ready issue issue queues pick ready instructions send various functional units cycle non-ready instructions stay issue queues unordered removal instructions issue queues make large power-consuming issued instructions read tag-indexed physical register file bypassing just-broadcast operands execute execution results written tag-indexed physical register file well broadcast bypass network preceding functional unit graduation puts previous tag written architectural register free queue reused newly decoded instruction exception branch misprediction causes remap file back remap state last valid instruction via combination state snapshots cycling previous tags in-order pre-graduation queue since mechanism required since recover remap state state instruction currently graduated branch mispredictions handled branch reaches graduation potentially hiding branch misprediction latency style used integer section amd k7 k8 designs renaming stage every architectural register referenced reads looked architecturally-indexed future file rename file future file read gives value register outstanding instruction yet write i.e. ready instruction placed issue queue values read future file written corresponding entries reservation stations register writes instruction cause new non-ready tag written rename file tag number usually serially allocated instruction order—no free tag fifo necessary tag-indexed scheme issue queues wait non-ready operands see matching tag broadcasts unlike tag-indexed scheme matching tags cause corresponding broadcast value written issue queue entry reservation station issued instructions read arguments reservation station bypass just-broadcast operands execute mentioned earlier reservation station register files usually small perhaps eight entries execution results written reorder buffer reservation stations issue queue entry matching tag future file last instruction target architectural register case register marked ready graduation copies value reorder buffer architectural register file sole use architectural register file recover exceptions branch mispredictions exceptions branch mispredictions recognized graduation cause architectural file copied future file registers marked ready rename file usually way reconstruct state future file instruction intermediate decode graduation usually way early recovery branch mispredictions schemes instructions inserted in-order issue queues removed out-of-order queues collapse empty slots either many unused entries require sort variable priority encoding multiple instructions simultaneously ready go queues collapse holes simpler priority encoding require simple large circuitry advance instructions queue reservation stations better latency rename execute rename stage finds register values directly rather finding physical register number using find value latency shows component branch misprediction latency reservation stations also better latency instruction issue execution local register file smaller large central file tag-indexed scheme tag generation exception processing also simpler reservation station scheme discussed physical register files used reservation stations usually collapse unused entries parallel issue queue serve makes register files larger aggregate consume power complicated simpler register files used tag-indexed scheme worse yet every entry reservation station written every result bus reservation-station machine e.g. 8 issue queue entries per functional unit typically 9 times many bypass networks equivalent tag-indexed machine consequently result forwarding consumes much power area tag-indexed design furthermore reservation station scheme four places future file reservation station reorder buffer architectural file result value stored whereas tag-indexed scheme one physical register file results functional units broadcast storage locations must reach much larger number locations machine tag-indexed scheme function consumes power area time still machines equipped accurate branch prediction schemes execute latencies major concern reservation stations work remarkably well ibm system/360 model 91 early machine supported out-of-order execution instructions used tomasulo algorithm uses register renaming power1 first microprocessor used register renaming out-of-order execution 1990 original r10000 design neither collapsing issue queues variable priority encoding suffered starvation problems result—the oldest instruction queue would sometimes issued instruction decode stopped completely lack rename registers every instruction issued later revisions design starting r12000 used partially variable priority encoder mitigate problem early out-of-order machines separate renaming rob/prf storage functions matter earliest sohi ruu metaflow dcaf combined scheduling renaming storage structure modern machines renaming ram indexing map table logical register number e.g. p6 future files data storage structure however earlier machines used content-addressable memory cam renamer e.g. hpsm rat register alias table essentially used cam logical register number combination different versions register many ways story out-of-order microarchitecture cams progressively eliminated small cams useful large cams impractical p6 microarchitecture first microarchitecture intel implement out-of-order execution register renaming p6 microarchitecture used pentium pro pentium ii pentium iii pentium core core 2 microprocessors cyrix m1 released october 2 1995 first x86 processor use register renaming out-of-order execution x86 processors nexgen nx686 amd k5 released 1996 also featured register renaming out-of-order execution risc μ-operations rather native x86 instructions 1-hop neighbor's text information: program_files.program files program files directory name standard folder microsoft windows operating systems applications part operating system conventionally installed typically application installed 'program files directory subdirectory application-specific resources shared resources example resources used multiple applications one company typically stored nowiki /nowiki common program files nowiki /nowiki directory standard windows installation 'program files directory codice_1 localized equivalent thereof 'common program files localized equivalent thereof subdirectory 'program files windows vista later paths 'program files 'common program files directories localized disk instead localized names ntfs junction points non-localized locations additionally windows shell localizes name program files folder depending system user interface display language 'program files 'common program files moved system startup actual paths 'program files 'common program files loaded windows registry stored codice_2 codice_3 values codice_4 made accessible rest system via volatile environment variables codice_5 codice_6 applications also obtain locations paths querying codice_7 using codice_8 windows management instrumentation querying shell using csidls codice_9 localization-independent methods x86-64 ia-64 versions windows two folders application files program files folder serves default installation target 64-bit programs program files x86 folder default installation target 32-bit programs need wow64 emulation layer 64-bit windows versions also codice_10 environment variable dirids csidls different 32-bit 64-bit environments apis merely return different results depending whether calling process emulated backwards compatible 8.3 limitations old file allocation table filenames names 'program files 'program files x86 'common program files shortened system codice_11 codice_12 n digit sequence number clean install 1 1 2 'program files 'program files x86 present windows installed ntfs volume default 'program files folder modified members 'administrators user groups issue programs created windows 9x operating systems file system security programs could therefore also store data 'program files programs store data 'program files usually run correctly windows nt systems normal user privileges unless security lowered affected subdirectories windows vista addressed issue introducing file registry virtualization Target text information: speculative_execution.speculative execution speculative execution optimization technique computer system performs task may needed work done known whether actually needed prevent delay would incurred work known needed turns work needed changes made work reverted results ignored objective provide concurrency extra resources available approach employed variety areas including branch prediction pipelined processors value prediction exploiting value locality prefetching memory files optimistic concurrency control database systems speculative multithreading special case speculative execution modern pipelined microprocessors use speculative execution reduce cost conditional branch instructions using schemes predict execution path program based history branch executions order improve performance utilization computer resources instructions scheduled time yet determined instructions need executed ahead branch speculative computation related earlier concept eager execution form speculative execution sides conditional branch executed however results committed predicate true unlimited resources eager execution also known oracle execution would theory provide performance perfect branch prediction limited resources eager execution employed carefully since number resources needed grows exponentially level branch executed eagerly predictive execution form speculative execution outcome predicted execution proceeds along predicted path actual result known prediction true predicted execution allowed commit however misprediction execution unrolled re-executed common forms include branch predictors memory dependence prediction generalized form sometimes referred value prediction lazy execution involve speculation incorporation speculative execution implementations haskell programming language current research topic eager haskell designed around idea speculative execution 2003 phd thesis made ghc support kind speculative execution abortion mechanism back case bad choice called optimistic execution deemed complicated starting 2017 series security vulnerabilities found implementations speculative execution common processor architectures effectively enabled elevation privileges include I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,815	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan 1-hop neighbor's text information: valis_ii.valis ii sd style remake released japanese mega drive north american genesis syd valis like titles series valis ii side-scrolling platform game requires player navigate two-dimensional levels battling enemies jumping ledge ledge running player faces boss end level despite details gameplay varying versions versions share several similar features well mobile remake added new stages alternate costumes weapons time passes vecanti set rule next emperor rogles brother voiced hirotaka suzuoki wishes stamp trace former tyrant point murdering supporters rogles might furthermore bloodthirsty tendencies recognize yuko valis sword viable threats claim throne orders minions eliminate first chance thwart megas falls magical blade peace comes dream world yuko returns home resume otherwise ordinary human life telenet japan developed two main versions valis ii around time pc engine cd-rom² released first later published nec north america home computer version believed entered development earlier released pc-88 pc-98 msx sharp x68000 japan featured graphic cutscenes another port game released mega drive japan sd valis telenet genesis north america renovation products syd valis title features gameplay plot original character design changed super deformed sd style north american version game incorrectly identifies yūko syd reuses box art naritore sugoroku '92 front cover project egg released various emulated versions game windows along 2011 compilation complete plus came soundtrack cd figure pc engine also released sunsoft playstation store 2011 1993 cd valis visual collection contains cutscenes pc engine version valis ii valis ii generally positively received critics review scores pc engine turbografx-16 version included 74 games machine 76 italian edition computer video games 70 génération 4 92 joystick 75 tilt three five stars turboplay whose reviewer impressed game visuals music disappointed perceived low difficulty hand sd valis syd valis rated 36 consoles+ 56 joystick 63 joypad sega force bashed dull gameplay despite great levels enemies predicting even platform addicts play james scullion sega pro gave sd valis mediocre score 65 recommending saving money game retrospectively sebastian sponsel sega-16 scored 2 10 stating syd valis disappointment fans non-fans alike ... ’ like game created joke one producers ’ get released anyway 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include Target text information: valis:_the_fantasm_soldier.valis fantasm soldier also known either valis fantasm soldier video game developed wolf team published telenet japan 1986 originally pc-88 msx home computers ported remade re-released several systems years first video game valis series stars japanese teenager named yuko uses mystical sword called valis defend earth worlds critical reception varied depending version including critical acclaim 1992 pc engine remake original pc-88 msx version valis fantasm soldier side-scrolling platform game wielding game titular sword main character fights level enemies jumping across ledges confronts boss end level certain points game gameplay pauses cinematic cutscenes regarding game storyline play also gameplay-tweaked content-cut version fm-7 family computer famicom side-scrolling action role-playing game version valis differs considerably versions game basic plot remains gameplay moved linear stage design larger maze-style levels multiple paths often questionable design resulting high difficulty level especially since neither password save system mega drive/genesis remake features gameplay system similar later games series particular valis iii like side-scrolling games era four d-pad buttons move character three fire buttons perform three actions main character sliding jumping swinging sword upgraded three stages alternative firing modes player also use magic spells gaining defeating bosses pc engine remake features improvements gameplay system single high jumps instead two-phase jumps sliding move damaging enemies voiced cutscenes mobile remake added new stages alternate costumes voiced sumi shimamoto schoolgirl late 1980s japan fated protect three different realms – earth land spirits vecanti dream world – wielding mystical sword known valis demon lord voiced hideyuki tanaka extinguishes light vecanti functions source power live desperate plea salvation queen voiced yoshiko sakakibara reaches brave soul help time despair yuko earth one answers call summoned magical forces vecanti liberate evil rogles brainwashes yūko classmate girlfriend voiced yūko mita helping try put end valis warrior increasingly difficult odds yuko prevails although reiko killed process memory returns dies yuko arms original pc-88 msx developed wolf team published telenet japan tokuma shoten would later develop release almost completely redone version famicom 1987 japan 1991 telenet renovation united states released versions mega drive/genesis developed riot enhanced remake mega drive version also developed riot released telenet pc engine super cd-rom² add-on 1992 2005-2006 bandai namco released another remake game time mobile phone platforms japan project egg released various emulated versions game windows along compilation complete plus came soundtrack cd figure pc engine version released konami playstation store 2010 2014 given free japanese subscribers playstation network service short promotional anime sunrise directed hideaki anno katsuhiko nishijima featuring music kohei tanaka released 1987 vhd attached issue anime vision magazine artist pixel responsible game character design also published three doujinshi books orchestral arrangement game soundtrack released 2011 also one video games adapted kouta hirano manga titled published gamest comics collection april 1999 sam derboo hardcore gaming 101 wrote original versions might horrible unplayable mess call fame begin n't gameplay pioneering cinematic cutscenes two years even ninja gaiden ... left quite excellent chiptune music really part original valis worth remembered derboo described family computer version typical famicom action rpg competently executed super obfuscate endlessly frustrating nevertheless msx club highly recommended msx version excellent action game even arcades gave score 9/20 mega drive genesis remake received rather mediocre mostly positive review scores west including 65 sega visions 76 consoles+ 65 joystick 5/10 asm hardcore gaming 101 derboo opined valis genesis n't bad game definitely leagues original still particularly enjoyable slow boring sega force bashed dull repetitive gameplay declared high graphical content low playability level valis nutshell hand pc engine turbografx version valis acclaimed critics review scores included 81 consoles 78 génération 4 77 joypad 83 joystick according hardcore gaming 101 mechanics level design doubt well-executed game entire series still bit derivative pedestrian counted among genre greats like castlevania ninja gaiden least high second tier retro gamer highlighted arguable best entry great series lucas m. thomas ign included valis among top ten unreleased turbografx games 're kind gamer likes know exact color panties worn platforming hero girls valis want invest time game followed three sequels valis ii valis iii valis iv eroge spin-off valis x two manga series I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,460	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: related-key_attack.related-key attack cryptography related-key attack form cryptanalysis attacker observe operation cipher several different keys whose values initially unknown mathematical relationship connecting keys known attacker example attacker might know last 80 bits keys always even though n't know first bits appears first glance unrealistic model would certainly unlikely attacker could persuade human cryptographer encrypt plaintexts numerous secret keys related way kasumi eight round 64-bit block cipher 128-bit key based upon misty1 designed form basis 3g confidentiality integrity algorithms mark blunden adrian escott described differential related key attacks five six rounds kasumi differential attacks introduced biham shamir related key attacks first introduced biham differential related key attacks discussed kelsey et al important example cryptographic protocol failed related-key attack wired equivalent privacy wep used wi-fi wireless networks client wi-fi network adapter wireless access point wep-protected network shares wep key encryption uses rc4 algorithm stream cipher essential key never used twice stream cipher prevent happening wep includes 24-bit initialization vector iv message packet rc4 key packet iv concatenated wep key wep keys changed manually typically happens infrequently attacker therefore assume keys used encrypt packets share single wep key fact opened wep series attacks proved devastating simplest understand uses fact 24-bit iv allows little 17 million possibilities birthday paradox likely every 4096 packets two share iv hence rc4 key allowing packets attacked devastating attacks take advantage certain weak keys rc4 eventually allow wep key recovered 2005 agents u.s. federal bureau investigation publicly demonstrated ability widely available software tools three minutes one approach preventing related-key attacks design protocols applications encryption keys never simple relationship example encryption key generated underlying key material using key derivation function example replacement wep wi-fi protected access wpa uses three levels keys master key working key rc4 key master wpa key shared client access point used protocol called temporal key integrity protocol tkip create new working keys frequently enough thwart known attack methods working keys combined longer 48-bit iv form rc4 key packet design mimics wep approach enough allow wpa used first-generation wi-fi network cards implemented portions wep hardware however first-generation access points run wpa another conservative approach employ cipher designed prevent related-key attacks altogether usually incorporating strong key schedule newer version wi-fi protected access wpa2 uses aes block cipher instead rc4 part reason related-key attacks aes unlike rc4 're far practical implement wpa2 key generation functions may provide security many older network cards run wpa2 1-hop neighbor's text information: cryptanalysis.cryptanalysis cryptanalysis greek kryptós hidden analýein loosen untie study analyzing information systems order study hidden aspects systems cryptanalysis used breach cryptographic security systems gain access contents encrypted messages even cryptographic key unknown addition mathematical analysis cryptographic algorithms cryptanalysis includes study side-channel attacks target weaknesses cryptographic algorithms instead exploit weaknesses implementation even though goal methods techniques cryptanalysis changed drastically history cryptography adapting increasing cryptographic complexity ranging pen-and-paper methods past machines like british bombes colossus computers bletchley park world war ii mathematically advanced computerized schemes present methods breaking modern cryptosystems often involve solving carefully constructed problems pure mathematics best-known integer factorization given encrypted data ciphertext goal cryptanalyst gain much information possible original unencrypted data plaintext useful consider two aspects achieving first breaking system — discovering encipherment process works second solving key unique particular encrypted message group messages attacks classified based type information attacker available basic starting point normally assumed purposes analysis general algorithm known shannon maxim enemy knows system — turn equivalent kerckhoffs principle reasonable assumption practice — throughout history countless examples secret algorithms falling wider knowledge variously espionage betrayal reverse engineering occasion ciphers broken pure deduction example german lorenz cipher japanese purple code variety classical schemes attacks also characterised resources require resources include sometimes difficult predict quantities precisely especially attack n't practical actually implement testing academic cryptanalysts tend provide least estimated order magnitude attacks difficulty saying example sha-1 collisions 2 bruce schneier notes even computationally impractical attacks considered breaks breaking cipher simply means finding weakness cipher exploited complexity less brute force never mind brute-force might require 2 encryptions attack requiring 2 encryptions would considered break ... simply put break certificational weakness evidence cipher perform advertised results cryptanalysis also vary usefulness example cryptographer lars knudsen 1998 classified various types attack block ciphers according amount quality secret information discovered academic attacks often weakened versions cryptosystem block cipher hash function rounds removed many attacks become exponentially difficult execute rounds added cryptosystem possible full cryptosystem strong even though reduced-round variants weak nonetheless partial breaks come close breaking original cryptosystem may mean full break follow successful attacks des md5 sha-1 preceded attacks weakened versions academic cryptography weakness break scheme usually defined quite conservatively might require impractical amounts time memory known plaintexts also might require attacker able things many real-world attackers ca n't example attacker may need choose particular plaintexts encrypted even ask plaintexts encrypted using several keys related secret key furthermore might reveal small amount information enough prove cryptosystem imperfect little useful real-world attackers finally attack might apply weakened version cryptographic tools like reduced-round block cipher step towards breaking full system cryptanalysis coevolved together cryptography contest traced history cryptography—new ciphers designed replace old broken designs new cryptanalytic techniques invented crack improved schemes practice viewed two sides coin secure cryptography requires design possible cryptanalysis successful cryptanalysis undoubtedly influenced history ability read presumed-secret thoughts plans others decisive advantage example england 1587 mary queen scots tried executed treason result involvement three plots assassinate elizabeth england plans came light coded correspondence fellow conspirators deciphered thomas phelippes world war breaking zimmermann telegram instrumental bringing united states war world war ii allies benefitted enormously joint success cryptanalysis german ciphers — including enigma machine lorenz cipher — japanese ciphers particularly 'purple jn-25 'ultra intelligence credited everything shortening end european war two years determining eventual result war pacific similarly helped 'magic intelligence governments long recognized potential benefits cryptanalysis intelligence military diplomatic established dedicated organizations devoted breaking codes ciphers nations example gchq nsa organizations still active today 2004 reported united states broken iranian ciphers unknown however whether pure cryptanalysis whether factors involved although actual word cryptanalysis relatively recent coined william friedman 1920 methods breaking codes ciphers much older first known recorded explanation cryptanalysis given 9th-century arab polymath al-kindi also known alkindus europe manuscript deciphering cryptographic messages treatise includes description method frequency analysis ibrahim al-kadi 1992- ref-3 italian scholar giambattista della porta author seminal work cryptanalysis de furtivis literarum notis frequency analysis basic tool breaking classical ciphers natural languages certain letters alphabet appear often others english e likely common letter sample plaintext similarly digraph th likely pair letters english frequency analysis relies cipher failing hide statistics example simple substitution cipher letter simply replaced another frequent letter ciphertext would likely candidate e frequency analysis cipher therefore relatively easy provided ciphertext long enough give reasonably representative count letters alphabet contains europe 15th 16th centuries idea polyalphabetic substitution cipher developed among others french diplomat blaise de vigenère 1523–96 three centuries vigenère cipher uses repeating key select different encryption alphabets rotation considered completely secure le chiffre indéchiffrable — indecipherable cipher nevertheless charles babbage 1791–1871 later independently friedrich kasiski 1805–81 succeeded breaking cipher world war inventors several countries developed rotor cipher machines arthur scherbius enigma attempt minimise repetition exploited break vigenère system cryptanalysis enemy messages played significant part allied victory world war ii f. w. winterbotham quoted western supreme allied commander dwight d. eisenhower war end describing ultra intelligence decisive allied victory sir harry hinsley official historian british intelligence world war ii made similar assessment ultra saying shortened war less two years probably four years moreover said absence ultra uncertain war would ended practice frequency analysis relies much linguistic knowledge statistics ciphers became complex mathematics became important cryptanalysis change particularly evident world war ii efforts crack axis ciphers required new levels mathematical sophistication moreover automation first applied cryptanalysis era polish bomba device british bombe use punched card equipment colossus computers — first electronic digital computers controlled program reciprocal machine ciphers lorenz cipher enigma machine used nazi germany world war ii message key usually transmitting operator informed receiving operator message key transmitting plaintext and/or ciphertext enciphered message termed indicator indicates receiving operator set machine decipher message poorly designed implemented indicator systems allowed first polish cryptographers british cryptographers bletchley park break enigma cipher system similar poor indicator systems allowed british identify depths led diagnosis lorenz sz40/42 cipher system comprehensive breaking messages without cryptanalysts seeing cipher machine sending two messages key insecure process cryptanalyst messages said depth may detected messages indicator sending operator informs receiving operator key generator initial settings message generally cryptanalyst may benefit lining identical enciphering operations among set messages example vernam cipher enciphers bit-for-bit combining plaintext long key using exclusive operator also known modulo-2 addition symbolized ⊕ deciphering combines key bits ciphertext reconstruct plaintext modulo-2 arithmetic addition subtraction two ciphertexts aligned depth combining eliminates common key leaving combination two plaintexts individual plaintexts worked linguistically trying probable words phrases also known cribs various locations correct guess combined merged plaintext stream produces intelligible text plaintext component recovered fragment second plaintext often extended one directions extra characters combined merged plaintext stream extend first plaintext working back forth two plaintexts using intelligibility criterion check guesses analyst may recover much original plaintexts two plaintexts depth analyst may know one corresponds ciphertext practice large problem recovered plaintext combined ciphertext key revealed knowledge key course allows analyst read messages encrypted key knowledge set related keys may allow cryptanalysts diagnose system used constructing even though computation used great effect cryptanalysis lorenz cipher systems world war ii also made possible new methods cryptography orders magnitude complex ever taken whole modern cryptography become much impervious cryptanalysis pen-and-paper systems past seems upper hand pure cryptanalysis historian david kahn notes kahn goes mention increased opportunities interception bugging side channel attacks quantum computers replacements traditional means cryptanalysis 2010 former nsa technical director brian snow said academic government cryptographers moving slowly forward mature field however postmortems cryptanalysis may premature effectiveness cryptanalytic methods employed intelligence agencies remains unknown many serious attacks academic practical cryptographic primitives published modern era computer cryptography thus best modern ciphers may far resistant cryptanalysis enigma cryptanalysis broader field information security remain quite active asymmetric cryptography public key cryptography cryptography relies using two mathematically related keys one private one public ciphers invariably rely hard mathematical problems basis security obvious point attack develop methods solving problem security two-key cryptography depends mathematical questions way single-key cryptography generally conversely links cryptanalysis wider mathematical research new way asymmetric schemes designed around conjectured difficulty solving various mathematical problems improved algorithm found solve problem system weakened example security diffie–hellman key exchange scheme depends difficulty calculating discrete logarithm 1983 coppersmith found faster way find discrete logarithms certain groups thereby requiring cryptographers use larger groups different types groups rsa security depends part upon difficulty integer factorization — breakthrough factoring would impact security rsa 1980 one could factor difficult 50-digit number expense 10 elementary computer operations 1984 state art factoring algorithms advanced point 75-digit number could factored 10 operations advances computing technology also meant operations could performed much faster moore law predicts computer speeds continue increase factoring techniques may continue well likely depend mathematical insight creativity neither ever successfully predictable 150-digit numbers kind used rsa factored effort greater unreasonable fast modern computers start 21st century 150-digit numbers longer considered large enough key size rsa numbers several hundred digits still considered hard factor 2005 though methods probably continue improve time requiring key size keep pace methods elliptic curve cryptography used another distinguishing feature asymmetric schemes unlike attacks symmetric cryptosystems cryptanalysis opportunity make use knowledge gained public key quantum computers still early phases research potential use cryptanalysis example shor algorithm could factor large numbers polynomial time effect breaking commonly used forms public-key encryption using grover algorithm quantum computer brute-force key search made quadratically faster however could countered doubling key length 1-hop neighbor's text information: wired_equivalent_privacy.wired equivalent privacy wired equivalent privacy wep security algorithm ieee 802.11 wireless networks introduced part original 802.11 standard ratified 1997 intention provide data confidentiality comparable traditional wired network wep recognizable key 10 26 hexadecimal digits 40 104 bits one time widely use often first security choice presented users router configuration tools 2003 wi-fi alliance announced wep superseded wi-fi protected access wpa 2004 ratification full 802.11i standard i.e wpa2 ieee declared wep-40 wep-104 deprecated wep encryption protocol available 802.11a 802.11b devices built wpa standard available 802.11g devices however 802.11b devices later provided firmware software updates enable wpa newer devices built wep ratified wi-fi security standard 1999 first versions wep particularly strong even time released u.s. restrictions export various cryptographic technology led manufacturers restricting devices 64-bit encryption restrictions lifted increased 128-bit despite introduction 256-bit wep 128-bit remains one common implementations wep included privacy component original ieee 802.11 standard ratified 1997 wep uses stream cipher rc4 confidentiality crc-32 checksum integrity deprecated 2004 documented current standard standard 64-bit wep uses 40 bit key also known wep-40 concatenated 24-bit initialization vector iv form rc4 key time original wep standard drafted u.s. government export restrictions cryptographic technology limited key size restrictions lifted manufacturers access points implemented extended 128-bit wep protocol using 104-bit key size wep-104 64-bit wep key usually entered string 10 hexadecimal base 16 characters 0–9 a–f character represents 4 bits 10 digits 4 bits gives 40 bits adding 24-bit iv produces complete 64-bit wep key 4 bits × 10 24 bits iv 64 bits wep key devices also allow user enter key 5 ascii characters 0–9 a–z a–z turned 8 bits using character byte value ascii 8 bits × 5 24 bits iv 64 bits wep key however restricts byte printable ascii character small fraction possible byte values greatly reducing space possible keys 128-bit wep key usually entered string 26 hexadecimal characters 26 digits 4 bits gives 104 bits adding 24-bit iv produces complete 128-bit wep key 4 bits × 26 24 bits iv 128 bits wep key devices also allow user enter 13 ascii characters 8 bits × 13 24 bits iv 128 bits wep key 152-bit 256-bit wep systems available vendors wep variants 24 bits iv leaving 128 232 bits actual protection 128 232 bits typically entered 32 58 hexadecimal characters 4 bits × 32 24 bits iv 152 bits wep key 4 bits × 58 24 bits iv 256 bits wep key devices also allow user enter 16 29 ascii characters 8 bits × 16 24 bits iv 152 bits wep key 8 bits × 29 24 bits iv 256 bits wep key two methods authentication used wep open system authentication shared key authentication open system authentication wlan client provide credentials access point authentication client authenticate access point attempt associate effect authentication occurs subsequently wep keys used encrypting data frames point client must correct keys shared key authentication wep key used authentication four-step challenge-response handshake authentication association pre-shared wep key also used encrypting data frames using rc4 first glance might seem though shared key authentication secure open system authentication since latter offers real authentication however quite reverse possible derive keystream used handshake capturing challenge frames shared key authentication therefore data easily intercepted decrypted shared key authentication open system authentication privacy primary concern advisable use open system authentication wep authentication rather shared key authentication however also means wlan client connect ap authentication mechanisms weak shared key wep deprecated favor wpa/wpa2 rc4 stream cipher traffic key must never used twice purpose iv transmitted plain text prevent repetition 24-bit iv long enough ensure busy network way iv used also opened wep related key attack 24-bit iv 50 probability iv repeat 5000 packets august 2001 scott fluhrer itsik mantin adi shamir published cryptanalysis wep exploits way rc4 ciphers iv used wep resulting passive attack recover rc4 key eavesdropping network depending amount network traffic thus number packets available inspection successful key recovery could take little one minute insufficient number packets sent ways attacker send packets network thereby stimulate reply packets inspected find key attack soon implemented automated tools since released possible perform attack personal computer off-the-shelf hardware freely available software aircrack-ng crack wep key minutes cam-winget et al surveyed variety shortcomings wep write experiments field show proper equipment practical eavesdrop wep-protected networks distances mile target also reported two generic weaknesses 2005 group u.s. federal bureau investigation gave demonstration cracked wep-protected network 3 minutes using publicly available tools andreas klein presented another analysis rc4 stream cipher klein showed correlations rc4 keystream key ones found fluhrer mantin shamir additionally used break wep wep-like usage modes 2006 bittau handley lackey showed 802.11 protocol used wep enable earlier attacks previously thought impractical eavesdropping single packet attacker rapidly bootstrap able transmit arbitrary data eavesdropped packet decrypted one byte time transmitting 128 packets per byte decrypt discover local network ip addresses finally 802.11 network connected internet attacker use 802.11 fragmentation replay eavesdropped packets crafting new ip header onto access point used decrypt packets relay buddy internet allowing real-time decryption wep traffic within minute eavesdropping first packet 2007 erik tews andrei pychkine ralf-philipp weinmann able extend klein 2005 attack optimize usage wep new attack possible recover 104-bit wep key probability 50 using 40,000 captured packets 60,000 available data packets success probability 80 85,000 data packets 95 using active techniques like deauth arp re-injection 40,000 packets captured less one minute good conditions actual computation takes 3 seconds 3 mb main memory pentium-m 1.7 ghz additionally optimized devices slower cpus attack used 40-bit keys even higher success probability 2008 payment card industry pci security standards council latest update data security standard dss prohibits use wep part credit-card processing 30 june 2010 prohibits new system installed uses wep 31 march 2009 use wep contributed tj maxx parent company network invasion use encrypted tunneling protocols e.g ipsec secure shell provide secure data transmission insecure network however replacements wep developed goal restoring security wireless network recommended solution wep security problems switch wpa2 wpa intermediate solution hardware could support wpa2 wpa wpa2 much secure wep add support wpa wpa2 old wi-fi access points might need replaced firmware upgraded wpa designed interim software-implementable solution wep could forestall immediate deployment new hardware however tkip basis wpa reached end designed lifetime partially broken officially deprecated release 802.11-2012 standard stopgap enhancement wep present early 802.11i drafts implementable hardware able handle wpa wpa2 extended iv key values 128 bits hoped eliminate duplicate iv deficiency well stop brute force key attacks became clear overall wep algorithm deficient iv key sizes would require even fixes wep2 name original algorithm dropped two extended key lengths remained eventually became wpa tkip wepplus also known wep+ proprietary enhancement wep agere systems formerly subsidiary lucent technologies enhances wep security avoiding weak ivs completely effective wepplus used ends wireless connection easily enforced remains serious limitation also necessarily prevent replay attacks ineffective later statistical attacks rely weak ivs dynamic wep refers combination 802.1x technology extensible authentication protocol dynamic wep changes wep keys dynamically vendor-specific feature provided several vendors 3com dynamic change idea made 802.11i part tkip actual wep algorithm Target text information: stream_cipher_attacks.stream cipher attacks stream ciphers plaintext bits combined cipher bit stream exclusive-or operation xor secure used properly however vulnerable attacks certain precautions followed stream ciphers vulnerable attack key used twice depth two say send messages b length encrypted using key k stream cipher produces string bits c k length messages encrypted versions messages xor performed bit bit say adversary intercepted e e b easily compute however xor commutative property x xor x 0 self-inverse one message longer adversary truncates longer message size shorter attack reveal portion longer message words anyone intercepts two messages encrypted key recover xor b form running key cipher even neither message known long messages natural language cipher often broken paper-and-pencil methods world war ii british cryptanalyst john tiltman accomplished lorenz cipher dubbed tunny average personal computer ciphers usually broken matter minutes one message known solution trivial another situation recovery trivial traffic-flow security measures station sending continuous stream cipher bits null characters e.g ltrs baudot sent real traffic common military communications case transmission channel fully loaded good likelihood one ciphertext streams nulls nsa goes great lengths prevent keys used twice 1960s-era encryption systems often included punched card reader loading keys mechanism would automatically cut card half card removed preventing reuse one way avoid problem use initialization vector iv sent clear combined secret master key create one-time key stream cipher done several common systems use popular stream cipher rc4 including wired equivalent privacy wep wi-fi protected access wpa ciphersaber one many problems wep iv short 24 bits meant high likelihood iv would used twice thousand packets sent master key see birthday attack subjecting packets duplicated iv key reuse attack problem fixed wpa changing master key frequently suppose adversary knows exact content part one messages part man middle attack replay attack alter content message without knowing key k say example knows portion message say electronics fund transfer contains ascii string 1000.00 change 9500.00 xoring portion ciphertext string 1000.00 xor 9500.00 see works consider cipher text send c k xor 1000.00 new message adversary creating recall string xored produces zeros string zeros xored another string leaves string intact result c k xor 9500.00 ciphertext would 9500 correct amount see also malleability cryptography bit-flipping attacks prevented including message authentication code increase likelihood tampering detected stream ciphers combine secret key agreed initialization vector iv produce pseudo-random sequence time-to-time re-synchronized chosen iv attack relies finding particular iv taken together probably reveal information secret key typically multiple pairs iv chosen differences generated key-streams analysed statistically linear correlation and/or algebraic boolean relation see also differential cryptanalysis choosing particular values initialization vector expose non-random pattern generated sequence attack computes bits thus shortens effective key length symptom attack would frequent re-synchronisation modern stream ciphers include steps adequately mix secret key initialization vector usually performing many initial rounds I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	262	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: spread_spectrum.spread spectrum telecommunication radio communication spread-spectrum techniques methods signal e.g. electrical electromagnetic acoustic signal generated particular bandwidth deliberately spread frequency domain resulting signal wider bandwidth techniques used variety reasons including establishment secure communications increasing resistance natural interference noise jamming prevent detection limit power flux density e.g. satellite links technique telecommunication signal transmitted bandwidth considerably larger frequency content original information frequency hopping basic modulation technique used spread spectrum signal transmission spread-spectrum telecommunications signal structuring technique employs direct sequence frequency hopping hybrid used multiple access and/or multiple functions technique decreases potential interference receivers achieving privacy spread spectrum generally makes use sequential noise-like signal structure spread normally narrowband information signal relatively wideband radio band frequencies receiver correlates received signals retrieve original information signal originally two motivations either resist enemy efforts jam communications anti-jam aj hide fact communication even taking place sometimes called low probability intercept lpi frequency-hopping spread spectrum fhss direct-sequence spread spectrum dsss time-hopping spread spectrum thss chirp spread spectrum css combinations techniques forms spread spectrum first two techniques employ pseudorandom number sequences—created using pseudorandom number generators—to determine control spreading pattern signal across allocated bandwidth wireless standard ieee 802.11 uses either fhss dsss radio interface frequency-hopping may date back radio pioneer jonathan zenneck 1908 german book wireless telegraphy although states telefunken using previously saw limited use german military world war put forward polish engineer leonard danilewicz 1929 showed patent 1930s willem broertjes issued aug. 2 1932 top-secret us army signal corps world war ii communications system named sigsaly world war ii golden age hollywood actress hedy lamarr avant-garde composer george antheil developed intended jamming-resistant radio guidance system use allied torpedoes patenting device us patent 2,292,387 secret communications system august 11 1942 approach unique frequency coordination done paper player piano rolls novel approach never put practice spread-spectrum clock generation sscg used synchronous digital systems especially containing microprocessors reduce spectral density electromagnetic interference emi systems generate synchronous digital system one driven clock signal periodic nature unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum fact perfect clock signal would energy concentrated single frequency desired clock frequency harmonics practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy number narrow bands spread clock frequency harmonics resulting frequency spectrum certain frequencies exceed regulatory limits electromagnetic interference e.g fcc united states jeita japan iec europe spread-spectrum clocking avoids problem using one methods previously described reduce peak radiated energy therefore electromagnetic emissions comply electromagnetic compatibility emc regulations become popular technique gain regulatory approval requires simple equipment modification even popular portable electronics devices faster clock speeds increasing integration high-resolution lcd displays ever smaller devices devices designed lightweight inexpensive traditional passive electronic measures reduce emi capacitors metal shielding viable active emi reduction techniques spread-spectrum clocking needed cases however spread-spectrum clocking like kinds dynamic frequency change also create challenges designers principal among clock/data misalignment clock skew note method reduce total radiated energy therefore systems necessarily less likely cause interference spreading energy larger bandwidth effectively reduces electrical magnetic readings within narrow bandwidths typical measuring receivers used emc testing laboratories divide electromagnetic spectrum frequency bands approximately 120 khz wide system test radiate energy narrow bandwidth would register large peak distributing energy larger bandwidth prevents systems putting enough energy one narrowband exceed statutory limits usefulness method means reduce real-life interference problems often debated perceived spread-spectrum clocking hides rather resolves higher radiated energy issues simple exploitation loopholes emc legislation certification procedures situation results electronic equipment sensitive narrow bandwidth experiencing much less interference broadband sensitivity even operated higher frequencies radio receiver tuned different station experience interference fcc certification testing often completed spread-spectrum function enabled order reduce measured emissions within acceptable legal limits however spread-spectrum functionality may disabled user cases example area personal computers bios writers include ability disable spread-spectrum clock generation user setting thereby defeating object emi regulations might considered loophole generally overlooked long spread-spectrum enabled default ability disable spread-spectrum clocking computer systems considered useful overclocking spread spectrum lower maximum clock speed achievable due clock skew 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include Target text information: echolink.echolink echolink computer-based amateur radio system distributed free charge allows radio amateurs communicate amateur radio operators using voice ip voip technology internet least part path designed jonathan taylor radio amateur call sign k1rfd system allows reliable worldwide connections made radio amateurs greatly enhancing amateur radio communications capabilities essence voip applications skype unique addition ability link amateur radio station transceiver thus low-power handheld amateur radio transceiver contact local echolink node node active echolink station transceiver attached use internet connection station send transmission via voip active echolink node worldwide special hardware software required relay transmission via echolink node using system necessary prospective user callsign validated echolink system requires new user provide positive proof license identity callsign added list validated users cost service ensures system used licensed amateur radio operators software written run 32-bit 64-bit versions microsoft windows another edition software runs apple mobile devices iphone ipod touch ipad available apple app store android version available google play several android app repositories radio amateurs using echolink software operate one two modes radio amateurs without echolink software computer connected internet take advantage echolink network within radio range sysop mode echolink station also possible link sysop mode echolink station local repeater enhancing communication possibilities editions echolink also available two major smartphone platforms february 2010 edition echolink released apple iphone ipad ipod touch app store august 2010 edition echolink released android platform available google play store ios android editions created jonathan taylor k1rfd author original windows edition open source software packages largely compatible echolink available macintosh echomac echoham linux echolinux svxlink/qtel sysop mode required svxlink server linux good alternative features go beyond original software openness makes quite easy extend new functionality echoirlp software add irlp enables irlp node operate sysop mode echolink station echolink software designed run microsoft windows also known work several linux builds well loaded wine I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	4,061	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: timeline_of_operating_systems.timeline operating systems article presents timeline events history computer operating systems 1951 current day narrative explaining overall developments see history operating systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: walnut_creek_cdrom.walnut creek cdrom walnut creek cdrom walnut creek california early provider freeware shareware free software cd-roms company founded august 1991 bob bruce one first commercial distributors free software cd-roms company produced hundreds titles cd-roms ran busiest ftp site internet ftp.cdrom.com many years early years popular products simtel shareware ms-dos cica shareware microsoft windows sunny archives aminet archives amiga january 1994 published collection 350 texts project gutenberg one first published ebook collections walnut creek developed close relationship freebsd unix-like open source operating system project inception 1993 company published freebsd cd-rom distributed ftp employed freebsd project founders jordan hubbard david greenman ran freebsd servers sponsored freebsd conferences published freebsd books including complete freebsd 1997 freebsd walnut creek successful product according bruce 1995 onwards walnut creek also official publisher slackware linux walnut creek also gained fame codice_1 subdirectory de facto distribution center doom -engine modification community time users gained access high-speed internet connections demand software physical media decreased dramatically company merged berkeley software design inc. bsdi 2000 focus engineering effort similar freebsd bsd/os operating systems soon bsdi acquired telenet system solutions inc. internet infrastructure server supplier software assets bsdi freebsd slackware bsd/os acquired wind river systems 2001 remainder company renamed ixsystems wind river dropped sponsorship slackware soon afterwards freebsd unit divested separate entity 2002 freebsd mall inc. ixsystems server business acquired 2002 offmyserver reverted ixsystems name 2005 february 2007 ixsystems acquired freebsd mall walnut creek cdrom url time redirected simtel.net page found simtel shut march 15 2013 1-hop neighbor's text information: bsd/os.bsd/os bsd/os originally called bsd/386 sometimes known bsdi discontinued proprietary version bsd operating system developed berkeley software design inc. bsdi bsd/os reputation reliability server roles renowned unix programmer author w. richard stevens used personal web server reason bsdi formed 1991 members computer systems research group csrg uc berkeley develop sell proprietary version bsd unix pc compatible systems intel 386 later processors made use work previously done bill jolitz port bsd pc platform bsd/386 1.0 released march 1993 company sold licenses support taking advantage terms bsd license permitted use bsd software proprietary systems long credit given author company turn contributed code resources development non-proprietary bsd operating systems meantime jolitz left bsdi independently released open source bsd pcs called 386bsd one advantages bsdi system complete thorough manpage documentation entire system including complete syntax argument explanations examples file usage authors cross-references commands manpage documentation far poorer modern linux systems bsd/386 licenses including source code priced 995 much less unix system v source licenses fact highlighted advertisements part settlement usl v. bsdi bsdi substituted code written university 4.4 bsd-lite release disputed code os effective release 2.0 time release 386 designation become dated bsd/386 renamed bsd/os later releases bsd/os also supported sun sparc-based systems marketing bsd/os became increasingly focused internet server applications however increasingly tight market unix-compatible software late 1990s early 2000s hurt sales bsd/os one end market lacked certification open group bear unix trademark sales force hardware support larger unix vendors simultaneously lacked negligible acquisition cost open source bsds linux bsd/os acquired wind river systems april 2001 wind river discontinued sales bsd/os end 2003 support terminated end 2004 Target text information: berkeley_software_design.berkeley software design berkeley software design inc. bsdi later bsdi corporation developed sold licenses supported bsd/os originally known bsd/386 commercial partially proprietary variant bsd unix operating system pc compatible later computer systems name chosen similarity berkeley software distribution source primary product specifically 4.3bsd networking release 2 bsdi founded rick adams members computer systems research group csrg university california berkeley including keith bostic kirk mckusick mike karels bill jolitz donn seeley jolitz seeley trent hein working rick adam uunet time became bsdi first employees company began operations 1991 december 1991 usenix secretary former head software convex computer rob kolstad university illinois hired would take company operations two years later bsd/386 released january 1992 full system including source code retailed 995 affordable equivalent source code license rival unix system v cost 20,000 late 1980s rob kolstad direction company decided pursue internet infrastructure primary customer audience mid 1990s top-10 websites world almost using bsd/386 bsd source codebase late 1991 unix system laboratories usl brought lawsuit bsdi alleging bsd/386 contained proprietary trade secrets source code usl acquired novell settlement reached january 1994 bsdi agreed base future releases product called bsd/os csrg 4.4bsd-lite release declared free usl intellectual property rob kolstad university illinois convex computer corporation president bsdi period headed company close decade 1999 bsdi employees sought initial public offering installed new president reach goal soon possible given recent success red hat ipo linux market unfortunately strategy successful soon rob kolstad exited company facing bankruptcy 2000 company merged walnut creek cdrom distributor freeware open source software cd-rom shortly acquired telenet system solutions inc. internet infrastructure server supplier 2001 severe financial pressure excessive leverage bsdi known bsdi time sold software business unit comprising bsd/os former walnut creek freebsd slackware linux open source offerings wind river systems renamed remainder ixsystems renewed focus server hardware wind river dropped sponsorship slackware soon afterwards freebsd unit divested separate entity freebsd mall inc. 2002 faced competition open-source bsd- linux-based operating systems wind river discontinued bsd/os december 2003 many technologies live community-led bsd derivatives like freebsd 2002 offmyserver acquired ixsystems hardware business reverted ixsystems name 2005 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,534	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: random-access_memory.random-access memory random-access memory ram form computer memory read changed order typically used store working data machine code random-access memory device allows data items read written almost amount time irrespective physical location data inside memory contrast direct-access data storage media hard disks cd-rws dvd-rws older magnetic tapes drum memory time required read write data items varies significantly depending physical locations recording medium due mechanical limitations media rotation speeds arm movement ram contains multiplexing demultiplexing circuitry connect data lines addressed storage reading writing entry usually one bit storage accessed address ram devices often multiple data lines said 8-bit 16-bit etc devices today technology random-access memory takes form integrated circuit ic chips mos metal-oxide-semiconductor memory cells ram normally associated volatile types memory dram modules stored information lost power removed although non-volatile ram also developed types non-volatile memories exist allow random access read operations either allow write operations kinds limitations include types rom type flash memory called nor-flash two main types volatile random-access semiconductor memory static random-access memory sram dynamic random-access memory dram commercial uses semiconductor ram date back 1965 ibm introduced sp95 sram chip system/360 model 95 computer toshiba used dram memory cells toscal bc-1411 electronic calculator based bipolar transistors commercial mos memory based mos transistors developed late 1960s first commercial dram ic chip intel 1103 introduced october 1970 synchronous dynamic random-access memory sdram later debuted samsung km48sl2000 chip 1992 early computers used relays mechanical counters delay lines main memory functions ultrasonic delay lines could reproduce data order written drum memory could expanded relatively low cost efficient retrieval memory items required knowledge physical layout drum optimize speed latches built vacuum tube triodes later discrete transistors used smaller faster memories registers registers relatively large costly use large amounts data generally dozen hundred bits memory could provided first practical form random-access memory williams tube starting 1947 stored data electrically charged spots face cathode ray tube since electron beam crt could read write spots tube order memory random access capacity williams tube hundred around thousand bits much smaller faster power-efficient using individual vacuum tube latches developed university manchester england williams tube provided medium first electronically stored program implemented manchester baby computer first successfully ran program 21 june 1948 fact rather williams tube memory designed baby baby testbed demonstrate reliability memory magnetic-core memory invented 1947 developed mid-1970s became widespread form random-access memory relying array magnetized rings changing sense ring magnetization data could stored one bit stored per ring since every ring combination address wires select read write access memory location sequence possible magnetic core memory standard form computer memory system displaced solid-state mos metal-oxide-silicon semiconductor memory integrated circuits ics early 1970s prior development integrated read-only memory rom circuits permanent read-only random-access memory often constructed using diode matrices driven address decoders specially wound core rope memory planes semiconductor memory began 1960s bipolar memory used bipolar transistors improved performance could compete lower price magnetic core memory invention mosfet metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor also known mos transistor mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs 1959 led development mos semiconductor memory john schmidt fairchild semiconductor 1964 addition higher performance mos memory cheaper consumed less power magnetic core memory development silicon-gate mos integrated circuit ic technology federico faggin fairchild 1968 enabled production mos memory chips mos memory overtook magnetic core memory dominant memory technology early 1970s integrated bipolar static random-access memory sram invented robert h. norman fairchild semiconductor 1963 followed development mos sram john schmidt fairchild 1964 commercial use sram began 1965 ibm introduced sp95 memory chip system/360 model 95 dynamic random-access memory dram allowed replacement 4 6-transistor latch circuit single transistor memory bit greatly increasing memory density cost volatility data stored tiny capacitance transistor periodically refreshed every milliseconds charge could leak away toshiba toscal bc-1411 electronic calculator introduced 1965 used form capacitive bipolar dram storing 180-bit data discrete memory cells consisting germanium bipolar transistors capacitors 1967 robert h. dennard ibm filed patent single-transistor mos dram memory cell using mosfet transistor first commercial dram ic chip intel 1103 manufactured 8µm mos process capacity 1kb released 1970 synchronous dynamic random-access memory sdram developed samsung electronics first commercial sdram chip samsung km48sl2000 capacity 16mb introduced samsung 1992 mass-produced 1993 first commercial ddr sdram double data rate sdram memory chip samsung 64mb ddr sdram chip released june 1998 gddr graphics ddr form ddr sgram synchronous graphics ram first released samsung 16mb memory chip 1998 two widely used forms modern ram static ram sram dynamic ram dram sram bit data stored using state six-transistor memory cell form ram expensive produce generally faster requires less dynamic power dram modern computers sram often used cache memory cpu dram stores bit data using transistor capacitor pair together comprise dram cell capacitor holds high low charge 1 0 respectively transistor acts switch lets control circuitry chip read capacitor state charge change form memory less expensive produce static ram predominant form computer memory used modern computers static dynamic ram considered volatile state lost reset power removed system contrast read-only memory rom stores data permanently enabling disabling selected transistors memory altered writeable variants rom eeprom flash memory share properties rom ram enabling data persist without power updated without requiring special equipment persistent forms semiconductor rom include usb flash drives memory cards cameras portable devices solid-state drives ecc memory either sram dram includes special circuitry detect and/or correct random faults memory errors stored data using parity bits error correction codes general term ram refers solely solid-state memory devices either dram sram specifically main memory computers optical storage term dvd-ram somewhat misnomer since unlike cd-rw dvd-rw need erased reuse nevertheless dvd-ram behaves much like hard disc drive somewhat slower memory cell fundamental building block computer memory memory cell electronic circuit stores one bit binary information must set store logic 1 high voltage level reset store logic 0 low voltage level value maintained/stored changed set/reset process value memory cell accessed reading sram memory cell type flip-flop circuit usually implemented using fets means sram requires low power accessed expensive low storage density second type dram based around capacitor charging discharging capacitor store 1 0 cell however charge capacitor slowly leaks away must refreshed periodically refresh process dram uses power achieve greater storage densities lower unit costs compared sram useful memory cells must readable writeable within ram device multiplexing demultiplexing circuitry used select memory cells typically ram device set address lines a0 ... combination bits may applied lines set memory cells activated due addressing ram devices virtually always memory capacity power two usually several memory cells share address example 4 bit 'wide ram chip 4 memory cells address often width memory microprocessor different 32 bit microprocessor eight 4 bit ram chips would needed often addresses needed provided device case external multiplexors device used activate correct device accessed one read over-write data ram many computer systems memory hierarchy consisting processor registers on-die sram caches external caches dram paging systems virtual memory swap space hard drive entire pool memory may referred ram many developers even though various subsystems different access times violating original concept behind random access term ram even within hierarchy level dram specific row column bank rank channel interleave organization components make access time variable although extent access time rotating storage media tape variable overall goal using memory hierarchy obtain highest possible average access performance minimizing total cost entire memory system generally memory hierarchy follows access time fast cpu registers top slow hard drive bottom many modern personal computers ram comes easily upgraded form modules called memory modules dram modules size sticks chewing gum quickly replaced become damaged changing needs demand storage capacity suggested smaller amounts ram mostly sram also integrated cpu ics motherboard well hard-drives cd-roms several parts computer system addition serving temporary storage working space operating system applications ram used numerous ways modern operating systems employ method extending ram capacity known virtual memory portion computer hard drive set aside paging file scratch partition combination physical ram paging file form system total memory example computer 2 gb ram 1 gb page file operating system 3 gb total memory available system runs low physical memory swap portions ram paging file make room new data well read previously swapped information back ram excessive use mechanism results thrashing generally hampers overall system performance mainly hard drives far slower ram software partition portion computer ram allowing act much faster hard drive called ram disk ram disk loses stored data computer shut unless memory arranged standby battery source sometimes contents relatively slow rom chip copied read/write memory allow shorter access times rom chip disabled initialized memory locations switched block addresses often write-protected process sometimes called shadowing fairly common computers embedded systems common example bios typical personal computers often option called “ use shadow bios ” similar enabled functions rely data bios ’ rom instead use dram locations also toggle shadowing video card rom rom sections depending system may result increased performance may cause incompatibilities example hardware may inaccessible operating system shadow ram used systems benefit may hypothetical bios used booting favor direct hardware access free memory reduced size shadowed roms several new types non-volatile ram preserve data powered development technologies used include carbon nanotubes approaches utilizing tunnel magnetoresistance amongst 1st generation mram 128 kib bytes chip manufactured 0.18 µm technology summer 2003 june 2004 infineon technologies unveiled 16 mib 16 × 2 bytes prototype based 0.18 µm technology two 2nd generation techniques currently development thermal-assisted switching tas developed crocus technology spin-transfer torque stt crocus hynix ibm several companies working nantero built functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 gib 10 × 2 bytes array 2004 whether technologies eventually take significant market share either dram sram flash-memory technology however remains seen since 2006 solid-state drives based flash memory capacities exceeding 256 gigabytes performance far exceeding traditional disks become available development started blur definition traditional random-access memory disks dramatically reducing difference performance kinds random-access memory ecoram specifically designed server farms low power consumption important speed memory wall growing disparity speed cpu memory outside cpu chip important reason disparity limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries also referred bandwidth wall 1986 2000 cpu speed improved annual rate 55 memory speed improved 10 given trends expected memory latency would become overwhelming bottleneck computer performance cpu speed improvements slowed significantly partly due major physical barriers partly current cpu designs already hit memory wall sense intel summarized causes 2005 document first chip geometries shrink clock frequencies rise transistor leakage current increases leading excess power consumption heat ... secondly advantages higher clock speeds part negated memory latency since memory access times able keep pace increasing clock frequencies third certain applications traditional serial architectures becoming less efficient processors get faster due so-called von neumann bottleneck undercutting gains frequency increases might otherwise buy addition partly due limitations means producing inductance within solid state devices resistance-capacitance rc delays signal transmission growing feature sizes shrink imposing additional bottleneck frequency increases n't address rc delays signal transmission also noted clock rate versus ipc end road conventional microarchitectures projected maximum 12.5 average annual cpu performance improvement 2000 2014 different concept processor-memory performance gap addressed 3d integrated circuits reduce distance logic memory aspects apart 2d chip memory subsystem design requires focus gap widening time main method bridging gap use caches small amounts high-speed memory houses recent operations instructions nearby processor speeding execution operations instructions cases called upon frequently multiple levels caching developed deal widening gap performance high-speed modern computers relies evolving caching techniques prevent loss processor performance takes less time perform computation initiated complete 53 difference growth speed processor speeds lagging speed main memory access solid-state hard drives continued increase speed ~400 mb/s via sata3 2012 ~3 gb/s via nvme/pcie 2018 closing gap ram hard disk speeds although ram continues order magnitude faster single-lane ddr4 3200 capable 25 gb/s modern gddr even faster fast cheap non-volatile solid state drives replaced functions formerly performed ram holding certain data immediate availability server farms 1 terabyte ssd storage 200 1tb ram would cost thousands dollars despite speed ram still necessity efficient computation large local data sets analytics machine learning though producing graphics video games vr 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: resident_set_size.resident set size computing resident set size rss portion memory occupied process held main memory ram rest occupied memory exists swap space file system either parts occupied memory paged parts executable never loaded Target text information: proportional_set_size.proportional set size computing proportional set size pss portion main memory ram occupied process composed private memory process plus proportion shared memory one processes unshared memory including proportion shared memory reported pss example since pss defined sum unshared memory process proportion memory shared processes pss two processes follows concept mostly related unique linux operating system proposed matt mackall complications arose trying count real memory used process concepts resident set size virtual memory size vmsize n't helping developers tried know much memory programs using I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,616	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: transactional_synchronization_extensions.transactional synchronization extensions transactional synchronization extensions tsx-ni extension x86 instruction set architecture isa adds hardware transactional memory support speeding execution multi-threaded software lock elision according different benchmarks tsx provide around 40 faster applications execution specific workloads 4–5 times database transactions per second tps tsx documented intel february 2012 debuted june 2013 selected intel microprocessors based haswell microarchitecture haswell processors 45xx well r-series k-series unlocked multiplier skus support tsx august 2014 intel announced bug tsx implementation current steppings haswell haswell-e haswell-ep early broadwell cpus resulted disabling tsx feature affected cpus via microcode update 2016 side-channel timing attack found abusing way tsx handles transactional faults i.e page faults order break kaslr major operating systems support tsx emulation provided part intel software development emulator also experimental support tsx emulation qemu fork tsx provides two software interfaces designating code regions transactional execution hardware lock elision hle instruction prefix-based interface designed backward compatible processors without tsx support restricted transactional memory rtm new instruction set interface provides greater flexibility programmers tsx enables optimistic execution transactional code regions hardware monitors multiple threads conflicting memory accesses aborting rolling back transactions successfully completed mechanisms provided software detect handle failed transactions words lock elision transactional execution uses memory transactions fast path possible slow fallback path still normal lock hardware lock elision hle adds two new instruction prefixes codice_1 codice_2 two prefixes reuse opcodes existing codice_3 codice_4 prefixes codice_5 codice_6 processors support tsx codice_3 codice_4 prefixes ignored instructions codice_1 codice_2 valid thus enabling backward compatibility codice_1 prefix hint used following instructions explicit codice_12 prefix codice_13 codice_14 codice_15 codice_16 codice_17 codice_18 codice_19 codice_20 codice_21 codice_22 codice_23 codice_24 codice_25 codice_26 codice_27 codice_28 codice_29 codice_30 codice_30 instruction used without codice_12 prefix well codice_2 prefix hint used instructions listed codice_34 codice_35 instructions hle allows optimistic execution critical section eliding write lock lock appears free threads failed transaction results execution restarting codice_1-prefixed instruction treating instruction codice_1 prefix present restricted transactional memory rtm alternative implementation hle gives programmer flexibility specify fallback code path executed transaction successfully executed rtm adds three new instructions codice_38 codice_39 codice_40 codice_38 codice_39 instructions mark start end transactional code region codice_40 instruction explicitly aborts transaction transaction failure redirects processor fallback code path specified codice_38 instruction abort status returned codice_45 register tsx provides new codice_46 instruction returns whether processor executing transactional region intel tsx specification describes transactional memory exposed programmers withholds details actual transactional memory implementation intel specifies developer optimization manuals haswell maintains read-sets write-sets granularity cache line tracking addresses l1 data cache processor intel also states data conflicts detected cache coherence protocol haswell l1 data cache associativity eight means implementation transactional execution writes nine distinct locations mapping cache set abort however due micro-architectural implementations mean fewer accesses set guaranteed never abort additionally cpu configurations hyper-threading technology l1 cache shared two threads core operations sibling logical processor core cause evictions independent research points haswell ’ transactional memory likely deferred update system using per-core caches transactional data register checkpoints words haswell likely use cache-based transactional memory system much less risky implementation choice hand intel skylake later may combine cache-based approach memory ordering buffer mob purpose possibly also providing multi-versioned transactional memory amenable speculative multithreading august 2014 intel announced bug exists tsx implementation haswell haswell-e haswell-ep early broadwell cpus resulted disabling tsx feature affected cpus via microcode update bug fixed f-0 steppings vpro-enabled core m-5y70 broadwell cpu november 2014 bug found reported diploma thesis school electrical computer engineering national technical university athens 1-hop neighbor's text information: rad750.rad750 rad750 radiation-hardened single board computer manufactured bae systems electronics intelligence support successor rad6000 rad750 use high radiation environments experienced board satellites spacecraft rad750 released 2001 first units launched space 2005 cpu 10.4 million transistors order magnitude rad6000 1.1 million manufactured using either 250 150 nm photolithography die area 130 mm core clock 110 200 mhz process 266 mips cpu include extended l2 cache improve performance cpu withstand 200,000 1,000,000 rads 2,000 10,000 gray temperature ranges –55 °c 125 °c requires 5 watts power standard rad750 single-board system cpu motherboard withstand 100,000 rads 1,000 gray temperature ranges –55 °c 70 °c requires 10 watts power rad750 system price comparable rad6000 us 200,000 per board per 2002 reference however customer program requirements quantities greatly affect final unit costs rad750 based powerpc 750 packaging logic functions completely compatible powerpc 7xx family term rad750 registered trademark bae systems information electronic systems integration inc 2010 reported 150 rad750s used variety spacecraft notable examples order launch date include 1-hop neighbor's text information: peter_hofstee.peter hofstee harm peter hofstee born 1962 dutch physicist computer scientist currently distinguished research staff member ibm austin usa part-time professor big data systems delft university technology netherlands hofstee best known contributions heterogeneous computing chief architect synergistic processor elements cell broadband engine processor used sony playstation 3 first supercomputer reach sustained petaflop operation returning ibm research 2011 focused optimizing system roadmap big data analytics cloud including use accelerated compute early research work coherently attached reconfigurable acceleration power7 paved way new coherent attach processor interface power8 hofstee ibm master inventor 100 issued patents hofstee born groningen obtained master degree theoretical physics university groningen 1988 continued study california institute technology wrote master thesis constructing distributed programs 1991 obtained ph.d. thesis titled synchronizing processes 1995 joined caltech lecturer two years moved ibm austin texas research laboratory staff member senior technical staff member distinguished engineer positions since 2011 peter leading big data system design work ibm march 2016 peter appointed professor chair big data computer systems faculty electrical engineering mathematics computer science delft university technology Target text information: altivec.altivec altivec single-precision floating point integer simd instruction set designed owned apple ibm freescale semiconductor formerly motorola semiconductor products sector — aim alliance implemented versions powerpc processor architecture including motorola g4 ibm g5 power6 processors p.a semi pwrficient pa6t altivec trademark owned solely freescale system also referred velocity engine apple vmx vector multimedia extension ibm p.a semi altivec refers instruction set implementations cpus produced ibm motorola separate terms logic design date ibm core included altivec logic design licensed motorola vice versa altivec standard part power isa v.2.03 specification never formally part powerpc architecture specification although used powerpc instruction formats syntax occupied opcode space expressly allocated purposes vmx/altivec sse feature 128-bit vector registers represent sixteen 8-bit signed unsigned chars eight 16-bit signed unsigned shorts four 32-bit ints four 32-bit floating point variables provide cache-control instructions intended minimize cache pollution working streams data also exhibit important differences unlike sse2 vmx/altivec supports special rgb pixel data type operate 64-bit double precision floats way move data directly scalar vector registers keeping load/store model powerpc risc design vector registers like scalar registers loaded stored memory however vmx/altivec provides much complete set horizontal operations work across elements vector allowable combinations data type operations much complete thirty-two 128-bit vector registers provided compared eight sse sse2 extended 16 x86-64 vmx/altivec instructions take three register operands compared two register/register register/memory operands ia-32 vmx/altivec also unique support flexible vector permute instruction byte resulting vector value taken byte either two vectors parametrized yet another vector allows sophisticated manipulations single instruction recent versions gnu compiler collection gcc ibm visualage compiler compilers provide intrinsics access vmx/altivec instructions directly c c++ programs version 4 gcc also includes auto-vectorization capabilities attempt intelligently create vmx/altivec accelerated binaries without need programmer use intrinsics directly vector type keyword introduced permit declaration native vector types e.g. codice_1 declares 128-bit vector variable named foo containing sixteen 8-bit unsigned chars full complement arithmetic binary operators defined vector types normal c expression language used manipulate vector variables also overloaded intrinsic functions codice_2 emit appropriate op code based type elements within vector strong type checking enforced contrast intel-defined data types ia-32 simd registers declare size vector register 128 64 bits case 128-bit register whether contains integers floating point values programmer must select appropriate intrinsic data types use e.g. codice_3 adding two vectors containing eight 16-bit integers power vector media extension vmx developed 1996 1998 collaborative project apple ibm motorola apple primary customer power vector media extension vmx apple switched intel-made x86-based cpus june 6 2005 used accelerate multimedia applications quicktime itunes key parts apple mac os x including quartz graphics compositor companies adobe used altivec optimize image-processing programs adobe photoshop motorola first supply altivec enabled processors starting g4 line altivec also used embedded systems high-performance digital signal processing ibm consistently left vmx earlier power microprocessors intended server applications useful power6 microprocessor introduced 2007 implements altivec last desktop microprocessor ibm powerpc 970 dubbed g5 apple also implemented altivec hardware similar powerpc 7400 altivec brandname trademarked freescale previously motorola standard category vector part power isa v.2.03 specification category also known vmx used ibm velocity engine brand name previously used apple cell broadband engine used amongst things playstation 3 also supports power vector media extension vmx ppu spu isa enhanced architecturally similar freescale bringing enhanced version altivec e6500 based qoriq processors ibm enhanced vmx use xenon xbox 360 called enhancement vmx128 enhancements comprise new routines targeted gaming accelerating 3d graphics game physics total 128 registers vmx128 entirely compatible vmx/altivec number integer operations removed make space larger register file additional application-specific operations power isa v2.06 introduces new vsx vector-scalar instructions extend simd processing power isa support 64 registers support regular floating point decimal floating point vector execution power7 first power isa processor implement power isa v2.06 new instructions introduced ibm vector media extension category integer operations part vsx extension power isa 2.07 new integer vector instructions introduced ibm following vmx encodings part vsx extension power isa v3.0 shall introduced power9 processors c++ standard way accessing altivec support mutually exclusive use standard template library codice_4 class template due treatment vector reserved word compiler implement context sensitive keyword version vector however may possible combine using compiler-specific workarounds instance gcc one may codice_5 remove codice_6 keyword use gcc-specific codice_7 keyword place following processors altivec vmx vmx128 included I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,120	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: multics.multics multics multiplexed information computing service influential early time-sharing operating system based concept single-level memory virtually modern operating systems heavily influenced multics – often unix created people worked multics – either directly linux macos indirectly windows nt initial planning development multics started 1964 cambridge massachusetts originally cooperative project led mit project mac fernando corbató along general electric bell labs developed ge 645 computer specially designed first one delivered mit january 1967 multics conceived commercial product general electric became one honeywell albeit successfully due many novel valuable ideas multics significant impact computer science despite faults multics numerous features intended ensure high availability would support computing utility similar telephone electricity utilities modular hardware structure software architecture used achieve system could grow size simply adding appropriate resource computing power main memory disk storage separate access control lists every file provided flexible information sharing complete privacy needed multics number standard mechanisms allow engineers analyze performance system well number adaptive performance optimization mechanisms multics implemented single-level store data access discarding clear distinction files called segments multics process memory memory process consisted solely segments mapped address space read write process simply used normal central processing unit cpu instructions operating system took care making sure modifications saved disk posix terminology every file codice_1ed however multics concept process memory separate memory used hold mapped-in files unix memory system part segment appeared file system included temporary scratch memory process kernel stack etc one disadvantage size segments limited 256 kilowords 1 mib due particular hardware architecture machines multics ran 36-bit word size index registers used address within segments half size 18 bits extra code used work files larger called multisegment files days one megabyte memory prohibitively expensive large databases later huge bitmap graphics limit rarely encountered another major new idea multics dynamic linking running process could request segments added address space segments could contain code could execute allowed applications automatically use latest version external routine called since routines kept segments dynamically linked process first tried begin execution since different processes could use different search rules different users could end using different versions external routines automatically equally importantly appropriate settings multics security facilities code segment could gain access data structures maintained different process thus interact application running part daemon another process user process simply performed normal procedure-call instruction code segment dynamically linked code segment implemented operation associated daemon code segment could modify data maintained used daemon action necessary commence request completed simple procedure return instruction returned control user process user code multics also supported extremely aggressive on-line reconfiguration central processing units memory banks disk drives etc could added removed system continued operating mit system early software development done common practice split multiprocessor system two separate systems off-hours incrementally removing enough components form second working system leaving rest still running original logged-in users system software development testing could done second system components second system added back main user system without ever shut multics supported multiple cpus one earliest multiprocessor systems multics first major operating system designed secure system outset despite early versions multics broken repeatedly led work made system much secure prefigured modern security engineering techniques break-ins became rare second-generation hardware base adopted hardware support ring-oriented security multilevel refinement concept master mode multics first operating system provide hierarchical file system file names could almost arbitrary length syntax given file directory could multiple names typically long short form symbolic links directories also supported multics first use now-standard concept per-process stacks kernel separate stack security ring also first command processor implemented ordinary user code – idea later used unix shell also one first written high-level language multics pl/i burroughs mcp system written algol 1964 multics developed initially ge-645 mainframe 36-bit system ge computer business including multics taken honeywell 1970 around 1973 multics supported honeywell 6180 machines included security improvements including hardware support protection rings bell labs pulled project 1969 people worked went create unix system multics development continued mit general electric honeywell continued system development 1985 80 multimillion-dollar sites installed universities industry government sites french university system several installations early 1980s honeywell stopped supporting multics users migrated systems like unix 1985 multics issued certification b2 level secure operating system using trusted computer system evaluation criteria national computer security center ncsc division nsa first operating system evaluated level multics distributed 1975 2000 groupe bull europe bull hn information systems inc. united states 2006 bull sas open sourced multics versions mr10.2 mr11.0 mr12.0 mr12.1 mr12.2 mr12.3 mr12.4 mr12.5 last known multics installation running natively honeywell hardware shut october 30 2000 canadian department national defence halifax nova scotia canada 2006 bull hn released source code mr12.5 final 1992 multics release mit system available open-source software exception optional pieces tcp/ip 2014 multics successfully run current hardware using simulator 1.0 release simulator available release 12.6f multics accompanies 1.0 release emulator adds new features including command line recall editing using video system peter h. salus author book covering unix early years stated one position multics tried much versatile flexible operating system failed miserably position however widely discredited computing community many multics technical innovations used modern commercial computing systems permanently resident kernel multics system derided day large complex 135 kb code comparison linux system 2007 might occupied 18 mb first mit ge-645 512 kilowords memory 2 mib truly enormous amount time kernel used moderate portion multics main memory entire system including operating system complex pl/1 compiler user commands subroutine libraries consisted 1500 source modules averaged roughly 200 lines source code compiled produce total roughly 4.5 mib procedure code fairly large standards day multics compilers generally optimised code density cpu performance example using small sub-routines called operators short standard code sequences makes comparison object code size modern systems less useful high code density good optimisation choice multics multi-user system expensive main memory design features multics greatly influenced unix operating system originally written two multics programmers ken thompson dennis ritchie superficial influence multics unix evident many areas including naming commands internal design philosophy quite different focusing keeping system small simple correcting deficiencies multics high resource demands limited computer hardware time name unix originally unics pun multics u unix rumored stand uniplexed opposed multiplexed multics underscoring designers rejections multics complexity favor straightforward workable approach smaller computers garfinkel abelson cite alternative origin peter neumann bell labs watching demonstration prototype suggested pun name unics – pronounced eunuchs – castrated multics although dennis ritchie said denied ken thompson transcribed 2007 interview peter seibel refers multics overdesigned overbuilt everything close unusable massachusetts institute technology still claim monstrous success clearly n't admitted however things liked enough multics actually take hierarchical file system shell — separate process replace process prime computer operating system primos referred multics shoebox william poduska founder company poduska later moved found apollo computer whose aegis later domain/os operating systems sometimes called multics matchbox extended multics design heavily networked graphics workstation environment stratus vos operating system stratus computer stratus technologies strongly influenced multics external user interface internal structure bear many close resemblances older project high-reliability availability security features multics extended stratus vos support new line fault tolerant computer systems supporting secure reliable transaction processing stratus vos directly-related descendant multics still active development production usage today protection architecture multics restricting ability code one level system access resources another adopted basis security features icl vme operating system literature contains large number papers multics various components fairly complete list available multics bibliography page important and/or informative ones listed 1-hop neighbor's text information: risks_digest.risks digest risks digest forum risks public computers related systems online periodical published since 1985 committee computers public policy association computing machinery editor peter g. neumann moderated forum concerned security safety computers software technological systems security risk taken broadly risks concerned merely so-called security holes software unintended consequences hazards stemming design lack thereof automated systems recurring subjects include cryptography effects technically ill-considered public policies risks also publishes announcements calls papers various technical conferences technical book reviews usually rob slade though occasionally others although risks forum computer science association contributions readable informative anyone interest subject heavily read system administrators computer security managers well computer scientists engineers risks digest published frequent irregular schedule moderated usenet newsgroup comp.risks exists solely carry digest summaries forum appear columns edited neumann acm sigsoft software engineering notes sen communications acm cacm 1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_slade.robert slade robert michael slade also known robert m. slade rob slade canadian information security consultant researcher instructor author robert slade guide computer viruses software forensics dictionary information security co-author viruses revealed slade author thousands technical book reviews today published techbooks mailing list risks digest archived internet review project expert computer viruses malware also mr. slade mr. slade lists slade married gloria j. slade edits much work editor slade book reviews grandchildren appear field every review 2008 rob grandpa ryan trevor devon hannah holds bachelor degree university british columbia master computer information science education university oregon diploma christian studies regent college slade became one small number researchers called world experts malware fred cohen named slade early work organizing computer viruses software bbses book reviews mr. slade lists slade one fewer thirty people worldwide credited contributions final version virus-l faq usenet group comp.virus virus-l mailing list public group record computer virus issues 1988 1995 1996 maintained antiviral software evaluation faq quick reference users seeking antivirus software vendor contacts list contributor well least three group computer virus faqs web came prominence written two books viruses sole author robert slade guide computer viruses first published 1994 2nd edition 1996 co-wrote viruses revealed david harley urs gattiker 2001 slade advanced field computer forensics antivirus research found intentions identity virus authors discovered program code created first course ever offered forensic programming book software forensics published 2004 chapter subject print information security management handbook fifth edition today slade consultant businesses government—among client list fortune 500 companies government canada—as well educational institutions created curricula taught courses simon fraser university macdonald dettwiler university phoenix slade creates seminars local federal international training groups senior instructor isc ² develops courses information security quality assurance qa seek certification slade one world approximately 60,000 cissps certification used private industry well least united states government defense slade moved online security glossary 2006 book dictionary information security virus bulletin remarked unusual collection five forewords many acknowledged experts willing contribute says something author standing field —the forewords written fred cohen jack holleran peter g. neumann harold tipton gene spafford dictionary considered dependable baseline definitions citable common source slade surveyed literature field shared knowledge internet review project published book reviews perhaps widely known reviews works gave first priority information security reviews often critical—to project faq question n't like books slade replied may cruel fair Target text information: peter_g._neumann.peter g. neumann peter gabriel neumann born 1932 computer-science researcher worked multics operating system 1960s edits risks digest columns acm software engineering notes communications acm founded acm sigsoft fellow acm ieee aaas 1950 1958 neumann studied harvard university 1961 granted ph.d. completing fulbright scholarship germany 1958–1960 student harvard two-hour breakfast albert einstein 8 november 1952 discussing simplicity design neumann worked bell labs 1960 1970 worked sri international menlo park california since 1971 risks mailing list neumann best known provably secure operating system psos neumann worked dorothy e. denning 1980s develop computer intrusion detection system known ides model later computer security software neumann long served moderator risks digest member accurate project neumann founding editor acm software engineering notes sen fellow acm I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,155	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: url_normalization.url normalization url normalization process urls modified standardized consistent manner goal normalization process transform url normalized url possible determine two syntactically different urls may equivalent search engines employ url normalization order reduce indexing duplicate pages web crawlers perform url normalization order avoid crawling resource web browsers may perform normalization determine link visited determine page cached several types normalization may performed always semantics preserving may following normalizations described rfc 3986 result equivalent urls http https urls following normalizations listed rfc 3986 may result equivalent urls guaranteed standards applying following normalizations result semantically different url although may refer resource normalization rules may developed specific websites examining url lists obtained previous crawls web server logs example url appears crawl log several times along may assume two urls equivalent normalized one url forms schonfeld et al 2006 present heuristic called dustbuster detecting dust different urls similar text rules applied url lists showed correct dust rules found applied normalization algorithm able find 68 redundant urls url list 1-hop neighbor's text information: primefaces.primefaces primefaces open-source user interface ui component library javaserver faces-based applications created turkish company primetek informatics initial development primefaces started late 2008 predecessor primefaces yui4jsf library set jsf components based yui javascript library yui4jsf got cancelled favor primefaces early 2009 since release primefaces strongly supported oracle particularly within netbeans world packt publishing publish books technology 1-hop neighbor's text information: aptana.aptana aptana inc. company makes web application development tools use variety programming languages javascript ruby php python aptana main products include aptana studio aptana cloud aptana jaxer aptana studio open-source integrated development environment ide building web applications based eclipse supports javascript html dom css code-completion outlining javascript debugging error warning notifications integrated documentation additional plugins allow aptana studio support ruby rails php python perl adobe air apple iphone nokia wrt web runtime aptana studio available standalone windows mac os x linux plugin eclipse aptana studio 3 provides following support php application development 2.0 version aptana provide php plugin transferred development efforts pdt project aptana version 1.5 provided support developing php applications via add-on php plugin included aptana studio supports ruby rails development using radrails open source plugin ruby rails framework includes aptana studio provides support python form pydev plugin provides following advantages aptana announced previously commercial pydev extensions open sourced aptana ide provides considerable support adobe air nokia web runtime provides support developing rich mobile apps nokia s60 series phones includes 30 models tens millions units use around world nokia wrt plug-in aptana studio provides features enable creation editing testing deployment wrt widgets within aptana studio wrt widgets small task-focused web applications installed run way s60 applications wrt widgets allow websites web services optimised use s60 devices easy develop use wrt widgets ideal driving traffic website s60 devices aptana studio comes following javascript libraries added updated desired code assist similar completing code statements presenting pop-up either applies built-in functions/methods already coded — latter use requires documenting functions/methods scriptdoc documentation dialect similar used javadoc code assist feature includes information browser support javascript methods/properties html elements css properties support uploading downloading synchronization using ftp sftp pro community editions support integrated javascript debugging firefox internet explorer supported pro edition aptana studio available open source community edition previously available features paid-for pro edition merged community edition features pro part standard community edition studio thus aptana ceased exist multiple edition ide aptana uses dual licensing model model users may choose use aptana ide free software/open source gnu general public license commonly known gpl aptana public license known apl gpl license aptana ide available free charge long redistribution aptana ide adheres terms gpl license users may download software free modify integrate distribute aptana also offers simplified apl license organizations n't need redistribute aptana studio derivatives outside company aptana currently led paul colton founder ceo uri sarid cto/vp engineering kevin hakman director evangelism staff headcount surpassed 25 september 1 2008 aptana active participant openajax alliance hakman serving director ide working group aptana acquired appcelerator inc. january 7 2011 employees aptana absorbed mountain view campus appcelerator work scheduled continue release aptana 3.0 appcelerator webcast made users aware intention integrate mobile application framework aptana studio planned beta within q1 2011 emphasis visual workflow indicated products continued support continue existing aptana products appcelerator put jaxer github aptana jaxer made obsolete node.js open-source ajax web server building rich web pages applications using unified ajax model wherein client-side server-side code written javascript jaxer server-side engine based mozilla gecko browser engine used firefox mozilla engine allows jaxer provide server-side dom page may manipulated server-side processing using techniques familiar client-side programmers jaxer server-side javascript apis enable database access file system access network communications user sessions functions typical web application servers jaxer also provides access java objects via open source dwr project jaxer github aptana jaxer provides page-processing environment based mozilla engine provides gecko-based dom spidermonkey javascript engine allow pages rendered manipulated server sent browser jaxer also provides ajax model performing asynchronous requests server client server apis allow requests made simply calling server-side javascript functions client behind scenes jaxer provides logic required manage request retrieve response server useful web scraping jaxer standalone web server works another server apache jetty tomcat jaxer provides server-side dom api processing pages served web server delivering results browser jaxer may integrated aptana studio via optional plugin open source gpl available windows mac os x linux/solaris november 2009 aptana significantly scaled back development support jaxer aptana representative noted n't sufficient adoption make money earning proposition aptana cloud connect aptana web hosting application management service cloud connect provides infrastructure required host applications developed using technologies supported aptana studio primarily based apache support general web/ajax php ruby rails jaxer cloud connect also supports java-based web applications may deployed managed using cloud service applications hosted cloud connect may developed offline deployed managed directly using cloud management features included aptana studio cloud connect service also provides team management hosted source control using subversion remote editing/preview application synchronization local staging production environments Target text information: ajax_(programming).ajax programming ajax also ajax short asynchronous javascript xml set web development techniques using many web technologies client side create asynchronous web applications ajax web applications send retrieve data server asynchronously background without interfering display behavior existing page decoupling data interchange layer presentation layer ajax allows web pages extension web applications change content dynamically without need reload entire page practice modern implementations commonly utilize json instead xml ajax single technology rather group technologies html css used combination mark style information webpage modified javascript dynamically display—and allow user interact with—the new information built-in xmlhttprequest object since 2017 new fetch function within javascript commonly used execute ajax webpages allowing websites load content onto screen without refreshing page ajax new technology different language existing technologies used new ways early-to-mid 1990s web sites based complete html pages user action required complete new page loaded server process inefficient reflected user experience page content disappeared new page appeared time browser reloaded page partial change content re-sent even though information changed placed additional load server made bandwidth limiting factor performance 1996 iframe tag introduced internet explorer like object element load fetch content asynchronously 1998 microsoft outlook web access team developed concept behind xmlhttprequest scripting object appeared xmlhttp second version msxml library shipped internet explorer 5.0 march 1999 functionality xmlhttp activex control ie 5 later implemented mozilla safari opera browsers xmlhttprequest javascript object microsoft adopted native xmlhttprequest model internet explorer 7 activex version still supported internet explorer microsoft edge utility background http requests asynchronous web technologies remained fairly obscure started appearing large scale online applications outlook web access 2000 oddpost 2002 google made wide deployment standards-compliant cross browser ajax gmail 2004 google maps 2005 october 2004 kayak.com public beta release among first large-scale e-commerce uses developers time called xml http thing increased interest ajax among web program developers term ajax publicly used 18 february 2005 jesse james garrett article titled ajax new approach web applications based techniques used google pages 5 april 2006 world wide web consortium w3c released first draft specification xmlhttprequest object attempt create official web standard latest draft xmlhttprequest object published 6 october 2016 term ajax come represent broad group web technologies used implement web application communicates server background without interfering current state page article coined term ajax jesse james garrett explained following technologies incorporated since however number developments technologies used ajax application definition term ajax xml longer required data interchange therefore xslt longer required manipulation data javascript object notation json often used alternative format data interchange although formats preformatted html plain text also used variety popular javascript libraries including jquery include abstractions assist executing ajax requests asynchronous html http ahah involves using xmlhttprequest retrieve x html fragments inserted directly web page example simple ajax request using get method written javascript get-ajax-data.js send-ajax-data.php many developers dislike syntax used xmlhttprequest object following workarounds created popular javascript library jquery implemented abstractions enable developers use ajax conveniently although still uses xmlhttprequest behind scenes following client-side implementation example using 'ajax method jquery also implements 'get method allows code written concisely .get 'send-ajax-data.php .done function data .fail function data fetch new native javascript api although yet fully supported browsers gaining momentum popular way execute ajax according google developers documentation fetch makes easier make web requests handle responses older xmlhttprequest fetch 'send-ajax-data.php // es7 async/await example async function doajax doajax seen fetch relies javascript promises I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	1,802	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: transaction_time.transaction time temporal databases transaction time tt time fact stored database considered true december 2011 iso/iec 9075 database language part 2 sql/foundation included clauses table definitions define system-versioned tables transaction-time tables database table transaction interval often represented interval allowing system remove entries using two table-columns starttt endtt time interval closed lower bound open upper bound ending transaction time unknown may considered changed academic researchers rdbms represented changed largest timestamp supported keyword forever convention technically precise term coined richard t. snodgrass doctoral student 1-hop neighbor's text information: temporal_database.temporal database temporal database stores data relating time instances offers temporal data types stores information relating past present future time temporal databases could uni-temporal bi-temporal tri-temporal specifically temporal aspects usually include valid time transaction time decision time uni-temporal database one axis time either validity range system time range bi-temporal database two axes time tri-temporal database three axes time approach introduces additional complexities temporal databases contrast current databases confused currently available databases store facts believed true current time temporal databases support managing accessing temporal data providing one following features development sql attendant use real-life applications database users realized added date columns key fields issues arose example table primary key attributes adding date primary key track historical changes lead creation rows intended deletes must also handled differently rows tracked way 1992 issue recognized standard database theory yet resolving issue neither then-newly formalized sql-92 standard richard snodgrass proposed 1992 temporal extensions sql developed temporal database community response proposal committee formed design extensions 1992 edition sql standard ansi x3.135.-1992 iso/iec 9075:1992 extensions known tsql2 developed 1993 committee late 1993 snodgrass presented work group responsible american national standard database language sql ansi technical committee x3h2 known ncits h2 preliminary language specification appeared march 1994 acm sigmod record based responses specification changes made language definitive version tsql2 language specification published september 1994 attempt made incorporate parts tsql2 new sql standard called sql3 parts tsql2 included new substandard sql3 iso/iec 9075-7 called sql/temporal tsql2 approach heavily criticized chris date hugh darwen iso project responsible temporal support canceled near end 2001 december 2011 iso/iec 9075 database language part 2 sql/foundation included clauses table definitions define application-time period tables valid time tables system-versioned tables transaction time tables system-versioned application-time period tables bitemporal tables substantive difference tsql2 proposal adopted sql:2011 hidden columns sql:2011 treatment new data type intervals instead two date timestamp columns bound together using codice_1 declaration another difference replacement controversial prefix statement modifiers tsql2 set temporal predicates features standard related temporal databases automatic time period splitting temporal primary keys temporal referential integrity temporal predicates allen interval algebra time-sliced sequenced queries illustration consider following short biography fictional man john doe store life john doe current non-temporal database use table person name address order simplify name defined primary key person john father officially reported birth april 4 1975 date smallville official inserted following entry database codice_2 note date stored database graduation john moves forgets register new address john entry database changed december 27 1994 finally reports bigtown official updates address database person table contains codice_3 note information john living smallville overwritten longer possible retrieve information database official accessing database december 28 1994 would told john lives bigtown technically database administrator ran query codice_4 december 26 1994 result would codice_5 running query 2 days later would result codice_6 death database would state lived bigtown april 1 2001 coroner deletes john doe entry database running query would return result valid time time fact true real world valid time period may past span current time occur future example record valid time person table two fields added valid-from valid-to specify period person address valid real world april 4 1975 john father registered son birth official inserts new entry database stating john lives smallville april 3 note although data inserted 4th database states information valid since 3rd official yet know john move another place valid-to field set infinity ∞ entry database december 27 1994 john reports new address bigtown living since august 26 1994 new database entry made record fact original entry codice_7 deleted valid-to attribute updated reflect known john stopped living smallville august 26 1994 database contains two entries john doe john dies current entry database updated stating john live bigtown longer database looks like transaction time records time period database entry accepted correct enables queries show state database given time transaction time periods occur past current time transaction time table records never deleted new records inserted existing ones updated setting transaction end time show longer current enable transaction time example two fields added person table transaction-from transaction-to transaction-from time transaction made transaction-to time transaction superseded may infinity yet superseded makes table bitemporal table happens person address stored database incorrect suppose official accidentally entered wrong address date suppose person lied address reason upon discovery error officials update database correct information recorded example 1-jun-1995 3-sep-2000 john doe moved beachy avoid paying beachy exorbitant residence tax never reported authorities later tax investigation discovered 2-feb-2001 fact beachy dates record fact existing entry john living bigtown must split two separate records new record inserted recording residence beachy database would appear follows however leaves record database ever claimed lived bigtown 1-jun-1995 3-sep-2000 might important know auditing reasons use evidence official tax investigation transaction time allows capturing changing knowledge database since entries never directly modified deleted instead entry records entered superseded logically deleted database contents look like database records happened real world also officially recorded different times bitemporal model contains valid transaction time provides historical rollback information historical information e.g john live 1992 provided valid time rollback e.g 1992 database believe john lived provided transaction time answers example questions may database may altered since 1992 causing queries produce different results valid time transaction time single fact example consider temporal database storing data 18th century valid time facts somewhere 1701 1800 transaction time would show facts inserted database example january 21 1998 challenging issue support temporal queries transaction time database evolving schema order achieve perfect archival quality key importance store data schema version first appeared however even simple temporal query rewriting history attribute value would required manually rewritten schema versions potentially hundreds case mediawiki process would particularly taxing users proposed solution provide automatic query rewriting although part sql similar standards approaches minimize complexities schema evolution following implementations provide temporal features relational database management system rdbms non-relational nosql database management systems provide temporal features including following sometimes slowly changing dimension used method Target text information: valid_time.valid time temporal databases valid time vt time period database fact valid modeled reality december 2011 iso/iec 9075 database language part 2 sql/foundation included clauses table definitions define application-time period tables valid-time tables valid time coined richard t. snodgrass doctoral student database table valid time often represented two extra table-columns startvt endvt time interval closed lower bound open upper bound example valid time time fact true real world example person table gets two extra fields valid-from valid-to specifying person address valid real world april 4 1975 john father proudly registered son birth official insert new entry database stating john lives smallville april 3rd notice although data inserted 4th database states information valid since 3rd official yet know john ever move better place database valid-to filled infinity ∞ resulting entry database december 27 1994 john reports new address bigtown living since august 26 1994 bigtown official change address current entry john doe database adds new one original entry person john doe smallville 3-apr-1975 ∞ updated removed since known john stopped living smallville august 26 1994 valid-to entry filled database contains two entries john doe john dies database updated current entry updated stating john live bigtown longer new entry added officials never report heaven new address database looks like I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	4,736	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: .net_framework..net framework .net framework pronounced dot net software framework developed microsoft runs primarily microsoft windows includes large class library named framework class library fcl provides language interoperability language use code written languages across several programming languages programs written .net framework execute software environment contrast hardware environment named common language runtime clr clr application virtual machine provides services security memory management exception handling computer code written using .net framework called managed code fcl clr together constitute .net framework fcl provides user interface data access database connectivity cryptography web application development numeric algorithms network communications programmers produce software combining source code .net framework libraries framework intended used new applications created windows platform microsoft also produces integrated development environment largely .net software called visual studio .net framework began proprietary software although firm worked standardize software stack almost immediately even first release despite standardization efforts developers mainly free open-source software communities expressed unease selected terms prospects free open-source implementation especially regarding software patents since microsoft changed .net development closely follow contemporary model community-developed software project including issuing update patent promising address concerns .net framework led family .net platforms targeting mobile computing embedded devices alternative operating systems web browser plug-ins reduced version framework .net compact framework available windows ce platforms including windows mobile devices smartphones .net micro framework targeted resource-constrained embedded devices silverlight available web browser plugin mono available many operating systems customized popular smartphone operating systems android ios game engines .net core targets universal windows platform uwp cross-platform cloud computing workloads microsoft began developing .net framework late 1990s originally name next generation windows services ngws part .net strategy late 2000 first beta versions .net 1.0 released august 2000 microsoft intel worked standardize common language infrastructure cli c december 2001 ratified ecma international ecma standards international organisation standardisation iso followed april 2003 current version iso standards iso/iec 23271:2012 iso/iec 23270:2006 microsoft partners hold patents cli c ecma iso require patents essential implementation made available reasonable non-discriminatory terms firms agreed meet terms make patents available royalty-free however apply part .net framework covered ecma-iso standards included windows forms ado.net asp.net patents microsoft holds areas may deterred non-microsoft implementations full framework october 3 2007 microsoft announced source code .net framework 3.5 libraries become available microsoft reference source license ms-rsl source code repository became available online january 16 2008 included bcl asp.net ado.net windows forms wpf xml scott guthrie microsoft promised linq wcf wf libraries added november 12 2014 microsoft announced .net core effort include cross-platform support .net source release microsoft coreclr implementation source entire … library stack .net core adoption conventional bazaar -like open-source development model consolation stewardship .net foundation miguel de icaza describes .net core redesigned version .net based simplified version class libraries microsoft immo landwerth explained .net core would foundation future .net platforms time announcement initial release .net core project seeded subset libraries source code coincided relicensing microsoft existing .net reference source away restrictions ms-rsl landwerth acknowledged disadvantages formerly selected shared license explaining made codename rotor non-starter community-developed open source project meet criteria open source initiative osi approved license november 2014 microsoft also produced update patent grants extends scope beyond prior pledges prior projects like mono existed legal grey area microsoft earlier grants applied technology covered specifications including strictly 4th editions ecma-334 ecma-335 new patent promise however places ceiling specification version even extends .net runtime technologies documented msdn formally specified ecma group project chooses implement allows mono projects maintain feature parity modern .net features introduced since 4th edition published without risk patent litigation implementation features new grant maintain restriction implementation must maintain minimum compliance mandatory parts cli specification march 31 2016 microsoft announced microsoft build completely relicense mono mit license even scenarios formerly commercial license needed microsoft also supplemented prior patent promise mono stating assert applicable patents parties using selling offering sale importing distributing mono announced mono project contributed .net foundation developments followed acquisition xamarin began february 2016 finished march 18 2016 microsoft press release highlights cross-platform commitment allows fully open-source modern server-side .net stack microsoft released source code wpf windows forms winui december 4 2018 may 8th 2019 microsoft announced .net 5.0 released november 2020 based .net core common language infrastructure cli provides language-neutral platform application development execution implementing core aspects .net framework within scope cli functions tied one language available across many languages supported framework .net framework includes common language runtime clr serves execution engine .net framework offers many services memory management type safety exception handling garbage collection security thread management programs written .net framework executed clr programs written .net framework compiled common intermediate language code cil opposed directly compiled machine code execution architecture-specific just-in-time compiler jit turns cil code machine code microsoft move .net core cli virtual execution system ves implementation known coreclr instead clr compiled cil code stored cli assemblies mandated specification assemblies stored portable executable pe file format common windows platform dynamic-link library dll executable exe files assembly consists one files one must contain manifest bearing metadata assembly complete name assembly confused file name disk contains simple text name version number culture public key token assemblies considered equivalent share complete name private key also used creator assembly strong naming public key token identifies private key assembly signed creator key pair typically person signing assembly sign assemblies strong name prior version assembly since creator possesses private key strong naming required add assemblies global assembly cache starting visual studio 2015 .net native compilation technology allows compilation .net code universal windows platform apps directly machine code rather cil code app must written either c visual basic.net .net framework includes implementation cli foundational standard libraries .net framework class library fcl organized hierarchy namespaces built-in application programming interfaces apis part either codice_1 codice_2 namespaces class libraries implement many common functions file reading writing graphic rendering database interaction xml document manipulation class libraries available cli compliant languages fcl implements cli base class library bcl class libraries—some specified cli microsoft specific bcl includes small subset entire class library core set classes serve basic api clr .net framework classes considered part bcl reside codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 bcl classes available .net framework well alternative implementations including .net compact framework microsoft silverlight .net core mono fcl refers entire class library ships .net framework includes expanded set libraries including bcl windows forms asp.net windows presentation foundation wpf also extensions base class libraries ado.net language integrated query linq windows communication foundation wcf workflow foundation wf fcl much larger scope standard libraries languages like c++ comparable scope standard libraries java introduction alternative implementations e.g. silverlight microsoft introduced concept portable class libraries pcl allowing consuming library run one platform proliferation .net platforms pcl approach failed scale pcls defined intersections api surface two platforms next evolutionary step pcl .net standard library created retroactively based codice_6 based apis found uwp silverlight new .net platforms encouraged implement version standard library allowing re-use extant third-party libraries run without new versions .net standard library allows independent evolution library app model layers within .net architecture nuget package manager .net platforms used retrieve third-party libraries .net project global library feed nuget.org private feeds maintained separately e.g. build server file system directory microsoft move .net core cli foundational class libraries implementation known corefx instead fcl atop class libraries multiple app models used create apps .net framework supports console windows forms windows presentation foundation asp.net asp.net core apps default app models offered alternative implementations .net framework console uwp asp.net core available .net core mono used power xamarin app models android ios macos retroactive architectural definition app models showed early 2015 also applied prior technologies like windows forms wpf microsoft introduced c++/cli visual studio 2005 language means compiling visual c++ programs run within .net framework parts c++ program still run within unmanaged visual c++ runtime specially modified parts translated cil code run .net framework clr assemblies compiled using c++/cli compiler termed mixed-mode assemblies since contain native managed code dll assemblies complex reverse engineer since .net decompilers .net reflector reveal managed code computer systems commonly require interaction newer older applications .net framework provides means access functions implemented newer older programs execute outside .net environment access component object model com components provided codice_7 codice_8 namespaces framework access functions via platform invocation services p/invoke access .net functions native applications via reverse p/invoke function .net framework introduces common type system cts defines possible data types programming constructs supported clr may may interact conforming cli specification feature .net framework supports exchange types object instances libraries applications written using conforming .net language cts clr used .net framework also enforce type safety prevents ill-defined casts wrong method invocations memory size issues accessing object also makes cli languages statically typed without type inference however starting .net framework 4.0 dynamic language runtime extended clr allowing dynamically typed languages implemented atop cli microsoft never implemented full framework system except microsoft windows engineered framework cross-platform implementations available operating systems see silverlight § alternative implementations microsoft submitted specifications cli includes core class libraries cts cil c c++/cli ecma international ecma international organization standardization iso making available official standards makes possible third parties create compatible implementations framework languages platforms .net framework security mechanism two general features code access security cas validation verification cas based evidence associated specific assembly typically evidence source assembly whether installed local machine downloaded internet cas uses evidence determine permissions granted code code demand calling code granted specified permission demand causes clr perform call stack walk every assembly method call stack checked required permission assembly granted permission security exception thrown managed cil bytecode easier reverse-engineer native code unless obfuscated decompiler programs enable developers reverse-engineering skills view source code behind unobfuscated .net assemblies contrast apps compiled native machine code much harder reverse-engineer source code almost never produced successfully mainly compiler optimizations lack reflection creates concerns business community possible loss trade secrets bypassing license control mechanisms mitigate microsoft included dotfuscator community edition visual studio .net since 2002 third-party obfuscation tools also available vendors vmware v.i labs turbo red gate software method-level encryption tools .net code available vendors safenet clr frees developer burden managing memory allocating freeing done handles memory management detecting memory safely freed instantiations .net types objects allocated managed heap pool memory managed clr long reference object exists may either direct via graph objects object considered use reference object exists reached used becomes garbage eligible collection .net framework includes garbage collector gc runs periodically separate thread application thread enumerates unusable objects reclaims memory allocated non-deterministic compacting mark-and-sweep garbage collector gc runs set amount memory used enough pressure memory system since guaranteed conditions reclaim memory reached gc runs non-deterministic .net application set roots pointers objects managed heap managed objects include references static objects objects defined local variables method parameters currently scope objects referred cpu registers gc runs pauses application object referred root recursively enumerates objects reachable root objects marks reachable uses cli metadata reflection discover objects encapsulated object recursively walk enumerates objects heap initially allocated contiguously using reflection objects marked reachable garbage mark phase since memory held garbage consequence considered free space however leaves chunks free space objects initially contiguous objects compacted together make free space managed heap contiguous reference object invalidated moving object updated gc reflect new location application resumed garbage collection ends latest version .net framework uses concurrent garbage collection along user code making pauses unnoticeable done background garbage collector used .net framework also generational objects assigned generation newly created objects tagged generation 0 objects survive one garbage collection tagged generation 1 generation 1 objects survive another collection generation 2 framework uses generation 2 objects higher generation objects garbage collected less often lower generation objects raises efficiency garbage collection older objects tend longer lifetimes newer objects ignoring older objects collection runs fewer checks compaction operations needed total application first launched .net framework compiles cil code executable code using just-in-time compiler caches executable program .net native image cache due caching application launches faster subsequent launches although first launch usually slower speed first launch developers may use native image generator utility manually ahead-of-time compile cache .net application garbage collector integrated environment introduce unanticipated delays execution developer little direct control large applications number objects garbage collector needs work become large means take long time visit rearrange .net framework provides support calling streaming simd extensions sse via managed code april 2014 visual studio 2013 update 2 however mono provided support simd extensions version 2.2 within namespace 2009 mono lead developer miguel de icaza expressed hope simd support adopted clr ecma standard streaming simd extensions available x86 cpus since introduction pentium iii architectures arm mips also simd extensions case cpu lacks support extensions instructions simulated software .net framework predominant implementation .net technologies implementations parts framework exist although runtime engine described ecma-iso specification implementations may encumbered patent issues iso standards may include disclaimer attention drawn possibility elements document may subject patent rights iso shall held responsible identifying patent rights harder develop alternatives fcl described open standard may subject copyright restrictions also parts fcl windows-specific functions behavior implementation non-windows platforms problematic alternative implementations parts framework listed microsoft managed code frameworks components licensed follows 1-hop neighbor's text information: trait_(computer_programming).trait computer programming computer programming trait concept used object-oriented programming represents set methods used extend functionality class traits provide set methods implement behaviour class require class implement set methods parameterize provided behaviour inter-object communication traits somewhat object-oriented protocol interface mixin interface may define one behaviors via method signatures trait defines behaviors via full method definitions i.e. includes body methods contrast mixins include full method definitions may also carry state member variable traits usually n't hence object defined trait created composition methods used classes without requiring multiple inheritance case naming collision one trait used class method name programmer must explicitly disambiguate one methods used class thus manually solving diamond problem multiple inheritance different composition methods object-oriented programming conflicting names automatically resolved scoping rules whereas mixins composed using inheritance operation traits offer much wider selection operations including traits composed following ways traits come originally programming language self supported following programming languages example uses trait enhance classes allows simulating aspects multiple inheritance trait rust declares set methods type must implement rust compilers require traits explicated ensures safety generics rust also helps avoid major problems templates c++ // type must ord trait // operations done fn get_max ord option simplify tedious repeated implementation traits like codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 used request compilers generate certain implementations automatically derivable traits include codice_6 codice_7 codice_3 codice_9 codice_10 codice_11 codice_12 codice_4 codice_14 Target text information: lasso_(programming_language).lasso programming language lasso application server server management interface used develop internet applications general-purpose high-level programming language originally web datasource connection tool filemaker later included apple computer filemaker 4.0 claris homepage cdml since evolved complex language used develop serve large-scale internet applications web pages lasso includes simple template system allowing code control generation html content types lasso object-oriented every value object also supports procedural programming unbound methods language uses traits multiple dispatch extensively lasso dynamic type system objects loaded augmented runtime automatic memory management comprehensive standard library three compiling methodologies dynamic comparable php-python just-in-time compilation comparable java .net framework pre-compiled comparable c lasso also supports query expressions allowing elements within arrays types sequences iterated filtered manipulated using natural language syntax similar sql lasso includes full unicode character support standard string object allowing serve support multi-byte characters japanese swedish supports transparent utf-8 conversion writing string data network file system lasso often used scripting language also used wide range non-scripting contexts lasso code packaged standalone executable programs called lassoapps folder structures compiled single files lasso server application server runs system service receives requests web server fastcgi hands request appropriate lasso instance formulates response multiple individual instances supported allowing one server handle multiple sites separate processes server uses high performance io-based green threading system designed multi-core systems lasso compared server-side scripting languages php python coldfusion ruby etc free development lasso allows partial access source code allowing developers add change major components language example ke carlton ds implementation lasso inline licensing comes sas stand-alone versions lasso began mid-1990s early web developers attempting connect apple filemaker pro database world wide web mac platform two solutions eric bickford web-fm russell owens filemaker cgi rofm built applescript requiring use filemaker pro calculation fields formatting web-fm subsequently rewritten c fall 1995 developer vince bonafonti wrote new cgi based rofm using c/c++ improved performance using notion html-based templates instead relying calculation fields proved popular filemaker community brought attention bill doerrfeld owner blue world communications inc. print website development firm based issaquah washington bought source code time blue world experimented improvements cgi frontier scripting environment inspired name lasso need improvement drove creation c-based cgi later released lasso 1.0 point lasso worked filemaker pro 3.x webstar ran apple mac os 8 lasso popularity grew notably reviews print publications blue world hosting participation many email discussion lists many specifically pertained filemaker pro blue world also made frequent appearances known leading company macworld conferences following release lasso 1.2 lineup january 1997 blue world bonfantis entered private talks claris software division apple computer owner filemaker pro claris eventually licensed post-version-1.2 lasso source code help vince paul bonfanti released filemaker web companion component filemaker pro 4.0 filemaker web companion language cdml claris dynamic markup language differed lasso 1.2 ldml lasso dynamic markup language close enough offer easy transition developers looking serve filemaker pro third-party servers offered compelling features including lasso-like web companion filemaker 4.0 helped grow popularity lasso fast-growing macintosh web development community blue world continued developing lasso kyle jessup becoming lasso lead programmer lasso 2.0 released july 1997 introducing fundamental shifts lasso could used february 26 2002 blue world released lasso 5 radical departure filemaker-centric language date never lasso 4 release version number skipped 3 5 lasso 5 included among many updates completely rewritten architecture os x windows linux embedded mysql database though lasso 5 still spoke filemaker database filemaker server filemaker data source remained relatively slow compared sql engine prohibitively expensive since v2.0 lasso fully multithreaded allowing many connections succumbed filemaker latency lag certain operations way get around reliably make major changes data source lasso 5 also added support apache http server natively os x windows linux joining webstar 5 appleshare ip replaced os x server itools tenon mac os 9 lasso used many years unsupported drove closer ties classic lamp server architecture blue world communications released series plug-ins popular web development packages macromedia adobe lasso studio 1.5 dreamweaver runner macworld magazine editors choice awards internet development 2001 losing adobe dreamweaver 3 lasso studio dreamweaver 1.5 also reviewed favorably macworld magazine earning 4 half mice later version lasso studio supported macromedia dreamweaver adobe golive including lasso studio 7 dreamweaver golive march 26 2004 release filemaker server filemaker server advanced version 7 2004 filemaker signaled major change strategy serving data web sites emphasized xml-xslt odbc jdbc connectivity expensive filemaker server advanced product blue world began distance lasso language filemaker apple 2005 lasso pro received mysql network certification demonstrating importance popular open source database future lasso august 1 2004 bill doerrfeld officially sold lasso product line omnipilot software inc. ft. lauderdale florida lasso 7.0.3 last version lasso released blue world october 25 2004 omnipilot officially announced release lasso 8 version including sandboxing multiple sites server connectivity many new datasources also included first free version lasso limited ip addresses omnipilot followed release number complementary products including lasso studio 8 dreamweaver golive march 28 2005 lasso studio eclipse chartfx integration number free lasso-based solutions 2007 three omnipilot employees kyle jessup original developer lasso 1.0 fletcher sandbeck early employee blue world known regular tips tricks kerry adams employee omnipilot created new company lassosoft llc purchase intellectual property lasso omnipilot continue development recognizing need competitive much popular languages php asp radical changes architecture syntax structure made released lasso 9.0 technical challenges caused changes coupled limited marketing resources led significant community decline company struggled release documentation support new language december 2010 new canadian company formed lassosoft inc. bought invested heavily lasso 9.0 language marketing documentation kyle jessup agreed stay lasso lead developer benevolent dictator life several releases 9.1 9.2 released developments recent years three ways say hello world lasso page square brackets reserved lasso html entities must used show square brackets lasso pages purposes marking lasso tags alternatively printing square brackets lasso disabled including no_square_brackets file top inlines basic lasso tool database actions database commands issued lasso db-independent metalanguage case search code works mysql filemaker pro database backend lasso connect needed sql statement course embedded inline using database server supports sql example dashes commands denote optional parameters specified order generated dynamically last duplicate parameters take precedence inline command supports large range parameters allowing developers interact databases may intimate knowledge custom database connectors created allows leveraging abstracted nature inline command next procedural example prints lyrics song 99 bottles beer next example uses oop approach print lyrics object represented string I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,688	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process Target text information: snapforce_crm.snapforce crm snapforce crm comprehensive customer relationship management crm saas application developed snapforce.com primary use case customer management sales automation although also configured telephony support additional software components include customer databases customer interaction tracking reporting workflow automation snapforce crm configured handle inbound outbound calling calls logged prospect customer record automatically real time may 2014 company became first crm software provider offer telephony services native feature snapforce crm recognized one ten top players customer relationship management market report 2015 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	2,385	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: geary_(e-mail_client).geary e-mail client geary free open-source email client written vala based webkitgtk although since adopted gnome project originally developed yorba foundation purpose e-mail client according adam dingle yorba founder bring back users online webmails faster easier use desktop application pantheon mail fork initiated elementary os community demise yorba though point decided rewrite scratch remaining references geary pantheon code base translations implementation support gpg started still incomplete 2019 geary internally uses sqlite database store local copy emails indexing uses fully asynchronous gobject-based imap client library one feature distinguishes geary open source email clients focus conversation view geary pantheon mail using gettext translations pantheon mail migrated webkitgtk+2 yet developers decided first migrate code managing conversation view use native gtk widgets gtk.css granite gtk+ library used part elementary os offered several advantages including minimizing use webviews reducing code supporting hardware accelerated animations supporting rtl languages also removed use custom gtk bars like codice_5 making code complicated difficult read geary uses webkit2 since least version 3.32.0 historically elementary os directly supported project geary became default application gnu/linux distribution march 25 2013 jim nelson executive director yorba launched crowdfunding campaign indiegogo gather us 100,000 would used pay 3 full-time yorba engineers working time geary unfortunately april 23 2013 us 50,860 gathered 1,192 backers amount met campaign failed according rules set indiegogo yorba receive money pledged failure jim nelson declared blog post crowdfunding campaign kind experiment see route enough sustain open-source development reaffirmed geary created improve linux experience therefore chance ported os x windows platforms yorba foundation stopped activities gnome announced plans project time future geary unclear result uncertainties due previous design disagreements old geary team elementary os actually using geary default mail client though heavily patched version daniel foré leader elementary os decided fork project continue development fork project renamed pantheon mail process pantheon mail replaced geary elementary os 0.4 codenamed loki march 2016 michael gratton applied become new maintainer geary main goal try fixing pressing issues like dependency old webkit1gtk collaboration pantheon mail better support non-gmail servers mailbox management account ui extending search etc contributing geary gnome project requires maintainer become gnome member discussion adam dingle yorba founder agreed wait gratton fulfill gnome membership application requirements meantime gratton post patches gnome bugzilla instance adam commit version 0.11 released version 0.13 released february 18 2019 shortly afterwards version scheme changed match gnome release schedule current geary version 3.32 initial name geary coincides name geary street yorba products named streets san francisco however according former yorba employee application named address yorba foundation located actually coincidence first beta geary released may 2012 yorba still located capp street time 1-hop neighbor's text information: miguel_de_icaza.miguel de icaza miguel de icaza born november 23 1972 mexican-american programmer best known starting gnome mono xamarin projects de icaza born mexico city studied mathematics national autonomous university mexico unam dropped getting degree work came family scientists father physicist mother biologist started writing free software 1992 one earliest pieces software wrote linux midnight commander file manager text-mode file manager also one early contributors wine project worked david s. miller linux sparc port wrote several video network drivers port well libc ports platform later worked extending linux mips run sgi indy computers wrote original x drivers system ingo molnar wrote original software implementation raid-1 raid-5 drivers linux kernel summer 1997 interviewed microsoft job internet explorer unix team work sparc port lacked university degree required obtain work h-1b visa said interview tried persuade interviewers free ie code even netscape browser de icaza started gnome project federico mena august 1997 create completely free desktop environment component model linux unix-like operating systems also created gnome spreadsheet program gnumeric 1999 de icaza along nat friedman co-founded helix code gnome-oriented free software company employed large number gnome hackers 2001 helix code later renamed ximian announced mono project led de icaza goal implement microsoft new .net development platform linux unix-like platforms august 2003 ximian acquired novell de icaza vice president developer platform may 2011 de icaza started xamarin replace monotouch mono android novell bought attachmate projects abandoned shortly afterwards xamarin novell reached agreement xamarin took development sales products february 2016 xamarin announced acquired microsoft one month later microsoft build conference announced mono project would relicensed mit visual studio would include xamarin even free versions without restrictions xamarin sdks would opensourced de icaza endorsed microsoft office open xml ooxml document standard disagreeing lot widespread criticism open source free-software community also developed mono – free open-source alternative microsoft .net framework – gnome raised much disagreement due patents microsoft holds .net framework de icaza criticized richard stallman software freedom day 2009 labeled traitor free software community icaza responded blog stallman remark believes world possibility open discussions ways improve pool open source free software august 2012 de icaza criticized linux desktop killed apple de icaza specifically criticized generally developer-focused culture lack backward compatibility fragmentation among various linux distributions march 2013 de icaza announced personal blog regularly used macos instead linux desktop computing 2014 joined anders hejlsberg stage announcements .net foundation open sourcing microsoft c compiler serves board directors .net foundation miguel de icaza received free software foundation 1999 award advancement free software mit technology review innovator year award 1999 named one time magazine 100 innovators new century september 2000 early 2010 received microsoft mvp award march 2010 named fifth powerful voices open source mindtouch de icaza cameo appearances 2001 motion pictures antitrust code married brazilian maria laura soares da silva maria laura de icaza 2003 de icaza critical actions state israel towards palestinians middle east blogged subject de icaza granted us citizenship january 2015 Target text information: d-bus.d-bus computing d-bus desktop bus software bus inter-process communication ipc remote procedure call rpc mechanism allows communication multiple computer programs processes concurrently running machine d-bus developed part freedesktop.org project initiated havoc pennington red hat standardize services provided linux desktop environments gnome kde freedesktop.org project also developed free open-source software library called libdbus reference implementation specification library confused d-bus indeed implementations d-bus client library also exist gdbus gnome qtdbus qt/kde dbus-java sd-bus part systemd d-bus ipc mechanism initially designed replace software component communications systems used gnome kde linux desktop environments corba dcop respectively components desktop environments normally distributed many processes one providing —usually one— services services may used regular client applications components desktop environment perform tasks due large number processes involved —adding processes providing services clients accessing them— establishing one-to-one ipc communications becomes inefficient quite unreliable approach instead d-bus provides software-bus abstraction gathers communications group processes single shared virtual channel processes connected bus n't know internally implemented d-bus specification guarantees processes connected bus communicate linux desktop environments take advantage d-bus facilities instantiating one bus many process connect number buses provided granted access practice means user process connect system bus current session bus another user session buses even different session bus owned user latter restriction may change future user sessions combined single user bus d-bus provides additional simplifies existing functionality applications including information-sharing modularity privilege separation example information incoming voice-call received bluetooth skype propagated interpreted currently-running music player react muting volume pausing playback call finished d-bus also used framework integrate different components user application instance office suite communicate session bus share data word processor spreadsheet every connection bus identified context d-bus called bus name bus name consists two dot-separated strings letters digits dashes underscores example valid bus name process sets connection bus bus assigns connection special bus name called unique connection name bus names type immutable—it guaranteed wo n't change long connection exists—and importantly ca n't reused bus lifetime means connection bus ever assigned unique connection name even process closes connection bus creates new one unique connection names easily recognizable start the—otherwise forbidden—colon character example unique connection name characters colon particular meaning process ask additional bus names connection provided requested name already used another connection bus d-bus parlance bus name assigned connection said connection owns bus name sense bus name ca n't owned two connections time unlike unique connection names names reused available process may reclaim bus name released —purposely not— another process idea behind additional bus names commonly called well-known names provide way refer service using prearranged bus name instance service reports current time date system bus lies process whose connection owns bus name regardless process bus names used simple way implement single instance applications second instances detect bus name already taken also used track service process lifecycle since bus sends notification bus name released due process termination original conception replacement several component oriented communications systems d-bus shares predecessors object model express semantics communications clients services terms used d-bus object model mimic used object oriented programming languages n't mean d-bus somehow limited oop languages —in fact used implementation written c procedural programming language d-bus process offers services exposing objects objects methods invoked signals object emit methods signals collectively referred members object client connected bus interact object using methods making requests commanding object perform actions instance object representing time service queried client using method returns current date time client also listen signals object emits state changes due certain events usually related underlying service example would service manages hardware devices —such usb network drives— signals new hardware device added event clients instruct bus interested receiving certain signals particular object since d-bus bus passes signals processes registered interest process connected d-bus bus request export many d-bus objects wants object identified object path string numbers letters underscores separated prefixed slash character called resemblance unix filesystem paths object path selected requesting process must unique context bus connection example valid object path however enforced —but also discouraged— form hierarchies within object paths particular naming convention objects service entirely developers service many developers choose namespace using reserved domain name project prefix e.g every object inextricably associated particular bus connection exported d-bus point view lives context connection therefore order able use certain service client must indicate object path providing desired service also bus name service process connected bus turn allows several processes connected bus export different objects identical object paths unambiguously members —methods signals— used object specified interface interface set declarations methods including passing returning parameters signals including parameters identified dot-separated name resembling java language interfaces notation example valid interface name despite similarity interface names bus names mistaken d-bus object implement several interfaces least must implement one providing support every method signal defined combination interfaces implemented object called object type using object good practice client process provide member interface name besides member name mandatory ambiguity caused duplicated member names available different interfaces implemented object —otherwise selected member undefined erroneous emitted signal hand must always indicate interface belongs d-bus specification also defines several standard interfaces objects may want implement addition interfaces although technically optional d-bus service developers choose support exported objects since offer important additional features d-bus clients introspection standard interfaces d-bus specification defines number administrative bus operations called bus services performed using object resides bus name bus reserves special bus name manages requests made specifically combination bus name object path administrative operations provided bus defined object interface operations used example provide information status bus manage request release additional well-known bus names d-bus conceived generic high-level inter-process communication system accomplish goals d-bus communications based exchange messages processes instead raw bytes d-bus messages high-level discrete items process send bus another connected process messages well-defined structure even types data carried payload defined allowing bus validate reject ill-formed message regard d-bus closer rpc mechanism classic ipc mechanism type definition system marshaling bus supports two modes interchanging messages client service process every d-bus message consists header body header formed several fields identify type message sender well information required deliver message recipient destination bus name object path method signal name interface name etc. body contains data payload receiver process interprets —for instance input output arguments data encoded well known binary format called wire format supports serialization various types integers floating-point numbers strings compound types also referred marshaling d-bus specification defines wire protocol build d-bus messages exchanged processes within d-bus connection however define underlying transport method delivering messages existing d-bus implementations follow architecture reference implementation architecture consists two main components library equivalent internally uses native lower-level ipc mechanism transport required d-bus messages two processes ends d-bus connection d-bus specification n't mandate particular ipc transport mechanisms available use communications library decides transport methods supports instance linux unix-like operating systems typically uses unix domain sockets underlying transport method also supports tcp sockets communications libraries processes must agree selected transport method also particular channel used communication information defined d-bus calls address unix-domain socket filesystem objects therefore identified filename valid address would codice_1 processes must pass address respective communications libraries establish d-bus connection address also provide additional data communications library form comma-separated codice_2 pairs way example provide authentication information specific type connection supports message bus daemon like used implement d-bus bus processes want connect bus must know bus address address process establish d-bus connection central message bus process scenario message bus daemon selects bus address remainder processes must pass value corresponding equivalent libraries defines different bus address every bus instance provides addresses defined daemon configuration files two processes use d-bus connection exchange messages directly way d-bus normally intended used usual way always use message bus daemon i.e communications central point process establish point-to-point d-bus connection process —client service— sends d-bus message message bus process receives first instance delivers appropriate recipient message bus daemon may seen hub router charge getting message destination repeating d-bus connection recipient process recipient process determined destination bus name message header field subscription information signals maintained message bus daemon case signal propagation messages message bus daemon also produce messages response certain conditions error message process sent message nonexistent bus name d-bus started 2002 havoc pennington alex larsson red hat anders carlsson version 1.0 —considered api stable— released november 2006 heavily influenced dcop system used versions 2 3 kde d-bus replaced dcop kde 4 release implementation d-bus supports posix operating systems port windows exists used qt 4 gnome gnome gradually replaced parts earlier bonobo mechanism also used xfce one earlier adopters nowadays deprecated hardware abstraction layer hal used d-bus export information hardware added removed computer usage d-bus steadily expanding beyond initial scope desktop environments cover increasing amount system services instance networkmanager network daemon bluez bluetooth stack pulseaudio sound server use d-bus provide part services systemd uses d-bus wire protocol communication systemd also promoting traditional system daemons d-bus services logind another heavy user d-bus polkit whose policy authority daemon implemented service connected system bus also used wire protocol alljoyn protocol home automation end alljoyn adds discovery session management security header compression embedded device support makes transport agnostic although several implementations d-bus widely used reference implementation libdbus developed freedesktop.org project designed specification however libdbus low-level implementation never meant used directly application developers reference guide reimplementations d-bus included standard libraries desktop environments programming language bindings freedesktop.org project recommends applications authors use one higher level bindings implementations instead predominance libdbus used d-bus implementation caused terms d-bus libdbus often used interchangeably leading confusion gdbus implementation d-bus based gio streams included glib aiming used gtk+ gnome gdbus wrapper libdbus complete independent reimplementation d-bus specification protocol mate desktop xfce version 4.14 also based gtk+ 3 also use gdbus qtdbus implementation d-bus included qt library since version 4.2 component used kde applications libraries components access d-bus services available system 2013 systemd project rewrote libdbus effort simplify code also resulted significant increase overall d-bus performance preliminary benchmarks bmw found systemd d-bus library increased performance 360 version 221 systemd sd-bus api declared stable libnih project provides light-weight standard library c support d-bus additionally good support cross compiling kdbus project aimed reimplement d-bus kernel-mediated peer-to-peer inter-process communication mechanism beside performance improvements kdbus would advantages arising linux kernel features namespaces auditing security kernel mediating closing race conditions allowing d-bus used boot shutdown needed systemd kdbus inclusion linux kernel proved controversial dropped favor bus1 generic inter-process communication several programming language bindings d-bus developed java c ruby I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	6,694	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: loïc_dachary.loïc dachary loïc dachary born 1965 french free software developer activist active since 1987 dachary currently contributes free software projects acts president free software foundation france speaker gnu project april association right full-time volunteer securedrop project dachary started c lisp developer 1986 1987 hired teach unix programming axis 1988 lectra launched 68k based hardware dachary led unix system v port using gnu compiler collection project completed took sabbatical 1989 create gna non-profit group development distribution free software dachary went back development tic tac toon agence france-presse afp learned c++ 1995 founded ecila search engine acquired tiscali discontinued 2001 two years dedicated fsf france dachary worked inria rfid software 2003 starting mekensleep 2004 dachary wrote poker related free software published part pokersource project 2007 hired outflop startup specialized poker software services based pokersource 2011 became free software freelancer worked xivo january 2012 loïc became involved openstack worked ceph developer 2017 working securedrop project full-time volunteer employed axis 1987 dachary offered copies free software magnetic tapes emacs gnu compiler collection internet difficult access time became distributor software working lectra project dachary created gna gna axis non profit organization 1989 although original goal gna develop free software started news mail provider connectivity news mail provider washington d.c. provided agence france-presse afp half-used satellite link 1990 gna provided mail news feeds 200 non profit organisations individuals companies gna kept distributing free software magnetic tapes compiling sources difficult dachary packaged pre-compiled binaries motorola 68000 family x86 sparc left tapes computer book store le monde en tique sold customers richard stallman occasionally visited france met dachary started spread free software year gna dachary took advantage stallman presence france organize conferences école nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers paris 8 university former school école pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées 1990 dachary took secondary role gna friend hugues lafarge became president 1996 met founders april french free sotftware ngo donated first server hosted ecila office dachary returned active role non profit work 2000 wrote code newly created sourceforge platform attempt understand project dynamics travelled va linux offices met eric raymond tim perdue felt team focused in-house interactions welcome external contributor however became familiar published code base va linux started use proprietary software created alternative platform using latest free software code base published gnu savannah early 2001 dachary secured funds buy hardware free software foundation offices moved boston install late 2001 va linux asked assign copyright contributions dachary published article explaining time move away sourceforge 2002 dachary gradually delegated responsibilities gnu savannah contributors free software foundation staff retired 2003 2001 free software foundation established presence europe dachary took part process creating fsf france renaming gna publication number 20010027 journal officiel serving first vice president fsf europe addition supporting growth gnu savannah fsf france assisted french developers companies gpl compliance bradley m. kuhn executive director free software foundation time dachary worked first contract new gpl compliance labs french governmental agency ongoing interest enforcing copyleft licenses led visible outcomes publication c cs orange sfr court case involving free kept confidential 2009 dachary joined software freedom conservancy board directors years late 2002 dachary became concerned lack protest european copyright directive transposed french law instead acting name fsf france problems limited free software launched eucd.info initiative six months full-time lobbying hired christophe espern work fsf france delegated responsibilities dachary played active role since although keeps touch friend jérémie zimmermann christophe espern successor co-founder spokesperson la quadrature du net late 2003 gnu savannah compromise created tensions governance early 2004 dachary worked mathieu roy set gna using policy software different decisional process 2010 maintainers savannah gna overlapped worked network administrator although centralized forges gna popular dachary recently gradually transgressed towards distributed hosting collects machines hosting facilities umbrella fsf france runs openstack based clusters dachary helps projects gnu compiler collection software freedom conservancy providing maintaining machines infrastructure late 2008 created amateur datacenter codename microdtc34 seven square meter room center paris laurent guerby process creating tetaneutral.net non profit isp dachary appointed honorary member april association behalf april participated commission spécialisée de terminologie et de néologie de l'informatique et des composants électroniques 2006 2009 primarily discuss definition free software shortly april 2012 openstack summit dachary founded upstream university train developers become better free software contributors 1-hop neighbor's text information: tmux.tmux tmux terminal multiplexer unix-like operating systems allows multiple terminal sessions accessed simultaneously single window useful running one command-line program time also used detach processes controlling terminals allowing ssh sessions remain active without visible tmux includes features gnu screen allows users start terminal session clients bound specific physical virtual console multiple terminal sessions created within single terminal session freely rebound one virtual console another session several connected clients tmux notable features tmux included openbsd available package many unix-like operating systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu_variants.gnu variants gnu variants also called gnu distributions distros short operating systems based upon gnu operating system hurd kernel gnu c library system libraries application software like gnu coreutils bash gnome guix package manager etc. according gnu project others also include operating systems using linux kernel others using bsd-based kernels gnu users usually obtain operating system downloading gnu distributions available wide variety systems ranging embedded devices example librecmc personal computers example debian gnu/hurd powerful supercomputers example rocks cluster distribution hurd official kernel developed gnu system linux-libre also became official gnu package debian gnu/hurd discussed release technology preview debian 7.0 wheezy however plans discarded due immature state system however maintainers debian gnu/hurd decided publish unofficial release release date debian 7.0 debian gnu/hurd considered yet provide performance stability expected production system among open issues incomplete implementation java x.org graphical user interfaces limited hardware driver support two thirds debian packages ported hurd arch hurd derivative work arch linux porting gnu hurd system packages optimised intel p6 architecture goal provide arch-like user environment bsd-style init scripts pacman package manager rolling releases simple set gnu hurd stable enough least occasional use although abandoned 2018 project produced livecd evaluation purposes installations guides livecd conventional installation term gnu/linux gnu+linux used fsf supporters refer operating system linux kernel distributed gnu system software distributions primary installed base gnu packages programs also linux notable official use term distribution debian gnu/linux 2018 gnu variants recommended gnu project regular use linux distributions committed free system distribution guidelines refer gnu/linux like debian actually use deblobbed version linux like linux-libre linux per se debian gnu/kfreebsd operating system ia-32 x86-64 computer architectures distribution gnu debian package management kernel freebsd k kfreebsd abbreviation kernel reflects fact kernel complete freebsd operating system used operating system officially released debian squeeze 6.0 february 6 2011 one debian gnu/kfreebsd live cd ging longer maintained nexenta os first distribution combines gnu userland exception libc opensolaris libc used debian packaging organisation opensolaris kernel nexenta os available ia-32 x86-64 based systems nexenta systems inc initiated project sponsors continued development nexenta os considered gnu variant due use opensolaris libc multiple illumos distributions use gnu userland default cygwin project actively-developed compatibility layer form c library providing substantial part posix api functionality windows well distribution gnu unix-like programs ecosystem first released 1995 cygnus solutions red hat 2016 microsoft canonical added official compatibility layer windows 10 translates linux kernel calls windows nt ones reverse wine allows elf executables run unmodified windows intended provide web developers familiar gnu userland top windows kernel combination dubbed linux windows even though linux i.e operating system family defined common use linux kernel absent Target text information: pwd.pwd unix-like operating systems codice_1 command print working directory writes full pathname current working directory standard output command shell builtin unix shells bourne shell ash bash ksh zsh implemented easily posix c functions codice_2 codice_3 also available operating systems spartados x panos kolibrios equivalent dos codice_4 microsoft windows codice_5 codice_6 command arguments windows powershell provides equivalent codice_7 cmdlet standard aliases codice_8 codice_1 openvms equivalent codice_10 version codice_1 bundled gnu coreutils written jim meyering numerical computing environments matlab gnu octave include codice_1 function similar functionality note posix requires default behavior -l switch provided posix shells set following environment variables using cd command I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	5,759	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: android_one.android one android one near-stock version android operating system released google android one altered companies make phones runs certain smartphones android one brand promises regular security updates three years android os updates two years android one started google 2014 focusing entry-level devices emerging markets though evolved including mid-range high-end smartphones android one runs 100 phones jon gold head android one partnerships google described program evolution including higher-end devices continuation google nexus program phones vetted google included software allowing years quick updates made companies android one started sundar pichai former product chief current ceo google android one often took least year latest android update arrived non-google devices project targeted indian market low-tier devices pichai said initial set devices shared common hardware based reference platform increasing range devices launched future security system updates handled google first set android one devices featured mediatek quad-core mt6582 mobile system-on-chip mobile soc 2014 android one phones initially rolled india pakistan bangladesh nepal indonesia philippines sri lanka myanmar south asian countries first android one smartphones indian brands micromax spice karbonn september 2014 second generation android one smartphones indonesia brands mito impact evercoss one x nexian journey february 2015 first android one preinstalled android 5.0 lollipop manufacturers including qmobile launched android one device named qmobile a1 july 6 2015 pakistan android one launched nigeria august 2015 infinix hot 2 x510 1 2 gb ram version became first android one africa infinix hot 2 x510 also exported african countries egypt ghana ivory coast morocco kenya cameroon uganda also asian countries united arab emirates pakistan indonesia 2 gb ram version manufactures follow gradually 2016 softbank announced would first carrier japan introduce android one phone country namely sharp 507sh released late july 2016 netherlands italy developed countries android one available market retailer media markt sells turkish smartphone brand general mobile 4g android one devices two countries well turkey since 2017 may 25 2017 turkish smartphone brand general mobile released next addition fully committed portfolio android one phones gm 6 softbank soon followed introducing sharp x1 japan subsidiary telecommunications company mobile june 30 september 5 2017 android one xiaomi jointly announced xiaomi mi a1 first android one device evolved program charter bring users smartphones running unmodified android operating system latest google technology easy use interface regular security os upgrades mi a1 first android one device released globally thirty-six markets sold various online offline distributors including xiaomi ’ mi homes device sales concentrated india indonesia russia taiwan september 2017 mvno google fi introduced first android one device available u.s. android one moto x4 november android one entered german market htc u11 life end november 2017 softbank announced addition four new devices android one lineup mobile x2 htc x3 kyocera s3 sharp s4 kyocera february 2018 hmd global maker nokia smartphones announced joined android one program devices approved google original equipment manufacturers oems agree requirements android one features concerning android operating system os security updates official android one entry page says fine print end confirm exact duration support phones territory smartphone manufacturer monthly security updates supported least three years initial phone release february 22 2018 google blog article says faster access android os updates two years including latest ai innovations google amongst secure devices ecosystem regular security updates three years google play protect built google confirms promise provide 2 years updates android one devices still stands website design impact promise program android one continues expand line smartphones geographic availability oem carrier partnerships countries release likely expand beyond initial countries regions listed snapdragon 410 devices rebrands longcheer l8150 based qualcomm seed reference design explaining similarities direct competitor based fully custom pcb design wileyfox swift available worldwide officially supported wileyfox recent android versions community supported lineageos roms 1-hop neighbor's text information: google_pixel.google pixel google pixel brand consumer electronic devices developed google run either chrome os android operating system pixel brand introduced february 2013 first-generation chromebook pixel pixel line includes laptops tablets smartphones well several accessories google announced first generation pixel smartphones pixel pixel xl october 4 2016 madebygoogle event google emphasized camera two phones ranked best smartphone camera dxomarkmobile 90 points htc released u11 also scored 90 points largely due software optimizations hdr+ pixel phones also include unlimited cloud storage pictures google photos devices purchased directly google unlockable bootloader google announced pixel 2 series consisting pixel 2 pixel 2 xl october 4 2017 google announced pixel 3 pixel 3 xl event october 9 2018 alongside several products devices run android 9 pie may 7 i/o 2019 google announced pixel 3a pixel 3a xl budget alternatives original two pixel 3 devices pixel c announced google event september 29 2015 alongside nexus 5x nexus 6p phones among products pixel c includes usb-c port 3.5 mm headphone jack device shipped android 6.0.1 marshmallow later received android 7.x nougat android 8.x oreo google stopped selling pixel c december 2017 pixel slate 2-in-1 tablet laptop announced google new york city october 9 2018 alongside pixel 3 3 xl pixel slate includes two usb-c ports omits headphone jack device runs chrome os intel kaby lake processors options ranging celeron low end i7 high end june 2019 google announced develop product line cancelled two models development google announced first generation chromebook pixel blog post february 21 2013 laptop includes sd/multi-card reader mini displayport combination headphone/microphone jack two usb 2.0 ports device features include backlit keyboard fully clickable etched glass trackpad integrated stereo speakers two built-in microphones march 11 2015 google announced second generation chromebook pixel blog post laptop includes two usb-c ports two usb 3.0 ports sd card slot combination headphone/microphone jack device also backlit keyboard multi-touch clickable glass trackpad built-in stereo speakers two built-in microphones among features google discontinued 2015 chromebook pixel august 29 2016 october 4 2017 google launched third generation chromebook pixel named google pixelbook made google 2017 event google october 2017 hardware event set wireless earbuds unveiled alongside pixel 2 smartphones earbuds designed phones running android marshmallow higher work google assistant addition audio playback answering calls earbuds support translation 40 languages google translate earbuds able auto pair pixel 2 help google assistant nearby pixel buds available colors black clearly white kinda blue earbuds battery capacity 120 mah charging case comes pixel buds battery capacity 620 mah earbuds priced 159 alongside launch pixelbook october 2017 google announced pixelbook pen stylus used pixelbook pressure sensitivity well support google assistant pen powered replaceable aaaa battery priced us 99 october 2018 google announced pixel stand alongside pixel 3 smartphones addition standard 5 watt qi wireless charging pixel stand wireless 10 watt charging using proprietary technology google also enables software mode pixel 3 allows act smart display similar google home hub 1-hop neighbor's text information: android_marshmallow.android marshmallow android marshmallow codenamed android development sixth major version android operating system 13th version android first released beta build may 28 2015 officially released october 5 2015 nexus devices first receive update marshmallow primarily focuses improving overall user experience predecessor lollipop introduced new permissions architecture new apis contextual assistants first used new feature tap provide context-sensitive search results new power management system reduces background activity device physically handled native support fingerprint recognition usb-c connectors ability migrate data applications microsd card internal changes 16.9 devices accessing google play run android 6.0 single popular point release android android nougat oreo major releases 7.x 8.x larger install bases release internally codenamed macadamia nut cookie first developer preview build codenamed android unveiled released google i/o may 28 2015 nexus 5 nexus 6 smartphones nexus 9 tablet nexus player set-top box second developer preview released july 9 2015 third final preview released august 17 2015 along announcing android would titled android marshmallow september 29 2015 google unveiled launch devices marshmallow lg-produced nexus 5x huawei-produced nexus 6p alongside google pixel c tablet android 6.0 updates factory images nexus 5 6 7 2013 9 player released october 5 2015 older nexus devices including nexus 4 nexus 7 2012 nexus 10 receive official update october 14 2015 lg announced planned release marshmallow flagship lg g4 smartphone poland following week marking first third-party device receive update marshmallow android 6.0.1 software patch featuring security fixes support unicode 8.0 emoji although without supporting skin tone extensions human emoji return next alarm feature disturb mode released december 7 2015 new assist api allows information currently opened app including text screenshot current screen sent designated assistant application analysis processing system used google search app feature google tap allows users perform searches within context information currently displayed on-screen home button used android 5 show available apps home button used together voice command generate on-screen cards display information suggestions actions related content direct share allows share menus display recently used combinations contacts associated app direct targets adoptable storage allows newly inserted sd card secondary storage media designated either portable internal storage portable maintains default behavior previous android versions treating media secondary storage device storage user files storage media removed replaced without repercussions subject access restrictions apps designated internal storage storage media reformatted encrypted ext4 file system adopted operating system primary storage partition existing data including applications private data folders migrated external storage normal operation device becomes dependent presence media apps operating system functions function properly adopted storage device removed user loses access storage media adopted storage forgotten makes data permanently inaccessible samsung lg however removed ability use sd card internal storage galaxy s7 g5 devices samsung arguing feature could result unexpected losses data prevents users able transfer data using card android marshmallow introduces redesigned application permissions model apps longer automatically granted specified permissions installation time opt-in system used users prompted grant deny individual permissions ability access camera microphone application needed first time applications remember grants revoked user time new permissions model used applications developed marshmallow using software development kit sdk older apps continue use previous all-or-nothing approach permissions still revoked apps though might prevent working properly warning displayed effect marshmallow introduces new power management schemes known doze app standby running battery power device enter low-power state inactive physically handled state network connectivity background processing restricted high-priority notifications processed additionally network access apps deferred user recently interacted app apps may request permission exempt policies rejected google play store violation dangerous products policy core functionality adversely affected android marshmallow provides native support fingerprint recognition supported devices via standard api allowing third-party applications implement fingerprint-based authentication fingerprints used unlocking devices authenticating play store google pay purchases android marshmallow supports usb-c including ability instruct devices charge another device usb marshmallow also introduces verified links configured open directly specified application without user prompts user data apps targeting marshmallow automatically backed google drive wi-fi application receives 25 mb storage separate user google drive storage allotment marshmallow android compatibility definition document contains new security mandates devices dictating capable accessing encrypted data without affecting performance must enable secure boot device encryption default conditions comprise part specification must met order certified operating system able license google mobile services software requirement mandatory device encryption originally intended take effect lollipop delayed due performance issues Target text information: firebase.firebase firebase mobile web application development platform developed firebase inc. 2011 acquired google 2014 october 2018 firebase platform 18 products used 1.5 million apps firebase evolved envolve prior startup founded james tamplin andrew lee 2011 envolve provided developers api enables integration online chat functionality websites releasing chat service tamplin lee found used pass application data n't chat messages developers using envolve sync application data game state real time across users tamplin lee decided separate chat system real-time architecture powered founded firebase separate company september 2011 launched public april 2012 firebase first product firebase real-time database api synchronizes application data across ios android web devices stores firebase cloud product assists software developers building real-time collaborative applications may 2012 one month beta launch firebase raised 1.1m seed funding venture capitalists flybridge capital partners greylock partners founder collective new enterprise associates june 2013 company raised 5.6m series funding venture capitalists union square ventures flybridge capital partners 2014 firebase launched two products firebase hosting firebase authentication positioned company mobile backend service october 2014 firebase acquired google october 2015 google acquired divshot merge firebase team may 2016 google i/o company annual developer conference firebase expanded services become unified platform mobile developers firebase integrates various google services including google cloud platform admob google ads offer broader products scale developers google cloud messaging google service send push notifications android devices superseded firebase product firebase cloud messaging added functionality deliver push notifications ios web devices january 2017 google acquired fabric crashlytics twitter add services firebase october 2017 firebase launched cloud firestore realtime document database successor product original firebase realtime database firebase analytics cost-free app measurement solution provides insight app usage user engagement formerly known google cloud messaging gcm firebase cloud messaging fcm cross-platform solution messages notifications android ios web applications 2016 used cost firebase auth service authenticate users using client-side code supports social login providers facebook github twitter google google play games additionally includes user management system whereby developers enable user authentication email password login stored firebase firebase provides realtime database backend service service provides application developers api allows application data synchronized across clients stored firebase cloud company provides client libraries enable integration android ios javascript java objective-c swift node.js applications database also accessible rest api bindings several javascript frameworks angularjs react ember.js backbone.js rest api uses server-sent events protocol api creating http connections receiving push notifications server developers using realtime database secure data using company server-side-enforced security rules january 31st 2019 cloud firestore officially brought beta making official product firebase line-up successor firebase original databasing system real-time database allows nested documents fields rather tree-view provided real-time database firebase storage provides secure file uploads downloads firebase apps regardless network quality developer use store images audio video user-generated content firebase storage backed google cloud storage firebase hosting static dynamic web hosting service launched may 13 2014 supports hosting static files css html javascript files well support cloud functions service delivers files content delivery network cdn http secure https secure sockets layer encryption ssl firebase partners fastly cdn provide cdn backing firebase hosting company states firebase hosting grew customer requests developers using firebase real-time database needed place host content ml kit mobile machine learning system developers launched may 8 2018 beta google i/o 2018 ml kit api feature variety features including text recognition detecting faces scanning barcodes labelling images recognising landmarks currently available ios android developers may also import tensorflow lite models given api n't enough api used on-device cloud crash reporting creates detailed reports errors app errors grouped clusters similar stack traces triaged severity impact app users addition automatic reports developer log custom events help capture steps leading crash acquiring crashlytics firebase using firebase crash reporting firebase performance provides insights app performance latencies app users experience firebase test lab android ios provides cloud-based infrastructure testing android ios apps one operation developers initiate testing apps across wide variety devices device configurations test results—including logs videos screenshots—are made available project firebase console even developer n't written test code app test lab exercise app automatically looking crashes.test lab ios currently beta earn google admob app marketing scope admob google product integrates firebase audience dynamic firebase links smart urls dynamically change behavior provide best available experience across multiple platforms desktop web browsers well ios android in-depth links mobile app dynamic links work app installs user opens dynamic link ios android application installed user prompted install app first installed application start running access link I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	1,959	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: antivirus_software.antivirus software antivirus software anti-virus software abbreviated av software also known anti-malware computer program used prevent detect remove malware antivirus software originally developed detect remove computer viruses hence name however proliferation kinds malware antivirus software started provide protection computer threats particular modern antivirus software protect users malicious browser helper objects bhos browser hijackers ransomware keyloggers backdoors rootkits trojan horses worms malicious lsps dialers fraudtools adware spyware products also include protection computer threats infected malicious urls spam scam phishing attacks online identity privacy online banking attacks social engineering techniques advanced persistent threat apt botnet ddos attacks although roots computer virus date back early 1949 hungarian scientist john von neumann published theory self-reproducing automata first known computer virus appeared 1971 dubbed creeper virus computer virus infected digital equipment corporation dec pdp-10 mainframe computers running tenex operating system creeper virus eventually deleted program created ray tomlinson known reaper people consider reaper first antivirus software ever written – may case important note reaper actually virus specifically designed remove creeper virus creeper virus followed several viruses first known appeared wild elk cloner 1981 infected apple ii computers 1983 term computer virus coined fred cohen one first ever published academic papers computer viruses cohen used term computer virus describe program affect computer programs modifying way include possibly evolved copy note recent precise definition computer virus given hungarian security researcher péter szőr code recursively replicates possibly evolved copy first ibm pc compatible wild computer virus one first real widespread infections brain 1986 number viruses grown exponentially computer viruses written early mid-1980s limited self-reproduction specific damage routine built code changed programmers became acquainted computer virus programming created viruses manipulated even destroyed data infected computers internet connectivity widespread computer viruses typically spread infected floppy disks antivirus software came use updated relatively infrequently time virus checkers essentially check executable files boot sectors floppy disks hard disks however internet usage became common viruses began spread online competing claims innovator first antivirus product possibly first publicly documented removal wild computer virus i.e vienna virus performed bernd fix 1987 1987 andreas lüning kai figge founded g data software 1985 released first antivirus product atari st platform 1987 ultimate virus killer uvk also released de facto industry standard virus killer atari st atari falcon last version version 9.0 released april 2004 1987 united states john mcafee founded mcafee company part intel security end year released first version virusscan also 1987 czechoslovakia peter paško rudolf hrubý miroslav trnka created first version nod antivirus 1987 fred cohen wrote algorithm perfectly detect possible computer viruses finally end 1987 first two heuristic antivirus utilities released flushot plus ross greenberg anti4us erwin lanting o'reilly book malicious mobile code virus protection windows roger grimes described flushot plus first holistic program fight malicious mobile code mmc however kind heuristic used early av engines totally different used today first product heuristic engine resembling modern ones f-prot 1991 early heuristic engines based dividing binary different sections data section code section legitimate binary usually starts always location indeed initial viruses re-organized layout sections overrode initial portion section order jump end file malicious code located—only going back resume execution original code specific pattern used time legitimate software represented elegant heuristic catch suspicious code kinds advanced heuristics later added suspicious section names incorrect header size regular expressions partial pattern in-memory matching 1988 growth antivirus companies continued germany tjark auerbach founded avira h+bedv time released first version antivir named luke filewalker time bulgaria vesselin bontchev released first freeware antivirus program later joined frisk software also frans veldman released first version thunderbyte antivirus also known tbav sold company norman safeground 1998 czechoslovakia pavel baudiš eduard kučera started avast time alwil software released first version avast antivirus june 1988 south korea ahn cheol-soo released first antivirus software called v1 founded ahnlab later 1995 finally autumn 1988 united kingdom alan solomon founded international created dr. solomon anti-virus toolkit although launched commercially 1991 – 1998 solomon ’ company acquired mcafee november 1988 professor panamerican university mexico city named alejandro e. carriles copyrighted first antivirus software mexico name byte matabichos byte bugkiller help solve rampant virus infestation among students also 1988 mailing list named virus-l started bitnet/earn network new viruses possibilities detecting eliminating viruses discussed members mailing list alan solomon eugene kaspersky kaspersky lab friðrik skúlason frisk software john mcafee mcafee luis corrons panda security mikko hyppönen f-secure péter szőr tjark auerbach avira vesselin bontchev frisk software 1989 iceland friðrik skúlason created first version f-prot anti-virus back 1989 founded frisk software 1993 meanwhile united states symantec founded gary hendrix 1982 launched first symantec antivirus macintosh sam sam 2.0 released march 1990 incorporated technology allowing users easily update sam intercept eliminate new viruses including many n't exist time program release end 1980s united kingdom jan hruska peter lammer founded security firm sophos began producing first antivirus encryption products period hungary also virusbuster founded recently incorporated sophos 1990 spain mikel urizarbarrena founded panda security panda software time hungary security researcher péter szőr released first version pasteur antivirus italy gianfranco tonello created first version virit explorer antivirus founded tg soft one year later 1990 computer antivirus research organization caro founded 1991 caro released virus naming scheme originally written friðrik skúlason vesselin bontchev although naming scheme outdated remains existing standard computer security companies researchers ever attempted adopt caro members includes alan solomon costin raiu dmitry gryaznov eugene kaspersky friðrik skúlason igor muttik mikko hyppönen morton swimmer nick fitzgerald padgett peterson peter ferrie righard zwienenberg vesselin bontchev 1991 united states symantec released first version norton antivirus year czech republic jan gritzbach tomáš hofer founded avg technologies grisoft time although released first version anti-virus guard avg 1992 hand finland f-secure founded 1988 petri allas risto siilasmaa – name data fellows released first version antivirus product f-secure claims first antivirus firm establish presence world wide web 1991 european institute computer antivirus research eicar founded antivirus research improve development antivirus software 1992 russia igor danilov released first version spiderweb later became dr web 1994 av-test reported 28,613 unique malware samples based md5 database time companies founded 1996 romania bitdefender founded released first version anti-virus expert avx 1997 russia eugene kaspersky natalya kaspersky co-founded security firm kaspersky lab 1996 also first wild linux virus known staog 1999 av-test reported 98,428 unique malware samples based md5 database 2000 rainer link howard fuhs started first open source antivirus engine called openantivirus project 2001 tomasz kojm released first version clamav first ever open source antivirus engine commercialised 2007 clamav bought sourcefire turn acquired cisco systems 2013 2002 united kingdom morten lund theis søndergaard co-founded antivirus firm bullguard 2005 av-test reported 333,425 unique malware samples based md5 database 2007 av-test reported number 5,490,960 new unique malware samples based md5 year 2012 2013 antivirus firms reported new malware samples range 300,000 500,000 per day years become necessary antivirus software use several different strategies e.g specific email network protection low level modules detection algorithms well check increasing variety files rather executables several reasons 2005 f-secure first security firm developed anti-rootkit technology called blacklight users usually connected internet continual basis jon oberheide first proposed cloud-based antivirus design 2008 february 2008 mcafee labs added industry-first cloud-based anti-malware functionality virusscan artemis name tested av-comparatives february 2008 officially unveiled august 2008 mcafee virusscan cloud av created problems comparative testing security software – part av definitions testers control constantly updated av company servers thus making results non-repeatable result anti-malware testing standards organisation amtso started working method testing cloud products adopted may 7 2009 2011 avg introduced similar cloud service called protective cloud technology following 2013 release apt 1 report mandiant industry seen shift towards signature-less approaches problem capable detecting mitigating zero-day attacks numerous approaches address new forms threats appeared including behavioral detection artificial intelligence machine learning cloud-based file detonation according gartner expected rise new entrants carbon black cylance crowdstrike force epp incumbents new phase innovation acquisition one method bromium involves micro-virtualization protect desktops malicious code execution initiated end user another approach sentinelone carbon black focuses behavioral detection building full context around every process execution path real time cylance leverages artificial intelligence model based machine learning increasingly signature-less approaches defined media analyst firms next-generation antivirus seeing rapid market adoption certified antivirus replacement technologies firms coalfire directdefense response traditional antivirus vendors trend micro symantec sophos responded incorporating next-gen offerings portfolios analyst firms forrester gartner called traditional signature-based antivirus ineffective outdated one solid theoretical results study computer viruses frederick b. cohen 1987 demonstration algorithm perfectly detect possible viruses however using different layers defense good detection rate may achieved several methods antivirus engine use identify malware traditional antivirus software relies heavily upon signatures identify malware substantially malware arrives hands antivirus firm analysed malware researchers dynamic analysis systems determined malware proper signature file extracted added signatures database antivirus software although signature-based approach effectively contain malware outbreaks malware authors tried stay step ahead software writing oligomorphic polymorphic recently metamorphic viruses encrypt parts otherwise modify method disguise match virus signatures dictionary many viruses start single infection either mutation refinements attackers grow dozens slightly different strains called variants generic detection refers detection removal multiple threats using single virus definition example vundo trojan several family members depending antivirus vendor classification symantec classifies members vundo family two distinct categories trojan.vundo trojan.vundo.b may advantageous identify specific virus quicker detect virus family generic signature inexact match existing signature virus researchers find common areas viruses family share uniquely thus create single generic signature signatures often contain non-contiguous code using wildcard characters differences lie wildcards allow scanner detect viruses even padded extra meaningless code detection uses method said heuristic detection anti-virus software attempt scan rootkits rootkit type malware designed gain administrative-level control computer system without detected rootkits change operating system functions cases tamper anti-virus program render ineffective rootkits also difficult remove cases requiring complete re-installation operating system real-time protection on-access scanning background guard resident shield autoprotect synonyms refer automatic protection provided antivirus anti-spyware anti-malware programs monitors computer systems suspicious activity computer viruses spyware adware malicious objects 'real-time words data loaded computer active memory inserting cd opening email browsing web file already computer opened executed commercial antivirus software end-user license agreements include clause subscription automatically renewed purchaser credit card automatically billed renewal time without explicit approval example mcafee requires users unsubscribe least 60 days expiration present subscription bitdefender sends notifications unsubscribe 30 days renewal norton antivirus also renews subscriptions automatically default apparent antivirus programs actually malware masquerading legitimate software winfixer ms antivirus mac defender false positive false alarm antivirus software identifies non-malicious file malware happens cause serious problems example antivirus program configured immediately delete quarantine infected files common microsoft windows antivirus applications false positive essential file render windows operating system applications unusable recovering damage critical software infrastructure incurs technical support costs businesses forced close whilst remedial action undertaken examples serious false-positives running real-time protection multiple antivirus programs concurrently degrade performance create conflicts however using concept called multiscanning several companies including g data software microsoft created applications run multiple engines concurrently sometimes necessary temporarily disable virus protection installing major updates windows service packs updating graphics card drivers active antivirus protection may partially completely prevent installation major update anti-virus software cause problems installation operating system upgrade e.g upgrading newer version windows place — without erasing previous version windows microsoft recommends anti-virus software disabled avoid conflicts upgrade installation process active anti-virus software also interfere firmware update process functionality computer programs hampered active anti-virus software example truecrypt disk encryption program states troubleshooting page anti-virus programs conflict truecrypt cause malfunction operate slowly anti-virus software impair performance stability games running steam platform support issues also exist around antivirus application interoperability common solutions like ssl vpn remote access network access control products technology solutions often policy assessment applications require up-to-date antivirus installed running antivirus application recognized policy assessment whether antivirus application updated part policy assessment library user unable connect studies december 2007 showed effectiveness antivirus software decreased previous year particularly unknown zero day attacks computer magazine c't found detection rates threats dropped 40–50 2006 20–30 2007 time exception nod32 antivirus managed detection rate 68 according zeus tracker website average detection rate variants well-known zeus trojan low 40 problem magnified changing intent virus authors years ago obvious virus infection present viruses day written amateurs exhibited destructive behavior pop-ups modern viruses often written professionals financed criminal organizations 2008 eva chen ceo trend micro stated anti-virus industry over-hyped effective products — misleading customers — years independent testing major virus scanners consistently shows none provide 100 virus detection best ones provided high 99.9 detection simulated real-world situations lowest provided 91.1 tests conducted august 2013 many virus scanners produce false positive results well identifying benign files malware although methods may differ notable independent quality testing agencies include av-comparatives icsa labs west coast labs virus bulletin av-test members anti-malware testing standards organization anti-virus programs always effective new viruses even use non-signature-based methods detect new viruses reason virus designers test new viruses major anti-virus applications make sure detected releasing wild new viruses particularly ransomware use polymorphic code avoid detection virus scanners jerome segura security analyst paretologic explained proof concept virus used graphics processing unit gpu avoid detection anti-virus software potential success involves bypassing cpu order make much harder security researchers analyse inner workings malware detecting rootkits major challenge anti-virus programs rootkits full administrative access computer invisible users hidden list running processes task manager rootkits modify inner workings operating system tamper antivirus programs file infected computer virus anti-virus software attempt remove virus code file disinfection always able restore file undamaged state circumstances damaged files restored existing backups shadow copies also true ransomware installed software damaged requires re-installation however see system file checker writeable firmware computer infected malicious code major concern infected bios could require actual bios chip replaced ensure malicious code completely removed anti-virus software effective protecting firmware motherboard bios infection 2014 security researchers discovered usb devices contain writeable firmware modified malicious code dubbed badusb anti-virus software detect prevent malicious code run undetected computer could even infect operating system prior booting antivirus software drawbacks first impact computer performance furthermore inexperienced users lulled false sense security using computer considering invulnerable may problems understanding prompts decisions antivirus software presents incorrect decision may lead security breach antivirus software employs heuristic detection must fine-tuned minimize misidentifying harmless software malicious false positive antivirus software usually runs highly trusted kernel level operating system allow access potential malicious process files creating potential avenue attack us national security agency nsa uk government communications headquarters gchq intelligence agencies respectively exploiting anti-virus software spy users anti-virus software highly privileged trusted access underlying operating system makes much appealing target remote attacks additionally anti-virus software years behind security-conscious client-side applications like browsers document readers means acrobat reader microsoft word google chrome harder exploit 90 percent anti-virus products according joxean koret researcher coseinc singapore-based information security consultancy antivirus software running individual computers common method employed guarding malware solution solutions also employed users including unified threat management utm hardware network firewalls cloud-based antivirus online scanners network firewalls prevent unknown programs processes accessing system however antivirus systems make attempt identify remove anything may protect infection outside protected computer network limit activity malicious software present blocking incoming outgoing requests certain tcp/ip ports firewall designed deal broader system threats come network connections system alternative virus protection system cloud antivirus technology uses lightweight agent software protected computer offloading majority data analysis provider infrastructure one approach implementing cloud antivirus involves scanning suspicious files using multiple antivirus engines approach proposed early implementation cloud antivirus concept called cloudav cloudav designed send programs documents network cloud multiple antivirus behavioral detection programs used simultaneously order improve detection rates parallel scanning files using potentially incompatible antivirus scanners achieved spawning virtual machine per detection engine therefore eliminating possible issues cloudav also perform retrospective detection whereby cloud detection engine rescans files file access history new threat identified thus improving new threat detection speed finally cloudav solution effective virus scanning devices lack computing power perform scans examples cloud anti-virus products panda cloud antivirus crowdstrike cb defense immunet comodo group also produced cloud-based anti-virus antivirus vendors maintain websites free online scanning capability entire computer critical areas local disks folders files periodic online scanning good idea run antivirus applications computers applications frequently slow catch threats one first things malicious software attack disable existing antivirus software sometimes way know attack turning online resource installed infected computer virus removal tools available help remove stubborn infections certain types infection examples include avast free anti- malware avg free malware removal tools avira antivir removal tool also worth noting sometimes antivirus software produce false positive result indicating infection none rescue disk bootable cd usb storage device used run antivirus software outside installed operating system order remove infections dormant bootable antivirus disk useful example installed operating system longer bootable malware resisting attempts removed installed antivirus software examples bootable disks include bitdefender rescue cd kaspersky rescue disk 2018 windows defender offline integrated windows 10 since anniversary update rescue cd software also installed onto usb storage device bootable newer computers according fbi survey major businesses lose 12 million annually dealing virus incidents survey symantec 2009 found third small medium-sized business use antivirus protection time whereas 80 home users kind antivirus installed according sociological survey conducted g data software 2010 49 women use antivirus program 1-hop neighbor's text information: sans_institute.sans institute sans institute officially escal institute advanced technologies private u.s. for-profit company founded 1989 specializes information security cybersecurity training selling certificates topics available training include cyber network defenses penetration testing incident response digital forensics audit information security courses developed consensus process involving administrators security managers information security professionals courses cover security fundamentals technical aspects information security institute recognized training programs certification programs sans stands sysadmin audit network security sans institute sponsors internet storm center internet monitoring system staffed global community security practitioners sans reading room research archive information security policy research documents sans one founding organizations center internet security sans offers news analysis twitter feeds e-mail newsletters additionally weekly news vulnerability digest available subscribers originally organized 1989 sans training events functioned like traditional technical conferences showcasing technical presentations mid-1990s sans offered events combined training tradeshows beginning 2006 sans offered asynchronous online training sans ondemand virtual synchronous classroom format sans vlive free webcasts email newsletters risk newsbites ouch developed conjunction security vendors actual content behind sans training courses training events remain vendor-agnostic vendors pay offer official sans course although teach sans hosted event via sponsorship 1999 sans institute formed global information assurance certification giac independent entity grants certifications information security topics developed operates netwars suite interactive learning tools simulating scenarios cyberattacks netwars use us air force us army majority sans faculty sans employees industry professionals respected experts field information security faculty organized six different levels mentors community certified instructors principal instructors senior instructors fellows sans established sans technology institute accredited college based sans training giac certifications november 21 2013 sans technology institute granted regional accreditation middle states commission higher education sans technology institute focuses exclusively cybersecurity offering master science degree program information security engineering msise five post-baccalaureate certificate programs penetration testing ethical hacking incident response industrial control systems cyber defense operations cybersecurity engineering core upper-division undergraduate certificate program applied cybersecurity sans continues offer free security content via sans technology institute leadership lab it/security related leadership information 1-hop neighbor's text information: nick_levay.nick levay nick levay also known rattle american computer security expert hacker president ngo-isac former chief security officer council foreign relations carbon black computer security company boston area 2008 2013 director technical operations information security center american progress public policy research organization rattle subject pioneering profile hacker culture published nashville tennessee 1999 2001 tom cross co-founded industrial memetics built memestreams web log early social networking web site rattle presented phreaknic annual hacker technology convention held nashville 2005 2011 2011 talk counter espionage strategy tactics Target text information: carbon_black_(company).carbon black company carbon black inc. formerly bit9 inc. cybersecurity company based waltham massachusetts company develops cloud-native endpoint security software designed detect malicious behavior help prevent malicious files attacking organization company leverages technology known predictive security cloud psc big data analytics cloud platform analyzes customers ’ unfiltered data threats company approximately 100 partners including ibm vmware partners account approximately 125 product integrations according s-1 filing sec carbon black currently 5,600-plus customers including approximately one third fortune 100 4 may 2018 company joined public markets listing cblk nasdaq exchange part ipo carbon black raised approximately 152 million valuation 1.25 billion prior ipo firm raised 190m investors including kleiner perkins highland capital sequoia accomplice blackstone carbon black founded bit9 inc. 2002 todd brennan allen hillery john hanratty company first ceo george kassabgi current ceo patrick morley formerly chief operating officer corel took position 2007 2013 company network broken malicious actors copied private signing key certificate used sign malware february 2014 bit9 acquired start-up security firm carbon black time acquisition company also raised 38.25 million series e funding bringing bit9 ’ total venture capital raised approximately 120 million company acquired objective logistics june 2015 august 2015 carbon black announced acquired data analytics firm visitrend would open technology development center downtown boston month later company announced would partner secureworks ernst young kroll trustwave rapid7 provide managed security incident response services company changed name bit9 inc carbon black inc. february 1 2016 july 2016 carbon black announced acquired next-generation antivirus provider confer undisclosed sum prior deal confer raised 25m venture funding 50 employees according wall street journal deal valued 100m I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,976	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sse4.sse4 sse4 streaming simd extensions 4 simd cpu instruction set used intel core microarchitecture amd k10 k8l announced september 27 2006 fall 2006 intel developer forum vague details white paper precise details 47 instructions became available spring 2007 intel developer forum beijing presentation sse4 fully compatible software written previous generations intel 64 ia-32 architecture microprocessors existing software continues run correctly without modification microprocessors incorporate sse4 well presence existing new applications incorporate sse4 intel sse4 consists 54 instructions subset consisting 47 instructions referred sse4.1 intel documentation available penryn additionally sse4.2 second subset consisting 7 remaining instructions first available nehalem-based core i7 intel credits feedback developers playing important role development instruction set starting barcelona-based processors amd introduced sse4a instruction set 4 sse4 instructions 4 new sse instructions instructions found intel processors supporting sse4.1 amd processors started supporting intel sse4.1 sse4.2 full sse4 instruction set bulldozer-based fx processors sse4a misaligned sse feature also introduced meant unaligned load instructions fast aligned versions aligned addresses also allowed disabling alignment check non-load sse operations accessing memory intel later introduced similar speed improvements unaligned sse nehalem processors introduce misaligned access non-load sse instructions avx known ssse3 supplemental streaming simd extensions 3 introduced intel core 2 processor line referred sse4 media intel came ssse3 moniker internally dubbed merom new instructions intel originally plan assign special name criticized journalists intel eventually cleared confusion reserved sse4 name next instruction set extension intel using marketing term hd boost refer sse4 unlike previous iterations sse sse4 contains instructions execute operations specific multimedia applications features number instructions whose action determined constant field set instructions take xmm0 implicit third operand several instructions enabled single-cycle shuffle engine penryn shuffle operations reorder bytes within register instructions introduced penryn microarchitecture 45 nm shrink intel core microarchitecture support indicated via cpuid.01h ecx.sse41 bit 19 flag sse4.2 added sttni string text new instructions several new instructions perform character searches comparison two operands 16 bytes time designed among things speed parsing xml documents also added crc32 instruction compute cyclic redundancy checks used certain data transfer protocols instructions first implemented nehalem-based intel core i7 product line complete sse4 instruction set support indicated via cpuid.01h ecx.sse42 bit 20 flag instructions operate integer rather sse registers simd instructions appear time although introduced amd sse4a instruction set counted separate extensions dedicated cpuid bits indicate support intel implements popcnt beginning nehalem microarchitecture lzcnt beginning haswell microarchitecture amd implements beginning barcelona microarchitecture amd calls pair instructions advanced bit manipulation abm encoding lzcnt similar enough bsr bit scan reverse lzcnt performed cpu supporting intel cpu prior haswell perform bsr operation instead raising invalid instruction error despite different result values lzcnt bsr trailing zeros counted using bsf bit scan forward tzcnt instructions sse4a instruction group introduced amd barcelona microarchitecture instructions available intel processors support indicated via cpuid.80000001h ecx.sse4a bit 6 flag 1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: streaming_simd_extensions.streaming simd extensions computing streaming simd extensions sse single instruction multiple data simd instruction set extension x86 architecture designed intel introduced 1999 pentium iii series central processing units cpus shortly appearance advanced micro devices amd 3dnow sse contains 70 new instructions work single precision floating point data simd instructions greatly increase performance exactly operations performed multiple data objects typical applications digital signal processing graphics processing intel first ia-32 simd effort mmx instruction set mmx two main problems re-used existing x87 floating point registers making cpus unable work floating point simd data time worked integers sse floating point instructions operate new independent register set xmm registers adds integer instructions work mmx registers sse subsequently expanded intel sse2 sse3 ssse3 sse4 supports floating point math wider applications mmx became popular addition integer support sse2 made mmx largely redundant code though performance increases attained situations using mmx parallel sse operations sse originally called katmai new instructions kni katmai code name first pentium iii core revision katmai project intel sought distinguish earlier product line particularly flagship pentium ii later renamed internet streaming simd extensions isse sse amd eventually added support sse instructions starting athlon xp duron morgan core processors sse originally added eight new 128-bit registers known codice_1 codice_2 amd64 extensions amd originally called x86-64 added eight registers codice_3 codice_4 extension duplicated intel 64 architecture also new 32-bit control/status register codice_5 registers codice_3 codice_4 accessible 64-bit operating mode sse used single data type xmm registers sse2 would later expand usage xmm registers include 128-bit registers additional machine states operating system must preserve across task switches disabled default operating system explicitly enables means os must know use codice_8 codice_9 instructions extended pair instructions save x86 sse register states support quickly added major ia-32 operating systems first cpu support sse pentium iii shared execution resources sse floating point unit fpu compiled application interleave fpu sse instructions side-by-side pentium iii issue fpu sse instruction clock cycle limitation reduces effectiveness pipelining separate xmm registers allow simd scalar floating point operations mixed without performance hit explicit mmx/floating point mode switching sse introduced scalar packed floating point instructions following simple example demonstrates advantage using sse consider operation like vector addition used often computer graphics applications add two single precision four-component vectors together using x86 requires four floating-point addition instructions corresponds four x86 fadd instructions object code hand following pseudo-code shows single 128-bit 'packed-add instruction replace four scalar addition instructions x86 instruction set extensions bios operating system application programmer test detect existence proper operation user application uptake x86 extensions slow even bare minimum baseline mmx sse support cases non-existent applications 10 years extensions became commonly available distributed computing accelerated use extensions scientific community—and many scientific applications refuse run unless cpu supports sse2 sse3 use multiple revisions application cope many different sets extensions available simplest way around x86 extension optimization problem software libraries applications begun support multiple extension types hinting full use available x86 instructions may finally become common 5 15 years instructions initially introduced processor id applications Target text information: intrinsic_function.intrinsic function computer software compiler theory intrinsic function builtin function function subroutine available use given programming language whose implementation handled specially compiler typically may substitute sequence automatically generated instructions original function call similar inline function unlike inline function compiler intimate knowledge intrinsic function thus better integrate optimize given situation compilers implement intrinsic functions generally enable program requests optimization otherwise falling back default implementation provided language runtime system environment intrinsic functions often used explicitly implement vectorization parallelization languages address constructs application programming interfaces api example altivec openmp use intrinsic functions declare respectively vectorizable multiprocessing-aware operations compiling compiler parses intrinsic functions converts vector math multiprocessing object code appropriate target platform compilers c c++ microsoft intel gnu compiler collection gcc implement intrinsics map directly x86 single instruction multiple data simd instructions mmx streaming simd extensions sse sse2 sse3 ssse3 sse4 microsoft visual c++ compiler microsoft visual studio support inline assembly x86-64 compensate new intrinsics added map standard assembly instructions normally accessible c/c++ e.g. bit scan c c++ compilers provide non-portable platform-specific intrinsics intrinsics gnu built-ins slightly abstracted approximating abilities several contemporary platforms portable fall back implementations platforms appropriate instructions common c++ libraries glm sony vector maths libraries achieve portability via conditional compilation based platform specific compiler flags providing fully portable high-level primitives e.g. four-element floating-point vector type mapped onto appropriate low level programming language implementations still benefiting c++ type system inlining hence advantage linking hand-written assembly object files using c application binary interface abi hotspot java virtual machine jvm just-in-time compiler also intrinsics specific java apis hotspot intrinsics standard java apis may one optimized implementation platforms I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	8,680	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: niels_provos.niels provos niels provos researcher security engineering malware cryptography received phd computer science university michigan 2003 2018 worked google distinguished engineer security google cloud platform 2018 left google join stripe new head security many years provos contributed openbsd operating system developed bcrypt adaptive cryptographic hash function author numerous software packages including libevent event driven programming system systrace access control system honeyd honeypot system stegdetect steganography detector bcrypt password encryption technique many others provos outspoken critic effect dmca similar laws security researchers arguing threaten make criminals people conducting legitimate security research provos also served program chair usenix security symposium program committees network distributed system security symposium acm sigcomm numerous conferences served board directors usenix 2006 2010 provos hobbies include swordsmithing forged swords japanese viking styles routinely posts videos blacksmithing activities online 1-hop neighbor's text information: security_hacker.security hacker security hacker someone explores methods breaching defenses exploiting weaknesses computer system network hackers may motivated multitude reasons profit protest information gathering challenge recreation evaluate system weaknesses assist formulating defenses potential hackers subculture evolved around hackers often referred computer underground longstanding controversy surrounds meaning term hacker controversy computer programmers reclaim term hacker arguing refers simply someone advanced understanding computers computer networks cracker appropriate term break computers whether computer criminals black hats computer security experts white hats 2014 article noted ... black-hat meaning still prevails among general public computer security hacker someone focuses security mechanisms computer network systems including endeavor strengthen mechanisms often used mass media popular culture refer seek access despite security measures media portrays 'hacker villain nevertheless parts subculture see aim correcting security problems use word positive sense white hat name given ethical computer hackers utilize hacking helpful way white hats becoming necessary part information security field operate code acknowledges breaking people computers bad discovering exploiting security mechanisms breaking computers still interesting activity done ethically legally accordingly term bears strong connotations favorable pejorative depending context subculture around hackers termed network hacker subculture hacker scene computer underground initially developed context phreaking 1960s microcomputer bbs scene 1980s implicated alt.2600 newsgroup 1980 article august issue psychology today commentary philip zimbardo used term hacker title hacker papers excerpt stanford bulletin board discussion addictive nature computer use 1982 film tron kevin flynn jeff bridges describes intentions break encom computer system saying 've little hacking clu software uses 1983 hacking sense breaking computer security already use computer jargon public awareness activities however release film wargames year featuring computer intrusion norad raised public belief computer security hackers especially teenagers could threat national security concern became real year gang teenage hackers milwaukee wisconsin known 414s broke computer systems throughout united states canada including los alamos national laboratory sloan-kettering cancer center security pacific bank case quickly grew media attention 17-year-old neal patrick emerged spokesman gang including cover story newsweek entitled beware hackers play patrick photograph cover newsweek article appears first use word hacker mainstream media pejorative sense pressured media coverage congressman dan glickman called investigation began work new laws computer hacking neal patrick testified u.s. house representatives september 26 1983 dangers computer hacking six bills concerning computer crime introduced house year result laws computer criminality white hat grey hat black hat hackers try distinguish depending legality activities moral conflicts expressed mentor hacker manifesto published 1986 phrack use term hacker meaning computer criminal also advanced title stalking wily hacker article clifford stoll may 1988 issue communications acm later year release robert tappan morris jr. so-called morris worm provoked popular media spread usage popularity stoll book cuckoo egg published one year later entrenched term public consciousness several subgroups computer underground different attitudes use different terms demarcate try exclude specific group agree eric s. raymond author new hacker dictionary advocates members computer underground called crackers yet people see hackers even try include views raymond see wider hacker culture view raymond harshly rejected instead hacker/cracker dichotomy emphasize spectrum different categories white hat grey hat black hat script kiddie contrast raymond usually reserve term cracker malicious activity according ralph d. clifford cracker cracking gain unauthorized access computer order commit another crime destroying information contained system subgroups may also defined legal status activities white hat hacker breaks security non-malicious reasons either test security system perform penetration tests vulnerability assessments client working security company makes security software term generally synonymous ethical hacker ec-council among others developed certifications courseware classes online training covering diverse arena ethical hacking black hat hacker hacker violates computer security little reason beyond maliciousness personal gain moore 2005 term coined richard stallman contrast maliciousness criminal hacker versus spirit playfulness exploration hacker culture ethos white hat hacker performs hacking duties identify places repair means legitimate employment black hat hackers form stereotypical illegal hacking groups often portrayed popular culture epitome public fears computer criminal grey hat hacker lies black hat white hat hacker grey hat hacker may surf internet hack computer system sole purpose notifying administrator system security defect example may offer correct defect fee grey hat hackers sometimes find defect system publish facts world instead group people even though grey hat hackers may necessarily perform hacking personal gain unauthorized access system considered illegal unethical social status among hackers elite used describe skilled newly discovered exploits circulate among hackers elite groups masters deception conferred kind credibility members script kiddie also known skid skiddie unskilled hacker breaks computer systems using automated tools written others usually black hat hackers hence term script i.e computer script automates hacking kiddie i.e kid child—an individual lacking knowledge experience immature usually little understanding underlying concept neophyte newbie noob someone new hacking phreaking almost knowledge experience workings technology hacking blue hat hacker someone outside computer security consulting firms used bug-test system prior launch looking exploits closed microsoft also uses term bluehat represent series security briefing events hacktivist hacker utilizes technology publicize social ideological religious political message hacktivism divided two main groups intelligence agencies cyberwarfare operatives nation states groups hackers carry organized criminal activities profit typical approach attack internet-connected system order several recurring tools trade techniques used computer criminals security experts security exploit prepared application takes advantage known weakness common examples security exploits sql injection cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery abuse security holes may result substandard programming practice exploits would able used file transfer protocol ftp hypertext transfer protocol http php ssh telnet web pages common web site web domain hacking tools procedures computer underground produced specialized slang 1337speak members often advocate freedom information strongly opposing principles copyright well rights free speech privacy writing software performing activities support views referred hacktivism consider illegal cracking ethically justified goals common form website defacement computer underground frequently compared wild west common hackers use aliases conceal identities computer underground supported regular real-world gatherings called hacker conventions hacker cons events include summercon summer def con hohocon christmas shmoocon february blackhat chaos communication congress athcon hacker halted hope local hackfest groups organize compete develop skills send team prominent convention compete group pentesting exploit forensics larger scale hacker groups became popular early 1980s providing access hacking information resources place learn members computer bulletin board systems bbss utopias provided platforms information-sharing via dial-up modem hackers could also gain credibility affiliated elite groups maximum imprisonment one year fine fourth category commonly known computer fraud abuse act prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers protected computers defined maximum imprisonment fine violations computer fraud abuse act depends severity violation offender history violations act notable hacker-oriented print publications phrack hakin9 information contained hacker magazines ezines often outdated time published enhanced contributors reputations documenting successes hackers often show interest fictional cyberpunk cyberculture literature movies adoption fictional pseudonyms symbols values metaphors works common 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: honeyd.honeyd honeyd open source computer program created niels provos allows user set run multiple virtual hosts computer network virtual hosts configured mimic several different types servers allowing user simulate infinite number computer network configurations honeyd primarily used field computer security honeyd used primarily two purposes using software ability mimic many different network hosts 65536 hosts honeyd act distraction potential hackers network 3 real servers one server running honeyd network appear running hundreds servers hacker hacker research possibly social engineering order determine servers real hacker may get caught honeypot either way hacker slowed possibly caught honeyd gets name ability used honeypot network normal traffic valid servers thus network administrator running honeyd monitor his/her logs see traffic going virtual hosts set honeyd traffic going virtual servers considered highly suspicious network administrator take preventative action perhaps blocking suspicious ip address monitoring network suspicious traffic I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,843	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: localtalk.localtalk localtalk particular implementation physical layer appletalk networking system apple computer localtalk specifies system shielded twisted pair cabling plugged self-terminating transceivers running rate 230.4 kbit/s csma/ca implemented random multiple access method networking envisioned macintosh planning mac given expensive rs-422 capable serial ports ports driven zilog scc could serve either standard uart handle much complicated hdlc protocol packet oriented protocol incorporated addressing bit-stuffing packet checksumming hardware coupled together rs422 electrical connections provided reasonably high-speed data connection 230.4 kbit/s bit rate highest series standard serial bit rates 110 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800 9600 14400 19200 28800 38400 57600 115200 230400 derived 3.6864 mhz clock customary divide-by-16 clock frequency 3.6864 mhz chosen part support common asynchronous baud rates 38.4 kbit/s using scc internal baud-rate generator scc internal pll used lock clock embedded localtalk serial data stream using fm0 encoding method divide-by-16 setting pll yielded fastest rate available namely 230.4 kbit/s originally released appletalk personal network localtalk used shielded twisted-pair cable 3-pin mini-din connectors cables daisy-chained transceiver transceiver transceiver two 3-pin mini-din ports cable connect mac de-9 serial connector later mac plus introduced 8-pin mini-din serial connector transceivers updated well variation localtalk called phonenet introduced farallon computing used standard unshielded side-by-side telephone wire six-position modular connectors popular rj11 telephone connectors connected phonenet transceiver instead expensive shielded twisted-pair cable addition lower cost phonenet-wired networks reliable due connections difficult accidentally disconnect addition used outer pair modular connector could travel many pre-existing phone cables jacks inner pair use rj11 telephone service phonenet also able use office existing phone wire allowing entire floors computers easily networked farallon introduced 12-port hub made constructing star topology networks 48 devices easy adding jacks workstations jumpers phone closet factors led phonenet largely supplanting localtalk wiring low-cost networking useful life phonenet extended introduction localtalk switching technology tribe computer works introduced 1990 tribe localswitch 16 port packet switch designed speed overloaded phonenet networks widespread availability ethernet-based networking early 1990s led swift disappearance localtalk phonenet remained use time low-cost applications applications ethernet available ethernet became universal pc offices installing anyway early models power macintosh macintosh quadra supported 10base-t via apple attachment unit interface still supporting localtalk-based networking older macintosh computers built-in ethernet expansion options high speed scsi-to-ethernet adapter available particularly popular powerbooks enabled earliest macintosh models access high speed ethernet network release imac 1998 traditional mac serial port — thus ability use localtalk phonenet — disappeared new models macintosh localtalk-to-ethernet bridges introduced allow legacy devices especially printers function newer networks old macintosh computers localtalk remains option localtalk connector distinction first use apple unified appletalk connector family design created brad bissell frogdesign using rick meadows apple icon family designs localtalk connectors first released january 1985 connect laserwriter printer initially macintosh family computers integral part newly announced macintosh office however well past move ethernet connector design continued used apple peripherals cable connectors well influencing connectors used throughout industry whole 1-hop neighbor's text information: tops_(file_server).tops file server tops transcendental operating system peer-to-peer lan-based file sharing system best known macintosh implementation also available dos able interoperate unix nfs originally written centram systems west company purchased sun microsystems part sun development nfs ecosystem centram company renamed tops acquisition sun sales tops dried introduction system 7 featured similar file sharing system built-in sun spun nfs developments sitka tops implemented 1980s era computer system featured networking protocol generally unable talk time apple midst macintosh office effort working two external companies develop apple filing protocol afp built top appletalk macintosh office effort ultimately failed one two companies centram decided implement similar system became first version tops tops originally released peer-to-peer file sharing solution mac according pc magazine connecting mac apple laserwriter printer initial intended function appletalk apple file sharing solution appleshare released later unlike tops required dedicated server machine run least mac plus smaller offices tops attractive low-cost solution saw relatively widespread use even introduction appleshare tops managed hold estimated 600,000 client installs tops initially protocol using custom set remote procedure calls able talk tops clients pcs generally lacked networking sort centram addressed problem introducing line localtalk cards pc along tops client files could exchanged two computers filename conversion required centram later introduced flashtalk networking system used external clocking improve localtalk performance zilog scc powering serial ports mac used internal 3.6864 mhz clock could divided provide different standard bit rates fastest rate available internally 230.4 kbit/s used localtalk however system also allowed clock read pin serial port giving rise possibility faster speeds right external equipment flashtalk combined conventional localtalk-like dongle clocking source external power supply using connectors associated software tops could run 770 kbit/s fairly dramatic improvement localtalk also relatively speedy overall era 1 mbit/s networks still common sun purchase tops given problem making client could also access sun file shares using nfs centram solved problem porting file sharing protocol tcp/ip trivial neither mac os windows supported tcp/ip box tops division sun write complete ip stack mac windows centram already written stack tops terminal freeware open source telnet terminal mac additionally majority macintosh systems used localtalk phonenet connectivity could directly connected ethernet-based unix lans worked around problem supporting emerging localtalk-to-ethernet bridging standard known kip short kinetics internet protocol kip encapsulated tcp/ip packets inside appletalk packets allowing sent existing localtalk connections dedicated kip-supporting network bridges available stripped appletalk packaging re-formed ip packets inside sent ethernet one limitation tcp stack support dns requiring users type ip addresses peers wanted communicate network mostly macs windows pcs issue dns widely used systems time kip also reduced need dns allowed mac existing address resolution protocol aarp code within appletalk look appletalk address remote peer communicate tops stack machine find corresponding ip address tops also added new inbox personal connection e-mail system first developed symantec tops attractiveness seriously eroded introduction system 7 1991 tops initially competed dedicated-server appleshare system 7 included file sharing server built-in one proved much faster then-current versions tops tops sales dwindled sun spun division sitka closing entirely 1993 Target text information: phonenet.phonenet phonenet implementation appletalk networking physical layer created farallon computing netopia instead using expensive shielded twisted pair wiring apple localtalk implementation phonenet uses standard four-conductor telephone category 1 patch cords modular connectors like localtalk theoretical maximum speed data transfer 230 kbit/s generally used daisy chain topology unlike localtalk balanced grounded implementation phonenet used two lines four typical cable normal telephone equipment also normally used two lines phonenet could plugged existing phone lines instances allowing phone calls networking single cable generally requires hand-crimping cable using three rj11 jacks connecting single jack two one two wires phone two networking though phonenet transceivers still available third parties use legacy macintosh networks current apple computer device model comes rs-422 serial ports required phonenet transceivers modern apple devices network use ethernet wi-fi bluetooth I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	1,734	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: mobile_slotted_aloha.mobile slotted aloha mobile slotted aloha ms-aloha wireless network protocol proposed applications vehicle networks considering typical taxonomy mac protocols ms-aloha represents hybrid solution based connection-oriented paradigm hence may fall class channel-based/tdma protocols however also reactive topology changes include reservations separate data exchanges classified among packet-based collision-free mac methods general slotted protocol either connectionless connection-oriented however latter case represents true alternative ieee 802.11p introducing determinism carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance csma/ca lacks vehicle networks connection set-up phases telephone call reservation request confirmation data exchange tear-down applied hold broadcast communications hampered hidden stations manageable heavy losses mobility varying channel conditions reasons ms-aloha connection oriented continuously refreshes reservation simply transmitting period ms-aloha adopts different approach subtends following hypotheses rules basically define main mechanisms 1-hop neighbor's text information: multiple_access_with_collision_avoidance_for_wireless.multiple access collision avoidance wireless multiple access collision avoidance wireless macaw slotted medium access control mac protocol widely used ad hoc networks furthermore foundation many mac protocols used wireless sensor networks wsn ieee 802.11 rts/cts mechanism adopted protocol uses rts-cts-ds-data-ack frame sequence transferring data sometimes preceded rts-rrts frame sequence view provide solution hidden node problem although protocols based macaw s-mac use carrier sense addition rts/cts mechanism macaw make use carrier sense assume node data transfer node b. node initiates process sending request send frame rts node b destination node node b replies clear send frame cts receiving cts node sends data successful reception node b replies acknowledgement frame ack node send one data fragment wait random time successful data transfer compete adjacent nodes medium using rts/cts mechanism node overhearing rts frame example node f node e illustration refrains sending anything cts received waiting certain time captured rts followed cts maximum waiting time rts propagation time destination node turnaround time node node c node e overhearing cts frame refrains sending anything time data frame ack received solving hidden terminal problem plus random time rts cts frames contain information length data frame hence node uses information estimate time data transmission completion sending long data frame node sends short data-sending frame ds provides information length data frame every station overhears frame knows rts/cts exchange successful overhearing station node f might received rts ds cts defers transmissions ack frame received plus random time sum successful data transfer b consists following sequence frames macaw non-persistent slotted protocol meaning medium busy example cts message station waits random time start time slot sending rts results fair access medium example nodes b c data fragments send busy period chance access medium since transmission range node unaware ongoing data transfer node node b. node data send node c transmission range node d. initiates process sending rts frame node c. node c already deferred transmission completion current data transfer node node b avoid co-channel interference node b hence even though receives rts node reply back cts node assumes rts successful collision hence proceeds back using exponential backoff algorithm multiple data fragments send instant node successfully initiate data transfer small gaps node completed data transfer completion node b next cts node next data transfer request however due node backoff time period probability capture medium small time interval high increase per-node fairness macaw introduces new control message called request request send rrts node c reply earlier due ongoing transmission node node b sends rrts message node next contention period recipient rrts node immediately responds rts normal message exchange commenced nodes overhearing rrts defer two time slots long enough hear successful rts–cts exchange occurs summarize transfer may case consist following sequence frames node c additional back-off algorithms developed researched improve performance basic principle based use sequencing techniques node wireless network maintains counter limits number attempts less equal sequence number use wireless channel states control access probabilities node good channel state higher probability contention success reduces number collisions macaw generally solve exposed terminal problem assume node g data send node f example node g information ongoing data transfer b initiates process sending rts signal node f. node f transmission range node hear rts node g since exposed co-channel interference node g assumes rts successful collision hence backs tries case solution provided rrts mechanism improve situation much since data frames sent b rather long compared frames probability f exposed transmission rather high node f idea node interested initiating data transfer g happens transmit rts transmissions furthermore macaw might behave normally multicasting 1-hop neighbor's text information: distributed_coordination_function.distributed coordination function distributed coordination function dcf fundamental medium access control mac technique ieee 802.11-based wlan standard including wi-fi dcf employs carrier-sense multiple access collision avoidance csma/ca binary exponential backoff algorithm dcf requires station wishing transmit listen channel status difs interval channel found busy difs interval station defers transmission network number stations contend wireless medium multiple stations sense channel busy defer access also virtually simultaneously find channel released try seize channel result collisions may occur order avoid collisions dcf also specifies random backoff forces station defer access channel extra period length backoff period determined following equation formula_1 dcf also optional virtual carrier sense mechanism exchanges short request-to-send rts clear-to-send cts frames source destination stations intervals data frame transmissions dcf includes positive acknowledge scheme means frame successfully received destination addressed destination needs send ack frame notify source successful reception dcf solve hidden terminal and/or exposed terminal problem completely alleviates problem use rts cts recommends use larger carrier sensing range dcf defined subclause 9.3 ieee 802.11 standard de facto default setting wi-fi hardware 802.11 dcf consumes significant amount airtime 802.11 control messages usually convey little information example ack message take 60 μs transmit completely includes amount airtime sufficient transmit 3240 bits 54 mbit/s conveys single bit relevant information ieee 802.11 standard also defines optional access method using point coordination function pcf pcf allows access point acting network coordinator manage channel access ieee 802.11e amendment standard enhances dcf pcf new coordination function called hybrid coordination function hcf Target text information: contention_(telecommunications).contention telecommunications statistical time division multiplexing contention media access method used share broadcast medium contention computer network transmit data time first come-first served system breaks two computers attempt transmit time known collision avoid collisions carrier sensing mechanism used computer listens network attempting transmit network busy waits network quiets carrier detection computers continue listen network transmit computer detects another signal interferes signal sending stops transmitting computers wait random amount time attempt transmit contention methods popular media access control method lans one method handle collisions contention based system optimize collision detection subsequent recovery alternative method handle collisions contention based system attempt avoid systems may utilize strict scheduling guideline identify may use resources systems may senders listen channel immediately prior transmitting determine suitable times transmit collisions condition arises two data stations attempt transmit time shared channel two data stations attempt transmit time half duplex communication link contention based channel access multiple access protocol protocol data packet collisions may occur examples protocols telecommunication term contention also following less usual meanings I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	2,911	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: kernel_(operating_system).kernel operating system kernel computer program core computer operating system complete control everything system systems one first programs loaded start-up bootloader handles rest start-up well input/output requests software translating data-processing instructions central processing unit handles memory peripherals like keyboards monitors printers speakers critical code kernel usually loaded separate area memory protected access application programs less critical parts operating system kernel performs tasks running processes managing hardware devices hard disk handling interrupts protected kernel space contrast application programs like browsers word processors audio video players use separate area memory user space separation prevents user data kernel data interfering causing instability slowness well preventing malfunctioning application programs crashing entire operating system kernel interface low-level abstraction layer process makes requests kernel called system call kernel designs differ manage system calls resources monolithic kernel runs operating system instructions address space speed microkernel runs processes user space modularity kernel primary function mediate access computer resources including key aspects necessary resource management definition execution domain address space protection mechanism used mediate access resources within domain kernels also provide methods synchronization inter-process communication ipc implementations may within kernel kernel also rely processes running although kernel must provide inter-process communication order provide access facilities provided kernels must also provide running programs method make requests access facilities kernel full access system memory must allow processes safely access memory require often first step virtual addressing usually achieved paging and/or segmentation virtual addressing allows kernel make given physical address appear another address virtual address virtual address spaces may different different processes memory one process accesses particular virtual address may different memory another process accesses address allows every program behave one apart kernel running thus prevents applications crashing many systems program virtual address may refer data currently memory layer indirection provided virtual addressing allows operating system use data stores like hard drive store would otherwise remain main memory ram result operating systems allow programs use memory system physically available program needs data currently ram cpu signals kernel happened kernel responds writing contents inactive memory block disk necessary replacing data requested program program resumed point stopped scheme generally known demand paging virtual addressing also allows creation virtual partitions memory two disjointed areas one reserved kernel kernel space applications user space applications permitted processor address kernel memory thus preventing application damaging running kernel fundamental partition memory space contributed much current designs actual general-purpose kernels almost universal systems although research kernels e.g singularity take approaches perform useful functions processes need access peripherals connected computer controlled kernel device drivers device driver computer program enables operating system interact hardware device provides operating system information control communicate certain piece hardware driver important vital piece program application design goal driver abstraction function driver translate os-mandated abstract function calls programming calls device-specific calls theory device work correctly suitable driver device drivers used things video cards sound cards printers scanners modems lan cards common levels abstraction device drivers 1 hardware side 2 software side example show user something screen application would make request kernel would forward request display driver responsible actually plotting character/pixel kernel must maintain list available devices list may known advance e.g embedded system kernel rewritten available hardware changes configured user typical older pcs systems designed personal use detected operating system run time normally called plug play plug play system device manager first performs scan different hardware buses peripheral component interconnect pci universal serial bus usb detect installed devices searches appropriate drivers device management os-specific topic drivers handled differently kind kernel design every case kernel provide i/o allow drivers physically access devices port memory location important decisions made designing device management system designs accesses may involve context switches making operation cpu-intensive easily causing significant performance overhead computing system call process requests service operating system kernel normally permission run system calls provide interface process operating system operations interacting system require permissions available user level process e.g i/o performed device present system form communication processes requires use system calls system call mechanism used application program request service operating system use machine-code instruction causes processor change mode example would supervisor mode protected mode operating system performs actions like accessing hardware devices memory management unit generally operating system provides library sits operating system normal programs usually c library glibc windows api library handles low-level details passing information kernel switching supervisor mode system calls include close open read wait write actually perform useful work process must able access services provided kernel implemented differently kernel provide c library api turn invokes related kernel functions method invoking kernel function varies kernel kernel memory isolation use impossible user process call kernel directly would violation processor access control rules possibilities important consideration design kernel support provides protection faults fault tolerance malicious behaviours security two aspects usually clearly distinguished adoption distinction kernel design leads rejection hierarchical structure protection mechanisms policies provided kernel classified according several criteria including static enforced compile time dynamic enforced run time pre-emptive post-detection according protection principles satisfy e.g denning whether hardware supported language based whether open mechanism binding policy many support hierarchical protection domains typically implemented using cpu modes many kernels provide implementation capabilities i.e objects provided user code allow limited access underlying object managed kernel common example occurs file handling file representation information stored permanent storage device kernel may able perform many different operations e.g read write delete execute file contents user level application may permitted perform operations e.g may allowed read file common implementation kernel provide object application typically called file handle application may invoke operations validity kernel checks time operation requested system may extended cover objects kernel manages indeed objects provided user applications efficient simple way provide hardware support capabilities delegate mmu responsibility checking access-rights every memory access mechanism called capability-based addressing commercial computer architectures lack mmu support capabilities alternative approach simulate capabilities using commonly supported hierarchical domains approach protected object must reside address space application access kernel also maintains list capabilities memory application needs access object protected capability performs system call kernel checks whether application capability grants permission perform requested action permitted performs access either directly delegating request another user-level process performance cost address space switching limits practicality approach systems complex interactions objects used current operating systems objects accessed frequently expected perform quickly approaches protection mechanism firmware supported instead simulated higher levels e.g simulating capabilities manipulating page tables hardware direct support possible performance implications lack hardware support may issue however systems choose use language-based protection important kernel design decision choice abstraction levels security mechanisms policies implemented kernel security mechanisms play critical role supporting security higher levels one approach use firmware kernel support fault tolerance see build security policy malicious behavior top adding features cryptography mechanisms necessary delegating responsibility compiler approaches delegate enforcement security policy compiler and/or application level often called language-based security lack many critical security mechanisms current mainstream operating systems impedes implementation adequate security policies application abstraction level fact common misconception computer security security policy implemented application regardless kernel support typical computer systems today use hardware-enforced rules programs allowed access data processor monitors execution stops program violates rule e.g. user process read write kernel memory systems lack support capabilities processes isolated using separate address spaces calls user processes kernel regulated requiring use one above-described system call methods alternative approach use language-based protection language-based protection system kernel allow code execute produced trusted language compiler language may designed impossible programmer instruct something violate security requirement advantages approach include disadvantages include examples systems language-based protection include jx microsoft singularity edsger dijkstra proved logical point view atomic lock unlock operations operating binary semaphores sufficient primitives express functionality process cooperation however approach generally held lacking terms safety efficiency whereas message passing approach flexible number approaches either lower- higher-level available well many modern kernels providing support systems shared memory remote procedure calls idea kernel i/o devices handled uniformly processes parallel co-operating processes first proposed implemented brinch hansen although similar ideas suggested 1967 hansen description common processes called internal processes i/o devices called external processes similar physical memory allowing applications direct access controller ports registers cause controller malfunction system crash depending complexity device devices get surprisingly complex program use several different controllers providing abstract interface manage device important interface normally done device driver hardware abstraction layer frequently applications require access devices kernel must maintain list devices querying system way done bios one various system buses pci/pcie usb application requests operation device displaying character kernel needs send request current active video driver video driver turn needs carry request example inter process communication ipc naturally listed tasks features provided many ways differ design implementation principle separation mechanism policy substantial difference philosophy micro monolithic kernels mechanism support allows implementation many different policies policy particular mode operation instance mechanism may provide user log-in attempts call authorization server determine whether access granted policy may authorization server request password check encrypted password stored database mechanism generic policy could easily changed e.g requiring use security token mechanism policy integrated module minimal microkernel basic policies included mechanisms allows running top kernel remaining part operating system applications decide policies adopt memory management high level process scheduling file system management etc. monolithic kernel instead tends include many policies therefore restricting rest system rely per brinch hansen presented arguments favour separation mechanism policy failure properly fulfill separation one major causes lack substantial innovation existing operating systems problem common computer architecture monolithic design induced kernel mode user mode architectural approach protection technically called hierarchical protection domains common conventional commercial systems fact every module needing protection therefore preferably included kernel link monolithic design privileged mode reconducted key issue mechanism-policy separation fact privileged mode architectural approach melds together protection mechanism security policies major alternative architectural approach capability-based addressing clearly distinguishes two leading naturally microkernel design see separation protection security monolithic kernels execute code address space kernel space microkernels try run services user space aiming improve maintainability modularity codebase kernels fit exactly one categories rather found two designs called hybrid kernels exotic designs nanokernels exokernels available seldom used production systems xen hypervisor example exokernel monolithic kernel os services run along main kernel thread thus also residing memory area approach provides rich powerful hardware access developers unix developer ken thompson maintain easier implement monolithic kernel microkernels main disadvantages monolithic kernels dependencies system components bug device driver might crash entire system fact large kernels become difficult maintain monolithic kernels traditionally used unix-like operating systems contain operating system core functions device drivers traditional design unix systems monolithic kernel one single program contains code necessary perform every kernel-related task every part accessed programs put library kernel space device drivers scheduler memory handling file systems network stacks many system calls provided applications allow access services monolithic kernel initially loaded subsystems may needed tuned point fast faster one specifically designed hardware although relevant general sense modern monolithic kernels linux freebsd fall category unix-like operating systems feature ability load modules runtime thereby allowing easy extension kernel capabilities required helping minimize amount code running kernel space monolithic kernel advantages hinge points work monolithic kernel done via system calls interfaces usually kept tabular structure access subsystem within kernel disk operations essentially calls made within programs checked copy request passed system call hence far travel monolithic linux kernel made extremely small ability dynamically load modules also ease customization fact versions small enough fit together large number utilities programs single floppy disk still provide fully functional operating system one popular mulinux ability miniaturize kernel also led rapid growth use linux embedded systems types kernels consist core functions operating system device drivers ability load modules runtime provide rich powerful abstractions underlying hardware provide small set simple hardware abstractions use applications called servers provide functionality particular approach defines high-level virtual interface hardware set system calls implement operating system services process management concurrency memory management several modules run supervisor mode design several flaws limitations microkernel also abbreviated μk uk term describing approach operating system design functionality system moved traditional kernel set servers communicate minimal kernel leaving little possible system space much possible user space microkernel designed specific platform device ever going needs operate microkernel approach consists defining simple abstraction hardware set primitives system calls implement minimal os services memory management multitasking inter-process communication services including normally provided kernel networking implemented user-space programs referred servers microkernels easier maintain monolithic kernels large number system calls context switches might slow system typically generate overhead plain function calls parts really require privileged mode kernel space ipc inter-process communication basic scheduler scheduling primitives basic memory handling basic i/o primitives many critical parts running user space complete scheduler memory handling file systems network stacks micro kernels invented reaction traditional monolithic kernel design whereby system functionality put one static program running special system mode processor microkernel fundamental tasks performed able access necessarily hardware manage memory coordinate message passing processes systems use micro kernels qnx hurd case qnx hurd user sessions entire snapshots system views referred essence microkernel architecture illustrates advantages micro kernels use message passing system sort handle requests one server another message passing system generally operates port basis microkernel example request memory sent port opened microkernel request sent within microkernel steps similar system calls rationale would bring modularity system architecture would entail cleaner system easier debug dynamically modify customizable users needs performing part operating systems like gnu hurd minix mklinux qnx redox os although micro kernels small combination required auxiliary code fact often larger monolithic kernels advocates monolithic kernels also point two-tiered structure microkernel systems operating system interact directly hardware creates not-insignificant cost terms system efficiency types kernels normally provide minimal services defining memory address spaces inter-process communication ipc process management functions running hardware processes handled directly micro kernels proponents micro kernels point monolithic kernels disadvantage error kernel cause entire system crash however microkernel kernel process crashes still possible prevent crash system whole merely restarting service caused error services provided kernel networking implemented user-space programs referred servers servers allow operating system modified simply starting stopping programs machine without networking support instance networking server started task moving kernel move data various applications servers creates overhead detrimental efficiency micro kernels comparison monolithic kernels disadvantages microkernel exist however disadvantages micro kernels extremely context based example work well small single purpose critical systems many processes need run complications process management effectively mitigated microkernel allows implementation remaining part operating system normal application program written high-level language use different operating systems top unchanged kernel also possible dynamically switch among operating systems one active simultaneously computer kernel grows grows size vulnerability trusted computing base besides reducing security problem enlarging memory footprint mitigated degree perfecting virtual memory system computer architectures virtual memory support reduce kernel footprint extensive editing performed carefully remove unneeded code difficult non-obvious interdependencies parts kernel millions lines code early 1990s due various shortcomings monolithic kernels versus microkernels monolithic kernels considered obsolete virtually operating system researchers result design linux monolithic kernel rather microkernel topic famous debate linus torvalds andrew tanenbaum merit sides argument presented tanenbaum–torvalds debate monolithic kernels designed code address space kernel space developers argue necessary increase performance system developers also maintain monolithic systems extremely efficient well written monolithic model tends efficient use shared kernel memory rather slower ipc system microkernel designs typically based message passing performance microkernels poor 1980s early 1990s however studies empirically measured performance microkernels analyze reasons inefficiency explanations data left folklore assumption due increased frequency switches kernel-mode user-mode increased frequency inter-process communication increased frequency context switches fact guessed 1995 reasons poor performance microkernels might well 1 actual inefficiency whole microkernel approach 2 particular concepts implemented microkernels 3 particular implementation concepts therefore remained studied solution build efficient microkernel unlike previous attempts apply correct construction techniques end hierarchical protection domains architecture leads design monolithic kernel significant performance drawback time interaction different levels protection i.e process manipulate data structure 'user mode 'supervisor mode since requires message copying value mid-1990s researchers abandoned belief careful tuning could reduce overhead dramatically recently newer microkernels optimized performance l4 k42 addressed problems hybrid kernels used commercial operating systems microsoft windows nt 3.1 nt 3.5 nt 3.51 nt 4.0 2000 xp vista 7 8 8.1 10 apple inc macos uses hybrid kernel called xnu based upon code osf/1 mach kernel osfmk 7.3 freebsd monolithic kernel similar micro kernels except include additional code kernel-space increase performance kernels represent compromise implemented developers demonstrated pure micro kernels provide high performance types kernels extensions micro kernels properties monolithic kernels unlike monolithic kernels types kernels unable load modules runtime hybrid kernels micro kernels non-essential code kernel-space order code run quickly would user-space hybrid kernels compromise monolithic microkernel designs implies running services network stack filesystem kernel space reduce performance overhead traditional microkernel still running kernel code device drivers servers user space many traditionally monolithic kernels least adding actively exploiting module capability well known kernels linux kernel modular kernel essentially parts built core kernel binary binaries load memory demand important note code tainted module potential destabilize running kernel many people become confused point discussing micro kernels possible write driver microkernel completely separate memory space test going live kernel module loaded accesses monolithic portion memory space adding needs therefore opening doorway possible pollution advantages modular hybrid kernel modules generally communicate kernel using module interface sort interface generalized although particular given operating system always possible use modules often device drivers may need flexibility module interface affords essentially two system calls often safety checks done monolithic kernel may done twice disadvantages modular approach nanokernel delegates virtually services including even basic ones like interrupt controllers timer device drivers make kernel memory requirement even smaller traditional microkernel exokernels still-experimental approach operating system design differ types kernels functionality limited protection multiplexing raw hardware providing hardware abstractions top develop applications separation hardware protection hardware management enables application developers determine make efficient use available hardware specific program exokernels extremely small however accompanied library operating systems see also unikernel providing application developers functionalities conventional operating system major advantage exokernel-based systems incorporate multiple library operating systems exporting different api example one high level ui development one real-time control strictly speaking operating system thus kernel required run computer programs directly loaded executed bare metal machine provided authors programs willing work without hardware abstraction operating system support early computers operated way 1950s early 1960s reset reloaded execution different programs eventually small ancillary programs program loaders debuggers left memory runs loaded rom developed formed basis became early operating system kernels bare metal approach still used today video game consoles embedded systems general newer computers use modern operating systems kernels 1969 rc 4000 multiprogramming system introduced system design philosophy small nucleus upon operating systems different purposes could built orderly manner would called microkernel approach decade preceding unix computers grown enormously power point computer operators looking new ways get people use spare time machines one major developments era time-sharing whereby number users would get small slices computer time rate appeared connected slower machine development time-sharing systems led number problems one users particularly universities systems developed seemed want hack system get cpu time reason security access control became major focus multics project 1965 another ongoing issue properly handling computing resources users spent time staring terminal thinking input instead actually using resources computer time-sharing system give cpu time active user periods finally systems typically offered memory hierarchy several layers deep partitioning expensive resource led major developments virtual memory systems commodore amiga released 1985 among first certainly successful home computers feature advanced kernel architecture amigaos kernel executive component exec.library uses microkernel message-passing design kernel components like graphics.library direct access hardware memory protection kernel almost always running user mode special actions executed kernel mode user-mode applications ask operating system execute code kernel mode design phase unix programmers decided model every high-level device file believed purpose computation data transformation instance printers represented file known location data copied file printed systems provide similar functionality tended virtualize devices lower level devices files would instances lower level concept virtualizing system file level allowed users manipulate entire system using existing file management utilities concepts dramatically simplifying operation extension paradigm unix allows programmers manipulate files using series small programs using concept pipes allowed users complete operations stages feeding file chain single-purpose tools although end result using smaller programs way dramatically increased flexibility well ease development use allowing user modify workflow adding removing program chain unix model operating system consists two parts first huge collection utility programs drive operations second kernel runs programs unix programming standpoint distinction two fairly thin kernel program running supervisor mode acts program loader supervisor small utility programs making rest system provide locking i/o services programs beyond kernel n't intervene user space years computing model changed unix treatment everything file byte stream longer universally applicable although terminal could treated file byte stream printed read seem true graphical user interface networking posed another problem even network communication compared file access low-level packet-oriented architecture dealt discrete chunks data whole files capability computers grew unix became increasingly cluttered code also modularity unix kernel extensively scalable kernels might 100,000 lines code seventies eighties kernels modern unix successors like linux 13 million lines modern unix-derivatives generally based module-loading monolithic kernels examples linux kernel many distributions well berkeley software distribution variant kernels freebsd dragonflybsd openbsd netbsd macos apart alternatives amateur developers maintain active operating system development community populated self-written hobby kernels mostly end sharing many features linux freebsd dragonflybsd openbsd netbsd kernels and/or compatible apple first launched classic mac os 1984 bundled macintosh personal computer apple moved nanokernel design mac os 8.6 modern macos originally named mac os x based darwin uses hybrid kernel called xnu created combining 4.3bsd kernel mach kernel microsoft windows first released 1985 add-on ms-dos dependence another operating system initial releases windows prior windows 95 considered operating environment confused operating system product line continued evolve 1980s 1990s windows 9x series adding 32-bit addressing pre-emptive multitasking ended release windows 2000 microsoft also developed windows nt operating system similar interface intended high-end business users line started release windows nt 3.1 1993 introduced general users release windows xp october 2001—replacing windows 9x completely different much sophisticated operating system line continues windows 10 architecture windows nt kernel considered hybrid kernel kernel contains tasks window manager ipc managers client/server layered subsystem model supervisory program supervisor computer program usually part operating system controls execution routines regulates work scheduling input/output operations error actions similar functions regulates flow work data processing system historically term essentially associated ibm line mainframe operating systems starting os/360 operating systems supervisor generally called kernel 1970s ibm abstracted supervisor state hardware resulting hypervisor enabled full virtualization i.e capacity run multiple operating systems machine totally independently hence first system called virtual machine vm although mach developed carnegie mellon university 1985 1994 best-known general-purpose microkernel microkernels developed specific aims l4 microkernel family mainly l3 l4 kernel created demonstrate microkernels necessarily slow newer implementations fiasco pistachio able run linux next l4 processes separate address spaces additionally qnx microkernel principally used embedded systems open-source software minix originally created educational purposes focussed highly reliable self-healing microkernel os 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_pascal_and_c.comparison pascal c computer programming languages c pascal similar times origin influences purposes used design compile compilers early lifetimes original pascal definition appeared 1969 first compiler 1970 first version c appeared 1972 descendants algol language series algol introduced programming language support structured programming programs constructed single entry single exit constructs case pascal stems directly algol w shared new ideas algol 68 c language indirectly related algol originally b bcpl cpl later algol 68 example case codice_1 codice_2 also pascal example case enumerations codice_3 codice_4 booleans pascal dialects also incorporated traits c. documented pascal niklaus wirth standardized iso 7185 1982 c documented language brian kernighan dennis ritchie standardized 1989 reason versions represent mature version language also comparatively close time ansi c c99 later c standards features features later implementations pascal turbo pascal free pascal included comparison despite improvements robustness functionality conferred syntactically pascal much algol-like c. english keywords retained c uses punctuation symbols – pascal codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 c uses codice_8 codice_9 codice_10 example however c actually algol-like pascal regarding simple declarations retaining type-name variable-name syntax example c accept declarations start block outer block function another subtle difference role semicolon pascal semicolons separate individual statements within compound statement whereas terminate statement c. also syntactically part statement c transforming expression statement difference manifests primarily two situations superfluous semicolon put last line end thereby formally inserting empty statement traditional c codice_14 supported certain pascal dialects like midletpascal traditional pascal codice_15 codice_16 modern pascal like object pascal delphi fpc well modern c implementations allow c++ style comments codice_17 c pascal differ interpretation upper lower case c case sensitive pascal thus codice_18 codice_19 distinct names c identical pascal languages identifiers consist letters digits rule first character may digit c underscore counts letter even _abc valid name names leading underscore often used differentiate special system identifiers c. c pascal use keywords words reserved use language examples const goto keywords happen common languages c basic built-in type names also keywords e.g int char combinations keywords e.g unsigned char pascal built-in type names predefined normal identifiers pascal procedure definitions start keywords procedure function type definitions type c function definitions determined syntactical context type definitions use keyword codice_4 languages use mix keywords punctuation definitions complex types instance arrays defined keyword array pascal punctuation c enumerations defined keyword codice_21 c punctuation pascal pascal functions begin end delimit block statements proper c functions use delimit block statements optionally preceded declarations c c99 strictly defines declarations must occur statements within particular block allows blocks appear within blocks way go around pascal strict declarations must occur statements allows definitions types functions variable declarations encapsulated function definitions level depth grammars languages similar size implementation perspective main difference two languages parse c necessary access symbol table types pascal one construct assignment instance c fragment codice_22 could declaration codice_23 object whose type pointer codice_24 statement-expression multiplies codice_24 codice_23 contrast corresponding pascal fragment codice_27 inherently unambiguous correct parsing require symbol table pascal requires variable function declarations specify type explicitly traditional c type name may omitted contexts default type codice_28 corresponds codice_29 pascal implicitly assumed however defaults considered bad practice c often flagged warnings c accommodates different sizes signed unsigned modes integers using modifiers codice_30 codice_31 codice_32 codice_33 etc exact meaning resulting integer type machine-dependent however guaranteed codice_34 least 16 bits codice_35 shorter codice_28 codice_37 longer codice_28 pascal similar end performed declaring subrange integer compiler may choose allocate smaller amount storage declared variable type 1..100 subrange feature supported c. major subtle difference c pascal promote integer operations pascal result operation defined integer/subrange types even intermediate results fit integer result undefined fit integer/subrange left hand side assignment may imply artificial restriction range integer types may require slow execution handle intermediate results however compiler may take advantage restricted subranges produce efficient code c operands must first promoted size required result intermediate results undefined fit range promoted operands range required result greater range operands normally produces slow inefficient code even good optimising compiler however c compiler never required expected handle range intermediate results programmers responsibility ensure intermediate results fit operand range pre-standard implementation c well small-c et al allowed integer pointer types relatively freely intermixed c character type codice_39 kind integer longer codice_37 expressions codice_41 therefore perfectly legal declarations codice_42 codice_43 integer nature codice_39 one byte clearly illustrated declarations unsigned char uc 255 /* common limit / signed char sc -128 / common negative limit / whether codice_39 type regarded codice_32 codice_33 default implementation pascal characters integers distinct types inbuilt compiler functions codice_48 codice_49 used typecast single characters corresponding integer value character set use vice versa e.g systems using ascii character set codice_50 codice_51 tab character pascal boolean enumerated type possible values boolean false true conversion integer ord used ord b standard function integer boolean however conversion simple practice b 0 c binary valued relational operators == may regarded boolean sense always give results either zero one tests \|\| etc performed zero-checks false represented zero true represented value c allows using bitwise operators perform boolean operations care must taken semantics different operands make use one bit represent value pascal another abstract high level method dealing bitwise data sets sets allow programmer set clear intersect unite bitwise data values rather using direct bitwise operators available modern pascal well example pascal status status stickyflag status status stickyflag stickyflag status ... pascal status status stickyflag status status stickyflag stickyflag status stickyflag ... c status \|= stickyflag status ~stickyflag status stickyflag ... although bit operations integers operations sets considered similar sets implemented using bits direct parallel uses unless non-standard conversion integers sets possible expression evaluation languages boolean value may internally stored single bit single byte full machine word position generated code condition code status register depending machine compiler situation factors usually important language compiled c less strict model floating point types pascal c integers may implicitly converted floating point numbers vice versa though possible precision loss may flagged warnings pascal integers may implicitly converted codice_52 conversion codice_52 codice_29 information may lost must done explicitly via functions codice_55 codice_56 truncate round fraction respectively c pascal include enumeration types pascal example type var c example enum color red green blue enum color behavior types two languages however different c codice_57 becomes synonym 0 codice_58 1 codice_59 2 nothing prevents value outside range assigned variable codice_60 furthermore operations like codice_61 strictly forbidden pascal instead would use codice_62 c enums freely converted ints pascal function ord must used convert enumerated types integers function convert integer enumerated types c pascal allow arrays complex types including arrays however similarity languages ends c arrays simply defined base type number elements int size always indexed 0 size-1 i.e modulo size pascal range indices often specified subrange introduced simple types ten elements var array 0..9 integer would indexed 0..9 c case array indices ordinal data type however ranges type var picture array 1..640 1..480 rgb var palette array byte 0..2 byte strings consisting n 1 characters defined packed arrays range 1..n. c expressions identifier representing array treated constant pointer first element array thus given declarations codice_63 codice_64 assignment codice_65 valid causes p point array identifier codice_60 represents constant address codice_67 valid however arrays c fixed pointers interchangeable flexibility allows c manipulate length array using code also leaves programmer responsibility write outside allocated array checks built language pascal arrays distinct type pointers makes bounds checking arrays possible compiler perspective practically pascal compilers support range checking compile option ability arrays change length runtime able check language control often termed dynamic arrays pascal number elements array type determined compile-time changed execution program hence possible define array whose length depends way program data c ability initialize arrays arbitrary length codice_68 operator used obtain size statically initialized array c code instance following code terminating index loop automatically adjusts list strings changed static char wordlist static int listsize sizeof wordlist /sizeof wordlist 0 int i=0 listsize i++ i=listsize-1 =0 -- pascal neither array initialization outside case strings means determining arbitrary array sizes compile time one way implementing example pascal without automatic size adjustment const type var procedure createlist var w wordlist begin end begin end languages string primitive array characters pascal string literal length n compatible type codice_69 c string generally type codice_70 pascal support variable-length arrays set routines perform string operations dependent particular string size standardized pascal conformant array parameter extension solves great extent many even implementations pascal support strings native language c string literals null-terminated say trailing null character end-of-string sentinel const char p p rain spain / null-terminated / null-termination must manually maintained string variables stored arrays often partly handled library routines c built-in string array assignment string actually transferred p rather p made point constant string memory pascal unlike c string first character element index 1 0 leading length-prefixed pascal stores length string 0th element character array difference well understood lead errors porting trying interface object code generated languages freebsd developer poul-henning kamp writing acm queue would later refer victory null-terminated strings length-prefixed strings expensive one-byte mistake ever c pascal declare record types c termed structures struct type record end pascal use sentence name_of_record order use directly fields record like local variables instead write name_of_record name_of_field example type var r1 r begin r1 begin end equivalent feature c. c exact bit length field specified struct much storage actually used depends traits e.g word-alignment target system feature available pascal using subrange construct 3 bits gives range 0 7 association keyword packed type packed record end c pascal support records include different fields overlapping union type record end language processors free allocate much space records needed contain largest type union/record biggest difference c pascal pascal supports explicit use tagfield language processor determine valid component variant record accessed type record end case tagfield q must set right state access proper parts record c pointers made point program entities including objects functions int int b int compare int c int int mycompare int c int b compare mycompare c since arrays pointers close equivalence following b 5 b+5 5+b 5 b thus pointers often used c another method access arrays create dynamic data library functions codice_71 codice_72 used obtain release dynamic blocks data thus dynamic memory allocation built language processor especially valuable c used operating system kernels embedded targets things platform architecture specific would require changing c compiler platform operating system would used pascal n't kind pointers c indirection operator covers common use c pointers pointer bound single dynamic data item moved assignment type ^integer var b c new b c b pointers pascal type safe i.e pointer one data type assigned pointer data type also pointers never assigned non-pointer variables pointer arithmetic common source programming errors c especially combined endianness issues platform-independent type sizes permitted pascal restrictions reduce possibility pointer-related errors pascal compared c prevent invalid pointer references pascal altogether example runtime error occur pointer referenced initialized disposed languages differ significantly comes expression evaluation all-in-all comparable pascal c operators serve several purposes pascal instance minus sign may used negation subtraction set difference depending type syntactical context codice_92 operator may used compare numbers strings sets c uses dedicated operator symbols greater extent two languages use different operators assignment pascal like algol uses mathematical equality operator codice_93 equality test symbol codice_94 assignment whereas c like b uses mathematical equality operator assignment c b new codice_95 symbol therefore introduced equality test common mistake c due either inexperience simple typing error accidentally put assignment expressions conditional statements codice_96 code braces always execute assignment expression codice_97 value 10 non-zero therefore considered true c part c algol allow multiple assignment form codice_98 supported pascal also note codice_60 value codice_100 may affect following code recent c compilers try detect cases warn user asking less ambiguous syntax like codice_101 kind mistake happen pascal assignments expressions value using wrong operator cause unambiguous compilation error also less likely anyone would mistake codice_94 symbol equality test notable algol conditional expression form codice_103 equivalent c pascal niklaus wirth designed pascal desire limit number levels precedence fewer parse routines exclusive operators treated like addop processed level math expression similarly treated like mulop processed term precedence levels notice one set syntax rules applying kinds operators according grammar expressions like perfectly legal fact far parser concerned pascal n't allow mixing arithmetic boolean variables things like caught semantic level comes time generate code rather syntax level authors c took diametrically opposite approach treat operators different fact c fewer 15 levels c also operators '= '+= kin « » '++ -- etc although c arithmetic boolean operators treated separately variables boolean test made integer value pascal boolean expression relies particular evaluation ordering possibly via side-effects function calls less regarded error pascal compiler freedom use whatever ordering may prefer must always evaluate whole expression even result determined partial evaluation c dependence boolean evaluation order perfectly legal often systematically employed using codice_8 codice_9 operators together operators codice_106 codice_107 comma operator etc codice_8 codice_9 operators thereby function combinations logical operators conditional statements short circuit expression evaluation commonly considered advantage c evaluation problem var integer seemingly straightforward search problematic pascal array access would invalid equal 11 however superscalar processors penalty jumps cause pipeline stalls programs created efficient jumps removed possible pascal ability evaluate using fixed formula without jumps advantage highly optimizing compilers whereas c effectively prevented requiring short circuit optimization statements building control structures roughly analogous relatively similar least first three pascal c pascal original form equivalent default equivalent else clause common extension pascal programmers otherwise guard case-statements expression c so-called early-out statements break continue pascals well c pascal goto statement however since pascal nested procedures/functions jumps done inner procedure function containing one commonly used implement error recovery c ability via ansi c setjmp longjmp equivalent arguably less safe since stores program specific information like jump addresses stack frames programmer accessible structure pascal routines return value called functions routines n't return value called procedures routines c called functions c functions return value declared return type void pascal procedures considered equivalent c void functions pascal functions equivalent c functions return value following two declarations c int f int x int void k int q equivalent following declarations pascal function f x integer integer procedure k q integer pascal two different types parameters pass-by-value pass-by-reference var function f var k integer integer x f c parameters passed value pass-by-reference simulated using pointers following segment similar pascal segment int f int k //function accepts pointer parameter x f c allows functions accept variable number parameters known variadic functions int f int ... f 1 2 3 4 5 function codice_110 uses special set functions allow access parameters turn additionally pascal i/o statements built language handle variable amount parameters like codice_111 pascal allows procedures functions nested convenient allow variables local group procedures global c feature localization variables functions could done compilation module wherein variables functions would declared static c allows functions indirectly invoked function pointer following example statement codice_112 equivalent codice_113 int cmpar const char a const char b const char s1 hello const char s2 world cmpar strcmp b cmpar s1 s2 pascal also allows functions procedures passed parameters functions procedures procedure showhex integer end procedure showint integer end procedure demo procedure show integer var j integer begin end early c neither constant declarations type declarations c language originally defined needing preprocessor separate program pass handled constant include macro definitions keep memory usage later ansi c obtained constant type definitions features preprocessor also became part language leading syntax see today pascal constant type defines built programmers using preprocessor also pascal sometimes one used c certainly common c. although often pointed lack pascal technically c n't program modularity macros built either simple low level separate compilation facility however traditionally using generic linker used assembly language pascal c programmer may inspect byte-level representation object pointing codice_39 pointer int char p char char c p // first byte may possible something similar pascal using undiscriminated variant record var integer begin end although casting possible pascal compilers interpreters even code a2c.a a2c.b n't required pascal standardizations share address space niklaus wirth designer pascal written problematic nature attempting type escapes using approach implementors pascal decided checking would expensive enlarging code deteriorating program efficiency consequence variant record became favourite feature breach type system programmers love tricks usually turn pitfalls calamities several languages specifically exclude type escapes example java c wirth oberon c files exist built-in type defined system header i/o takes place via library calls pascal file handling built language typical statements used perform i/o language printf sum d\n x writeln 'the sum x main difference c uses format string interpreted find arguments printf function convert whereas pascal performs control language processor pascal method arguably faster interpretation takes place c method highly extensible popular pascal implementations incorporated virtually c constructs pascal examples include type casts able obtain address variable local global different types integers special promotion properties however incorporation c lenient attitude towards types type conversions result pascal loses type security example java c created part address perceived type security issues c managed pointers used create invalid references original form described niklaus wirth pascal qualifies managed pointer language 30 years either java c however pascal amalgamated c would lose protection definition general lower dependence pointers basic tasks makes safer c practice extended pascal standard extends pascal support many things c supports original standard pascal type safer manner example schema types support besides uses variable-length arrays keeping type-safety mandatory carrying array dimension array allowing automatic run-time checks out-of-range indices also dynamically sized arrays 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_object_pascal_and_c.comparison object pascal c computer programming languages c object pascal similar times origin influences purposes used design compile compilers early lifetimes c pascal old programming languages original pascal definition appeared 1969 first compiler 1970 first version c appeared 1972 c n't change much time pascal evolved lot nowadays vast majority pascal programming done modern object pascal old procedural pascal old procedural pascal today essentially limited microcontroller programming tools mikropascal object pascal main dialect used tools delphi lazarus ide free pascal documented modern object pascal used free pascal delphi c documented c99 standardized 1999 syntactically object pascal much algol-like c. english keywords retained c uses punctuation symbols — pascal codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 c uses codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 example however c actually algol-like pascal regarding simple declarations retaining type-name variable-name syntax example c accept declarations start block outer block function another subtle difference role semicolon pascal semicolons separate individual statements within compound statement whereas terminate statement c. also syntactically part statement c transforming expression statement difference manifests primarily two situations superfluous semicolon put last line end thereby formally inserting empty statement traditional c codice_9 since c99 also codice_10 object pascal codice_11 codice_12 codice_13 c pascal differ interpretation upper lower case c case sensitive pascal thus codice_14 codice_15 distinct names c identical pascal languages identifiers consist letters digits rule first character may digit c underscore counts letter even _abc valid name names leading underscore often used differentiate special system identifiers c. pascal also accepts character part identifiers difference c. c pascal use keywords words reserved use language examples const goto keywords happen common languages c basic built-in type names also keywords e.g int char combinations keywords e.g unsigned char pascal built-in type names predefined normal identifiers recent object pascal compilers however allow escape keywords feature mainly need directly communication foreign oop systems like com cocoa might use fields methods based pascal keywords c way escape keywords pascal procedure definitions start keywords procedure function type definitions type c function definitions determined syntactical context type definitions use keyword codice_16 languages use mix keywords punctuation definitions complex types instance arrays defined keyword array pascal punctuation c enumerations defined keyword codice_17 c punctuation pascal pascal functions begin end delimit block statements proper c functions use delimit block statements optionally preceded declarations c prior c99 strictly defines declarations must occur statements within particular block allows blocks appear within blocks way go around pascal strict declarations must occur statements allows definitions types functions variable declarations encapsulated function definitions level depth grammars languages similar size implementation perspective main difference two languages parse c necessary access symbol table types pascal one construct assignment instance c fragment codice_18 could declaration codice_19 object whose type pointer codice_20 statement-expression multiplies codice_20 codice_19 corresponding pascal fragment codice_23 unambiguous without symbol table pascal requires variable function declarations specify type explicitly traditional c type name may omitted contexts default type codice_24 corresponds codice_25 pascal implicitly assumed however defaults considered bad practice c often flagged warnings c accommodates different sizes signed unsigned modes integers using modifiers codice_26 codice_27 codice_28 codice_29 etc exact meaning resulting integer type machine-dependent however guaranteed codice_30 shorter codice_24 codice_24 shorter codice_33 however c standard least minimal sizes types specified guarantees codice_34 single byte codice_24 least two bytes pascal similar end performed declaring subrange integer compiler may choose allocate smaller amount storage declared variable subrange feature supported c. major subtle difference c pascal promote integer operations pascal operations integers integer subranges effect operands promoted full integer c defined rules promote different types integers typically resultant type operation two integers precision greater equal precisions operands make machine code generated c efficient many processors highly optimizing pascal compiler reduce eliminate effect standard pascal rules pre-standard implementation c well small-c et al allowed integer pointer types relatively freely intermixed c character type codice_34 kind integer longer codice_33 expressions codice_38 therefore perfectly legal declarations codice_39 codice_40 integer nature codice_34 eight-bit byte machines clearly illustrated declarations whether codice_34 type regarded codice_28 codice_29 default implementation pascal characters integers distinct types inbuilt compiler functions codice_45 codice_46 used typecast single characters corresponding integer value character set use vice versa e.g systems using ascii character set codice_47 codice_48 tab character addition codice_49 type object pascal also codice_50 represent unicode characters c usually implemented macro codice_16 name codice_52 simply alias codice_24 pascal boolean enumerated type possible values boolean false true ordinal value false=0 true=1 values undefined conversion integer ord used standard function integer boolean however conversion simple practice c binary valued relational operators == may regarded boolean sense always give results either zero one tests \|\| etc performed zero-checks false represented zero true represented value interface com object pascal added codice_54 codice_55 codice_56 type whose size respects prefix follow c truth table free pascal added proper pascal boolean types size suffix codice_57 interface glib uses codice_58 32-bit boolean type pascal truth table c programmer may sometimes use bitwise operators perform boolean operations care needs taken semantics different operands make use one bit represent value pascal another abstract high level method dealing bitwise data sets sets allow programmer set clear intersect unite bitwise data values rather using direct bitwise operators example pascal c although bit operations integers operations sets considered similar sets implemented using bits direct parallel uses unless non-standard conversion integers sets possible pascal could also bitwise operations exactly way c use codice_1 codice_2 codice_61 codice_62 operators operators normally work booleans operands integers behave bitwise operators made possible boolean integer distinct incompatible types therefore c code could written pascal c string remains pointer first element null-terminated array char 1972 one still use library support codice_63 manipulate strings object pascal many string types new type introduced old one kept backwards compatibility happened twice delphi 2 introduction ansistring delphi 2009 unicodestring besides main string types short- ansi- wide- unicodestring corresponding character types ansichar widechar=unicodechar types derived character type string properties pointer char array char dynamic array char pointer array char etc. object pascal codice_64 compiler-managed type reference-counted i.e. storage management handled compiler accurately runtime code inserted compiler executable string concatenation done codice_65 operator string comparison done standard relational operators case sensitive codice_66 object pascal also provides c-compatible strings type codice_67 manipulation routines defined codice_68 unit moreover object pascal provides wide variety string types convenience plain codice_76 type provided depending compiler switch could mean codice_69 codice_71 codice_74 additional convention used limit number characters given codice_69 otherwise codice_81 codice_82 strings freely intermixed manipulating strings compiler silent conversion required note target string type codice_69 silent truncation might happen due maximum length allowed example c real concept array pseudo construct declare storage multiple variables type arrays c n't know length 're referenced pointer first element 're always 0 based example get array length one calculate codice_84 therefore count length integer array use codice_85 common mistake calculate function expecting array argument despite appearance function accept pointer argument real array therefore inside function array treated plain pointer example common solution problem always pass array length function argument functions expect array argument also provide placeholder length despite treatment pointer pointer style constructs could used array example code would compile fine would cause access violation executed care taken designing code documentation explicitly state prevent users mistake assignment static arrays n't allowed one must use codice_86 function variants copy data arrays pascal array declared using codice_87 keyword specifying lower upper bound base type latter usually defined range type example arrays know upper lower bounds implicitly length bounds passed along function expects array argument functions codice_88 codice_89 codice_90 retrieve lower bound upper bound array length respectively context without explicit cast arrays ca n't wo n't converted pointers compile time error property type-safe programming assignment static arrays allowed assignment copies items source array destination mandatory upper lower bounds compatible source destination somehow 're different one use codice_91 partially copy data however since codice_91 low-level function one must use care programmer responsibility ensure data movement exceeds neither destination source boundary example c language support declaring using dynamic arrays however due pointer dereference syntax dynamic array could implemented memory management functions usually codice_93 example seen length n't maintained automatically reallocation use additional variable protect enough memory error assignment dynamic arrays follows pointer assignment rule object pascal provides language-level support dynamic arrays declared lower upper bound omitted one must call codice_94 function allocate storage dynamic arrays object pascal reference counted one n't worry freeing storage dynamic arrays always zero-based three functions codice_88 codice_89 codice_90 would still retrieve lower bound upper bound array length correctly example assignment dynamic arrays copies reference source array destination real copy required one use codice_98 function example Target text information: ucsd_pascal.ucsd pascal ucsd pascal pascal programming language system runs ucsd p-system portable highly machine-independent operating system ucsd pascal first released 1977 developed university california san diego ucsd 1977 university california san diego ucsd institute information systems developed ucsd pascal provide students common environment could run available microcomputers well campus dec pdp-11 minicomputers operating system became known ucsd p-system ucsd p-system one three operating systems along pc dos cp/m-86 ibm offered original ibm pc vendor softech microsystems emphasized p-system application portability virtual machines 20 cpus ibm pc release predicted users would able use applications purchased future computers running p-system advertisements called universal operating system pc magazine denounced ucsd p-system ibm pc stating review context mba written language simply produce good code p-system sell well ibm pc lack applications expensive choices previously ibm offered ucsd p-system option displaywriter 8086-based dedicated word processing machine confused ibm displaywrite word processing software displaywriter native operating system developed completely internally opened end-user programming notable extensions standard pascal include separately compilable units string type extensions influenced design ada language intrinsics provided accelerate string processing e.g scanning array particular search pattern language extensions provided allow ucsd p-system self-compiling self-hosted ucsd pascal based p-code machine architecture contribution early virtual machines extend p-code away roots compiler intermediate language full execution environment ucsd pascal p-machine optimized new small microcomputers addressing restricted 16-bit 64 kb memory james gosling cites ucsd pascal key influence along smalltalk virtual machine design java virtual machine ucsd p-system achieved machine independence defining virtual machine called p-machine pseudo-machine many users began call pascal-machine like os—although ucsd documentation always used pseudo-machine instruction set called p-code pseudo-code urs ammann student niklaus wirth originally presented p-code phd thesis ucsd implementation derived zurich pascal-p implementation ucsd implementation changed zurich implementation byte oriented ucsd p-code optimized execution pascal programming language hardware platform needed p-code interpreter program written port entire p-system tools run later versions also included additional languages compiled p-code base example apple computer offered fortran compiler written silicon valley software sunnyvale california producing p-code ran apple version p-system later telesoft also located san diego offered early ada development environment used p-code therefore able run number hardware platforms including motorola 68000 system/370 pascal microengine ucsd p-system shares concepts current java platform use virtual machine hide operating system hardware differences use programs written virtual machine provide cross-platform support likewise systems allow virtual machine used either complete operating system target computer run box another operating system ucsd pascal compiler distributed part portable operating system p-system ucsd p-system began around 1974 idea ucsd kenneth bowles believed number new computing platforms coming time would make difficult new programming languages gain acceptance based ucsd pascal pascal-p2 release portable compiler zurich particularly interested pascal language teach programming ucsd introduced two features important improvements original pascal variable length strings units independently compiled code idea included then-evolving ada programming language niklaus wirth credits p-system ucsd pascal particular popularizing pascal release turbo pascal ucsd version started slip first place among pascal users pascal dialect ucsd pascal came subset pascal implemented pascal-p2 designed full implementation language rather minimum subset would self-compile fit function bootstrap kit pascal compilers ucsd added strings basic several implementation dependent features although ucsd pascal later obtained many features full pascal language pascal-p2 subset persisted dialects notably borland pascal copied much ucsd dialect four versions ucsd p-code engine several revisions p-system ucsd pascal revision p-code engine i.e. p-machine meant change p-code language therefore compiled code portable different p-machine versions revision represented leading roman numeral operating system revisions enumerated dot number following p-code roman numeral example ii.3 represented third revision p-system running second revision p-machine original version never officially distributed outside university california san diego however pascal sources versions i.3 i.5 freely exchanged interested users specifically patch revision i.5a known one stable widely distributed available many early microcomputers numerous versions included apple ii dec pdp-11 zilog z80 mos 6502 based machines motorola 68000 ibm pc version ii pc restricted one 64k code segment one 64k stack/heap data segment version iv removed code segment limit cost lot br project members era include dr kenneth l bowles mark allen richard gleaves richard kaufmann pete lawrence joel mccormack mark overgaard keith shillington roger sumner john van zandt custom version written western digital run pascal microengine microcomputer included support parallel processes first time commercial version developed sold softech based version ii include changes version iii sell well due combination pricing structure performance problems due p-code interpreter competition native operating systems top often ran softech dropped product picked pecan systems relatively small company formed p-system users fans sales revived somewhat due mostly pecan reasonable pricing structure p-system ucsd pascal gradually lost market native operating systems compilers available ti-99/4a equipped p-code card commodore pet corvus systems computer used ucsd pascal user software innovative concept constellation os run pascal interpretively compiled include common software manual users could modify needed using open source default era I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,411	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: snapshot_(computer_storage).snapshot computer storage computer systems snapshot state system particular point time term coined analogy photography refer actual copy state system capability provided certain systems full backup large data set may take long time complete multi-tasking multi-user systems may writes data backed prevents backup atomic introduces version skew may result data corruption example user moves file directory already backed file would completely missing backup media since backup operation already taken place addition file version skew may also cause corruption files change size contents underfoot read one approach safely backing live data temporarily disable write access data backup either stopping accessing applications using locking api provided operating system enforce exclusive read access tolerable low-availability systems desktop computers small workgroup servers regular downtime acceptable high-availability 24/7 systems however bear service stoppages avoid downtime high-availability systems may instead perform backup snapshot —a read-only copy data set frozen point time—and allow applications continue writing data snapshot implementations efficient create snapshots 1 words time i/o needed create snapshot increase size data set contrast time i/o required direct backup proportional size data set systems initial snapshot taken data set subsequent snapshots copy changed data use system pointers reference initial snapshot method pointer-based snapshots consumes less disk capacity data set repeatedly cloned unix systems snapshot-capable logical volume managers implement copy-on-write entire block devices copying changed blocksjust overwritten within parent volumesto storage thus preserving self-consistent past image block device filesystems snapshot images later mounted read-only media volume managers also allow creation writable snapshots extending copy-on-write approach disassociating blocks modified within snapshot parent blocks original volume scheme could also described performing additional copy-on-write operations triggered writes snapshots linux logical volume manager lvm allows creation read-only read-write snapshots writable snapshots introduced lvm version 2 lvm2 file systems wafl fossil plan 9 bell labs ods-5 internally track old versions files make snapshots available special namespace others like ufs2 provide operating system api accessing file histories ntfs access snapshots provided volume shadow-copying service vss windows xp windows server 2003 shadow copy windows vista melio fs provides snapshots via vss interface shared storage snapshots also available nss novell storage services file system netware since version 4.11 recently linux platforms open enterprise server product emc isilon onefs clustered storage platform implements single scalable file system supports read-only snapshots file directory level file directory within file system snapshotted system implement copy-on-write point-in-time snapshot dynamically based method determined optimal system linux btrfs ocfs2 file systems support creating snapshots cloning individual files additionally btrfs also supports creation snapshots subvolumes aix jfs2 also support snapshots sun microsystems zfs hybrid implementation tracks read-write snapshots block level makes branched file sets nameable user applications clones time machine included apple mac os x v10.5 operating system snapshotting scheme system-level incremental backup service merely watches mounted volumes changes copies changed files periodically specially-designated volume using hard links ancient hfs plus file system n't snapshotting feature apple new apfs file system introduces feature 1-hop neighbor's text information: failover.failover computing related technologies networking failover switching redundant standby computer server system hardware component network upon failure abnormal termination previously active application server system hardware component network failover switchover essentially operation except failover automatic usually operates without warning switchover requires human intervention systems designers usually provide failover capability servers systems networks requiring near-continuous availability high degree reliability server level failover automation usually uses heartbeat system connects two servers either using separate cable example rs-232 serial ports/cable network connection long regular pulse heartbeat continues main server second server second server bring systems online may also third spare parts server running spare components hot switching prevent downtime second server takes work first soon detects alteration heartbeat first machine systems ability send notification failover certain systems intentionally failover entirely automatically require human intervention automated manual approval configuration runs automatically human approved failover failback process restoring system component service previously state failure back original working state standby system go functioning back standby use virtualization software allowed failover practices become less reliant physical hardware process referred migration running virtual machine moved one physical host another little disruption service term failover although probably use engineers much earlier found 1962 declassified nasa report term switchover found 1950s describing hot cold standby systems current meaning immediate switchover running system hot delayed switchover system needs starting cold conference proceedings 1957 describes computer systems emergency switchover i.e failover scheduled failover maintenance Target text information: migration_(virtualization).migration virtualization context virtualization guest simulation entire computer actually merely software virtual machine vm running host computer hypervisor migration also known teleportation process running virtual machine moved one physical host another little disruption service ideally process completely transparent resulting disruption service downtime practice always minor pause availability though may low enough hard real-time systems affected virtualization far frequently used network services user applications generally tolerate brief delays may involved perceived impact similar longer-than-usual kernel delay actual process heavily dependent particular virtualization package use general process follows note practice regular maintenance operations required merge snapshot stack manageable number files improve performance optimize storage redundant overwrites merged migration similar failover capability virtualization suites provide true failover host may suddenly completely failed precludes latest state vm copied backup host however backup host everything except latest changes may indeed able resume operation last known coherent state operations similar systems provide one capability may provide I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,338	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: john_michael_mcconnell.john michael mcconnell john michael mcconnell born july 26 1943 former vice admiral united states navy naval career served director national security agency 1992 1996 civilian career includes serving united states director national intelligence 20 february 2007 27 january 2009 bush administration seven days obama administration currently vice chairman booz allen hamilton mcconnell born grew greenville south carolina mcconnell received commission united states navy 1967 worked intelligence officer j2 chairman joint chiefs staff united states secretary defense operation desert shield/storm dissolution soviet union developed improving information flow among intelligence agencies combat forces gulf war 1992 1996 mcconnell served director national security agency nsa led nsa adapted multi-polar threats brought end cold war leadership nsa routinely provided global intelligence information security services white house cabinet officials united states congress broad array military civilian intelligence customers also served member director central intelligence senior leadership team address major intelligence programmatic substantive issues 1992 1996 1996 mcconnell retired navy vice admiral 29 years service – 26 career intelligence officer addition many nation highest military awards meritorious service holds nation highest award service intelligence community also served chairman intelligence national security alliance mcconnell second person hold position director national intelligence nominated president george w. bush january 5 2007 sworn bolling air force base washington d.c. february 20 2007 mcconnell appointment post initially greeted broad bipartisan support although since attracted criticism advocating bush administration controversial policies nomination dni mcconnell served senior vice president consulting firm booz allen hamilton focusing intelligence national security areas 2005 confirmation dni 2007 also chairman board intelligence national security alliance premier not-for-profit nonpartisan private sector professional organization providing structure interactive forum thought leadership sharing ideas networking within intelligence national security communities whose members include leaders industry government academia tuesday august 14 2007 mcconnell visited texas house intelligence committee chairman silvestre reyes review border security granted wide-ranging interview el paso times newspaper surprised many intelligence community candor sensitive topics recent changes foreign intelligence surveillance act nsa warrantless surveillance controversy end interview mcconnell cautioned reporter chris roberts consider whether enemies u.s. could gain information shared leaving paper decide publish el paso times put entire unexpurgated interview website august 22 executive editor dionicio flores saying n't believe damaged national security endangered people resurgent taliban back charge parts afghanistan mcconnell told cnn february 27 2008 assessment differed one made january 2008 defense secretary robert gates january 24 2009 announced mcconnell would return booz allen senior vice president two months taking office mcconnell created series initiatives designed build foundation increased cooperation reform u.s. intelligence community ic plan dubbed 100 day plan integration collaboration focused efforts enable ic act unified enterprise collaborative manner focused six enterprise integration priorities 100 day plan accomplished launch civilian joint duty program improved security clearance processing times increased diversity intelligence workforce information sharing across community 500 day plan designed sustain momentum expanded set initiatives greater level participation set deepen integration community people processes technologies plan address new performance management framework entail six performance elements agencies must entail 100 day plan meant jump start series initiatives based deliberate planning process specific deadlines measures ensure needed reforms implemented 500 day plan started august 2007 designed accelerate sustain momentum expanded set initiatives broader ic participation contains 10 core initiatives tracked senior leadership intelligence community 33 enabling initiatives initiatives based six focus areas described 100 day plan top initiatives director mcconnell ended office near 400th day 500-day plan mcconnell approached congress early august 2007 need modernize fisa claiming two changes needed initial efforts began april – see factsheet first intelligence community required technology changes since 1978 obtain court orders effectively collect foreign intelligence foreign targets located overseas also argued telecoms sued violating nation wiretapping laws must protected liability—regardless veracity charges shortly thereafter mcconnell took active role capitol hill legislation drafted congress august 3 mcconnell announced strongly oppose house proposal n't strong enough heated debate congress updated fisa passing protect america act 2007 september 10 2007 testimony senate committee homeland security governmental affairs mcconnell asserted recently passed protect america act 2007 eased restrictions fisa helped foil major terror plot germany u.s. intelligence-community officials questioned accuracy mcconnell testimony urged office correct statement issued september 12 2007 critics cited incident example bush administration exaggerated claims contradictory statements surveillance activities counterterrorism officials familiar background mcconnell testimony said believe made inaccurate statements intentionally part strategy administration persuade congress make new eavesdropping law permanent officials said believed mcconnell gave wrong answer overwhelmed information merely mixed facts testimony mcconnell blamed death kidnapped american soldier iraq requirements fisa slowness courts however timeline later released showed delays mostly inside nsa casting doubt mcconnell truthfulness mcconnell speaking congressional panel defense protect america act said russian chinese foreign intelligence services nearly active cold war september 18 2007 testimony house judiciary committee mcconnell addressed nsa warrantless surveillance controversy saying agency conducted telephone surveillance americans without obtaining warrant advance since became director national intelligence february 2007 mcconnell called fisa foundational law important legacy protecting rights americans passed era watergate aftermath church pike investigations stressed changes honor legacy privacy foreign threats july 2008 director mcconnell issued directive icd 205 analysts build relationships outside experts topics concern intelligence community—a recommendation highlighted wmd commission report director mcconnell worked white house overhaul executive order 12333 outlines fundamental guidance intelligence agencies mcconnell believes update necessary incorporate intelligence community ’ new organizations new technologies methods redo expected help sixteen intelligence agencies work together reflect post 9/11 threat environment july 2008 president bush issued executive order 13470 amended 12333 one mcconnell last acts dni signed icd501 discovery dissemination retrieval information within intelligence community dramatically increase access several databases held various agencies community policy establishes rules govern disputes access granted dni final adjudicator resolve disputes organizations also established intelligence information integration program i2p leadership then-cio patrick gorman nsa-cio dr. prescott winter goal i2p create shared infrastructure family shared services means increase information access sharing collaboration throughout us intelligence community mcconnell led effort create integrated planning programming budgeting system fully integrate optimize capabilities intelligence community previously agency budget developed independently aggregated congress issuance icd106 strategic enterprise management ic sem intelligence community budget closely aligned strategic goals objectives requirements performance criteria icd 106 replaced icd 116 2011 early april 2010 admiral mcconnell called expanding powers dni giving tenure creating department intelligence dni oversee fully control settle continued fighting amongst agencies within various departments 1-hop neighbor's text information: kenneth_minihan.kenneth minihan kenneth a. minihan born december 31 1943 former united states air force lieutenant general served director national security agency defense intelligence agency retiring may 1 1999 minihan born pampa texas entered united states air force 1966 distinguished graduate reserve officer training corps program florida state university also member phi kappa psi served senior intelligence officer air force senior staff officer positions pentagon headquarters tactical air command langley air force base virginia electronic security command kelly air force base texas defense intelligence agency washington d.c. national security agency fort george g. meade maryland commanded squadrons groups major air command united states overseas assistant chief staff intelligence headquarters united states air force washington d.c. director defense intelligence agency retiring united states air force minihan served president security affairs support association 1999 2002 currently serves managing director paladin capital group 1-hop neighbor's text information: laurence_hugh_frost.laurence hugh frost laurence hugh frost july 22 1902 – may 23 1977 rear admiral united states navy served director naval intelligence director national security agency frost graduated united states naval academy 1926 served various ships shore stations throughout 1920s 1930s commanding officer destroyer attacked german u-boat 4 september 1941 first attack germany united states warship world war ii occurred united states officially neutral three months america entered war decorated service world war ii frost assigned naval intelligence later saw combat commander cruiser korean war chief staff commander first fleet 1952 commanded destroyer flotilla four united states atlantic fleet 1955–1956 director naval intelligence 1956 1960 head naval intelligence tried change united states policy rebellion indonesia frost became director national security agency nsa november 1960 rank vice admiral held post 1962 holding posts beginning space race frost involved early decisions promote surveillance satellites navy elint program effort reduce tensions soon arrival nsa frost appointed robert f. rinehart chairman national security agency scientific advisory board specifically newest member board months experience fewer pre-acquired biases rinehart words according nsa 1962 vice admiral laurence frost unexpectedly transferred position gordon blake replacement final tour duty potomac river naval command frost retired 1964 papers preserved operational archives branch naval historical center washington d.c.. listed rear admiral john f. kennedy presidential library holds 11-page transcription oral interview gave 1970. portions remain closed career frost awarded navy distinguished service medal silver star one gold award star legion merit one gold award star combat v Target text information: bernard_ardisana.bernard ardisana brigadier general bernard ardisana born 1924 died 1978 assistant deputy director operations national security agency fort george g. meade tenure us military also commanded usaf security service ’ 6924th security squadron went become vice commander usaf security service died january 14 1978 heart attack kimbrough army hospital ft. meade bernard ardisana born october 27 1924 tampa florida immediately completing high school 1943 enlisted u.s. army signal corps took position radio engineer stayed military three years returning civilian life attending university illinois graduated 1949 bachelor science degree economics 1966 officer air force reserve earned master arts degree education lady lake university san antonio texas april september 1961 ardisana attended graduated air command staff college maxwell air force base 1972 attended air war college maxwell air force base ardisana worked several u.s. military agencies including air force nsa army signal corps march 1952 called active duty train brooks air force base student traffic-analysis upon completion training august transferred washington dc work language officer armed forces security agency 1956 transferred fort meade developed new analysis techniques still use today 1958 transferred zweibrücken germany developed operations communications system still used cryptography community today 1963 1965 served chief operations inspection team kelly air force base san antonio texas 1966 became head operations systems evaluation management branch u.s. air force security service directorate operations 1967 1970 served vietnam various positions sent frankfurt germany act assistant deputy chief staff operations european security region returned united states 1972 1973 assigned ft. meade serve part national security agency stayed two years becoming vice commander u.s. air force security service retained position two years well returning nsa assistant deputy director operations ardisana died january 14 1978 kimbrough army hospital ft. meade heart attack serving nsa assistant deputy director operations ardisana expertise cryptography allowed develop number important changes usaf cryptologic operations procedures much work designing operations communications remained standard 25 years within us air force work key concept allowed development critical intelligence communication system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,986	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: package_manager.package manager package manager package-management system collection software tools automates process installing upgrading configuring removing computer programs computer operating system consistent manner package manager deals packages distributions software data archive files packages contain metadata software name description purpose version number vendor checksum list dependencies necessary software run properly upon installation metadata stored local package database package managers typically maintain database software dependencies version information prevent software mismatches missing prerequisites work closely software repositories binary repository managers app stores package managers designed eliminate need manual installs updates particularly useful large enterprises whose operating systems based linux unix-like systems typically consisting hundreds even tens thousands distinct software packages software package archive file containing computer program well necessary metadata deployment computer program source code compiled built first package metadata include package description package version dependencies packages need installed beforehand package managers charged task finding installing maintaining uninstalling software packages upon user command typical functions package management system include computer systems rely dynamic library linking instead static library linking share executable libraries machine instructions across packages applications systems complex relationships different packages requiring different versions libraries results challenge colloquially known dependency hell microsoft windows systems also called dll hell working dynamically linked libraries good package management vital systems framework system openstep attempt solving issue allowing multiple versions libraries installed simultaneously software packages specify version linked system administrators may install maintain software using tools package management software example local administrator may download unpackaged source code compile install may cause state local system fall synchronization state package manager database local administrator required take additional measures manually managing dependencies integrating changes package manager tools available ensure locally compiled packages integrated package management distributions based .deb .rpm files well slackware linux checkinstall recipe-based systems gentoo linux hybrid systems arch linux possible write recipe first ensures package fits local package database particularly troublesome software upgrades upgrades configuration files since package managers least unix systems originated extensions file archiving utilities usually either overwrite retain configuration files rather applying rules exceptions usually apply kernel configuration broken render computer unusable restart problems caused format configuration files changes instance old configuration file explicitly disable new options disabled package managers debian dpkg allow configuration installation situations desirable install packages default configuration overwrite configuration instance headless installations large number computers kind pre-configured installation also supported dpkg give users control kinds software allowing installed system sometimes due legal convenience reasons distributors side software often downloaded number software repositories user interacts package management software bring upgrade customary present user list actions executed usually list packages upgraded possibly giving old new version numbers allow user either accept upgrade bulk select individual packages upgrades many package managers configured never upgrade certain packages upgrade critical vulnerabilities instabilities found previous version defined packager software process sometimes called version pinning instance advanced package management features offer cascading package removal packages depend target package packages target package depends also removed although commands specific every particular package manager large extent translatable package managers offer similar functions arch linux pacman/rosetta wiki offers extensive overview package managers like dpkg existed early 1994 linux distributions oriented binary packages rely heavily package management systems primary means managing maintaining software mobile operating systems android linux-based ios unix-like windows phone rely almost exclusively respective vendors app stores thus use dedicated package management systems package manager often called install manager lead confusion package managers installers differences include software configuration management systems treat building software deploying software separate independent steps build automation utility typically takes human-readable source code files already computer automates process converting binary executable package computer later package manager typically running computer downloads pre-built binary executable packages internet installs however kinds tools many commonalities example dependency graph topological sorting used package manager handle dependencies binary components also used build manager handle dependency source components example many makefiles support building executables also installing codice_1 example every package manager portage sorcery homebrew etc supports converting human-readable source code binary executables installing tools maak a-a-p designed handle building deployment used either build automation utility package manager also known binary repository manager software tool designed optimize download storage binary files artifacts packages used produced software development process package managers aim standardize way enterprises treat package types give users ability apply security compliance metrics across artifact types universal package managers referred center devops toolchain common universal package managers sonatype nexus repository manager jfrog artifactory inedo proget package manager relies format metadata packages manage package managers need groups files bundled specific package manager along appropriate metadata dependencies often core set utilities manages basic installation packages multiple package managers use utilities provide additional functionality example yum relies rpm backend yum extends functionality backend adding features simple configuration maintaining network systems another example synaptic package manager provides graphical user interface using advanced packaging tool apt library turn relies dpkg core functionality alien program converts different linux package formats supporting conversion linux standard base lsb compliant .rpm packages .deb stampede .slp solaris .pkg slackware .tgz .txz .tbz .tlz packages mobile operating systems google play consumes android application package apk package format windows store uses appx xap formats google play windows store eponymous package managers nature free open source software packages similar compatible licenses available use number operating systems packages combined distributed using configurable internally complex packaging systems handle many permutations software manage version-specific dependencies conflicts packaging systems free open source software also released free open source software one typical difference package management proprietary operating systems mac os x windows free open source software linux free open source software systems permit third-party packages also installed upgraded mechanism whereas package managers mac os x windows upgrade software provided apple microsoft respectively exception third party drivers windows ability continuously upgrade third party software typically added adding url corresponding repository package management configuration file beside system-level application managers add-on package managers operating systems limited capabilities programming languages developers need latest libraries contrast system-level package managers application-level package managers focus small part software system typically reside within directory tree maintained system-level package manager however might case package managers deal programming libraries leading possible conflict package managers may claim file might break upgrades ian murdock commented package management single biggest advancement linux brought industry blurs boundaries operating system applications makes easier push new innovations ... marketplace ... evolve os 1-hop neighbor's text information: world_wide_web_consortium.world wide web consortium world wide web consortium w3c main international standards organization world wide web abbreviated www w3 founded currently led tim berners-lee consortium made member organizations maintain full-time staff purpose working together development standards world wide web world wide web consortium w3c 444 members w3c also engages education outreach develops software serves open forum discussion web world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support european commission defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered arpanet one predecessors internet located technology square 2004 moved csail stata center organization tries foster compatibility agreement among industry members adoption new standards defined w3c incompatible versions html offered different vendors causing inconsistency web pages displayed consortium tries get vendors implement set core principles components chosen consortium originally intended cern host european branch w3c however cern wished focus particle physics information technology april 1995 french institute research computer science automation inria became european host w3c keio university research institute sfc kris becoming asian host september 1996 starting 1997 w3c created regional offices around world september 2009 eighteen world offices covering australia benelux countries netherlands luxembourg belgium brazil china finland germany austria greece hong kong hungary india israel italy south korea morocco south africa spain sweden 2016 united kingdom ireland october 2012 w3c convened community major web players publishers establish mediawiki wiki seeks document open web standards called webplatform webplatform docs january 2013 beihang university became chinese host sometimes specification becomes large split independent modules mature pace subsequent editions module specification known levels denoted first integer title e.g css3 level 3 subsequent revisions level denoted integer following decimal point e.g css2.1 revision 1 w3c standard formation process defined within w3c process document outlining four maturity levels new standard recommendation must progress enough content gathered 'editor drafts discussion may published working draft wd review community wd document first form standard publicly available commentary virtually anyone accepted though promises made regard action particular element commented upon stage standard document may significant differences final form anyone implements wd standards ready significantly modify implementations standard matures candidate recommendation version standard mature wd point group responsible standard satisfied standard meets goal purpose cr elicit aid development community implementable standard standard document may change point significant features mostly decided design features still change due feedback implementors proposed recommendation version standard passed prior two levels users standard provide input stage document submitted w3c advisory council final approval step important rarely causes significant changes standard passes next phase mature stage development point standard undergone extensive review testing theoretical practical conditions standard endorsed w3c indicating readiness deployment public encouraging widespread support among implementors authors recommendations sometimes implemented incorrectly partially many standards define two levels conformance developers must follow wish label product w3c-compliant recommendation may updated extended separately-published non-technical errata editor drafts sufficient substantial edits accumulate producing new edition level recommendation additionally w3c publishes various kinds informative notes used references unlike isoc international standards bodies w3c certification program w3c decided suitable start program owing risk creating drawbacks community benefits consortium jointly administered mit computer science artificial intelligence laboratory csail located stata center united states european research consortium informatics mathematics ercim sophia antipolis france keio university japan beihang university china w3c also world offices eighteen regions around world w3c offices work regional web communities promote w3c technologies local languages broaden w3c geographical base encourage international participation w3c activities w3c staff team 70–80 worldwide w3c run management team allocates resources designs strategy led ceo jeffrey jaffe march 2010 former cto novell also includes advisory board supports strategy legal matters helps resolve conflicts majority standardization work done external experts w3c various working groups consortium governed membership list members available public members include businesses nonprofit organizations universities governmental entities individuals membership requirements transparent except one requirement application membership must reviewed approved w3c many guidelines requirements stated detail final guideline process standards membership might finally approved denied cost membership given sliding scale depending character organization applying country located countries categorized world bank recent grouping gni gross national income per capita 2012 2013 w3c started considering adding drm-specific encrypted media extensions eme html5 criticised openness interoperability vendor neutrality distinguished websites built using w3c standards requiring proprietary plug-ins like flash september 18 2017 w3c published eme specification recommendation leading electronic frontier foundation resignation w3c w3c/ietf standards internet protocol suite 1-hop neighbor's text information: river_trail_(javascript_engine).river trail javascript engine river trail also known parallel javascript open-source software engine designed intel executing javascript code using parallel computing multi-core processors river trail announced intel developer forum september 2011 demonstrated using firefox extension developed intel brendan eich original author javascript promised would promote river trail within ecma international saying demo shows 15x speedup serial javascript lights ridiculously parallel hardware modern cpus gpus audio video image processing automated voice response computer vision 3d gaming etc – written memory-safe clean functional javascript without threads data races deadlocks river trail leverages intel opencl sdk exploit multiple cpu cores well data parallel instructions ex avx sse speedup greater cpu core count would imply native implementation river trail firefox spidermonkey javascript engine announced september 2012 added nightly firefox builds april 2013 january 2015 code removed firefox use engine scripts uses special api based three pillars type called codice_1 several methods prototype codice_1 elementary functions Target text information: unobtrusive_javascript.unobtrusive javascript unobtrusive javascript general approach use javascript web pages though term formally defined basic principles generally understood include javascript historically reputation clumsy language unsuitable serious application development largely due inconsistent implementations language document object model dom various browsers widespread use buggy copy-and-paste code runtime errors common difficult debug programmers ever tried fix long script behaved less way supposed scripts often failed completely browsers web developers promoting graceful degradation since 1994 recent emergence standards-compliant browsers javascript frameworks high-quality debugging tools made organized scalable javascript code possible emergence ajax interfaces made desirable whereas javascript reserved relatively simple non-critical tasks form validation decorative novelties used write large complex codebases often part site core functionality run time errors unpredictable behavior longer minor annoyances fatal flaws advocates unobtrusive javascript see part larger web standards movement much demand cross-browser compatibility driven increasing emphasis standardized markup style increasing demand rich internet applications driving movement toward better practices use javascript concept unobtrusiveness relation javascript programming coined 2002 stuart langridge article unobtrusive dhtml power unordered lists article langridge argues way keep javascript code including event handlers outside html stuart langridge since expanded upon thought book article format authors tried refine define essential elements unobtrusive paradigm david flanagan seminal javascript definitive guide says specific formula three main goals web standards project describes four benefits unobtrusive dom scripting javascript manifesto paris web conference 2007 christian heilmann identified seven rules unobtrusive javascript traditionally javascript often placed inline together html document markup example following typical way register javascript event handler html purpose html markup describe document structure programmatic behavior combining two negatively impact site maintainability like combining content presentation javascript behavior created referenced html harder use maintain example setting handlers several events single element setting event handler several elements using event delegation unobtrusive solution register necessary event handlers programmatically rather inline rather adding codice_2 attribute explicitly relevant element simply identified example codice_3 codice_4 means markup script runs page first loaded browser look relevant element set accordingly unobtrusive javascript add little possible global object global namespace environment runs scripts may override variable function created global namespace lead unexpected failures difficult debug javascript built-in explicit namespace mechanism desired effects easy produce using language facilities flanagan suggests use developer domain name dotted segments reversed single global name publish likely unique style developed java language variables functions objects kinds defined within namespace objects usually recommended use closures within namespace isolate become private variables functions well export public interface module functionality code could followed directly following module public methods could invoked either way follows way module-writer code contained private unique namespace interfere intrude upon code time writing event listener detects loading html page adds relevant listeners events page well behaviors required solve problem separating javascript functionality html markup use client-side javascript libraries jquery mootools prototype simplify process help ensure individual browser browser version implementation details hidden catered keeping javascript default namespace helps ensure unobtrusive possible sense criterion unobtrusive javascript often cited ensure added behavior degrades gracefully browsers unexpected configurations user may disabled javascript altogether requirement basic tenet web accessibility ensure javascript-enhanced websites usable people abilities disabilities users whatever computing platform get equal access site information functionality sometimes extra work involved achieving web accessibility optional extra many countries example uk equality act 2010 refer explicitly website accessibility makes illegal discriminate people disabilities applies anyone providing service public private voluntary sectors lot effort may put designing implementing slick client-side user interface unobtrusive javascript remain unobtrusive user without client-side scripting find access published information meet goal often necessary implement equivalent albeit clunkier server-side functionality available without use javascript take example webpage thumbnail images need javascript behaviours full-size images appear front page mouse rolled clicked first server-side markup ensure relevant full-size image served users without javascript click thumbnail case basic html markup may look like following thumbnail work without javascript unobtrusive javascript case page-load could find codice_5 elements class codice_6 remove page dom could find images class codice_7 attach codice_8 codice_9 event handler specified in-line provide slick behaviour example invoked event handler may send ajax request server full-size image add codice_10 page dom invoking existing css appears front existing content may become partially greyed codice_10 need close button perhaps visual 'spinner show data loading etc finally ajax data arrives handler hides spinner inserts full-size image new codice_10 display way client-side functionality depends javascript function function succeeds begins removing basic manual behavior goes add client-side scripted behavior script fails whatever reason manual behavior remains place remains functional though essence unobtrusive javascript concept added separate behavior layer advocates paradigm generally subscribe number related principles I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,561	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan 1-hop neighbor's text information: lode_runner.lode runner lode runner 2d fixed-screen platform game video game first published broderbund 1983 levels lode runner puzzle-oriented player controls one character must collect gold pieces level get end chased number enemies one first games include level editor original game number remakes spin-offs sequels published lode runner series different computers consoles different developers publishers tozai games currently holds copyright trademark rights prototype later became lode runner game developed douglas e. smith renton washington time architecture student university washington prototype called kong written prime computer 550 minicomputer limited one building uw campus shortly thereafter kong ported vax minicomputers terminals available campus game programmed fortran used ascii character graphics kong ported vax pascal sections mixed original fortran code one weekend 1982 smith able build crude playable version 6502 assembly language apple ii+ renamed game miner end year refined version black-and-white joystick support submitted rough version brøderbund around october 1982 received one-line rejection letter response effect thank submitting game concept unfortunately fit within product line miner like text-based kong predecessors simple animation characters move across screen block increments primitive acceptable commercial product brøderbund wanted detailed pixel-level movement smith new game would one first include level editor feature allows players create levels game according article smith given 10,000 advance brøderbund develop inter-square animation provide 150 levels play 2010 interview game designer john romero claimed smith added level editing function request neighborhood kids testing game ton levels designed ended final game smith borrowed money purchase color monitor joystick continued improve game around christmas 1982 submitted game renamed lode runner four publishers quickly received offers four sierra sirius synergistic brøderbund took deal brøderbund game released mid-1983 original microcomputer versions apple ii atari 8-bit family vic-20 commodore 64 ibm pc vic-20 version released cartridge even including level editor commodore 64 disk cartridge release latter 32 levels ibm version originally self-booting disk incompatible video cards cga later pc release appeared 1986 runs video card port original 128k macintosh followed 1984 run machines os 6 also used system 7 patch versions include atari st sinclair spectrum 48k/128k licensed version msx computer published ascii corporation sega sg-1000 nes windows 3.1 macintosh original game boy nes version released hudson soft 1984 north american release 1986 became one earliest third-party games made system 50 levels scrolling screens added music graphics redone cartoon-like style addition fruits vegetables randomly appear may grabbed additional points although level editor included way save levels created arcade game lode runner produced added features like ability hang ends ladders improved enemy ai brøderbund released special enhanced version championship lode runner 1985 50 levels much higher difficulty original company offered commemorative certificate anyone could submit proof beaten entire game submitted proof purchase show copy game pirated ported apple atari c64 msx pc well nes although version reach north america atari 8-bit version lode runner converted cartridge re-released atari corporation 1987 one series releases atari xegs console version contains 150 levels level editor required disk drive player controls stick figure must collect gold level avoiding guards try catch player collecting gold player must reach top screen reach next level 150 levels game progressively challenge players problem-solving abilities reaction times levels feature multi-story brick platform motif ladders suspended hand-to-hand bars offer multiple ways travel throughout player dig holes floors temporarily trap guards may safely walk atop trapped guards guard carrying bar gold falls hole left behind retrieved player time floors dug regenerate filling holes trapped guard escape hole fills consumed immediately respawning random location top level unlike guards player character may climb hole killed fills escape means floors may also contain trapdoors player guards fall bedrock player dig notably player dig hole sides directly underneath introduces important strategy digging hole x blocks deep player must first dig gap least x wide able dig number spaces shrink layer player needs least one free adjacent space able dig however exceptions rule arise player digs position standing ladder hanging hand-to-hand bar allows player repeatedly dig descend one row kind digging involved solving many levels player starts five lives level completion awards extra life guard catch player one life subtracted current level restarts player character fall arbitrary heights without injury jump players trap pits escape abort level costing life begin guards simply home player always taking shortest path also move counter-intuitive ways according strange algorithm key factor game logic especially advanced levels exploiting behavior guards essential toward attaining solution sometimes player guard ladder instance guard move away player general depending exact positioning relative lode runner guards sometimes appear repelled behavior far random however big part mastering game involves developing intuition predict movement guards player may come contact guard directly stick figure feet touching guard head enables player walk guards temporarily stuck hole dug also possible make contact guard player free fall since player runs faster guards also falls faster moreover possible survive feet-to-head contact guard standing platform begins move forms contact necessary solve levels sometimes necessary liberate trapped guard digging standing head moving rapidly opposite direction guard begins marching freedom levels necessary use falling guard bridge reach otherwise unreachable area one subtlety movement initiated standing guard head briefly touching guard head free fall consequences fatal levels guards deliberately trapped various ways instance lured entering part level escape situations player liberate trapped guards digging levels collect gold pieces player must exploit guards collecting gold pieces positioned whichever figure collects become trapped guard collects piece becomes trapped player release guard later steal gold guard drops falls hole levels gold pieces collected killing guards trapping dug holes close deceased guards come back life locations near top screen may allow reach parts level reached player levels require careful ordering traversal divided zones connected passages impossible traverse reverse direction gold piece remains unreachable zone player may abort level start losing life unless way coax guard bringing gold game puzzles advanced levels time-sensitive player must dig order penetrate interior cavern collect gold quickly return way digging repairs enclosing lode runner cavern means escape puzzles require deliberate timing among digging actions lode runner must run previously dug-out tiles repaired enough time pass ones yet repaired lode runner successful broderbund second best-selling commodore game late 1987 sales surpassed 250,000 copies november 1989 computer gaming world held contest best reader-built level softline 1983 praised lode runner calling smooth thoughtful quite addictive magazine approved large number unique levels level editor possibilities astounding emphasis wits strategy violence computer gaming world praised lode runner unusually easy-to-use level editor strategy necessary arcade title describing one thinking men arcade games praises introduction strategy climbing game genre intuitive level editor repeated video magazine review game well praise graphics animation apple ii version described stand ing far ahead pack ahoy 1984 called game top-notch action game requires quick mind agile joystick easy-to-use game generator magazine concluded lode runner one best games available c-64 unconditionally wholeheartedly recommended pc magazine gave game 16.25 18 points magazine called game tour de force american ingenuity ... first release long long time honestly bear title 'computer game ... lode runner uses power pc create something much video version ping pong game requires thought magazine praised ibm pc version graphics increasingly difficult level design level editor commodore 64 home companion said lots education hidden level editor concluding lode runner one first new breed computer game lets player creator 1985 game still selling well video magazine reporting 6th best-selling recreational title march april year zzap 64 called commodore 64 version one recent games certainly one best ... classic long time come ... graphically minuscule aurally crude game sheer addiction kept eyes propped open owls went bed 1984 lode runner awarded 1984 computer game year 5th annual arkie awards judges praised outstanding design described fascinating irresistible thinking player climbing conquest softline readers named lode runner popular apple fourth most-popular atari program 1983 1993 spectrum version game voted number 37 sinclair official top 100 games time gamespot named lode runner one greatest games time 1996 computer gaming world declared lode runner 80th-best computer game ever released time 2010 rated lode runner 1 game 10 greatest games apple ii list orson scott card wrote compute 1989 editor first game let family express creativity gaming tetris designer alexey pajitnov claimed 2008 lode runner favorite puzzle game many years 1984 irem developed arcade conversion lode runner contained 24 remixed levels 150 original levels irem brought many arcade inspired levels famicom disk system names super lode runner super lode runner ii arcade version numerous sequels including several versions lode runner released u.s. lode runner twin power lode runner 1999 sfc vary gameplay mostly adding different characters scenarios another title battle lode runner originally exclusive japan made available 23 april 2007 first japan-only game appear nintendo virtual console service original lode runner followed june 2007 also cubic lode runner 3-d lode runner variant released japan nintendo gamecube playstation 2 nes version developed hudson soft marked first appearance bombermen opposing robots end screen bomberman nes notes original white bomberman turned human hints appearance another game lode runner behind japanese version reference direct congratulations bomber man becomes runner see lode runner japan famicom version lode runner allows editing creating levels share friends using famicom data recorder hudson soft also announced version lode runner nintendo ds released 2006 unreleased version game atari lynx discovered 2008 old atari corp. hard drive january 7 2008 remake lode runner developed tozai southend interactive announced ces '08 released april 22 2009 game features revamped 3d graphics additional game modes cooperative competitive multiplayer support six new block types level editor well live leaderboards timeline game history lode runner classic made available xbox live enhanced game windows phone 7 series phones july 18 2012 features graphics gameplay 150 levels original lode runner game january 17 2013 lode runner classic released ios android phones 1-hop neighbor's text information: donkey_kong_(video_game).donkey kong video game game latest series efforts nintendo break north american market hiroshi yamauchi nintendo president time assigned project first-time video game designer named shigeru miyamoto drawing wide range inspirations including popeye beauty beast king kong miyamoto developed scenario designed game alongside nintendo chief engineer gunpei yokoi two men broke new ground using graphics means characterization including cutscenes advance game plot integrating multiple stages gameplay although nintendo american staff initially apprehensive donkey kong succeeded commercially critically north america japan nintendo licensed game coleco developed home console versions numerous platforms companies cloned nintendo hit avoided royalties altogether miyamoto characters appeared cereal boxes television cartoons dozens places lawsuit brought universal city studios later universal studios alleging donkey kong violated trademark king kong ultimately failed success donkey kong nintendo victory courtroom helped position company video game market dominance release 1981 late 1990s following 1980 space panic donkey kong one earliest examples platform game genre even prior term coined u.s. gaming press used climbing game games platforms ladders first platform game feature jumping donkey kong requires player jump gaps obstacles approaching enemies setting template future platform genre four unique stages donkey kong complex arcade game time release one first arcade games feature multiple stages following 1980 phoenix 1981 gorf scramble competitive video gamers referees stress game high level difficulty compared classic arcade games winning game requires patience ability accurately time mario ascent addition presenting goal saving pauline game also gives player score points awarded following leaping obstacles destroying objects hammer power-up collecting items hats parasols purses presumably belonging pauline removing rivets platforms completing stage determined steadily decreasing bonus counter player typically receives three lives bonus awarded 7,000 points although modified via game built dip switches one life lost whenever mario touches donkey kong enemy object falls far gap end platform lets bonus counter reach zero game divided four different single-screen stages represents 25 meters structure donkey kong climbed one stage 25 meters higher previous final stage occurs 100 meters stage one involves mario scaling construction site made crooked girders ladders jumping hammering barrels oil drums tossed donkey kong stage two involves climbing five-story structure conveyor belts transport cement pans third stage involves player riding elevators avoiding bouncing springs fourth final stage requires mario remove eight rivets platforms supporting donkey kong removing final rivet causes donkey kong fall hero reunited pauline four stages combine form level upon completion fourth stage level increments game repeats stages progressive difficulty example donkey kong begins hurl barrels faster sometimes diagonally fireballs speed victory music alternates levels 1 2 fourth level however consists 5 stages final stage 125 meters 22nd level colloquially known kill screen due error game programming kills mario seconds effectively ending game donkey kong considered earliest video game storyline visually unfolds screen eponymous donkey kong character game de facto villain hero carpenter originally unnamed japanese arcade release later named jumpman mario donkey kong kidnaps mario girlfriend originally known lady later renamed pauline player must take role mario rescue first occurrence damsel distress scenario would provide template countless video games come game uses graphics animation vehicles characterization donkey kong smirks upon mario demise pauline pink dress long hair speech balloon crying help appears frequently beside mario depicted red overalls red cap everyman character type common japan graphical limitations low pixel resolution small sprites prompted design drawing mouth pixels infeasible character given mustache programmers could animate hair got cap make arm movements visible needed colored overalls artwork used cabinets promotional materials make cartoon-like character designs even explicit pauline example depicted disheveled like king kong fay wray torn dress stiletto heels donkey kong first example complete narrative told video game form like 1980 pac-man employs cutscenes advance plot game opens gorilla climbing pair ladders top construction site sets pauline stomps feet causing steel beams change shape moves final perch sneers melody plays level stage starts brief animation sets scene adds background gameplay first video games upon reaching end stage another cutscene begins heart appears mario pauline donkey kong grabs climbs higher causing heart break narrative concludes mario reaches end rivet stage pauline reunited short intermission plays gameplay loops beginning higher level difficulty without formal ending late 1980 early 1981 nintendo efforts expand north america failed culminating attempted export otherwise successful radar scope left large number unsold radar scope machines company president hiroshi yamauchi thought simply converting something new approached young industrial designer named shigeru miyamoto working nintendo since 1977 see could design replacement miyamoto said could yamauchi appointed nintendo head engineer gunpei yokoi supervise project nintendo budget development game 100,000 sources also claim ikegami tsushinki involved development played role game creation concept hired provide mechanical programming assistance fix software created nintendo time nintendo also pursuing license make game based popeye comic strip license attempt failed nintendo took opportunity create new characters could marketed used later games miyamoto came many characters plot concepts eventually settled love triangle gorilla carpenter girlfriend mirrors rivalry bluto popeye olive oyl bluto became ape miyamoto said nothing evil repulsive would pet main character funny hang-loose kind guy miyamoto also named beauty beast 1933 film king kong influences although origin comic strip license played major part donkey kong marked first time storyline video game preceded game programming rather simply appended afterthought unrelated popeye games would eventually released nintendo game watch following month arcades 1982 yamauchi wanted primarily target north american market mandated game given english title though many games point english titles anyway miyamoto decided name game ape felt strongest character story miyamoto came name donkey kong varies false urban myth says name originally meant monkey kong misspelled misinterpreted due blurred fax bad telephone connection another credible story claims miyamoto looked japanese-english dictionary something would mean stubborn gorilla donkey meant convey silly stubborn kong common japanese slang gorilla rival claim worked nintendo export manager come title donkey meant represent stupid goofy end miyamoto stated thought name would convey thought stupid ape miyamoto high hopes new project lacked technical skills program alone instead came concepts consulted technicians see possible wanted make characters different sizes move different manners react various ways yokoi thought miyamoto original design complex though difficult suggestions using see-saws catapult hero across screen eventually found hard program though similar concept would appear aforementioned popeye arcade game miyamoto thought using sloped platforms barrels ladders specified game would multiple stages four-man programming team complained essentially asking make game repeatedly nevertheless followed miyamoto design creating total approximately 20 kilobytes content yukio kaneoka composed simple soundtrack serve background music levels story events circuit board radar scope restructured donkey kong radar scope hardware originally inspired namco galaxian hardware designed large number enemies moving around high speeds donkey kong require development team removed unnecessary functions reduced scale circuit board gameplay graphics reworked updated rom chips existing cpu sound hardware monitor left intact character set scoreboard upper hud display font almost identical radar scope palette differences donkey kong hardware memory capacity displaying 128 foreground sprites 16x16 pixels 256 background tiles 8x8 pixels mario moving objects use single sprites taller pauline uses two sprites larger donkey kong uses six sprites hiroshi yamauchi thought game going sell well phoned inform minoru arakawa head nintendo operations u.s. nintendo american distributors ron judy al stone brought arakawa lawyer named howard lincoln secure trademark game sent nintendo america testing sales manager disliked different maze shooter games common time judy lincoln expressed reservations strange title still arakawa adamantly believed would hit american staff began translating storyline cabinet art naming characters chose pauline lady polly james wife nintendo redmond washington warehouse manager james name jumpman name originally chosen similarity popular brands walkman pac-man eventually changed mario likeness mario segale landlord original office space nintendo america character names printed american cabinet art used promotional materials donkey kong ready release stone judy convinced managers two bars seattle washington set donkey kong machines managers initially showed reluctance saw sales 30 day—or 120 plays—for week straight requested units redmond headquarters skeleton crew composed arakawa wife yoko james judy phillips stone set gutting 2,000 surplus radar scope machines converting donkey kong motherboards power supplies japan game officially went sale july 1981 actor harris shore created first live-action mario television advertisements colecovision hand-held donkey kong donkey kong junior video games makers video game consoles also interested taito offered considerable sum buy rights donkey kong nintendo turned three days discussion within company rivals coleco atari approached nintendo japan united states respectively end yamauchi granted coleco exclusive console tabletop rights donkey kong believed hungriest company addition arakawa believed established company u.s. coleco could better handle marketing return nintendo would receive undisclosed lump sum plus 1.40 per game cartridge sold 1 per tabletop unit december 24 1981 howard lincoln drafted contract included language coleco would held liable anything game cartridge unusual clause licensing agreement arakawa signed document next day february 1 1982 yamauchi persuaded coleco representative japan sign without review company lawyers coleco offer game cartridge stand-alone instead bundled colecovision console went sale august 1982 six months later coleco offered atari 2600 intellivision versions company port atari 5200 system comparable opposed less powerful 2600 intellivision coleco sales doubled 500 million earnings quadrupled 40 million coleco console versions donkey kong sold six million cartridges total grossing 153 million earning nintendo 5 million royalties coleco also released stand-alone mini-arcade tabletop versions donkey kong along pac-man galaxian frogger sold three million units combined meanwhile atari got license computer versions donkey kong released atari 400 800 coleco unveiled adam computer running port donkey kong 1983 consumer electronics show chicago illinois atari protested violation licensing agreement yamauchi demanded arnold greenberg coleco president withdraw adam port version game cartridge-based thus violation nintendo license atari still greenberg complied ray kassar atari fired next month home pc version donkey kong released 1983 atari released several computer versions atarisoft label computer ports cement factory level console versions none home versions intermission animations arcade game donkey kong left side screen barrel level arcade game others right side miyamoto created greatly simplified version game watch multiscreen handheld device ports include apple ii atari 7800 intellivision commodore vic-20 famicom disk system ibm pc booter zx spectrum amstrad cpc msx atari 8-bit family mini-arcade versions two separate distinct ports developed commodore 64 first published atarisoft 1983 second ocean software 1986 game ported nintendo family computer famicom console released japan july 15 1983 one system three launch games also early game famicom international redesign nintendo entertainment system nes launched june 1 1986 north america october 15 1986 europe game ported famicom nes developer nintendo research development 2 arcade classics series nes games cement factory level included however cutscenes since initial rom cartridges enough memory available however port includes new song composed yukio kaneoka title screen donkey kong sequel donkey kong jr. included 1988 nes compilation donkey kong classics complete remake original arcade game game boy titled donkey kong referred donkey kong '94 development contains levels original donkey kong donkey kong jr. arcades starts damsel-in-distress premise four basic locations arcade game progresses 97 additional puzzle-based levels first game built-in enhancement super game boy accessory nes version re-released unlockable game animal crossing gamecube also published virtual console wii wii u nintendo 3ds wii u version also last game released celebrate 30-year anniversary japanese version nes famicom original arcade version game appears nintendo 64 game donkey kong 64 must beaten finish game nintendo released nes version e-reader game boy advance classic nes series 2002 2004 respectively 2004 namco released arcade cabinet contains donkey kong donkey kong jr. mario bros. donkey kong original edition port based nes version reinstates cement factory stage includes intermission animations absent original nes version ever released virtual console preinstalled 25th anniversary pal region red wii systems first released europe october 29 2010 japan download code game nintendo 3ds virtual console sent users purchased new super mario bros. 2 nintendo eshop july 28 september 2 2012 north america download code game nintendo 3ds virtual console sent users purchased one five select 3ds games nintendo eshop registered club nintendo october 1 2012 january 6 2013 europe australia released purchase nintendo 3ds eshop released september 18 2014 europe september 19 2014 australia original arcade version re-released part arcade archives series nintendo switch june 14 2018 nes version re-released one launch titles nintendo switch online september 19 2018 1982 book video invaders steve bloom described donkey kong another bizarre cartoon game courtesy japan donkey kong however extremely popular united states canada game initial 2,000 units sold orders made arakawa began manufacturing electronic components redmond waiting shipments japan taking long october donkey kong selling 4,000 units month late june 1982 nintendo sold 60,000 donkey kong machines overall earned 180 million judy stone worked straight commission became millionaires arakawa used nintendo profits buy land redmond july 1982 nintendo earned another 100 million game second year release totaling 280 million remained nintendo top seller mid-1983 donkey kong also sold steadily japan electronic games speculated june 1983 game home versions contributed arcade version extended popularity compared four six months average game lasted january 1983 1982 arcade awards gave best single-player video game award certificate merit runner-up coin-op game year ed driscoll reviewed atari vcs version donkey kong space gamer 59 edwards commented faults really outweigh plusses especially 've got 'donkey kong fever addicted cure lies elsewhere still play game occasionally never may like cartridge however play store copy try friend buy september 1982 arcade express reviewed colecovision port scored 9 10 creative computing video arcade games 1983 stated coleco fabulous job donkey kong best console first five games faithful adaptation original video game seen magazine danny goodman stated coleco three console versions one colecovision best followed surprisingly atari intellivision order computer video games reviewed colecovision port september 1984 issue scored 4 4 four categories action graphics addiction theme famicom version game sold 840,000 units japan april 1982 sid sheinberg seasoned lawyer president mca universal city studios learned game success suspected might trademark infringement universal king kong april 27 1982 met arnold greenberg coleco threatened sue coleco home version donkey kong coleco agreed may 3 1982 pay royalties universal 3 donkey kong net sale price worth 4.6 million meanwhile sheinberg revoked tiger license make king kong game o. r. rissman refused acknowledge universal claim trademark universal threatened nintendo howard lincoln nintendo refused cave preparation court battle ahead universal agreed allow tiger continue producing king kong game long distinguished donkey kong universal sued nintendo june 29 1982 announced license coleco company sent cease desist letters nintendo licensees agreed pay royalties universal except milton bradley ralston purina universal city studios inc. v. nintendo co. ltd. heard united states district court southern district new york judge robert w. sweet seven days universal counsel new york firm townley updike argued names king kong donkey kong easily confused plot game infringement films nintendo counsel john kirby countered universal argued previous case king kong scenario characters public domain judge sweet ruled nintendo favor awarding company universal profits tiger game 56,689.41 damages attorney fees universal appealed trying prove consumer confusion presenting results telephone survey examples print media people allegedly assumed connection two kongs october 4 1984 however court upheld previous verdict nintendo licensees filed counterclaims universal may 20 1985 judge sweet awarded nintendo 1.8 million legal fees lost revenues expenses however denied nintendo claim damages licensees paid royalties nintendo universal parties appealed judgment verdict upheld july 15 1986 nintendo thanked john kirby gift 30,000 sailboat named donkey kong exclusive worldwide rights use name sailboats later nintendo protagonist named kirby honor court battle also taught nintendo could compete larger entertainment industry companies 1996 next generation listed arcade atari 7800 cancelled coleco adam versions number 50 top 100 games time commenting even ignoring massive historical significance donkey kong stands great game due demanding challenges graphics manage elegantly delineate entire scenario single screen february 2006 nintendo power rated 148th best game made nintendo system today donkey kong fifth popular arcade game among collectors donkey kong inspiration 1983 platform game home computers jumpman according game creator super smash bros. brawl features music game arranged hirokazu hip tanaka stage called 75m almost exact replica donkey kong namesake stage contains items pauline missing perch top stage crazy kong officially licensed nintendo manufactured falcon non-us markets nevertheless crazy kong machines found way american arcades often installed cabinets marked congorilla nintendo quick take legal action distributing game us bootleg copies donkey kong also appeared north america france crazy kong konkey kong donkey king names 1982 logger arcade game century electronics direct clone donkey kong large bird standing ape rolling logs instead barrels 1981 o. r. rissman president tiger electronics obtained license use name king kong universal city studios title tiger created handheld game scenario gameplay based directly nintendo creation many home computer clones directly borrowed gorilla theme killer gorilla bbc micro 1983 killer kong zx spectrum 1983 crazy kong 64 commodore 64 1983 kongo kong commodore 64 1983 donkey king trs-80 color computer 1983 kong ti-99/4a 1983 one first releases electronic arts hard hat mack apple ii 1983 three-stage game without ape using construction site setting donkey kong clones recast game different characters cannonball blitz apple ii 1982 soldier cannonballs replacing ape barrels american southwest-themed canyon climber atari 8-bit 1982 epyx jumpman atari 8-bit 1983 reuses prototypical name mario character donkey kong magazine ad game tagline liked donkey kong 'll love jumpman jumpman along miner 2049er atari 8-bit 1982 mr robot robot factory atari 8-bit 1984 focuses traversing platforms level collecting scattered objects instead climbing top many games multiple ladder platforms stages 1983 electronic games described nintendo popeye game yet another variation theme become familiar since success donkey kong year sega released donkey kong clone called congo bongo arcades although using isometric perspective structure gameplay similar atari 8-bit computer port donkey kong contains one longest-undiscovered easter eggs video game programmer landon dyer initials appear player died certain conditions returned title screen remained undiscovered 26 years dyer revealed blog stating easter egg totally worth n't remember bring anyway steps required trigger later discovered hodges used emulator debugger trace game code donkey kong spawned sequel donkey kong jr. 1982 player controlling donkey kong son attempt save father now-evil mario 1983 spinoff mario bros. introduced mario brother luigi single-screen cooperative game set sewer launched mario franchise also 1983 donkey kong 3 appeared form fixed shooter exterminator ridding ape—and insects—from greenhouse nintendo revived donkey kong franchise 1990s series platform games spin-offs developed rare beginning donkey kong country 1994 2004 nintendo released mario vs. donkey kong sequel game boy donkey kong mario must chase donkey kong get back stolen mini-mario toys follow-up donkey kong falls love pauline kidnaps mario uses mini-mario toys help rescue donkey kong racing gamecube development rare canceled microsoft purchased company 2004 nintendo released first donkey konga games rhythm-based game series uses special bongo controller donkey kong jungle beat 2005 unique platform action game uses bongo controller accessory 2007 donkey kong barrel blast released nintendo wii originally developed gamecube game would used bongo controller delayed released exclusively wii game support bongo accessory donkey kong appears game wii u game nes remix features multiple nes games sometimes remixes presenting significantly modified versions games challenges one challenge features link legend zelda traveling first screen save pauline difficulty increased compared original donkey kong link jump zelda late june 1982 donkey kong success prompted 50 parties u.s. japan license game characters mario simian nemesis appeared cereal boxes board games pajamas manga 1983 animation studio ruby-spears produced donkey kong cartoon well donkey kong jr. saturday supercade program cbs show mystery crime-solving plots mode scooby-doo framed around premise mario pauline chasing donkey kong voiced soupy sales escaped circus show lasted two seasons since original release donkey kong success entrenched game american popular culture 1982 buckner garcia r. cade video victims recorded songs donkey kong donkey kong respectively based game artists like dj jazzy jeff fresh prince trace adkins referenced game songs episodes television series simpsons futurama crank yankers fairly oddparents also contained references game even today sound effects atari 2600 version often serve generic video game sounds films television series phrase like donkey kong used various works popular culture november 2010 nintendo applied trademark phrase united states patent trademark office billy mitchell considered hold donkey kong record 1982 august 2000 surpassed tim sczerby 2007 documentary tells story steve wiebe attempts break donkey kong world record early 2010s hank chien set new record 1,138,600 broken four years later robbie lakeman current world record set robbie lakeman february 2 2018 score 1,247,700 2018 mitchell stripped records twin galaxies banned submitting new scores twin galaxies concluded mitchell illicitly used emulators achieve scores twin galaxies prohibits use emulators high scores publish allow undetectable cheating Target text information: nuts_&_milk.nuts amp milk versions nuts milk involve player moving various levels collecting assortment fruit scattered throughout one gathering fruit particular screen player gain access previously unopened house door containing milk fiancée yogurt player makes contact female blob advanced next level start process anew movement levels accomplished using directional pad keyboard move milk across stage avoiding pitfalls obstacles notably character rival nuts contact made time game play nuts harmful objects miniature blimps player lose life restart current level fruit reset back initial positions three milk lives lost fashion game ends famicom version milk jump short distance vertically horizontally allowing transverse pits quickly gain access adjacent platform player falls great distance milk become momentarily dazed unable move player joggles awake jump button rope bridges suspended mid-air levels using directional pad player climb well walk across reach top 50 individual levels exist famicom version one skipped freely pressing select button player cycled fifty return first level restart sequence milk lives lost famicom msx version also contain level editor mode player freely edit first stage game placing objects enemies screen milk interact stage takes place first level normal game play console reset set fantasy world nuts milk follows story pink male blob named milk must find fiancée yogurt similar pink blob red hair bow rescue nuts teal blob also vies affection journey take milk several levels process finding saving love repeat several times nuts mounts ever-present resistance quest romance originally developed japanese software company hudson soft several home computers japan nuts milk became company first famicom video game game borrows elements lode runner earlier hudson project arcade-styled platformers donkey kong even emulates title screen nintendo early 1980s releases game retains stylistic similarities games published time unique arcade-styled game never released actual arcade system two different versions game created one home computers one famicom nuts milk released home computers nintendo famicom roughly time although versions similar overall goal differences presentation famicom version played sideways angle typical 2d sidescrollers player walking jumping one area another horizontally conversely computer version presented top-down fashion platforming elements removed player instead moving four directions version also contains slight degradation sound graphics due comparatively less powerful hardware personal computers time additionally famicom version makes use standard famicom 2-button controller computer releases instead rely keyboard 1985 melbourne house ported famicom version commodore 64 name hot pop version nuts milk resembling famicom release since ported mobile phones download service beginning september 1 2003 japan kg telecom part gamemaster compilation contains hudson soft games 8-bit era service later extended parts world january 2004 tf1 i-games nuts milk extremely commonly found unauthorized famiclone systems well bootleg multicarts december 22 2005 hudson released nuts milk along classic puzzle games game boy advance hudson collection vol 4 nazotoki collection exclusively japan music versions nuts milk composed internally hudson soft made entirely synth-based chiptunes common audio medium early video games though exclusive soundtrack either game never released music versions found 1987 compilation album hudson game music catalog number 28xa-87 released japan alfa gmo records I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,546	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: malwarebytes_(software).malwarebytes software malwarebytes formerly malwarebytes anti-malware abbreviated mbam anti-malware software microsoft windows macos android ios finds removes malware made malwarebytes corporation first released january 2006 available free version scans removes malware started manually paid version additionally provides scheduled scans real-time protection flash-memory scanner malwarebytes formerly known malwarebytes anti-malware primarily scanner scans removes malicious software including rogue security software adware spyware malwarebytes scans batch mode rather scanning files opened reducing interference another on-demand anti-malware software also running computer malwarebytes available free premium paid version free version run manually user desired whereas paid version perform scheduled scans automatically scan files opened block ip addresses malicious web sites scan services programs device drivers currently use december 8 2016 malwarebytes inc. released version 3.0 general public includes protection malware ransomware exploit malicious websites november 2 2009 malwarebytes accused rival iobit incorporating database malwarebytes anti-malware several products vendors named security software iobit security 360 iobit denied accusation stated database based user submissions sometimes signature names malwarebytes get placed results said time filter signature names similar malwarebytes iobit also stated malwarebytes convincing proof promised databases stolen declaration iobit malwarebytes replied convinced argument iobit malwarebytes claims served dmca infringement notices cnet download.com majorgeeks order download sites remove iobit software iobit said version 1.3 database updated address accusations intellectual property theft made earlier malwarebytes vonteera adware uses stolen certificates disables anti-malware virus protection malwarebytes malwarebytes listed solution eliminating threat february 2 2016 project zero announced four vulnerabilities malwarebytes flagship product including lack server-side encryption update files lack proper payload signing within encrypted data combination allowed attacker recompile encrypted payload exploits malwarebytes responded one day disclosure blog article detailing extreme difficulty executing attacks well revealing announced server-side encryption issues resolved within days private disclosure outstanding time project zero published research malwarebytes also published information protect current users patch released event also resulted establishment formal bug bounty program malwarebytes offers 1000 per disclosure depending severity exploitability 1-hop neighbor's text information: trojan_horse_(computing).trojan horse computing computing trojan horse trojan malware misleads users true intent term derived ancient greek story deceptive trojan horse led fall city troy trojans generally spread form social engineering example user duped executing e-mail attachment disguised appear suspicious e.g. routine form filled clicking fake advertisement social media anywhere else although payload anything many modern forms act backdoor contacting controller unauthorized access affected computer trojans may allow attacker access users personal information banking information passwords personal identity also delete user files infect devices connected network ransomware attacks often carried using trojan unlike computer viruses worms trojans generally attempt inject files otherwise propagate terminology occurred first time us air force report 1974 analysis vulnerability computer systems made popular ken thompson 1983 turing award acceptance lecture reflections trusting trust subtitled mentioned knew possible existence trojan horses report security multics unfortunately unable find reference however paul karger roger schell affirm cited report trojan way may require interaction malicious controller necessarily distributing trojan fulfil purpose possible involved trojans scan computers network locate trojan installed hacker control trojans take advantage security flaw older versions internet explorer google chrome use host computer anonymizer proxy effectively hide internet usage enabling controller use internet illegal purposes potentially incriminating evidence indicates infected computer ip address host computer may may show internet history sites viewed using computer proxy first generation anonymizer trojan horses tended leave tracks page view histories host computer later generations trojan tend cover tracks efficiently several versions sub7 widely circulated us europe became widely distributed examples type trojan german-speaking countries spyware used made government sometimes called govware govware typically trojan software used intercept communications target computer countries like switzerland germany legal framework governing use software examples govware trojans include swiss minipanzer megapanzer german state trojan nicknamed r2d2 german govware works exploiting security gaps unknown general public accessing smartphone data becomes encrypted via applications due popularity botnets among hackers availability advertising services permit authors violate users privacy trojans becoming common according survey conducted bitdefender january june 2009 trojan-type malware rise accounting 83 global malware detected world trojans relationship worms spread help given worms travel across internet bitdefender stated approximately 15 computers members botnet usually recruited trojan infection 1-hop neighbor's text information: antivirus_software.antivirus software antivirus software anti-virus software abbreviated av software also known anti-malware computer program used prevent detect remove malware antivirus software originally developed detect remove computer viruses hence name however proliferation kinds malware antivirus software started provide protection computer threats particular modern antivirus software protect users malicious browser helper objects bhos browser hijackers ransomware keyloggers backdoors rootkits trojan horses worms malicious lsps dialers fraudtools adware spyware products also include protection computer threats infected malicious urls spam scam phishing attacks online identity privacy online banking attacks social engineering techniques advanced persistent threat apt botnet ddos attacks although roots computer virus date back early 1949 hungarian scientist john von neumann published theory self-reproducing automata first known computer virus appeared 1971 dubbed creeper virus computer virus infected digital equipment corporation dec pdp-10 mainframe computers running tenex operating system creeper virus eventually deleted program created ray tomlinson known reaper people consider reaper first antivirus software ever written – may case important note reaper actually virus specifically designed remove creeper virus creeper virus followed several viruses first known appeared wild elk cloner 1981 infected apple ii computers 1983 term computer virus coined fred cohen one first ever published academic papers computer viruses cohen used term computer virus describe program affect computer programs modifying way include possibly evolved copy note recent precise definition computer virus given hungarian security researcher péter szőr code recursively replicates possibly evolved copy first ibm pc compatible wild computer virus one first real widespread infections brain 1986 number viruses grown exponentially computer viruses written early mid-1980s limited self-reproduction specific damage routine built code changed programmers became acquainted computer virus programming created viruses manipulated even destroyed data infected computers internet connectivity widespread computer viruses typically spread infected floppy disks antivirus software came use updated relatively infrequently time virus checkers essentially check executable files boot sectors floppy disks hard disks however internet usage became common viruses began spread online competing claims innovator first antivirus product possibly first publicly documented removal wild computer virus i.e vienna virus performed bernd fix 1987 1987 andreas lüning kai figge founded g data software 1985 released first antivirus product atari st platform 1987 ultimate virus killer uvk also released de facto industry standard virus killer atari st atari falcon last version version 9.0 released april 2004 1987 united states john mcafee founded mcafee company part intel security end year released first version virusscan also 1987 czechoslovakia peter paško rudolf hrubý miroslav trnka created first version nod antivirus 1987 fred cohen wrote algorithm perfectly detect possible computer viruses finally end 1987 first two heuristic antivirus utilities released flushot plus ross greenberg anti4us erwin lanting o'reilly book malicious mobile code virus protection windows roger grimes described flushot plus first holistic program fight malicious mobile code mmc however kind heuristic used early av engines totally different used today first product heuristic engine resembling modern ones f-prot 1991 early heuristic engines based dividing binary different sections data section code section legitimate binary usually starts always location indeed initial viruses re-organized layout sections overrode initial portion section order jump end file malicious code located—only going back resume execution original code specific pattern used time legitimate software represented elegant heuristic catch suspicious code kinds advanced heuristics later added suspicious section names incorrect header size regular expressions partial pattern in-memory matching 1988 growth antivirus companies continued germany tjark auerbach founded avira h+bedv time released first version antivir named luke filewalker time bulgaria vesselin bontchev released first freeware antivirus program later joined frisk software also frans veldman released first version thunderbyte antivirus also known tbav sold company norman safeground 1998 czechoslovakia pavel baudiš eduard kučera started avast time alwil software released first version avast antivirus june 1988 south korea ahn cheol-soo released first antivirus software called v1 founded ahnlab later 1995 finally autumn 1988 united kingdom alan solomon founded international created dr. solomon anti-virus toolkit although launched commercially 1991 – 1998 solomon ’ company acquired mcafee november 1988 professor panamerican university mexico city named alejandro e. carriles copyrighted first antivirus software mexico name byte matabichos byte bugkiller help solve rampant virus infestation among students also 1988 mailing list named virus-l started bitnet/earn network new viruses possibilities detecting eliminating viruses discussed members mailing list alan solomon eugene kaspersky kaspersky lab friðrik skúlason frisk software john mcafee mcafee luis corrons panda security mikko hyppönen f-secure péter szőr tjark auerbach avira vesselin bontchev frisk software 1989 iceland friðrik skúlason created first version f-prot anti-virus back 1989 founded frisk software 1993 meanwhile united states symantec founded gary hendrix 1982 launched first symantec antivirus macintosh sam sam 2.0 released march 1990 incorporated technology allowing users easily update sam intercept eliminate new viruses including many n't exist time program release end 1980s united kingdom jan hruska peter lammer founded security firm sophos began producing first antivirus encryption products period hungary also virusbuster founded recently incorporated sophos 1990 spain mikel urizarbarrena founded panda security panda software time hungary security researcher péter szőr released first version pasteur antivirus italy gianfranco tonello created first version virit explorer antivirus founded tg soft one year later 1990 computer antivirus research organization caro founded 1991 caro released virus naming scheme originally written friðrik skúlason vesselin bontchev although naming scheme outdated remains existing standard computer security companies researchers ever attempted adopt caro members includes alan solomon costin raiu dmitry gryaznov eugene kaspersky friðrik skúlason igor muttik mikko hyppönen morton swimmer nick fitzgerald padgett peterson peter ferrie righard zwienenberg vesselin bontchev 1991 united states symantec released first version norton antivirus year czech republic jan gritzbach tomáš hofer founded avg technologies grisoft time although released first version anti-virus guard avg 1992 hand finland f-secure founded 1988 petri allas risto siilasmaa – name data fellows released first version antivirus product f-secure claims first antivirus firm establish presence world wide web 1991 european institute computer antivirus research eicar founded antivirus research improve development antivirus software 1992 russia igor danilov released first version spiderweb later became dr web 1994 av-test reported 28,613 unique malware samples based md5 database time companies founded 1996 romania bitdefender founded released first version anti-virus expert avx 1997 russia eugene kaspersky natalya kaspersky co-founded security firm kaspersky lab 1996 also first wild linux virus known staog 1999 av-test reported 98,428 unique malware samples based md5 database 2000 rainer link howard fuhs started first open source antivirus engine called openantivirus project 2001 tomasz kojm released first version clamav first ever open source antivirus engine commercialised 2007 clamav bought sourcefire turn acquired cisco systems 2013 2002 united kingdom morten lund theis søndergaard co-founded antivirus firm bullguard 2005 av-test reported 333,425 unique malware samples based md5 database 2007 av-test reported number 5,490,960 new unique malware samples based md5 year 2012 2013 antivirus firms reported new malware samples range 300,000 500,000 per day years become necessary antivirus software use several different strategies e.g specific email network protection low level modules detection algorithms well check increasing variety files rather executables several reasons 2005 f-secure first security firm developed anti-rootkit technology called blacklight users usually connected internet continual basis jon oberheide first proposed cloud-based antivirus design 2008 february 2008 mcafee labs added industry-first cloud-based anti-malware functionality virusscan artemis name tested av-comparatives february 2008 officially unveiled august 2008 mcafee virusscan cloud av created problems comparative testing security software – part av definitions testers control constantly updated av company servers thus making results non-repeatable result anti-malware testing standards organisation amtso started working method testing cloud products adopted may 7 2009 2011 avg introduced similar cloud service called protective cloud technology following 2013 release apt 1 report mandiant industry seen shift towards signature-less approaches problem capable detecting mitigating zero-day attacks numerous approaches address new forms threats appeared including behavioral detection artificial intelligence machine learning cloud-based file detonation according gartner expected rise new entrants carbon black cylance crowdstrike force epp incumbents new phase innovation acquisition one method bromium involves micro-virtualization protect desktops malicious code execution initiated end user another approach sentinelone carbon black focuses behavioral detection building full context around every process execution path real time cylance leverages artificial intelligence model based machine learning increasingly signature-less approaches defined media analyst firms next-generation antivirus seeing rapid market adoption certified antivirus replacement technologies firms coalfire directdefense response traditional antivirus vendors trend micro symantec sophos responded incorporating next-gen offerings portfolios analyst firms forrester gartner called traditional signature-based antivirus ineffective outdated one solid theoretical results study computer viruses frederick b. cohen 1987 demonstration algorithm perfectly detect possible viruses however using different layers defense good detection rate may achieved several methods antivirus engine use identify malware traditional antivirus software relies heavily upon signatures identify malware substantially malware arrives hands antivirus firm analysed malware researchers dynamic analysis systems determined malware proper signature file extracted added signatures database antivirus software although signature-based approach effectively contain malware outbreaks malware authors tried stay step ahead software writing oligomorphic polymorphic recently metamorphic viruses encrypt parts otherwise modify method disguise match virus signatures dictionary many viruses start single infection either mutation refinements attackers grow dozens slightly different strains called variants generic detection refers detection removal multiple threats using single virus definition example vundo trojan several family members depending antivirus vendor classification symantec classifies members vundo family two distinct categories trojan.vundo trojan.vundo.b may advantageous identify specific virus quicker detect virus family generic signature inexact match existing signature virus researchers find common areas viruses family share uniquely thus create single generic signature signatures often contain non-contiguous code using wildcard characters differences lie wildcards allow scanner detect viruses even padded extra meaningless code detection uses method said heuristic detection anti-virus software attempt scan rootkits rootkit type malware designed gain administrative-level control computer system without detected rootkits change operating system functions cases tamper anti-virus program render ineffective rootkits also difficult remove cases requiring complete re-installation operating system real-time protection on-access scanning background guard resident shield autoprotect synonyms refer automatic protection provided antivirus anti-spyware anti-malware programs monitors computer systems suspicious activity computer viruses spyware adware malicious objects 'real-time words data loaded computer active memory inserting cd opening email browsing web file already computer opened executed commercial antivirus software end-user license agreements include clause subscription automatically renewed purchaser credit card automatically billed renewal time without explicit approval example mcafee requires users unsubscribe least 60 days expiration present subscription bitdefender sends notifications unsubscribe 30 days renewal norton antivirus also renews subscriptions automatically default apparent antivirus programs actually malware masquerading legitimate software winfixer ms antivirus mac defender false positive false alarm antivirus software identifies non-malicious file malware happens cause serious problems example antivirus program configured immediately delete quarantine infected files common microsoft windows antivirus applications false positive essential file render windows operating system applications unusable recovering damage critical software infrastructure incurs technical support costs businesses forced close whilst remedial action undertaken examples serious false-positives running real-time protection multiple antivirus programs concurrently degrade performance create conflicts however using concept called multiscanning several companies including g data software microsoft created applications run multiple engines concurrently sometimes necessary temporarily disable virus protection installing major updates windows service packs updating graphics card drivers active antivirus protection may partially completely prevent installation major update anti-virus software cause problems installation operating system upgrade e.g upgrading newer version windows place — without erasing previous version windows microsoft recommends anti-virus software disabled avoid conflicts upgrade installation process active anti-virus software also interfere firmware update process functionality computer programs hampered active anti-virus software example truecrypt disk encryption program states troubleshooting page anti-virus programs conflict truecrypt cause malfunction operate slowly anti-virus software impair performance stability games running steam platform support issues also exist around antivirus application interoperability common solutions like ssl vpn remote access network access control products technology solutions often policy assessment applications require up-to-date antivirus installed running antivirus application recognized policy assessment whether antivirus application updated part policy assessment library user unable connect studies december 2007 showed effectiveness antivirus software decreased previous year particularly unknown zero day attacks computer magazine c't found detection rates threats dropped 40–50 2006 20–30 2007 time exception nod32 antivirus managed detection rate 68 according zeus tracker website average detection rate variants well-known zeus trojan low 40 problem magnified changing intent virus authors years ago obvious virus infection present viruses day written amateurs exhibited destructive behavior pop-ups modern viruses often written professionals financed criminal organizations 2008 eva chen ceo trend micro stated anti-virus industry over-hyped effective products — misleading customers — years independent testing major virus scanners consistently shows none provide 100 virus detection best ones provided high 99.9 detection simulated real-world situations lowest provided 91.1 tests conducted august 2013 many virus scanners produce false positive results well identifying benign files malware although methods may differ notable independent quality testing agencies include av-comparatives icsa labs west coast labs virus bulletin av-test members anti-malware testing standards organization anti-virus programs always effective new viruses even use non-signature-based methods detect new viruses reason virus designers test new viruses major anti-virus applications make sure detected releasing wild new viruses particularly ransomware use polymorphic code avoid detection virus scanners jerome segura security analyst paretologic explained proof concept virus used graphics processing unit gpu avoid detection anti-virus software potential success involves bypassing cpu order make much harder security researchers analyse inner workings malware detecting rootkits major challenge anti-virus programs rootkits full administrative access computer invisible users hidden list running processes task manager rootkits modify inner workings operating system tamper antivirus programs file infected computer virus anti-virus software attempt remove virus code file disinfection always able restore file undamaged state circumstances damaged files restored existing backups shadow copies also true ransomware installed software damaged requires re-installation however see system file checker writeable firmware computer infected malicious code major concern infected bios could require actual bios chip replaced ensure malicious code completely removed anti-virus software effective protecting firmware motherboard bios infection 2014 security researchers discovered usb devices contain writeable firmware modified malicious code dubbed badusb anti-virus software detect prevent malicious code run undetected computer could even infect operating system prior booting antivirus software drawbacks first impact computer performance furthermore inexperienced users lulled false sense security using computer considering invulnerable may problems understanding prompts decisions antivirus software presents incorrect decision may lead security breach antivirus software employs heuristic detection must fine-tuned minimize misidentifying harmless software malicious false positive antivirus software usually runs highly trusted kernel level operating system allow access potential malicious process files creating potential avenue attack us national security agency nsa uk government communications headquarters gchq intelligence agencies respectively exploiting anti-virus software spy users anti-virus software highly privileged trusted access underlying operating system makes much appealing target remote attacks additionally anti-virus software years behind security-conscious client-side applications like browsers document readers means acrobat reader microsoft word google chrome harder exploit 90 percent anti-virus products according joxean koret researcher coseinc singapore-based information security consultancy antivirus software running individual computers common method employed guarding malware solution solutions also employed users including unified threat management utm hardware network firewalls cloud-based antivirus online scanners network firewalls prevent unknown programs processes accessing system however antivirus systems make attempt identify remove anything may protect infection outside protected computer network limit activity malicious software present blocking incoming outgoing requests certain tcp/ip ports firewall designed deal broader system threats come network connections system alternative virus protection system cloud antivirus technology uses lightweight agent software protected computer offloading majority data analysis provider infrastructure one approach implementing cloud antivirus involves scanning suspicious files using multiple antivirus engines approach proposed early implementation cloud antivirus concept called cloudav cloudav designed send programs documents network cloud multiple antivirus behavioral detection programs used simultaneously order improve detection rates parallel scanning files using potentially incompatible antivirus scanners achieved spawning virtual machine per detection engine therefore eliminating possible issues cloudav also perform retrospective detection whereby cloud detection engine rescans files file access history new threat identified thus improving new threat detection speed finally cloudav solution effective virus scanning devices lack computing power perform scans examples cloud anti-virus products panda cloud antivirus crowdstrike cb defense immunet comodo group also produced cloud-based anti-virus antivirus vendors maintain websites free online scanning capability entire computer critical areas local disks folders files periodic online scanning good idea run antivirus applications computers applications frequently slow catch threats one first things malicious software attack disable existing antivirus software sometimes way know attack turning online resource installed infected computer virus removal tools available help remove stubborn infections certain types infection examples include avast free anti- malware avg free malware removal tools avira antivir removal tool also worth noting sometimes antivirus software produce false positive result indicating infection none rescue disk bootable cd usb storage device used run antivirus software outside installed operating system order remove infections dormant bootable antivirus disk useful example installed operating system longer bootable malware resisting attempts removed installed antivirus software examples bootable disks include bitdefender rescue cd kaspersky rescue disk 2018 windows defender offline integrated windows 10 since anniversary update rescue cd software also installed onto usb storage device bootable newer computers according fbi survey major businesses lose 12 million annually dealing virus incidents survey symantec 2009 found third small medium-sized business use antivirus protection time whereas 80 home users kind antivirus installed according sociological survey conducted g data software 2010 49 women use antivirus program Target text information: vundo.vundo vundo trojan commonly known vundo virtumonde virtumondo sometimes referred ms juan either trojan horse computer worm known cause popups advertising rogue antispyware programs sporadically misbehavior including performance degradation denial service websites including google facebook also used deliver malware host computers later versions include rootkits ransomware vundo infection typically caused either opening e-mail attachment carrying trojan variety browser exploits including vulnerabilities popular browser plug-ins java many popups advertise fraudulent programs antispywaremaster winfixer antivirus 2009. codice_1 consists two main components browser helper objects class id components windows registry hkey local machine file names dynamic attaches system using bogus browser helper objects dll files attached winlogon.exe explorer.exe recently lsass.exe vundo inserts registry entries suppress windows warnings disabling firewall antivirus automatic updates service disables automatic updates service quickly re-disables manually re-enabled attacks malwarebytes anti-malware spybot search destroy lavasoft ad-aware hijackthis several malware removal tools frequently hides vundofix combofix rather pushing fake antivirus products new ad popups drive download attacks copies ads major corporations faked simply closing allows drive-by download exploit insert payload user computer since many different varieties vundo trojans symptoms vundo vary widely ranging relatively benign severe almost varieties vundo feature sort pop-up advertising well rooting make difficult delete computers infected exhibit following symptoms I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,098	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: exokernel.exokernel exokernel operating system kernel developed mit parallel distributed operating systems group also class similar operating systems operating systems generally present hardware resources applications high-level abstractions virtual file systems idea behind exokernels force abstractions possible application developers enabling make many decisions possible hardware abstractions exokernels tiny since functionality limited ensuring protection multiplexing resources considerably simpler conventional microkernels implementation message passing monolithic kernels implementation high-level abstractions implemented applications called library operating systems may request specific memory addresses disk blocks etc kernel ensures requested resource free application allowed access low-level hardware access allows programmer implement custom abstractions omit unnecessary ones commonly improve program performance also allows programmers choose level abstraction want high low exokernels seen application end-to-end principle operating systems force application program layer abstractions top abstractions designed different requirements mind example mit exokernel project cheetah web server stores preformatted internet protocol packets disk kernel provides safe access disk preventing unauthorized reading writing disk abstracted application libraries application uses traditionally kernel designers sought make individual hardware resources invisible application programs requiring programs interact hardware via abstraction model models include file systems disk storage virtual address spaces memory schedulers task management sockets network communication abstractions hardware make easier write programs general limit performance stifle experimentation new abstractions security-oriented application might need file system leave old data disk reliability-oriented application might need file system keeps data failure recovery one option remove kernel completely program directly hardware entire machine would dedicated application written conversely entire application codebase would dedicated machine exokernel concept compromise let kernel allocate basic physical resources machine e.g disk blocks memory pages processor time multiple application programs let program decide resources program link support library implements abstractions needs implement mit developed two exokernel-based operating systems using two kernels aegis proof concept limited support storage xok applied exokernel concept thoroughly essential idea mit exokernel system operating system act executive small programs provided application software constrained requirement exokernel must able guarantee use hardware safely mit exokernel manages hardware resources follows available library operating systems exokernel include custom exos system emulator bsd addition exokernel team created cheetah web server uses kernel directly exokernel concept around since least 1994 exokernels still research effort used major commercial operating systems concept operating exokernel system nemesis written university cambridge university glasgow citrix systems swedish institute computer science mit also built several exokernel-based systems including exos 1-hop neighbor's text information: os/7.os/7 os/7 discontinued operating system sperry univac 90/60 90/70 computer systems system first announced november 1971 univac 9700 system originally scheduled delivery march 1973. ref name= univac 90/60 90/70 univac 90/60 90/70 /ref however delivery slipped nearly year impacted 9700 marketing effort first demonstrated univac new 90/60 system october 1973 official release planned january 1974 os/7 abruptly discontinued 1975 favor vs/9 univac name rca vmos operating system os/7 multi-tasking multi-programming system utilizes roll-in roll-out capability keep cpu optimally busy 1-hop neighbor's text information: tinfoil_hat_linux.tinfoil hat linux tinfoil hat linux thl compact security-focused linux distribution designed high security developed shmoo group first version 1.000 released february 2002 appears low priority project image files source available gzip format thl used almost modern pc requires intel 80386 better computer least 8 mb ram distribution fits single hd floppy small footprint provides additional benefits beyond making system easy understand verify- computer need even hard drive making easier sanitize computer use logo tinfoil hat tux linux mascot wearing tinfoil hat tinfoil hat uses number measures defeat hardware software surveillance methods like keystroke logging video camera tempest advantage thl used virtually modern pc using x86 processor architecture example one might install computer kept locked room connected network used cryptographically signing keys fairly easy create tinfoil hat booting floppy microsoft windows verifying checksum tricky text documentation salted jokes reinforces humor stark contrast serious paranoiac tone surrounding text- name pokes fun tinfoil hats commonly ascribed paranoiacs method protecting oneself mind-control waves tinfoil hat linux requires one work text-only environment linux i.e starting straight bourne shell editor vi graphical user interface uses busybox instead normal util-linux gnu coreutils formerly known fileutils shellutils textutils common unix tools tinfoil hat also offers gnu nano text editor Target text information: booting.booting computing booting process starting computer initiated hardware button press software command switched computer central processing unit cpu software main memory process must load software memory executed may done hardware firmware cpu separate processor computer system restarting computer also called rebooting hard e.g electrical power cpu switched soft power cut systems soft boot may optionally clear ram zero hard soft booting initiated hardware button press software command booting complete operative runtime system typically operating system applications attained process returning computer state hibernation sleep involve booting minimally embedded systems require noticeable boot sequence begin functioning turned may simply run operational programs stored rom computing systems state machines reboot may method return designated zero-state unintended locked state addition loading operating system stand-alone utility boot process also load storage dump program diagnosing problems operating system boot short bootstrap bootstrap load derives phrase pull oneself one bootstraps usage calls attention requirement software loaded onto computer software already running computer mechanism must exist load initial software onto computer early computers used variety ad-hoc methods get small program memory solve problem invention read-only memory rom various types solved paradox allowing computers shipped start program could erased growth capacity rom allowed ever elaborate start procedures implemented many different methods available load short initial program computer methods reach simple physical input removable media hold complex programs early computers 1940s 1950s one-of-a-kind engineering efforts could take weeks program program loading one many problems solved early computer eniac program stored memory set problem configuration interconnecting cables bootstrapping apply eniac whose hardware configuration ready solving problems soon power applied edsac system second stored-program computer built used stepping switches transfer fixed program memory start button pressed program stored device david wheeler completed late 1948 loaded instructions punched tape executed first programmable computers commercial sale univac ibm 701 included features make operation simpler typically included instructions performed complete input output operation hardware logic could used load contents punch card typical ones input media magnetic drum magnetic tape contained bootstrap program pressing single button booting concept called variety names ibm computers 1950s early 1960s ibm used term initial program load ibm 7030 stretch later used mainframe lines starting system/360 1964 ibm 701 computer 1952–1956 load button initiated reading first 36-bit word main memory punched card card reader magnetic tape tape drive magnetic drum unit depending position load selector switch left 18-bit half-word executed instruction usually read additional words memory loaded boot program executed turn loaded larger program medium memory without help human operator term boot used sense since least 1958 ibm computers era similar features example ibm 1401 system c. 1958 used card reader load program punched card 80 characters stored punched card read memory locations 001 080 computer would branch memory location 001 read first stored instruction instruction always move information first 80 memory locations assembly area information punched cards 2 3 4 could combined form stored program information moved assembly area machine would branch instruction location 080 read card next card would read information processed another example ibm 650 1953 decimal machine group ten 10-position switches operator panel addressable memory word address 8000 could executed instruction thus setting switches 7004000400 pressing appropriate button would read first card card reader memory op code 70 starting address 400 jump 400 begin executing program card ibm competitors also offered single button program load noteworthy variation found burroughs b1700 neither bootstrap rom hardwired ipl operation instead system reset reads executes opcodes sequentially tape drive mounted front panel sets boot loader ram executed however since makes assumptions system equally well used load diagnostic maintenance test routine tapes display intelligible code front panel even cases gross cpu failure ibm system/360 successors including current z/architecture machines boot process known initial program load ipl ibm coined term 7030 stretch revived design system/360 continues use environments today system/360 processors ipl initiated computer operator selecting three hexadecimal digit device address cuu c=i/o channel address uu=control unit device address followed pressing load button high end system/360 models system/370 later systems functions switches load button simulated using selectable areas screen graphics console often ibm 2250-like device ibm 3270-like device example system/370 model 158 keyboard sequence 0-7-x zero seven x order results ipl device address keyed input area amdahl 470v/6 related cpus supported four hexadecimal digits cpus optional second channel unit installed total 32 channels later ibm would also support 16 channels ipl function system/360 successors compatibles amdahl reads 24 bytes operator-specified device main storage starting real address zero second third groups eight bytes treated channel command words ccws continue loading startup program first ccw always simulated cpu consists read ipl command command chaining suppress incorrect length indication enforced i/o channel commands complete first group eight bytes loaded processor program status word psw startup program begins execution location designated psw ipl device usually disk drive hence special significance read-type command exactly procedure also used ipl input-type devices tape drives even card readers device-independent manner allowing example installation operating system brand-new computer os initial distribution magnetic tape disk controllers command also causes selected device seek cylinder head simulating seek cylinder head command search record simulating search id equal command seeks searches simulated tape card controllers device classes command simply sequential read command read ipl command disk tape card deck must contain special program load actual operating system standalone utility main storage specific purpose ipl text placed disk stand-alone dasdi direct access storage device initialization program equivalent program running operating system e.g. ickdsf ipl-able tapes card decks usually distributed ipl text already present minicomputers starting digital equipment corporation dec pdp-5 pdp-8 1965 simplified design using cpu assist input output operations saved cost made booting complicated pressing single button minicomputers typically way toggle short programs manipulating array switches front panel since early minicomputers used magnetic core memory lose information power bootstrap loaders would remain place unless erased erasure sometimes happened accidentally program bug caused loop overwrote memory minicomputers simple form booting include hewlett-packard hp 2100 series mid-1960s original data general nova 1969 dec pdp-11 1970 dec later added optional diode matrix read-only memory pdp-11 stored bootstrap program 32 words 64 bytes consisted printed circuit card m792 plugged unibus held 32 16 array semiconductor diodes 512 diodes place memory contained one bits card programmed cutting diode whose bit zero dec also sold versions card bm792-yx series pre-programmed many standard input devices simply omitting unneeded diodes following older approach earlier pdp-1 hardware loader operator need push load switch instruct paper tape reader load program directly core memory data general supernova used front panel switches cause computer automatically load instructions memory device specified front panel data switches jump loaded code nova 800 1200 switch loaded program main memory special read-only memory jumped minicomputer paper tape reader first program run boot process boot loader would read core memory either second-stage boot loader often called binary loader could read paper tape checksum operating system outside storage medium pseudocode boot loader might simple following eight instructions related example based loader nicolet instrument corporation minicomputer 1970s using paper tape reader-punch unit teletype model 33 asr teleprinter bytes second-stage loader read paper tape reverse order length second stage loader final byte overwrites location 7 instruction location 6 executes location 7 starts second stage loader executing second stage loader waits much longer tape containing operating system placed tape reader difference boot loader second stage loader addition checking code trap paper tape read errors frequent occurrence relatively low-cost part-time-duty hardware teletype model 33 asr friden flexowriters far reliable also comparatively costly earliest microcomputers altair 8800 released first 1975 even earlier similar machine based intel 8008 cpu bootstrapping hardware started cpu would see memory would contain executable code containing binary zeros—memory cleared resetting powering front panels machines carried toggle switches entering addresses data one switch per bit computer memory word address bus simple additions hardware permitted one memory location time loaded switches store bootstrap code meanwhile cpu kept attempting execute memory content correctly loaded cpu enabled execute bootstrapping code process tedious error-free boot process minicomputers microcomputers revolutionized introduction integrated circuit read-only memory rom many variants including mask-programmed roms programmable roms prom erasable programmable roms eprom flash memory allowed firmware boot programs included part computer introduction external rom italian telephone switching elaborator called gruppi speciali patented 1975 alberto ciaramella researcher cselt gruppi speciali starting 1975 fully single-button machine booting operating system rom memory composed semiconductors ferrite cores although rom device natively embedded computer gruppi speciali due design machine also allowed single-button rom booting machines designed therefore bootstrap device architecture-independent e.g pdp-11 storing state machine switch-off also place another critical feature telephone switching contest typically every microprocessor reset power-on condition perform start-up process usually takes form begin execution code found starting specific address look multibyte code specific address jump indicated location begin execution system built using microprocessor permanent rom occupying special locations system always begins operating without operator assistance example intel x86 processors always start running instructions beginning f000 fff0 mos 6502 processor initialization begins reading two-byte vector address fffd ms byte fffc ls byte jumping location run bootstrap code apple inc. first computer apple 1 introduced 1976 featured prom chips eliminated need front panel boot process case altair 8800 commercial computer according apple ad announcing switches lights ... firmware proms enables enter display debug programs hex keyboard due expense read-only memory time apple ii series booted disk operating systems using series small incremental steps passing control onward next phase gradually complex boot process see apple dos boot loader little disk operating system relied rom hardware also extremely flexible supported wide range customized disk copy protection mechanisms see software cracking history operating systems notably pre-1995 macintosh systems apple closely interwoven hardware impossible natively boot operating system standard one opposite extreme scenario using switches mentioned highly inflexible relatively error-proof foolproof long hardware working normally common solution situations design boot loader works program belonging standard os hijacks system loads alternative os technique used apple a/ux unix implementation copied various freeware operating systems beos personal edition 5 machines like atari st microcomputer instant-on operating system executing rom retrieval os secondary tertiary store thus eliminated one characteristic operations bootstrapping allow system customizations accessories support software loaded automatically atari floppy drive read additional components boot process timeout delay provided time manually insert floppy system searched extra components could avoided inserting blank disk atari st hardware also designed cartridge slot could provide native program execution gaming purposes holdover atari legacy making electronic games inserting spectre gcr cartridge macintosh system rom game slot turning atari could natively boot macintosh operating system rather atari tos ibm personal computer included rom-based firmware called bios one functions firmware perform power-on self test machine powered read software boot device execute firmware compatible bios ibm personal computer used ibm pc compatible computers extensible firmware interface developed intel originally itanium-based machines later also used alternative bios x86-based machines including apple macs using intel processors unix workstations originally vendor-specific rom-based firmware sun microsystems later developed openboot later known open firmware incorporated forth interpreter much firmware written forth standardized ieee ieee standard 1275-1994 firmware implements standard used powerpc-based macs powerpc-based machines well sun sparc-based computers advanced risc computing specification defined another firmware standard implemented mips-based alpha-based machines sgi visual workstation x86-based workstations computer turned softwareincluding operating systems application code dataremains stored non-volatile memory computer powered typically operating system loader random-access memory ram computer first executes relatively small program stored read-only memory rom along small amount needed data access nonvolatile device devices operating system programs data loaded ram small program starts sequence known bootstrap loader bootstrap boot loader small program job load data programs executed ram often multiple-stage boot loaders used several programs increasing complexity load one process chain loading computer systems upon receiving boot signal human operator peripheral device may load small number fixed instructions memory specific location initialize least one cpu point cpu instructions start execution instructions typically start input operation peripheral device may switch-selectable operator systems may send hardware commands directly peripheral devices i/o controllers cause extremely simple input operation read sector zero system device memory starting location 1000 carried effectively loading small number boot loader instructions memory completion signal i/o device may used start execution instructions cpu smaller computers often use less flexible automatic boot loader mechanisms ensure computer starts quickly predetermined software configuration many desktop computers example bootstrapping process begins cpu executing software contained rom example bios ibm pc predefined address cpus including intel x86 series designed execute software reset without outside help software contains rudimentary functionality search devices eligible participate booting load small program special section commonly boot sector promising device typically starting fixed entry point start sector boot loaders may face peculiar constraints especially size instance ibm pc compatibles boot sector typically work 32 kb later relaxed 64 kb system memory use instructions supported original 8088/8086 processors first stage pc boot loaders fsbl first-stage boot loader located fixed disks removable drives must fit first 446 bytes master boot record order leave room default 64-byte partition table four partition entries two-byte boot signature bios requires proper boot loader — even less additional features like four partition entries 16 16 bytes disk signature 6 bytes disk timestamp 6 bytes advanced active partition 18 bytes special multi-boot loaders supported well environments floppy superfloppy volume boot records 59 bytes occupied extended bios parameter block fat12 fat16 volumes since dos 4.0 whereas fat32 ebpb introduced dos 7.1 requires even 87 bytes leaving 423 bytes boot loader assuming sector size 512 bytes microsoft boot sectors therefore traditionally imposed certain restrictions boot process example boot file located fixed position root directory file system stored consecutive sectors conditions taken care codice_1 command slightly relaxed later versions dos boot loader able load first three sectors file memory happened contain another embedded boot loader able load remainder file memory microsoft added lba fat32 support even switched boot loader reaching two physical sectors using 386 instructions size reasons time vendors managed squeeze much functionality single boot sector without relaxing original constraints minimal available memory 32 kb processor support 8088/8086 example dr-dos boot sectors able locate boot file fat12 fat16 fat32 file system load memory whole via chs lba even file stored fixed location consecutive sectors examples first-stage bootloaders include coreboot libreboot das u-boot second-stage boot loaders gnu grub bootmgr syslinux ntldr bootx operating systems able load operating system properly transfer execution operating system subsequently initializes may load extra device drivers second-stage boot loader need drivers operation may instead use generic storage access methods provided system firmware bios open firmware though typically restricted hardware functionality lower performance many boot loaders like gnu grub windows bootmgr windows nt/2000/xp ntldr configured give user multiple booting choices choices include different operating systems dual multi-booting different partitions drives different versions operating system case new version unexpected problems different operating system loading options e.g. booting rescue safe mode standalone programs function without operating system memory testers e.g. memtest86+ basic shell gnu grub even games see list pc booter games boot loaders also load boot loaders example grub loads bootmgr instead loading windows directly usually default choice preselected time delay user press key change choice delay default choice automatically run normal booting occur without interaction boot process considered complete computer ready interact user operating system capable running system programs application programs many embedded systems must boot immediately example waiting minute digital television gps navigation device start generally unacceptable therefore devices software systems rom flash memory device begin functioning immediately little loading necessary loading precomputed stored rom device made large complex systems may boot procedures proceed multiple phases finally operating system programs loaded ready execute operating systems designed never start stop boot loader might load operating system configure mere process within system irrevocably transfer control operating system boot loader terminates normally process would computers also capable booting computer network scenario operating system stored disk server certain parts transferred client using simple protocol trivial file transfer protocol tftp parts transferred operating system takes control booting process second-stage boot loader network booting begins using generic network access methods provided network interface boot rom typically contains preboot execution environment pxe image drivers required system functionality limited operating system kernel drivers transferred started result rom-based booting completed entirely possible network boot operating system ability use network interface boot device device operating system loaded modern pc uefi bios firmware supports booting various devices typically local solid state drive hard disk drive via gpt master boot record mbr drive disk optical disc drive using el torito usb mass storage device ftl-based flash drive sd card multi-media card slot hard disk drive optical disc drive etc network interface card using pxe older less common bios-bootable devices include floppy disk drives scsi devices zip drives ls-120 drives typically firmware uefi bios allow user configure boot order boot order set first dvd drive second hard disk drive firmware try boot dvd drive fails e.g dvd drive try boot local hard disk drive example pc windows xp installed hard drive user could set boot order one given insert linux live cd order try linux without install operating system onto hard drive example dual booting user chooses operating system start computer performed power-on self-test post example dual booting user chooses inserting removing cd computer common choose operating system boot selecting bios uefi boot menu using computer keyboard boot menu typically entered pressing keys post several devices available enable user quick-boot usually variant linux various simple tasks internet access examples splashtop latitude upon starting ibm-compatible personal computer x86 cpu executes real mode instruction located reset vector physical memory address 16-bit x86 processors 32-bit 64-bit x86 processors usually pointing firmware uefi bios entry point inside rom memory location typically contains jump instruction transfers execution location firmware uefi bios start-up program program runs power-on self-test post check initialize required devices dram pci bus including running embedded roms complicated step setting dram spi made difficult fact point memory limited initializing required hardware firmware uefi bios goes pre-configured list non-volatile storage devices boot device sequence finds one bootable bootable mbr device defined one read last two bytes first sector contain little-endian word found byte sequence disk also known mbr boot signature otherwise established code inside sector executable x86 pcs bios found bootable device loads boot sector linear address usually segment offset bioses erroneously use transfers execution boot code case hard disk referred master boot record mbr definition operating-system specific conventional mbr code checks mbr partition table partition set bootable one active flag set active partition found mbr code loads boot sector code partition known volume boot record vbr executes vbr often operating-system specific however operating systems main function load execute operating system kernel continues startup active partition active partition boot sector invalid mbr may load secondary boot loader select partition often via user input load boot sector usually loads corresponding operating system kernel cases mbr may also attempt load secondary boot loaders trying boot active partition else fails issue int 18h bios interrupt call followed int 19h case int 18h would return order give back control bios would attempt boot devices attempt remote boot via network invoke rom basic systems particularly newer macintoshes new editions microsoft windows use intel efi also coreboot allows computer boot without firmware/bios constantly running system management mode 16-bit bios interfaces required certain x86 operating systems dos windows 3.1/95/98 booted via uefi however boot loaders retain 16-bit bios call support modern cpus microcontrollers example ti omap sometimes even dsps may boot rom boot code integrated directly silicon processor could perform quite sophisticated boot sequence load boot programs various sources like nand flash sd mmc card difficult hardwire required logic handling devices integrated boot rom used instead scenarios boot rom usage enables flexible boot sequences hardwired logic could provide example boot rom could try perform boot multiple boot sources also boot rom often able load boot loader diagnostic program via serial interfaces like uart spi usb feature often used system recovery purposes reasons usual boot software non-volatile memory got erased could also used initial non-volatile memory programming clean non-volatile memory installed hence software available system yet embedded system designs may also include intermediary boot sequence step form additional code gets loaded system ram integrated boot rom additional code loaded way usually serves way overcoming platform limitations small amounts ram dedicated primary boot loader das u-boot loaded next step system boot sequence additional code boot sequence step usually referred secondary program loader spl also possible take control system using hardware debug interface jtag interface may used write boot loader program bootable non-volatile memory e.g flash instructing processor core perform necessary actions program non-volatile memory alternatively debug interface may used upload diagnostic boot code ram start processor core instruct execute uploaded code allows example recovery embedded systems software remains supported boot device processor integrated boot rom jtag standard popular interface many cpus microcontrollers devices manufactured jtag interfaces 2009 microcontrollers provide special hardware interfaces used take arbitrary control system directly run code instead allow insertion boot code bootable non-volatile memory like flash memory via simple protocols manufacturing phase interfaces used inject boot code possibly code non-volatile memory system reset microcontroller begins execute code programmed non-volatile memory like usual processors using roms booting notably technique used atmel avr microcontrollers others well many cases interfaces implemented hardwired logic cases interfaces could created software running integrated on-chip boot rom gpio pins digital signal processors serial mode boot parallel mode boot host port interface hpi boot case dsps often second microprocessor microcontroller present system design responsible overall system behavior interrupt handling dealing external events user interface etc dsp dedicated signal processing tasks systems dsp could booted another processor sometimes referred host processor giving name host port processor also sometimes referred master since usually boots first memories controls overall system behavior including booting dsp controlling dsp behavior dsp often lacks boot memories relies host processor supply required code instead notable systems design cell phones modems audio video players dsp cpu/microcontroller co-existing many fpga chips load configuration external serial eeprom configuration rom power-up I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,811	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n76.nokia n76 nokia n76 multimedia 3g smartphone made nokia introduced las vegas ces 2007 january 2007 launched 5 may 2007 sales price 390 eur advertised computer done beautifully multimedia computer also slimmest nseries phone date following many trends mirrored exterior screen motorola razr metal keypad hardware-wise n76 bases platform freescale first kind family “ cheap ” 3g smartphones fact difference omap2420 freescale cpu lack graphics accelerator phone originally released without stereo bluetooth later firmware update v30.0.015 adds a2dp avrcp bluetooth profiles also numerous stability improvements bug fixes well new features including inclusion nokia maps new search feature active standby n76 among rarer nokia devices go relatively high prices second hand market 1-hop neighbor's text information: qualcomm_centriq.qualcomm centriq centriq brand system chip soc semiconductor products designed marketed qualcomm data centers centriq central processing unit cpu uses arm risc instruction set multiple cpu cores single chip november 2014 qualcomm announced developing arm armv8-a microarchitecture based cpu purpose-built data centers december 2016 company announced demonstrated first multi-core cpus based custom arm armv8-a microarchitecture first centriq 2400 series products made available server manufacturers november 2017 first products qualcomm introduced falkor armv8-a microarchitecture chip 48 qualcomm custom designed falkor cores 2.6ghz six-channel ddr4 memory 60 mb l3 cache number reviews noted release centriq expected face significant competition established x86-64 data-center cpu manufacturers intel amd arm microarchitecture server products cavium thunderx2 addition competitive pressures noted running established workloads arm microarchitectures requires re-optimizing recompiling software x86-64 emulation presenting barrier entry potential customers 1-hop neighbor's text information: microarchitecture.microarchitecture computer engineering microarchitecture also called computer organization sometimes abbreviated µarch uarch way given instruction set architecture isa implemented particular processor given isa may implemented different microarchitectures implementations may vary due different goals given design due shifts technology computer architecture combination microarchitecture instruction set architecture isa roughly programming model processor seen assembly language programmer compiler writer isa includes execution model processor registers address data formats among things microarchitecture includes constituent parts processor interconnect interoperate implement isa microarchitecture machine usually represented less detailed diagrams describe interconnections various microarchitectural elements machine may anything single gates registers complete arithmetic logic units alus even larger elements diagrams generally separate datapath data placed control path said steer data person designing system usually draws specific microarchitecture kind data flow diagram like block diagram microarchitecture diagram shows microarchitectural elements arithmetic logic unit register file single schematic symbol typically diagram connects elements arrows thick lines thin lines distinguish three-state buses require three-state buffer device drives bus unidirectional buses always driven single source way address bus simpler computers always driven memory address register individual control lines simple computers single data bus organization single three-state bus diagram complex computers usually shows multiple three-state buses help machine operations simultaneously microarchitectural element turn represented schematic describing interconnections logic gates used implement logic gate turn represented circuit diagram describing connections transistors used implement particular logic family machines different microarchitectures may instruction set architecture thus capable executing programs new microarchitectures and/or circuitry solutions along advances semiconductor manufacturing allows newer generations processors achieve higher performance using isa principle single microarchitecture could execute several different isas minor changes microcode pipelined datapath commonly used datapath design microarchitecture today technique used modern microprocessors microcontrollers dsps pipelined architecture allows multiple instructions overlap execution much like assembly line pipeline includes several different stages fundamental microarchitecture designs stages include instruction fetch instruction decode execute write back architectures include stages memory access design pipelines one central microarchitectural tasks execution units also essential microarchitecture execution units include arithmetic logic units alu floating point units fpu load/store units branch prediction simd units perform operations calculations processor choice number execution units latency throughput central microarchitectural design task size latency throughput connectivity memories within system also microarchitectural decisions system-level design decisions whether include peripherals memory controllers considered part microarchitectural design process includes decisions performance-level connectivity peripherals unlike architectural design achieving specific performance level main goal microarchitectural design pays closer attention constraints since microarchitecture design decisions directly affect goes system attention must paid issues chip area/cost power consumption logic complexity ease connectivity manufacturability ease debugging testability general cpus single-chip microprocessors multi-chip implementations run programs performing following steps instruction cycle repeated continuously power turned historically earliest computers multicycle designs smallest least-expensive computers often still use technique multicycle architectures often use least total number logic elements reasonable amounts power designed deterministic timing high reliability particular pipeline stall taking conditional branches interrupts however microarchitectures often perform instructions per unit time using logic family discussing improved performance improvement often relative multicycle design multicycle computer computer four steps sequence several cycles clock designs perform sequence two clock cycles completing successive stages alternate clock edges possibly longer operations occurring outside main cycle example stage one rising edge first cycle stage two falling edge first cycle etc control logic combination cycle counter cycle state high low bits instruction decode register determine exactly part computer design control logic one create table bits describing control signals part computer cycle instruction logic table tested software simulation running test code logic table placed memory used actually run real computer called microprogram computer designs logic table optimized form combinational logic made logic gates usually using computer program optimizes logic early computers used ad-hoc logic design control maurice wilkes invented tabular approach called microprogramming complicating simple-looking series steps fact memory hierarchy includes caching main memory non-volatile storage like hard disks program instructions data reside always slower processor step 2 often introduces lengthy cpu terms delay data arrives computer bus considerable amount research put designs avoid delays much possible years central goal execute instructions parallel thus increasing effective execution speed program efforts introduced complicated logic circuit structures initially techniques could implemented expensive mainframes supercomputers due amount circuitry needed techniques semiconductor manufacturing progressed techniques could implemented single semiconductor chip see moore law instruction sets shifted years originally simple sometimes complex various respects recent years load-store architectures vliw epic types fashion architectures dealing data parallelism include simd vectors labels used denote classes cpu architectures particularly descriptive especially cisc label many early designs retroactively denoted cisc fact significantly simpler modern risc processors several respects however choice instruction set architecture may greatly affect complexity implementing high-performance devices prominent strategy used develop first risc processors simplify instructions minimum individual semantic complexity combined high encoding regularity simplicity uniform instructions easily fetched decoded executed pipelined fashion simple strategy reduce number logic levels order reach high operating frequencies instruction cache-memories compensated higher operating frequency inherently low code density large register sets used factor much slow memory accesses possible one first powerful techniques improve performance use instruction pipelining early processor designs would carry steps one instruction moving onto next large portions circuitry left idle one step instance instruction decoding circuitry would idle execution pipelining improves performance allowing number instructions work way processor time basic example processor would start decode step 1 new instruction last one waiting results would allow four instructions flight one time making processor look four times fast although one instruction takes long complete still four steps cpu whole retires instructions much faster risc makes pipelines smaller much easier construct cleanly separating stage instruction process making take amount time—one cycle processor whole operates assembly line fashion instructions coming one side results due reduced complexity classic risc pipeline pipelined core instruction cache could placed size die would otherwise fit core alone cisc design real reason risc faster early designs like sparc mips often ran 10 times fast intel motorola cisc solutions clock speed price pipelines means limited risc designs 1986 top-of-the-line vax implementation vax 8800 heavily pipelined design slightly predating first commercial mips sparc designs modern cpus even embedded cpus pipelined microcoded cpus pipelining seen area-constrained embedded processors large cisc machines vax 8800 modern pentium 4 athlon implemented microcode pipelines improvements pipelining caching two major microarchitectural advances enabled processor performance keep pace circuit technology based long improvements chip manufacturing allowed even circuitry placed die designers started looking ways use one common add ever-increasing amount cache memory on-die cache simply fast memory accessed cycles opposed many needed talk main memory cpu includes cache controller automates reading writing cache data already cache simply appears whereas processor stalled cache controller reads risc designs started adding cache mid-to-late 1980s often 4 kb total number grew time typical cpus least 512 kb powerful cpus come 1 2 even 4 6 8 12 mb organized multiple levels memory hierarchy generally speaking cache means performance due reduced stalling caches pipelines perfect match previously n't make much sense build pipeline could run faster access latency off-chip memory using on-chip cache memory instead meant pipeline could run speed cache access latency much smaller length time allowed operating frequencies processors increase much faster rate off-chip memory one barrier achieving higher performance instruction-level parallelism stems pipeline stalls flushes due branches normally whether conditional branch taken n't known late pipeline conditional branches depend results coming register time processor instruction decoder figured encountered conditional branch instruction time deciding register value read pipeline needs stalled several cycles branch taken pipeline needs flushed clock speeds increase depth pipeline increases modern processors may 20 stages average every fifth instruction executed branch without intervention high amount stalling techniques branch prediction speculative execution used lessen branch penalties branch prediction hardware makes educated guesses whether particular branch taken reality one side branch called much often modern designs rather complex statistical prediction systems watch results past branches predict future greater accuracy guess allows hardware prefetch instructions without waiting register read speculative execution enhancement code along predicted path prefetched also executed known whether branch taken yield better performance guess good risk huge penalty guess bad instructions need undone even added complexity gates needed support concepts outlined improvements semiconductor manufacturing soon allowed even logic gates used outline processor processes parts single instruction time computer programs could executed faster multiple instructions processed simultaneously superscalar processors achieve replicating functional units alus replication functional units made possible die area single-issue processor longer stretched limits could reliably manufactured late 1980s superscalar designs started enter market place modern designs common find two load units one store many instructions results store two integer math units two floating point units often simd unit sort instruction issue logic grows complexity reading huge list instructions memory handing different execution units idle point results collected re-ordered end addition caches reduces frequency duration stalls due waiting data fetched memory hierarchy get rid stalls entirely early designs cache miss would force cache controller stall processor wait course may instruction program whose data available cache point out-of-order execution allows ready instruction processed older instruction waits cache re-orders results make appear everything happened programmed order technique also used avoid operand dependency stalls instruction awaiting result long latency floating-point operation multi-cycle operations register renaming refers technique used avoid unnecessary serialized execution program instructions reuse registers instructions suppose two groups instruction use register one set instructions executed first leave register set set assigned different similar register sets instructions executed parallel series computer architects become stymied growing mismatch cpu operating frequencies dram access times none techniques exploited instruction-level parallelism ilp within one program could make long stalls occurred data fetched main memory additionally large transistor counts high operating frequencies needed advanced ilp techniques required power dissipation levels could longer cheaply cooled reasons newer generations computers started exploit higher levels parallelism exist outside single program program thread trend sometimes known throughput computing idea originated mainframe market online transaction processing emphasized execution speed one transaction capacity deal massive numbers transactions transaction-based applications network routing web-site serving greatly increasing last decade computer industry re-emphasized capacity throughput issues one technique parallelism achieved multiprocessing systems computer systems multiple cpus reserved high-end mainframes supercomputers small-scale 2–8 multiprocessors servers become commonplace small business market large corporations large scale 16–256 multiprocessors common even personal computers multiple cpus appeared since 1990s transistor size reductions made available semiconductor technology advances multi-core cpus appeared multiple cpus implemented silicon chip initially used chips targeting embedded markets simpler smaller cpus would allow multiple instantiations fit one piece silicon 2005 semiconductor technology allowed dual high-end desktop cpus cmp chips manufactured volume designs sun microsystems ultrasparc t1 reverted simpler scalar in-order designs order fit processors one piece silicon another technique become popular recently multithreading multithreading processor fetch data slow system memory instead stalling data arrive processor switches another program program thread ready execute though speed particular program/thread increases overall system throughput reducing time cpu idle conceptually multithreading equivalent context switch operating system level difference multithreaded cpu thread switch one cpu cycle instead hundreds thousands cpu cycles context switch normally requires achieved replicating state hardware register file program counter active thread enhancement simultaneous multithreading technique allows superscalar cpus execute instructions different programs/threads simultaneously cycle Target text information: arm11.arm11 arm11 group older 32-bit risc arm processor cores licensed arm holdings arm11 core family consists arm1136j f -s arm1156t2 f -s arm1176jz f -s arm11mpcore since arm11 cores released 2002 2005 longer recommended new ic designs instead arm cortex-a arm cortex-r cores preferred arm11 microarchitecture announced 29 april 2002 introduced armv6 architectural additions announced october 2001 include simd media instructions multiprocessor support new cache architecture implementation included significantly improved instruction processing pipeline compared previous arm9 arm10 families used smartphones apple nokia others initial arm11 core arm1136 released licensees october 2002 arm11 family currently armv6-architecture cores however armv6-m cores cortex-m0 cortex-m1 addressing microcontroller applications arm11 cores target demanding applications terms instruction set arm11 builds preceding arm9 generation incorporates arm926ej-s features adds armv6 instructions media support simd accelerating irq response microarchitecture improvements arm11 cores include jtag debug support halting stepping breakpoints watchpoints simplified embeddedice module replaced interface became part armv7 architecture hardware tracing modules etm etb compatible updated versions used arm9 particular trace semantics updated address parallel instruction execution data transfers arm makes effort promote good verilog coding styles techniques ensures semantically rigorous designs preserving identical semantics throughout chip design flow included extensive use formal verification techniques without attention integrating arm11 third-party designs could risk exposing hard-to-find latent bugs due arm cores integrated many different designs using variety logic synthesis tools chip manufacturing processes impact register-transfer level rtl quality magnified many times arm11 generation focused synthesis previous generations making concerns issue four arm11 cores I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	659	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: gnustep.gnustep gnustep free software implementation cocoa formerly openstep objective-c frameworks widget toolkit application development tools unix-like operating systems microsoft windows part gnu project gnustep features cross-platform object-oriented ide apart default objective-c interface gnustep also bindings java ruby gnu guile scheme gnustep developers track additions apple cocoa remain compatible roots gnustep application interface roots cocoa nextstep openstep gnustep thus predates cocoa emerged apple acquired next technology incorporated development original mac os x gnustep initially effort gnu developers replicate technically ambitious nextstep programmer-friendly features gnustep began paul kunz others stanford linear accelerator center wanted port hippodraw nextstep another platform instead rewriting hippodraw scratch reusing application design decided rewrite nextstep object layer application depended first version libobjcx enabled port hippodraw unix systems running x window system without changing single line application source openstep specification released public 1994 decided write new objcx would adhere new apis software would become known gnustep gnustep contains set graphical control elements written objective-c programming language graphical user interface gui gnumail composed graphics control elements gnumail interact windowing system e.g x11 wayland graphical user interface rendered gnustep backend provides small set functions used user interface library interface actual windowing system also rendering engine emulates common postscript functions package gnustep-back provides following backends gnustep inherits design principles proposed openstep gnustep predates cocoa cocoa based openstep well objective-c language examples applications written ported gnustep foundation kit provides basic classes wrapper classes data structure classes application kit provides classes oriented around graphical user interface capabilities 1-hop neighbor's text information: seamonkey.seamonkey seamonkey free open-source internet suite continuation former mozilla application suite based source code grew netscape communicator formed base netscape 6 netscape 7 seamonkey created 2005 mozilla foundation decided focus standalone projects firefox thunderbird development seamonkey community-driven contrast mozilla application suite last released version 1.7.13 governed mozilla foundation new project-leading group called seamonkey council compared firefox seamonkey web browser keeps traditional-looking interface netscape mozilla suite many xul-based firefox thunderbird add-ons modified compatibility seamonkey although add-ons built webextensions architecture used newer firefox versions yet compatible seamonkey consists web browser descendant netscape family e-mail news client program seamonkey mail newsgroups shares code mozilla thunderbird html editor seamonkey composer software suite supports skins comes two skins default installation modern classic recent versions include irc client chatzilla installed extension seamonkey mail traditional e-mail client includes support multiple accounts junk mail detection message filters html message support address books among features shares code mozilla thunderbird thunderbird seamonkey built mozilla comm-central source tree seamonkey composer wysiwyg html editor main user interface features four tabs normal wysiwyg html tags html code browser preview generated code html 4.01 transitional seamonkey composer longer actively maintained underlying editor code shared mail component seamonkey project releases official builds linux macos windows also releases “ unofficial ” x86-64 builds linux avoid confusing organizations still want use original mozilla suite new product needed new name initial speculation members community july 2 2005 announcement confirmed seamonkey would officially become name internet suite superseding mozilla suite seamonkey lowercase refers brine shrimp used netscape mozilla foundation code name never-released netscape communicator 5 later mozilla suite originally name seamonkey derived netscape management replace buttmonkey developers chosen following internal contest codename.. seamonkey council trademarked name help mozilla foundation project uses separate numbering scheme first release called seamonkey 1.0 despite different name version number seamonkey 1.0 based code mozilla suite 1.7 trademark copyright reasons debian rebranded seamonkey distributed iceape 2013 march 10 2005 mozilla foundation announced would release official versions mozilla application suite beyond 1.7.x since focused standalone applications firefox thunderbird however foundation emphasized would still provide infrastructure community members wished continue development effect meant suite would still continue developed seamonkey council instead mozilla foundation seamonkey first released september 15 2005 seamonkey 1 released january 30 2006 core mozilla project source code licensed disjunctive tri-license changing mpl 2.0 gave choice one three following sets licensing terms mozilla public license version 1.1 later gnu general public license version 2.0 later gnu lesser general public license version 2.1 later seamonkey council team responsible project release management currently consists philip chee karsten düsterloh jens hatlak robert kaiser ian neal neil rashbrook justin wood parts table based seamonkey release notes roadmap meeting notes 1-hop neighbor's text information: gyazmail.gyazmail gyazmail email client macos developed maintained japanese programmer goichi hirakawa supports pop3 imap smtp protocols handling multiple email accounts includes local mailboxes gyazmail based native macos cocoa written objective-c. gyazmail uses search function oniguruma regular expression library supports variety character encodings especially relevant asian languages version 1.0.1 released 2003 Target text information: gnumail.gnumail gnumail free open-source cross-platform e-mail client based gnustep cocoa official mail client gnustep also used étoilé inspired nextmail next mail.app predecessor apple mail gnumail based mail handling framework pantomime furthermore gnumail demonstrates possible develop cross platform programs gnustep cocoa I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	9,986	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: peer-to-peer.peer-to-peer peer-to-peer p2p computing networking distributed application architecture partitions tasks workloads peers peers equally privileged equipotent participants application said form peer-to-peer network nodes peers make portion resources processing power disk storage network bandwidth directly available network participants without need central coordination servers stable hosts peers suppliers consumers resources contrast traditional client-server model consumption supply resources divided emerging collaborative p2p systems going beyond era peers similar things sharing resources looking diverse peers bring unique resources capabilities virtual community thereby empowering engage greater tasks beyond accomplished individual peers yet beneficial peers p2p systems previously used many application domains architecture popularized file sharing system napster originally released 1999 concept inspired new structures philosophies many areas human interaction social contexts peer-to-peer meme refers egalitarian social networking emerged throughout society enabled internet technologies general p2p systems previously used many application domains concept popularized file sharing systems music-sharing application napster originally released 1999 peer-to-peer movement allowed millions internet users connect directly forming groups collaborating become user-created search engines virtual supercomputers filesystems basic concept peer-to-peer computing envisioned earlier software systems networking discussions reaching back principles stated first request comments rfc 1 tim berners-lee vision world wide web close p2p network assumed user web would active editor contributor creating linking content form interlinked web links early internet open present day two machines connected internet could send packets without firewalls security measures contrasts broadcasting-like structure web developed years precursor internet arpanet successful client-server network every participating node could request serve content however arpanet self-organized lacked ability provide means context content-based routing beyond 'simple address-based routing therefore usenet distributed messaging system often described early peer-to-peer architecture established developed 1979 system enforces decentralized model control basic model client-server model user client perspective offers self-organizing approach newsgroup servers however news servers communicate one another peers propagate usenet news articles entire group network servers consideration applies smtp email sense core email-relaying network mail transfer agents peer-to-peer character periphery e-mail clients direct connections strictly client-server relationship may 1999 millions people internet shawn fanning introduced music file-sharing application called napster napster beginning peer-to-peer networks know today participating users establish virtual network entirely independent physical network without obey administrative authorities restrictions peer-to-peer network designed around notion equal peer nodes simultaneously functioning clients servers nodes network model network arrangement differs client–server model communication usually central server typical example file transfer uses client-server model file transfer protocol ftp service client server programs distinct clients initiate transfer servers satisfy requests peer-to-peer networks generally implement form virtual overlay network top physical network topology nodes overlay form subset nodes physical network data still exchanged directly underlying tcp/ip network application layer peers able communicate directly via logical overlay links corresponds path underlying physical network overlays used indexing peer discovery make p2p system independent physical network topology based nodes linked within overlay network resources indexed located classify networks unstructured structured hybrid two unstructured peer-to-peer networks impose particular structure overlay network design rather formed nodes randomly form connections gnutella gossip kazaa examples unstructured p2p protocols structure globally imposed upon unstructured networks easy build allow localized optimizations different regions overlay also role peers network unstructured networks highly robust face high rates churn —that large numbers peers frequently joining leaving network however primary limitations unstructured networks also arise lack structure particular peer wants find desired piece data network search query must flooded network find many peers possible share data flooding causes high amount signaling traffic network uses cpu/memory requiring every peer process search queries ensure search queries always resolved furthermore since correlation peer content managed guarantee flooding find peer desired data popular content likely available several peers peer searching likely find thing peer looking rare data shared peers highly unlikely search successful structured peer-to-peer networks overlay organized specific topology protocol ensures node efficiently search network file/resource even resource extremely rare common type structured p2p networks implement distributed hash table dht variant consistent hashing used assign ownership file particular peer enables peers search resources network using hash table key value pairs stored dht participating node efficiently retrieve value associated given key however order route traffic efficiently network nodes structured overlay must maintain lists neighbors satisfy specific criteria makes less robust networks high rate churn i.e large numbers nodes frequently joining leaving network recent evaluation p2p resource discovery solutions real workloads pointed several issues dht-based solutions high cost advertising/discovering resources static dynamic load imbalance notable distributed networks use dhts include tixati alternative bittorrent distributed tracker kad network storm botnet yacy coral content distribution network prominent research projects include chord project kademlia past storage utility p-grid self-organized emerging overlay network coopnet content distribution system dht-based networks also widely utilized accomplishing efficient resource discovery grid computing systems aids resource management scheduling applications hybrid models combination peer-to-peer client-server models common hybrid model central server helps peers find spotify example hybrid model 2014 variety hybrid models make trade-offs centralized functionality provided structured server/client network node equality afforded pure peer-to-peer unstructured networks currently hybrid models better performance either pure unstructured networks pure structured networks certain functions searching require centralized functionality benefit decentralized aggregation nodes provided unstructured networks coopnet cooperative networking proposed system off-loading serving peers recently downloaded content proposed computer scientists venkata n. padmanabhan kunwadee sripanidkulchai working microsoft research carnegie mellon university basically server experiences increase load redirects incoming peers peers agreed mirror content thus off-loading balance server information retained server system makes use fact bottle-neck likely outgoing bandwidth cpu hence server-centric design assigns peers peers 'close ip neighbors prefix range attempt use locality multiple peers found file designates node choose fastest neighbors streaming media transmitted clients cache previous stream transmit piece-wise new nodes peer-to-peer systems pose unique challenges computer security perspective like form software p2p applications contain vulnerabilities makes particularly dangerous p2p software however peer-to-peer applications act servers well clients meaning vulnerable remote exploits also since node plays role routing traffic network malicious users perform variety routing attacks denial service attacks examples common routing attacks include incorrect lookup routing whereby malicious nodes deliberately forward requests incorrectly return false results incorrect routing updates malicious nodes corrupt routing tables neighboring nodes sending false information incorrect routing network partition new nodes joining bootstrap via malicious node places new node partition network populated malicious nodes prevalence malware varies different peer-to-peer protocols studies analyzing spread malware p2p networks found example 63 answered download requests gnutella network contained form malware whereas 3 content openft contained malware cases top three common types malware accounted large majority cases 99 gnutella 65 openft another study analyzing traffic kazaa network found 15 500,000 file sample taken infected one 365 different computer viruses tested corrupted data also distributed p2p networks modifying files already shared network example fasttrack network riaa managed introduce faked chunks downloads downloaded files mostly mp3 files files infected riaa virus unusable afterwards contained malicious code riaa also known uploaded fake music movies p2p networks order deter illegal file sharing consequently p2p networks today seen enormous increase security file verification mechanisms modern hashing chunk verification different encryption methods made networks resistant almost type attack even major parts respective network replaced faked nonfunctional hosts decentralized nature p2p networks increases robustness removes single point failure inherent client-server based system nodes arrive demand system increases total capacity system also increases likelihood failure decreases one peer network fails function properly whole network compromised damaged contrast typical client–server architecture clients share demands system resources case clients join system fewer resources available serve client central server fails entire network taken advantages disadvantages p2p networks related topic data backup recovery availability centralized network system administrators forces controlling availability files shared administrators decide longer distribute file simply remove servers longer available users along leaving users powerless deciding distributed throughout community makes entire system vulnerable threats requests government large forces example youtube pressured riaa mpaa entertainment industry filter copyrighted content although server-client networks able monitor manage content availability stability availability content choose host client trouble accessing obscure content shared stable centralized network p2p networks however unreliable sharing unpopular files sharing files p2p network requires least one node network requested data node must able connect node requesting data requirement occasionally hard meet users may delete stop sharing data point sense community users p2p network completely responsible deciding content available unpopular files eventually disappear become unavailable people stop sharing popular files however highly easily distributed popular files p2p network actually stability availability files central networks centralized network simple loss connection server clients enough cause failure p2p networks connections every node must lost order cause data sharing failure centralized system administrators responsible data recovery backups p2p systems node requires backup system lack central authority p2p networks forces recording industry riaa mpaa government unable delete stop sharing content p2p systems p2p networks clients provide use resources means unlike client-server systems content-serving capacity peer-to-peer networks actually increase users begin access content especially protocols bittorrent require users share refer performance measurement study property one major advantages using p2p networks makes setup running costs small original content distributor many file peer-to-peer file sharing networks gnutella g2 edonkey network popularized peer-to-peer technologies peer-to-peer networking involves data transfer one user another without using intermediate server companies developing p2p applications involved numerous legal cases primarily united states conflicts copyright law two major cases grokster vs riaa mgm studios inc. v. grokster ltd. last case court unanimously held defendant peer-to-peer file sharing companies grokster streamcast could sued inducing copyright infringement companies power ledger bovlabs employ peer-to-peer energy trading platforms cooperation among community participants key continued success p2p systems aimed casual human users reach full potential large numbers nodes contribute resources current practice p2p networks often contain large numbers users utilize resources shared nodes share anything often referred freeloader problem freeloading profound impact network cases cause community collapse types networks users natural disincentives cooperate cooperation consumes resources may degrade performance studying social attributes p2p networks challenging due large populations turnover asymmetry interest zero-cost identity variety incentive mechanisms implemented encourage even force nodes contribute resources researchers explored benefits enabling virtual communities self-organize introduce incentives resource sharing cooperation arguing social aspect missing today p2p systems seen goal means self-organized virtual communities built fostered ongoing research efforts designing effective incentive mechanisms p2p systems based principles game theory beginning take psychological information-processing direction peer-to-peer networks e.g freenet place heavy emphasis privacy anonymity—that ensuring contents communications hidden eavesdroppers identities/locations participants concealed public key cryptography used provide encryption data validation authorization authentication data/messages onion routing mix network protocols e.g tarzan used provide anonymity although peer-to-peer networks used legitimate purposes rights holders targeted peer-to-peer involvement sharing copyrighted material peer-to-peer networking involves data transfer one user another without using intermediate server companies developing p2p applications involved numerous legal cases primarily united states primarily issues surrounding copyright law two major cases grokster vs riaa mgm studios inc. v. grokster ltd. cases file sharing technology ruled legal long developers ability prevent sharing copyrighted material establish criminal liability copyright infringement peer-to-peer systems government must prove defendant infringed copyright willingly purpose personal financial gain commercial advantage fair use exceptions allow limited use copyrighted material downloaded without acquiring permission rights holders documents usually news reporting lines research scholarly work controversies developed concern illegitimate use peer-to-peer networks regarding public safety national security file downloaded peer-to-peer network impossible know created file users connected network given time trustworthiness sources potential security threat seen peer-to-peer systems study ordered european union found illegal downloading may lead increase overall video game sales newer games charge extra features levels paper concluded piracy negative financial impact movies music literature study relied self-reported data game purchases use illegal download sites pains taken remove effects false misremembered responses peer-to-peer applications present one core issues network neutrality controversy internet service providers isps known throttle p2p file-sharing traffic due high-bandwidth usage compared web browsing e-mail many uses internet data transferred short intervals relative small quantities p2p file-sharing often consists relatively heavy bandwidth usage due ongoing file transfers swarm/network coordination packets october 2007 comcast one largest broadband internet providers united states started blocking p2p applications bittorrent rationale p2p mostly used share illegal content infrastructure designed continuous high-bandwidth traffic critics point p2p networking legitimate legal uses another way large providers trying control use content internet direct people towards client-server-based application architecture client-server model provides financial barriers-to-entry small publishers individuals less efficient sharing large files reaction bandwidth throttling several p2p applications started implementing protocol obfuscation bittorrent protocol encryption techniques achieving protocol obfuscation involves removing otherwise easily identifiable properties protocols deterministic byte sequences packet sizes making data look random isp solution high bandwidth p2p caching isp stores part files accessed p2p clients order save access internet researchers used computer simulations aid understanding evaluating complex behaviors individuals within network networking research often relies simulation order test evaluate new ideas important requirement process results must reproducible researchers replicate validate extend existing work research reproduced opportunity research hindered even though new simulators continue released research community tends towards handful open-source simulators demand features simulators shown criteria survey high therefore community work together get features open-source software would reduce need custom simulators hence increase repeatability reputability experiments besides stated facts work done ns-2 open source network simulator one research issue related free rider detection punishment explored using ns-2 simulator 1-hop neighbor's text information: mesh_networking.mesh networking mesh network simply meshnet local network topology infrastructure nodes i.e bridges switches infrastructure devices connect directly dynamically non-hierarchically many nodes possible cooperate one another efficiently route data from/to clients lack dependency one node allows every node participate relay information mesh networks dynamically self-organize self-configure reduce installation overhead ability self-configure enables dynamic distribution workloads particularly event nodes fail turn contributes fault-tolerance reduced maintenance costs mesh topology may contrasted conventional star/tree local network topologies bridges/switches directly linked small subset bridges/switches links infrastructure neighbours hierarchical star-and-tree topologies well established highly standardized vendor-neutral vendors mesh network devices yet agreed common standards interoperability devices different vendors yet assured mesh networks relay messages using either flooding technique routing technique routing message propagated along path hopping node node reaches destination ensure paths available network must allow continuous connections must reconfigure around broken paths using self-healing algorithms shortest path bridging self-healing allows routing-based network operate node breaks connection becomes unreliable result network typically quite reliable often one path source destination network although mostly used wireless situations concept also apply wired networks software interaction mesh network whose nodes connected fully connected network fully connected wired networks advantages security reliability problems cable affect two nodes attached however networks number cables therefore cost goes rapidly number nodes increases shortest path bridging allows ethernet switches connected mesh topology allows paths active wireless mesh radio networks originally developed military applications every node could dynamically serve router every node way even event failure nodes remaining nodes could continue communicate necessary serve uplinks nodes early wireless mesh network nodes single half-duplex radio one instant could either transmit receive time accompanied development shared mesh networks subsequently superseded complex radio hardware could receive packets upstream node transmit packets downstream node simultaneously different frequency different cdma channel allowed development switched mesh networks size cost power requirements radios declined nodes could cost-effectively equipped multiple radios turn permitted radio handle different function instance one radio client access another backhaul services work field aided use game theory methods analyze strategies allocation resources routing packets Target text information: terranet_ab.terranet ab terranet ab company delivers mobile telephony data services via peer-to-peer mobile mesh network handsets light infrastructure headquartered sweden currently led ceo pär-olof johannesson system uses unit within range additional network node allowing voice data transmission via radio frequency rather conventional cell sites terranet concept originally developed way bring mobile coverage under-served geographies populations technology much broader market terranet phone switched begins look phones within effective range finds connects extends radio network actual number dialled handset uses checks see person called within range handsets network call goes detractors questioned terranet lack clear business model though device manufacturers appear interested efforts noted thought leaders voice ip alexander straub truphone identified mesh networks next big thing telecoms terranet ab founded 2004 inventor technology anders carlius serial entrepreneur lund skåne county carlius came background chip manufacturing switchcore also worked web portal operator spray network served first ceo 2010 since inception terranet headquartered lund ideon science park best known home ericsson radio systems carlius says came idea travelling safari east africa wife emma first extensive pilot project carried autumn 2005 farming co-operative botswana trials included agreement indian operator bharat sanchar nigam test 50 handsets late 2012 number pilots south america year development engineer conny said main prerogative miniaturise terranet credit card-sized circuit could installed mobile handset company prestigious red herring magazine award april 2008 carlius received number honours work promoting entrepreneurship sweden including leadership awards 2005 rapidus 2008 jönköping international business school terranet supported private investors july 2013 emerged serial entrepreneur dan olofsson bought 12.5 stake ceo pär-olof johannesson acknowledged oloffson investment means lot company well-known operator heavy industrial background knows industry inside I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	2,511	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: aufs.aufs aufs short advanced multi-layered unification filesystem implements union mount linux file systems name originally stood anotherunionfs version 2 developed junjiro okajima 2006 aufs complete rewrite earlier unionfs aimed improve reliability performance also introduced new concepts like writable branch balancing improvements – implemented unionfs 2.x branch aufs rejected merging mainline linux code criticized dense unreadable uncommented instead overlayfs merged linux kernel several attempts merge aufs mainline kernel author given aufs included debian jessie ubuntu 16.04 box debian stretch include aufs anymore provides package aufs-dkms auto-compiles aufs kernel module using dell dkms docker originally used aufs container filesystem layers still available one supported storage backends several linux distributions chosen aufs replacement unionfs including 1-hop neighbor's text information: github.github github american company provides hosting software development version control using git subsidiary microsoft acquired company 2018 7.5 billion offers distributed version control source code management scm functionality git well adding features provides access control several collaboration features bug tracking feature requests task management wikis every project github offers plans free professional enterprise accounts free github accounts commonly used host open source projects january 2019 github offers unlimited private repositories plans including free accounts may 2019 github reports 37 million users 100 million repositories including least 28 million public repositories making largest host source code world github developed chris wanstrath p. j. hyett tom preston-werner scott chacon using ruby rails started february 2008 company github inc. existed since 2007 located san francisco february 24 2009 github team members announced talk yahoo headquarters within first year online github accumulated 46,000 public repositories 17,000 formed previous month alone time 6,200 repositories forked least 4,600 merged july 5 2009 github announced site harnessed 100,000 users july 27 2009 another talk delivered yahoo preston-werner announced github grown host 90,000 unique public repositories 12,000 forked least total 135,000 repositories july 25 2010 github announced hosting 1 million repositories april 20 2011 github announced hosting 2 million repositories june 2 2011 readwriteweb reported github surpassed sourceforge google code total number commits period january may 2011 july 9 2012 peter levine general partner github investor andreessen horowitz stated github growing revenue 300 annually since 2008 profitably nearly entire way january 16 2013 github announced passed 3 million users mark hosting 5 million repositories december 23 2013 github announced reached 10 million repositories june 2015 github opened office japan first office outside u.s. july 29 2015 github announced raised 250 million funding round led sequoia capital round valued company approximately 2 billion 2016 github ranked 14 forbes cloud 100 list february 28 2018 github fell victim second largest distributed denial-of-service ddos attack history incoming traffic reaching peak 1.35 terabits per second june 4 2018 microsoft announced reached agreement acquire github 7.5 billion purchase closed october 26 2018 june 19 2018 github expanded github education offering free education bundles schools june 4 2018 microsoft announced intent acquire github us 7.5 billion deal closed oct. 26 2018 github continue operate independently community platform business microsoft service led xamarin nat friedman reporting scott guthrie executive vice president microsoft cloud ai current ceo chris wanstrath retained technical fellow also reporting guthrie microsoft become significant user github using host open source projects development tools chakra core powershell visual studio code backed open source projects linux developed virtual file system git vfs git formerly git virtual file system gvfs —a git extension managing large-scale repositories adopted github concerns developers kyle simpson javascript trainer author rafael laguna ceo open-xchange microsoft purchase citing uneasiness microsoft handling previous acquisitions nokia mobile business skype saw culmination microsoft recent changes business strategy ceo satya nadella seen larger focus sale cloud computing services main line business alongside development contributions open source software linux opposed microsoft windows operating system harvard business review argued microsoft intending acquire github get access userbase used loss leader encourage use development products services concerns sale bolstered interest competitors bitbucket owned atlassian gitlab commercial open source product also runs hosted service version sourceforge owned bizx llc reported seen spikes new users intending migrate projects github respective services github inc. originally flat organization middle managers words everyone manager self-management employees could choose work projects interested open allocation salaries set chief executive 2014 github inc. introduced layer middle management github.com start-up business first years provided enough revenue funded solely three founders start taking employees july 2012 four years company founded andreessen horowitz invested 100 million venture capital july 2015 github raised another 250 million venture capital series b round investors sequoia capital andreessen horowitz thrive capital venture capital funds august 2016 github making 140 million annual recurring revenue github mascot anthropomorphized octocat five octopus-like arms character created graphic designer simon oxley clip art sell istock website enables designers market royalty-free digital images github became interested oxley work twitter selected bird designed logo illustration github chose character oxley named octopuss since github wanted octopuss logo use istock license disallows negotiated oxley buy exclusive rights image github renamed octopuss octocat trademarked character along new name later github hired illustrator cameron mcefee adapt octocat different purposes website promotional materials mcefee various github users since created hundreds variations character available octodex march 2014 github programmer julie ann horvath alleged founder ceo tom preston-werner wife theresa engaged pattern harassment led leaving company april 2014 github released statement denying horvath allegations however following internal investigation github confirmed claims github ceo chris wanstrath wrote company blog investigation found tom preston-werner capacity github ceo acted inappropriately including confrontational conduct disregard workplace complaints insensitivity impact spouse presence workplace failure enforce agreement spouse work office preston-werner resigned company 2017 allegations made discriminatory unsupportive behavior github developer recruited following commitment github improve diversity inclusivity development github platform began october 19 2007 site launched april 2008 tom preston-werner chris wanstrath p. j. hyett scott chacon made available months prior beta release projects github accessed manipulated using standard git command-line interface standard git commands work github also allows registered non-registered users browse public repositories site multiple desktop clients git plugins also created github third parties integrate platform site provides social networking-like functions feeds followers wikis using wiki software called gollum social network graph display developers work versions forks repository fork branch within fork newest user must create account order contribute content site public repositories browsed downloaded anyone registered user account users able discussions manage repositories submit contributions others repositories review changes code github began offering unlimited private repositories cost january 2019 limited three contributors per project previously public repositories free fundamental software underpins github git written linus torvalds creator linux additional software provides github user interface written using ruby rails erlang github inc. developers wanstrath hyett preston-werner github mostly used code addition source code github supports following formats features github terms service require public software projects hosted github meet open source definition reason essential users developers intending use piece software found github read software license repository usually found top-level file called license license.txt similar determine meets needs terms service state setting repositories viewed publicly agree allow others view fork repositories github enterprise similar github public service designed use large-scale enterprise software development teams enterprise wishes host repositories behind corporate firewall cloud enterprises privately run github cloud premises two environments linked work together github pages static web hosting service offered github since 2008 github users hosting user blogs project documentation even whole books created page github pages content stored git repository either files served visitors verbatim markdown format github seamlessly integrated jekyll static web site blog generator github continuous integration pipelines time content source updated jekyll regenerates website automatically serves via github pages infrastructure rest github includes free paid tiers service instead supported web advertising web sites generated service hosted either subdomains github.io domain custom domains bought third-party domain name registrar github also operates services pastebin-style site called gist hosting code snippets github proper hosting larger projects tom preston-werner presented then-new gist feature punk rock ruby conference 2008 gist builds traditional simple concept pastebin adding version control code snippets easy forking ssl encryption private pastes gist git repository multiple code snippets contained single paste pushed pulled using git forked code pushed back original author form patch gists pastes become like mini-projects github launched new program called github student developer pack give students free access popular development tools services github partnered bitnami crowdflower digitalocean dnsimple hackhands namecheap orchestrate screenhero sendgrid stripe travis ci unreal engine launch program 2016 github announced launch github campus experts program train encourage students grow technology communities universities campus experts program open university students 18 years older across world github campus experts one primary ways github funds student oriented events communities campus experts given access training funding additional resources run events grow communities become campus expert applicants must complete online training course consisting multiple modules designed grow community leadership skills github also provides software service integrations adding extra features projects services include site https //github.community/ github maintains community forum users ask questions publicly answer questions users site https //github.com/sponsors github sponsors allows users make monthly money donations projects hosted github public beta announced may 23 2019 currently project accepts wait list registrations verge said github sponsors works exactly like patreon developers offer various funding tiers come different perks ’ receive recurring payments supporters want access encourage work except zero fees use program furthermore github offer incentives early adopters first year pledges cover payment processing costs match sponsorship payments 5,000 per developer furthermore users still use similar services like patreon open collective link websites july 25th 2019 developer based iran wrote medium github blocked private repositories prohibited access github pages soon github confirmed blocking developers iran crimea cuba north korea syria accessing private repositories however github reopened access github pages days later public repositories regardless location also revealed using github visiting sanctioned countries could result similar action occurring user account github responded complaints media spokesperson saying github subject us trade control laws committed full compliance applicable law time github vision global platform developer collaboration matter developers reside result take seriously responsibility examine government mandates thoroughly certain users customers impacted beyond required law includes keeping public repositories services including open source projects available accessible support personal communications involving developers sanctioned regions developers feel restrictions appeal removal said restrictions including travel reside countries github forbidden use vpns ip proxies access site sanctioned countries purchase history ip addresses flag users among sources december 3 2014 github blacklisted russia github initially refused take user-posted suicide manuals day russia withdrew block december 31 2014 github blocked india along 31 websites pro-isis content posted users january 10 2015 github unblocked march 26 2015 github fell victim massive ddos attack lasted 118 hours attack appeared originate china primarily targeted github-hosted user content describing methods circumventing internet censorship october 8 2016 github access blocked turkish government prevent email leakage hacked account belonging country energy minister july 25 2019 github started blocking developers countries facing us trading sanctions prominent open source organizations projects use github primary place collaboration including 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: dynamic_kernel_module_support.dynamic kernel module support dynamic kernel module support dkms program/framework enables generating linux kernel modules whose sources generally reside outside kernel source tree concept dkms modules automatically rebuilt new kernel installed essential feature dkms automatically recompiles dkms modules new kernel version installed allows drivers devices outside mainline kernel continue working linux kernel upgrade another benefit dkms allows installation new driver existing system running arbitrary kernel version without need manual compilation precompiled packages provided vendor dkms written linux engineering team dell 2003 included many distributions ubuntu debian fedora suse arch dkms free software released terms gnu general public license gpl v2 later dkms supports rpm deb package formats out-of-the-box I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	4,282	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ipv4.ipv4 internet protocol version 4 ipv4 fourth version internet protocol ip one core protocols standards-based internetworking methods internet packet-switched networks ipv4 first version deployed production arpanet 1983 still routes internet traffic today despite ongoing deployment successor protocol ipv6 ipv4 described ietf publication rfc 791 september 1981 replacing earlier definition rfc 760 january 1980 ipv4 uses 32-bit address space limits number unique hosts 4,294,967,296 2 large blocks reserved special networking methods internet protocol protocol defines enables internetworking internet layer internet protocol suite essence forms internet uses logical addressing system performs routing forwarding packets source host next router one hop closer intended destination host another network ipv4 connectionless protocol operates best effort delivery model guarantee delivery assure proper sequencing avoidance duplicate delivery aspects including data integrity addressed upper layer transport protocol transmission control protocol tcp ipv4 uses 32-bit addresses limits address space 2 addresses ipv4 reserves special address blocks private networks ~18 million addresses multicast addresses ~270 million addresses ipv4 addresses may represented notation expressing 32-bit integer value often written dot-decimal notation consists four octets address expressed individually decimal numbers separated periods example quad-dotted ip address 192.0.2.235 represents 32-bit decimal number 3221226219 hexadecimal format 0xc00002eb may also expressed dotted hex format 0xc0.0x00.0x02.0xeb octal byte values 0300.0000.0002.0353 cidr notation combines address routing prefix compact format address followed slash character count consecutive 1 bits routing prefix subnet mask address format common use classful networking practiced example loopback address host 127.0.0.1 commonly written 127.1 given belonged class-a network eight bits network mask 24 bits host number original design ipv4 ip address divided two parts network identifier significant octet address host identifier rest address latter also called rest field structure permitted maximum 256 network identifiers quickly found inadequate overcome limit most-significant address octet redefined 1981 create network classes system later became known classful networking revised system defined five classes classes b c different bit lengths network identification rest address used previously identify host within network different sizes fields different classes network class different capacity addressing hosts addition three classes addressing hosts class defined multicast addressing class e reserved future applications dividing existing classful networks subnets began 1985 publication division made flexible introduction variable-length subnet masks vlsm 1987 1993 based work introduced classless inter-domain routing cidr expressed number bits significant instance /24 class-based scheme dubbed classful contrast cidr designed permit repartitioning address space smaller larger blocks addresses could allocated users hierarchical structure created cidr managed internet assigned numbers authority iana regional internet registries rirs rir maintains publicly searchable whois database provides information ip address assignments internet engineering task force ietf internet assigned numbers authority iana restricted general use various reserved ip addresses special purposes notably addresses used multicast traffic provide addressing space unrestricted uses private networks section begin=ipv4-special-address-blocks/ approximately four billion addresses defined ipv4 18 million addresses three ranges reserved use private networks packets addresses ranges routable public internet ignored public routers therefore private hosts directly communicate public networks require network address translation routing gateway purpose section begin=ipv4-private-networks/ since two private networks e.g. two branch offices directly interoperate via public internet two networks must bridged across internet via virtual private network vpn ip tunnel encapsulates packets including headers containing private addresses protocol layer transmission across public network additionally encapsulated packets may encrypted transmission across public networks secure data rfc 3927 defines special address block 169.254.0.0/16 link-local addressing addresses valid link local network segment point-to-point connection directly connected host uses addresses routable like private addresses addresses source destination packets traversing internet addresses primarily used address autoconfiguration zeroconf host obtain ip address dhcp server internal configuration methods address block reserved standards existed address autoconfiguration microsoft created implementation called automatic private ip addressing apipa deployed millions machines became de facto standard many years later may 2005 ietf defined formal standard rfc 3927 entitled dynamic configuration ipv4 link-local addresses class network 127.0.0.0 classless network 127.0.0.0/8 reserved loopback ip packets whose source addresses belong network never appear outside host modus operandi network expands upon loopback interface networks subnet masks least 24 bits i.e class c networks classful networking networks cidr suffixes /24 /30 255.255.255.0–255.255.255.252 may address ending 0 255 classful addressing prescribed three possible subnet masks class 255.0.0.0 /8 class b 255.255.0.0 /16 class c 255.255.255.0 /24 example subnet 192.168.5.0/255.255.255.0 192.168.5.0/24 identifier 192.168.5.0 commonly used refer entire subnet avoid ambiguity representation address ending octet 0 reserved broadcast address address allows information sent interfaces given subnet rather specific machine generally broadcast address found obtaining bit complement subnet mask performing bitwise operation network identifier words broadcast address last address address range subnet example broadcast address network 192.168.5.0 192.168.5.255 networks size /24 larger broadcast address always ends 255 however mean every address ending 0 255 used host address example /16 subnet 192.168.0.0/255.255.0.0 equivalent address range 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255 broadcast address 192.168.255.255 one use following addresses hosts even though end 255 192.168.1.255 192.168.2.255 etc also 192.168.0.0 network identifier must assigned interface addresses 192.168.1.0 192.168.2.0 etc. may assigned despite ending 0 past conflict network addresses broadcast addresses arose software used non-standard broadcast addresses zeros instead ones networks smaller /24 broadcast addresses necessarily end 255 example cidr subnet 203.0.113.16/28 broadcast address 203.0.113.31 hosts internet usually known names e.g. www.example.com primarily ip address used routing network interface identification use domain names requires translating called resolving addresses vice versa analogous looking phone number phone book using recipient name translation addresses domain names performed domain name system dns hierarchical distributed naming system allows subdelegation name spaces dns servers since 1980s apparent pool available ipv4 addresses depleted rate initially anticipated original design network address system main market forces accelerated ipv4 address depletion included threat exhaustion motivated introduction number remedial technologies classful networks classless inter-domain routing cidr methods network address translation nat strict usage-based allocation policies provide long-term solution pending address exhaustion ipv6 created 1990s made many addresses available increasing address size 128 bits ipv6 commercial deployment since 2006 primary address pool internet maintained iana exhausted 3 february 2011 last 5 blocks allocated 5 rirs apnic first rir exhaust regional pool 15 april 2011 except small amount address space reserved transition ipv6 allocated much restricted policy accepted standard long term solution use ipv6 increased address size 128 bits providing vastly increased address space also allows improved route aggregation across internet offers large subnetwork allocations minimum 2 host addresses end-users however ipv4-only hosts directly communicate ipv6-only hosts ipv6 alone provide immediate solution ipv4 exhaustion problem migration ipv6 progress completion expected take considerable time ip packet consists header section data section ip packet data checksum footer data section typically link layer encapsulates ip packets frames crc footer detects errors typically end-to-end tcp layer checksum detects errors ipv4 packet header consists 14 fields 13 required 14th field optional aptly named options fields header packed significant byte first big endian diagram discussion significant bits considered come first msb 0 bit numbering significant bit numbered 0 version field actually found four significant bits first byte example internet header length ihl field 4 bits number 32-bit words since ipv4 header may contain variable number options field specifies size header also coincides offset data minimum value field 5 indicates length 5 × 32 bits 160 bits 20 bytes 4-bit field maximum value 15 words 15 × 32 bits 480 bits 60 bytes fragment offset field measured units eight-byte blocks 13 bits long specifies offset particular fragment relative beginning original unfragmented ip datagram first fragment offset zero allows maximum offset 2 – 1 × 8 65,528 bytes would exceed maximum ip packet length 65,535 bytes header length included 65,528 20 65,548 bytes options field often used note value ihl field must include enough extra 32-bit words hold options plus padding needed ensure header contains integer number 32-bit words list options may terminated eol end options list 0x00 option necessary end options would otherwise coincide end header possible options put header follows packets containing options may considered dangerous routers blocked packet payload included checksum contents interpreted based value protocol header field common payload protocols see list ip protocol numbers complete list internet protocol enables traffic networks design accommodates networks diverse physical nature independent underlying transmission technology used link layer networks different hardware usually vary transmission speed also maximum transmission unit mtu one network wants transmit datagrams network smaller mtu may fragment datagrams ipv4 function placed internet layer performed ipv4 routers thus require implementation higher layers function routing ip packets contrast ipv6 next generation internet protocol allow routers perform fragmentation hosts must determine path mtu sending datagrams router receives packet examines destination address determines outgoing interface use interface mtu packet size bigger mtu fragment df bit packet header set 0 router may fragment packet router divides packet fragments max size fragment mtu minus ip header size 20 bytes minimum 60 bytes maximum router puts fragment packet fragment packet following changes example mtu 1,500 bytes header size 20 bytes fragment offsets would multiples formula_1 multiples 0 185 370 555 740 ... possible packet fragmented one router fragments fragmented another router example packet 4,520 bytes including 20 bytes ip header without options fragmented two packets link mtu 2,500 bytes total data size preserved 2480 bytes 2020 bytes 4500 bytes offsets formula_2 formula_3 link mtu 1,500 bytes fragment results two fragments data size preserved 1480 1000 2480 1480 540 2020 also case fragments bit remains 1 fragments came 1 last fragment arrives works usual mf bit set 0 last one course identification field continues value re-fragmented fragments way even fragments re-fragmented receiver knows initially started packet last offset last data size used calculate total data size formula_4 receiver knows packet fragment least one following conditions true receiver identifies matching fragments using foreign local address protocol id identification field receiver reassembles data fragments id using fragment offset fragments flag receiver receives last fragment fragments flag set 0 calculate size original data payload multiplying last fragment offset eight adding last fragment data size given example calculation 495*8 540 4500 bytes receiver fragments reassembled correct sequence according offsets form original datagram ip addresses tied permanent manner hardware identifications indeed network interface multiple ip addresses modern operating systems hosts routers need additional mechanisms identify relationship device interfaces ip addresses order properly deliver ip packet destination host link address resolution protocol arp performs ip-address-to-hardware-address translation ipv4 hardware address also called mac address addition reverse correlation often necessary example ip host booted connected network needs determine ip address unless address preconfigured administrator protocols inverse correlations exist internet protocol suite currently used methods dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp bootstrap protocol bootp infrequently reverse arp 1-hop neighbor's text information: denial-of-service_attack.denial-of-service attack computing denial-of-service attack dos attack cyber-attack perpetrator seeks make machine network resource unavailable intended users temporarily indefinitely disrupting services host connected internet denial service typically accomplished flooding targeted machine resource superfluous requests attempt overload systems prevent legitimate requests fulfilled distributed denial-of-service attack ddos attack incoming traffic flooding victim originates many different sources effectively makes impossible stop attack simply blocking single source dos ddos attack analogous group people crowding entry door shop making hard legitimate customers enter thus disrupting trade criminal perpetrators dos attacks often target sites services hosted high-profile web servers banks credit card payment gateways revenge blackmail activism motivate attacks court testimony shows first demonstration dos attack made khan c. smith 1997 def con event disrupting internet access las vegas strip hour release sample code event led online attack sprint earthlink e-trade major corporations year follow march 5 2018 unnamed customer us-based service provider arbor networks fell victim largest ddos history reaching peak 1.7 terabits per second previous record set days earlier march 1 2018 github hit attack 1.35 terabits per second hong kong anti-extradition protests june 2019 messaging app telegram subject ddos attack aimed preventing protesters using coordinate movements founders telegram stated attack appears state sized actor via ip addresses originating china denial-of-service attacks characterized explicit attempt attackers prevent legitimate use service two general forms dos attacks crash services flood services serious attacks distributed distributed denial-of-service ddos large-scale dos attack perpetrator uses one unique ip address often thousands hosts infected malware distributed denial service attack typically involves around 3–5 nodes different networks fewer nodes may qualify dos attack ddos attack since incoming traffic flooding victim originates different sources may impossible stop attack simply using ingress filtering also makes difficult distinguish legitimate user traffic attack traffic spread across multiple points origin alternative augmentation ddos attacks may involve forging ip sender addresses ip address spoofing complicating identifying defeating attack scale ddos attacks continued rise recent years 2016 exceeding terabit per second common examples ddos attacks fraggle smurf syn flooding application layer ddos attack sometimes referred layer 7 ddos attack form ddos attack attackers target application-layer processes attack over-exercises specific functions features website intention disable functions features application-layer attack different entire network attack often used financial institutions distract security personnel security breaches 2013 application-layer ddos attacks represented 20 ddos attacks according research akamai technologies 51 percent application layer attacks q4 2013 q4 2014 16 percent q3 2014 q4 2014 november 2017 junade ali computer scientist cloudflare noted whilst network-level attacks continue high capacity occurring less frequently ali notes although network-level attacks becoming less frequent data cloudflare demonstrates application-layer attacks still showing sign slowing osi model iso/iec 7498-1 conceptual model characterizes standardizes internal functions communication system partitioning abstraction layers model product open systems interconnection project international organization standardization iso model groups similar communication functions one seven logical layers layer serves layer served layer example layer provides error-free communications across network provides communications path needed applications calls next lower layer send receive packets traverse path osi model definition application layer narrower scope often implemented osi model defines application layer user interface osi application layer responsible displaying data images user human-recognizable format interface presentation layer implementation application presentation layers frequently combined application layer ddos attack done mainly specific targeted purposes including disrupting transactions access databases requires fewer resources network layer attacks often accompanies attack may disguised look like legitimate traffic except targets specific application packets functions attack application layer disrupt services retrieval information search functions website advanced persistent dos apdos associated advanced persistent threat requires specialised ddos mitigation attacks persist weeks longest continuous period noted far lasted 38 days attack involved approximately 50+ petabits 50,000+ terabits malicious traffic attackers scenario may tactically switch several targets create diversion evade defensive ddos countermeasures eventually concentrating main thrust attack onto single victim scenario attackers continuous access several powerful network resources capable sustaining prolonged campaign generating enormous levels un-amplified ddos traffic apdos attacks characterised vendors provide so-called booter stresser services simple web-based front ends accept payment web marketed promoted stress-testing tools used perform unauthorized denial-of-service attacks allow technically unsophisticated attackers access sophisticated attack tools without need attacker understand use usually powered botnet traffic produced consumer stresser range anywhere 5-50 gbit/s cases deny average home user internet access united states computer emergency readiness team us-cert identified symptoms denial-of-service attack include additional symptoms may include attack conducted sufficiently large scale entire geographical regions internet connectivity compromised without attacker knowledge intent incorrectly configured flimsy network infrastructure equipment wide array programs used launch dos-attacks cases mydoom slowloris tools embedded malware launch attacks without knowledge system owner stacheldraht classic example ddos tool uses layered structure attacker uses client program connect handlers compromised systems issue commands zombie agents turn facilitate ddos attack agents compromised via handlers attacker using automated routines exploit vulnerabilities programs accept remote connections running targeted remote hosts handler control thousand agents cases machine may become part ddos attack owner consent example operation payback organized group anonymous loic typically used way along hoic wide variety ddos tools available today including paid free versions different features available underground market hacker related forums irc channels various dos-causing exploits buffer overflow cause server-running software get confused fill disk space consume available memory cpu time kinds dos rely primarily brute force flooding target overwhelming flux packets oversaturating connection bandwidth depleting target system resources bandwidth-saturating floods rely attacker higher bandwidth available victim common way achieving today via distributed denial-of-service employing botnet another target ddos attacks may produce added costs application operator latter uses resources based cloud computing case normally application used resources tied needed quality service level e.g responses less 200 ms rule usually linked automated software e.g amazon cloudwatch raise virtual resources provider order meet defined qos levels increased requests.the main incentive behind attacks may drive application owner raise elasticity levels order handle increased application traffic order cause financial losses force become less competitive floods may use specific packet types connection requests saturate finite resources example occupying maximum number open connections filling victim disk space logs banana attack another particular type dos involves redirecting outgoing messages client back onto client preventing outside access well flooding client sent packets land attack type attacker shell-level access victim computer may slow unusable crash using fork bomb kind application-level dos attack xdos xml dos controlled modern web application firewalls wafs pulsing zombies compromised computers directed launch intermittent short-lived floodings victim websites intent merely slowing rather crashing type attack referred degradation-of-service rather denial-of-service difficult detect regular zombie invasions disrupt hamper connection websites prolonged periods time potentially causing disruption concentrated floods exposure degradation-of-service attacks complicated matter discerning whether server really attacked normal traffic loads goal dos l2 possibly ddos attack cause launching defense mechanism blocks network segment attack originated case distributed attack ip header modification depends kind security behavior fully block attacked network internet without system crash distributed denial-of-service ddos attack occurs multiple systems flood bandwidth resources targeted system usually one web servers attack often result multiple compromised systems example botnet flooding targeted system traffic botnet network zombie computers programmed receive commands without owners knowledge server overloaded connections new connections longer accepted major advantages attacker using distributed denial-of-service attack multiple machines generate attack traffic one machine multiple attack machines harder turn one attack machine behavior attack machine stealthier making harder track shut attacker advantages cause challenges defense mechanisms example merely purchasing incoming bandwidth current volume attack might help attacker might able simply add attack machines end completely crashing website periods time malware carry ddos attack mechanisms one better-known examples mydoom dos mechanism triggered specific date time type ddos involved hardcoding target ip address prior release malware interaction necessary launch attack system may also compromised trojan allowing attacker download zombie agent trojan may contain one attackers also break systems using automated tools exploit flaws programs listen connections remote hosts scenario primarily concerns systems acting servers web stacheldraht classic example ddos tool uses layered structure attacker uses client program connect handlers compromised systems issue commands zombie agents turn facilitate ddos attack agents compromised via handlers attacker using automated routines exploit vulnerabilities programs accept remote connections running targeted remote hosts handler control thousand agents cases machine may become part ddos attack owner consent example operation payback organized group anonymous attacks use different types internet packets tcp udp icmp etc collections systems compromisers known botnets rootservers ddos tools like stacheldraht still use classic dos attack methods centered ip spoofing amplification like smurf attacks fraggle attacks also known bandwidth consumption attacks syn floods also known resource starvation attacks may also used newer tools use dns servers dos purposes unlike mydoom ddos mechanism botnets turned ip address script kiddies use deny availability well known websites legitimate users sophisticated attackers use ddos tools purposes extortioneven business rivals simple attacks syn floods may appear wide range source ip addresses giving appearance well distributed dos flood attacks require completion tcp three way handshake attempt exhaust destination syn queue server bandwidth source ip addresses trivially spoofed attack could come limited set sources may even originate single host stack enhancements syn cookies may effective mitigation syn queue flooding however complete bandwidth exhaustion may require involvement attacker mounts attack single host would classified dos attack fact attack availability would classed denial-of-service attack hand attacker uses many systems simultaneously launch attacks remote host would classified ddos attack reported new attacks internet things iot devices involved denial service attacks one noted attack made peaked around 20,000 requests per second came around 900 cctv cameras uk gchq tools built ddos named predators face rolling thunder 2015 ddos botnets dd4bc grew prominence taking aim financial institutions cyber-extortionists typically begin low-level attack warning larger attack carried ransom paid bitcoin security experts recommend targeted websites pay ransom attackers tend get extended extortion scheme recognize target ready pay first discovered 2009 http post attack sends complete legitimate http post header includes 'content-length field specify size message body follow however attacker proceeds send actual message body extremely slow rate e.g 1 byte/110 seconds due entire message correct complete target server attempt obey 'content-length field header wait entire body message transmitted take long time attacker establishes hundreds even thousands connections resources incoming connections server victim used hence making including legitimate connections impossible data sent notable unlike many dos attacks try subdue server overloading network cpu http post attack targets logical resources victim means victim would still enough network bandwidth processing power operate combined fact apache default accept requests 2gb size attack particularly powerful http post attacks difficult differentiate legitimate connections therefore able bypass protection systems owasp open source web application security project released testing tool test security servers type attacks challenge collapsar cc attack attack standard http requests sent targeted web server frequently uniform resource identifiers uris require complicated time-consuming algorithms database operations order exhaust resources targeted web server 2004 chinese hacker nicknamed kiki invented hacking tool send kinds requests attack nsfocus firewall named collapsar thus hacking tool known challenge collapsar cc short consequently type attack got name cc attack smurf attack relies misconfigured network devices allow packets sent computer hosts particular network via broadcast address network rather specific machine attacker send large numbers ip packets source address faked appear address victim devices network default respond sending reply source ip address number machines network receive respond packets large victim computer flooded traffic overloads victim computer even make unusable attack ping flood based sending victim overwhelming number ping packets usually using ping command unix-like hosts -t flag windows systems much less capable overwhelming target also -l size flag allow sent packet size greater 65500 windows simple launch primary requirement access greater bandwidth victim ping death based sending victim malformed ping packet lead system crash vulnerable system blacknurse attack example attack taking advantage required destination port unreachable icmp packets nuke old denial-of-service attack computer networks consisting fragmented otherwise invalid icmp packets sent target achieved using modified ping utility repeatedly send corrupt data thus slowing affected computer comes complete stop specific example nuke attack gained prominence winnuke exploited vulnerability netbios handler windows 95 string out-of-band data sent tcp port 139 victim machine causing lock display blue screen death bsod attackers found way exploit number bugs peer-to-peer servers initiate ddos attacks aggressive peer-to-peer-ddos attacks exploits dc++ peer-to-peer botnet attacker communicate clients subverts instead attacker acts puppet master instructing clients large peer-to-peer file sharing hubs disconnect peer-to-peer network connect victim website instead permanent denial-of-service pdos also known loosely phlashing attack damages system badly requires replacement reinstallation hardware unlike distributed denial-of-service attack pdos attack exploits security flaws allow remote administration management interfaces victim hardware routers printers networking hardware attacker uses vulnerabilities replace device firmware modified corrupt defective firmware image—a process done legitimately known flashing therefore bricks device rendering unusable original purpose repaired replaced pdos pure hardware targeted attack much faster requires fewer resources using botnet root/vserver ddos attack features potential high probability security exploits network enabled embedded devices needs technique come attention numerous hacking communities brickerbot piece malware targeted iot devices used pdos attacks disable targets phlashdance tool created rich smith employee hewlett-packard systems security lab used detect demonstrate pdos vulnerabilities 2008 eusecwest applied security conference london distributed denial-of-service attack may involve sending forged requests type large number computers reply requests using internet protocol address spoofing source address set targeted victim means replies go flood target reflected attack form sometimes called drdos icmp echo request attacks smurf attack considered one form reflected attack flooding host send echo requests broadcast addresses mis-configured networks thereby enticing hosts send echo reply packets victim early ddos programs implemented distributed form attack amplification attacks used magnify bandwidth sent victim typically done publicly accessible dns servers used cause congestion target system using dns response traffic many services exploited act reflectors harder block others us-cert observed different services implies different amplification factors tabulated dns amplification attacks involve new mechanism increased amplification effect using much larger list dns servers seen earlier process typically involves attacker sending dns name look request public dns server spoofing source ip address targeted victim attacker tries request much information possible thus amplifying dns response sent targeted victim since size request significantly smaller response attacker easily able increase amount traffic directed target snmp ntp also exploited reflector amplification attack example amplified ddos attack network time protocol ntp command called monlist sends details last 600 hosts requested time ntp server back requester small request time server sent using spoofed source ip address victim results response 556.9 times size request sent victim becomes amplified using botnets send requests spoofed ip source result massive amount data sent back victim difficult defend types attacks response data coming legitimate servers attack requests also sent udp require connection server means source ip verified request received server order bring awareness vulnerabilities campaigns started dedicated finding amplification vectors led people fixing resolvers resolvers shut completely attack works using worm infect hundreds thousands iot devices across internet worm propagates networks systems taking control poorly protected iot devices thermostats wi-fi enabled clocks washing machines device becomes enslaved usually owner user immediate indication iot device direct target attack used part larger attack newly enslaved devices called slaves bots hacker acquired desired number bots instruct bots try contact isp october 2016 mirai botnet attacked dyn isp sites twitter netflix etc soon occurred websites unreachable several hours type attack physically damaging certainly costly large internet companies get attacked rudy attack targets web applications starvation available sessions web server much like slowloris rudy keeps sessions halt using never-ending post transmissions sending arbitrarily large content-length header value manipuling maximum segment size selective acknowledgement sack may used remote peer cause denial service integer overflow linux kernel causing even kernel panic jonathan looney discovered cve-2019-11477 cve-2019-11478 cve-2019-11479 june 17 2019 shrew attack denial-of-service attack transmission control protocol uses short synchronized bursts traffic disrupt tcp connections link exploiting weakness tcp re-transmission timeout mechanism slow read attack sends legitimate application layer requests reads responses slowly thus trying exhaust server connection pool achieved advertising small number tcp receive window size time emptying clients tcp receive buffer slowly causes low data flow rate sophisticated low-bandwidth ddos attack form dos uses less traffic increases effectiveness aiming weak point victim system design i.e. attacker sends traffic consisting complicated requests system essentially sophisticated ddos attack lower cost due use less traffic smaller size making difficult identify ability hurt systems protected flow control mechanisms syn flood occurs host sends flood tcp/syn packets often forged sender address packets handled like connection request causing server spawn half-open connection sending back tcp/syn-ack packet acknowledge waiting packet response sender address response ack packet however sender address forged response never comes half-open connections saturate number available connections server make keeping responding legitimate requests attack ends teardrop attack involves sending mangled ip fragments overlapping oversized payloads target machine crash various operating systems bug tcp/ip fragmentation re-assembly code windows 3.1x windows 95 windows nt operating systems well versions linux prior versions 2.0.32 2.1.63 vulnerable attack although september 2009 vulnerability windows vista referred teardrop attack targeted smb2 higher layer tcp packets teardrop used one fields ip header “ fragment offset ” field indicating starting position offset data contained fragmented packet relative data original packet sum offset size one fragmented packet differs next fragmented packet packets overlap happens server vulnerable teardrop attacks unable reassemble packets resulting denial-of-service condition voice ip made abusive origination large numbers telephone voice calls inexpensive readily automated permitting call origins misrepresented caller id spoofing according us federal bureau investigation telephony denial-of-service tdos appeared part various fraudulent schemes telephony denial-of-service exist even without internet telephony 2002 new hampshire senate election phone jamming scandal telemarketers used flood political opponents spurious calls jam phone banks election day widespread publication number also flood enough calls render unusable happened accident 1981 multiple +1-area code-867-5309 subscribers inundated hundreds misdialed calls daily response song 867-5309/jenny tdos differs telephone harassment prank calls obscene phone calls number calls originated occupying lines continuously repeated automated calls victim prevented making receiving routine emergency telephone calls related exploits include sms flooding attacks black fax fax loop transmission takes router resources drop packet ttl value 1 less forward packet higher ttl value packet dropped due ttl expiry router cpu must generate send icmp time exceeded response generating many responses overload router cpu attack uses existing vulnerability universal plug play upnp protocol get around considerable amount present defense methods flood target network servers attack based dns amplification technique attack mechanism upnp router forwards requests one outer source another disregarding upnp behavior rules using upnp router returns data unexpected udp port bogus ip address making harder take simple action shut traffic flood according imperva researchers effective way stop attack companies lock upnp routers defensive responses denial-of-service attacks typically involve use combination attack detection traffic classification response tools aiming block traffic identify illegitimate allow traffic identify legitimate list prevention response tools provided application front-end hardware intelligent hardware placed network traffic reaches servers used networks conjunction routers switches application front end hardware analyzes data packets enter system identifies priority regular dangerous 25 bandwidth management vendors approaches ddos attacks cloud-based applications may based application layer analysis indicating whether incoming bulk traffic legitimate thus triggering elasticity decisions without economical implications ddos attack approaches mainly rely identified path value inside application monitor progress requests path markers called key completion indicators essence technique statistical methods assessing behavior incoming requests detect something unusual abnormal going analogy bricks-and-mortar department store customers spend average known percentage time different activities picking items examining putting back filling basket waiting pay paying leaving high-level activities correspond key completion indicators service site normal behavior determined abnormal behavior identified mob customers arrived store spent time picking items putting back never made purchases could flagged unusual behavior department store attempt adjust periods high activity bringing reserve employees short notice routinely mob start showing never buying anything could ruin store extra employee costs soon store would identify mob activity scale back number employees recognising mob provides profit served may make difficult legitimate customers get served mob presence saves store total ruin case elastic cloud services huge abnormal additional workload may incur significant charges cloud service provider technique used scale back even stop expansion server availability protect economic loss blackhole routing traffic attacked dns ip address sent black hole null interface non-existent server efficient avoid affecting network connectivity managed isp dns sinkhole routes traffic valid ip address analyzes traffic rejects bad packets sinkholing efficient severe attacks intrusion prevention systems ips effective attacks signatures associated however trend among attacks legitimate content bad intent intrusion-prevention systems work content recognition block behavior-based dos attacks asic based ips may detect block denial-of-service attacks processing power granularity analyze attacks act like circuit breaker automated way rate-based ips rbips must analyze traffic granularly continuously monitor traffic pattern determine traffic anomaly must let legitimate traffic flow blocking dos attack traffic focused problem ips dos defense system dds block connection-based dos attacks legitimate content bad intent dds also address protocol attacks teardrop ping death rate-based attacks icmp floods syn floods case simple attack firewall could simple rule added deny incoming traffic attackers based protocols ports originating ip addresses complex attacks however hard block simple rules example ongoing attack port 80 web service possible drop incoming traffic port prevent server serving legitimate traffic additionally firewalls may deep network hierarchy routers adversely affected traffic gets firewall also many security tools still support ipv6 may configured properly firewalls often might get bypassed attacks similar switches routers rate-limiting acl capability manually set routers easily overwhelmed dos attack cisco ios optional features reduce impact flooding switches rate-limiting acl capability switches provide automatic and/or system-wide rate limiting traffic shaping delayed binding tcp splicing deep packet inspection bogon filtering bogus ip filtering detect remediate dos attacks automatic rate filtering wan link failover balancing schemes work long dos attacks prevented using example syn flood prevented using delayed binding tcp splicing similarly content based dos may prevented using deep packet inspection attacks originating dark addresses going dark addresses prevented using bogon filtering automatic rate filtering work long set rate-thresholds set correctly wan-link failover work long links dos/ddos prevention mechanism traffic passed cleaning center scrubbing center via various methods proxies tunnels digital cross connects even direct circuits separates bad traffic ddos also common internet attacks sends good traffic beyond server provider needs central connectivity internet manage kind service unless happen located within facility cleaning center scrubbing center ddos attacks overwhelm type hardware firewall passing malicious traffic large mature networks becomes effective economically sustainable ddos unintentional denial-of-service occur system ends denied due deliberate attack single individual group individuals simply due sudden enormous spike popularity happen extremely popular website posts prominent link second less well-prepared site example part news story result significant proportion primary site regular userspotentially hundreds thousands peopleclick link space hours effect target website ddos attack vipdos specifically link posted celebrity michael jackson died 2009 websites google twitter slowed even crashed many sites servers thought requests virus spyware trying cause denial-of-service attack warning users queries looked like automated requests computer virus spyware application news sites link sitessites whose primary function provide links interesting content elsewhere internetare likely cause phenomenon canonical example slashdot effect receiving traffic slashdot also known reddit hug death digg effect routers also known create unintentional dos attacks d-link netgear routers overloaded ntp servers flooding ntp servers without respecting restrictions client types geographical limitations similar unintentional denials-of-service also occur via media e.g url mentioned television server indexed google another search engine peak periods activity lot available bandwidth indexed also experience effects dos attack legal action taken least one case 2006 universal tube rollform equipment corporation sued youtube massive numbers would-be youtube.com users accidentally typed tube company url utube.com result tube company ended spend large amounts money upgrading bandwidth company appears taken advantage situation utube.com containing ads advertisement revenue march 2014 malaysia airlines flight 370 went missing digitalglobe launched crowdsourcing service users could help search missing jet satellite images response overwhelmed company servers unintentional denial-of-service may also result prescheduled event created website case census australia 2016 could caused server provides service specific time might university website setting grades available result many login requests time computer network security backscatter side-effect spoofed denial-of-service attack kind attack attacker spoofs forges source address ip packets sent victim general victim machine distinguish spoofed packets legitimate packets victim responds spoofed packets normally would response packets known backscatter attacker spoofing source addresses randomly backscatter response packets victim sent back random destinations effect used network telescopes indirect evidence attacks term backscatter analysis refers observing backscatter packets arriving statistically significant portion ip address space determine characteristics dos attacks victims many jurisdictions laws denial-of-service attacks illegal january 7 2013 anonymous posted petition whitehouse.gov site asking ddos recognized legal form protest similar occupy protests claim similarity purpose 1-hop neighbor's text information: ipv6.ipv6 internet protocol version 6 ipv6 recent version internet protocol ip communications protocol provides identification location system computers networks routes traffic across internet ipv6 developed internet engineering task force ietf deal long-anticipated problem ipv4 address exhaustion ipv6 intended replace ipv4 december 1998 ipv6 became draft standard ietf subsequently ratified internet standard 14 july 2017 devices internet assigned unique ip address identification location definition rapid growth internet commercialization 1990s became evident far addresses would needed connect devices ipv4 address space available 1998 internet engineering task force ietf formalized successor protocol ipv6 uses 128-bit address theoretically allowing 2 approximately addresses actual number slightly smaller multiple ranges reserved special use completely excluded use total number possible ipv6 addresses times many ipv4 uses 32-bit addresses provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses two protocols designed interoperable complicating transition ipv6 however several ipv6 transition mechanisms devised permit communication ipv4 ipv6 hosts ipv6 provides technical benefits addition larger addressing space particular permits hierarchical address allocation methods facilitate route aggregation across internet thus limit expansion routing tables use multicast addressing expanded simplified provides additional optimization delivery services device mobility security configuration aspects considered design protocol ipv6 addresses represented eight groups separated colons four hexadecimal digits full representation may simplified several methods notation example 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 becomes 2001 db8 :8a2e:370:7334 ipv6 internet layer protocol packet-switched internetworking provides end-to-end datagram transmission across multiple ip networks closely adhering design principles developed previous version protocol internet protocol version 4 ipv4 addition offering addresses ipv6 also implements features present ipv4 simplifies aspects address configuration network renumbering router announcements changing network connectivity providers simplifies processing packets routers placing responsibility packet fragmentation end points ipv6 subnet size standardized fixing size host identifier portion address 64 bits network security design requirement ipv6 architecture included original specification ipsec addressing architecture ipv6 defined allows three different types transmission unicast anycast multicast internet protocol version 4 ipv4 first publicly used version internet protocol ipv4 developed research project defense advanced research projects agency darpa united states department defense agency becoming foundation internet world wide web ipv4 includes addressing system uses numerical identifiers consisting 32 bits addresses typically displayed quad-dotted notation decimal values four octets range 0 255 8 bits per number thus ipv4 provides addressing capability 2 approximately 4.3 billion addresses address exhaustion initially concern ipv4 version originally presumed test darpa networking concepts first decade operation internet became apparent methods developed conserve address space early 1990s even redesign addressing system using classless network model became clear would suffice prevent ipv4 address exhaustion changes internet infrastructure needed last unassigned top-level address blocks 16 million ipv4 addresses allocated february 2011 internet assigned numbers authority iana five regional internet registries rirs however rir still available address pools expected continue standard address allocation policies one /8 classless inter-domain routing cidr block remains blocks 1024 addresses /22 provided rirs local internet registry lir september 2015 asia-pacific network information centre apnic réseaux ip européens network coordination centre ripe_ncc latin america caribbean network information centre lacnic american registry internet numbers arin reached stage leaves african network information center afrinic sole regional internet registry still using normal protocol distributing ipv4 addresses november 2018 afrinic minimum allocation /22 1024 ipv4 addresses lir may receive additional allocation 80 address space utilized widely expected internet use ipv4 alongside ipv6 foreseeable future direct communication ipv4 ipv6 network protocols possible internet data transmitted form network packets ipv6 specifies new packet format designed minimize packet header processing routers headers ipv4 packets ipv6 packets significantly different two protocols interoperable however transport application-layer protocols need little change operate ipv6 exceptions application protocols embed internet-layer addresses file transfer protocol ftp network time protocol ntp new address format may cause conflicts existing protocol syntax main advantage ipv6 ipv4 larger address space length ipv6 address 128 bits compared 32 bits ipv4 address space therefore 2 approximately addresses 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 approximately 340 undecillion 340 billion billion billion billion addresses ipv4 addresses reserved special uses addition ipv4 address space poorly allocated 2011 approximately 14 available addresses utilized numbers large intent designers ipv6 address space assure geographical saturation usable addresses rather longer addresses simplify allocation addresses enable efficient route aggregation allow implementation special addressing features ipv4 complex classless inter-domain routing cidr methods developed make best use small address space standard size subnet ipv6 2 addresses square size entire ipv4 address space thus actual address space utilization rates small ipv6 network management routing efficiency improved large subnet space hierarchical route aggregation multicasting transmission packet multiple destinations single send operation part base specification ipv6 ipv4 optional although commonly implemented feature ipv6 multicast addressing features protocols common ipv4 multicast also provides changes improvements eliminating need certain protocols ipv6 implement traditional ip broadcast i.e transmission packet hosts attached link using special broadcast address therefore define broadcast addresses ipv6 result achieved sending packet link-local nodes multicast group address ff02 :1 analogous ipv4 multicasting address 224.0.0.1 ipv6 also provides new multicast implementations including embedding rendezvous point addresses ipv6 multicast group address simplifies deployment inter-domain solutions ipv4 difficult organization get even one globally routable multicast group assignment implementation inter-domain solutions arcane unicast address assignments local internet registry ipv6 least 64-bit routing prefix yielding smallest subnet size available ipv6 also 64 bits assignment possible embed unicast address prefix ipv6 multicast address format still providing 32-bit block least significant bits address approximately 4.2 billion multicast group identifiers thus user ipv6 subnet automatically available set globally routable source-specific multicast groups multicast applications ipv6 hosts configure automatically connected ipv6 network using neighbor discovery protocol via internet control message protocol version 6 icmpv6 router discovery messages first connected network host sends link-local router solicitation multicast request configuration parameters routers respond request router advertisement packet contains internet layer configuration parameters routers present special case requirements address configuration often sources autoconfiguration information router prefix advertisements stateless configuration routers achieved special router renumbering protocol renumbering existing network new connectivity provider different routing prefixes major effort ipv4 ipv6 however changing prefix announced routers principle renumber entire network since host identifiers least-significant 64 bits address independently self-configured host ipv6 stateless address auto-configuration unsuitable ipv6 like ipv4 allows stateful configuration dynamic host configuration protocol version 6 dhcpv6 manual static configuration hosts like ipv4 ipv6 supports globally unique ip addresses design ipv6 intended re-emphasize end-to-end principle network design originally conceived establishment early internet approach device network unique address globally reachable directly location internet unique ip address potentially used track network activity device moreover using ipv6 address auto-configuration interface identifier mac address network card used make public ipv6 interface identifier unique exposing type hardware used providing unique handle user online activity autoconfiguration basis network card mac address therefore particular privacy concern mobile devices laptops access internet different local area networks mac based interface identifier would always stay thus mac address based interface identifier used track movement usage particular mobile device ipv6 developed mid-90s internet accessed large number mobile devices privacy priority become today address privacy concerns slaac protocol updated mechanisms termed “ privacy extensions stateless address autoconfiguration ipv6 ” codified rfc 4941 rfc 7217 rfc 8064 prevents ipv6 address leaking mac address device first method generate interface identifier randomly interface identifier generated two devices local area network duplicate address detection dad function ipv6 neighbor discovery protocol ndp resolve situation slaac privacy extension also implements time configurable ipv6 interface addresses discarded new interface identifier generated typically time configured 24 hours ipv6 autoconfiguration generate set new ipv6 host address every day stable address needed another method generate interface identifier secret key network prefix since 2017 method codified rfc 7217 preferred stable private address according ietf late 2014 slaac privacy extensions functionality implemented following operating systems microsoft windows windows xp versions mac os x 10.7 onward versions ios since 4.3 versions android since 4.0 ice cream sandwich privacy extension enabled default windows since xp sp1 os x since 10.7 ios since version 4.3 linux distributions enabled privacy extensions well internet protocol security ipsec originally developed ipv6 found widespread deployment first ipv4 re-engineered ipsec mandatory part ipv6 protocol implementations internet key exchange ike recommended rfc 6434 inclusion ipsec ipv6 implementations downgraded recommendation considered impractical require full ipsec implementation types devices may use ipv6 however rfc 4301 ipv6 protocol implementations implement ipsec need implement ikev2 need support minimum set cryptographic algorithms requirement help make ipsec implementations interoperable devices different vendors ipsec authentication header ah encapsulating security payload header esp implemented ipv6 extension headers packet header ipv6 simpler ipv4 header many rarely used fields moved optional header extensions simplified ipv6 packet header process packet forwarding routers simplified although ipv6 packet headers least twice size ipv4 packet headers packet processing routers generally efficient less processing required routers due headers aligned match common word sizes moreover ipv6 header include checksum ipv4 header checksum calculated ipv4 header recalculated routers every time time live called hop limit ipv6 protocol reduced one absence checksum ipv6 header furthers end-to-end principle internet design envisioned processing network occurs leaf nodes integrity protection data encapsulated ipv6 packet assumed assured link layer error detection higher-layer protocols namely transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp transport layer thus ipv4 allowed udp datagram headers checksum indicated 0 header field ipv6 requires checksum udp headers ipv6 routers perform ip fragmentation ipv6 hosts required either perform path mtu discovery perform end-to-end fragmentation send packets larger default maximum transmission unit mtu 1280 octets unlike mobile ipv4 mobile ipv6 avoids triangular routing therefore efficient native ipv6 ipv6 routers may also allow entire subnets move new router connection point without renumbering ipv6 packet header minimum size 40 octets 320 bits options implemented extensions provides opportunity extend protocol future without affecting core packet structure however study 2015 indicated network operators dropped ipv6 packets extension headers traversed transit autonomous systems ipv4 limits packets 65,535 2−1 octets payload ipv6 node optionally handle packets limit referred jumbograms large 4,294,967,295 2−1 octets use jumbograms may improve performance high-mtu links use jumbograms indicated jumbo payload option extension header ipv6 packet two parts header payload header consists fixed portion minimal functionality required packets may followed optional extensions implement special features fixed header occupies first 40 octets 320 bits ipv6 packet contains source destination addresses traffic classification options hop counter type optional extension payload follows header next header field tells receiver interpret data follows header packet contains options field contains option type next option next header field last option points upper-layer protocol carried packet payload extension headers carry options used special treatment packet network e.g. routing fragmentation security using ipsec framework without special options payload must less jumbo payload option hop-by-hop options extension header payload must less 4 gb unlike ipv4 routers never fragment packet hosts expected use path mtu discovery make packets small enough reach destination without needing fragmented see ipv6 packet fragmentation ipv6 addresses 128 bits design ipv6 address space implements different design philosophy ipv4 subnetting used improve efficiency utilization small address space ipv6 address space deemed large enough foreseeable future local area subnet always uses 64 bits host portion address designated interface identifier most-significant 64 bits used routing prefix identifier unique within subnet host connected ipv6 mechanism automatic address detection address autoconfiguration always produces unique assignments 128 bits ipv6 address represented 8 groups 16 bits group written four hexadecimal digits sometimes called hextets formally hexadectets informally quibble quad-nibble groups separated colons example representation convenience ipv6 address may abbreviated shorter notations application following rules example application rules loopback address defined may abbreviated using rules ipv6 address may one representation ietf issued proposed standard representing text interfaces ipv6 hosts require link-local address ipv6 link-local address derived mac address interface prefix process involves filling address space prefix bits left-justified most-significant bit filling mac address eui-64 format least-significant bits bits remain filled two parts set zero ipv6 implement broadcast functionality address resolution protocol arp based neighbor discovery protocol ndp nd used link layer map layer 3 ipv6 addresses layer 2 addresses mac address ethernet network cards ndp relies icmpv6 multicast transmission ipv6 hosts verify uniqueness ipv6 addresses local area network lan sending neighbor solicitation message asking link layer address ipv6 address host lan using address responds lan mac addresses designed unique network card minimizes chances duplication generated link-local address ipv6 host determines lan connected router network card ipv6 implementation sending icmpv6 router solicitation message all-routers multicast group link-local address source answer predetermined number attempts host concludes routers connected get response router network information inside needed create globally unique address also two flag bits tell host whether use dhcp get information addresses assignment procedure global addresses similar local address construction prefix supplied router advertisements network multiple prefix announcements cause multiple addresses configured stateless address autoconfiguration slaac requires address block defined local internet registries assigned least blocks divide among subordinate networks initial recommendation stated assignment subnet end-consumer sites replaced recommends giving home sites significantly single recommend every home site given either specifically considered remains seen isps honor recommendation example initial trials comcast customers given single network domain name system dns hostnames mapped ipv6 addresses aaaa quad-a resource records reverse resolution ietf reserved domain ip6.arpa name space hierarchically divided 1-digit hexadecimal representation nibble units 4 bits ipv6 address scheme defined dual-stack host queries dns server resolve fully qualified domain name fqdn dns client host sends two dns requests one querying records querying aaaa records host operating system may configured preference address selection rules alternate record type used early dns implementations ipv6 designed facilitate network renumbering a6 records forward lookup number innovations bit-string labels dname records defined references discussion pros cons schemes deprecated experimental status ipv6 foreseen supplant ipv4 instantaneously protocols continue operate simultaneously time therefore ipv6 transition mechanisms needed enable ipv6 hosts reach ipv4 services allow isolated ipv6 hosts networks reach ipv4 infrastructure according silvia hagen dual-stack implementation ipv4 ipv6 devices easiest way migrate ipv6 many transition mechanisms use tunneling encapsulate ipv6 traffic within ipv4 networks vice versa imperfect solution reduces maximum transmission unit mtu link therefore complicates path mtu discovery may increase latency dual-stack ip implementations provide complete ipv4 ipv6 protocol stacks operating system computer network device top common physical layer implementation ethernet permits dual-stack hosts participate ipv6 ipv4 networks simultaneously method defined device dual-stack implementation operating system ipv4 ipv6 address communicate nodes lan internet using either ipv4 ipv6 domain name system dns protocol used ip protocols resolve fully qualified domain names fqdn ip addresses dual stack requires resolving dns server resolve types addresses dual stack dns server would hold ipv4 addresses records ipv6 addresses aaaa records depending destination resolved dns name server may return ipv4 ipv6 ip address default address selection mechanism preferred protocol needs configured either hosts dns server ietf published happy eyeballs assist dual stack applications connect using ipv4 ipv6 prefer ipv6 connection available however dual-stack also needs implemented routers host service dns server returned ipv6 address dual-stack clients configured prefer ipv6 network able forward ipv6 packets using ipv6 versions routing protocols dual stack networks protocols place application layer migrated ipv6 dual-stack supported major operating system network device vendors legacy networking hardware servers n't support ipv6 internet service providers isps increasingly providing business private customers public-facing ipv6 global unicast addresses however local area network lan ipv4 still used isp provide public facing ipv6 ipv4 lan addresses translated public facing ipv6 address using nat64 network address translation nat mechanism isps provide customers public-facing ipv4 ipv6 addresses thus supporting dual stack networking isps exhausted globally routable ipv4 address pool meanwhile isp customers still trying reach ipv4 web servers destinations significant percentage isps regional internet registry rir zones obtained ipv6 address space includes many world ’ major isps mobile network operators verizon wireless starhub cable chubu telecommunications kabel deutschland swisscom t-mobile internode telefonica isps still allocate customers ipv4 addresses many isps allocate customers ipv6 dual stack ipv4 ipv6 isps report share ipv6 traffic customers network anything 20 40 mid-2017 ipv6 traffic still accounted fraction total traffic several large internet exchange points ixps ams-ix reported 2 seattleix reported 7 2017 survey found many dsl customers served dual stack isp request dns servers resolve fully qualified domain names ipv6 addresses survey also found majority traffic ipv6-ready webserver resources still requested served ipv4 mostly due isp customers use dual stack facility provided isp lesser extent due customers ipv4-only isps technical basis tunneling encapsulating ipv6 packets ipv4 packets outlined rfc 4213 internet backbone ipv4-only one frequently used tunneling protocols 6to4 teredo tunneling also frequently used integrating ipv6 lans ipv4 internet backbone teredo outlined rfc 4380 allows ipv6 local area networks tunnel ipv4 networks encapsulating ipv6 packets within udp teredo relay ipv6 router mediates teredo server native ipv6 network expected 6to4 teredo would widely deployed isp networks would switch native ipv6 2014 google statistics showed use mechanisms dropped almost 0 hybrid dual-stack ipv6/ipv4 implementations recognize special class addresses ipv4-mapped ipv6 addresses addresses typically written 96-bit prefix standard ipv6 format remaining 32 bits written customary dot-decimal notation ipv4 addresses group consist 80-bit prefix zeros next 16 bits ones remaining least-significant 32 bits contain ipv4 address example :ffff:192.0.2.128 represents ipv4 address 192.0.2.128 another deprecated format ipv4-compatible ipv6 addresses :192.0.2.128 significant internal differences ipv4 ipv6 protocol stacks lower-level functionality available programmers ipv6 stack work used ipv4-mapped addresses common ipv6 stacks implement ipv4-mapped address feature either ipv6 ipv4 stacks separate implementations e.g. microsoft windows 2000 xp server 2003 security concerns openbsd operating systems program must open separate socket ip protocol uses systems e.g. linux kernel netbsd freebsd feature controlled socket option ipv6_v6only specified compatibility ipv6 networking mainly software firmware issue however much older hardware could principle upgraded likely replaced instead 2010 american registry internet numbers arin suggested internet servers prepared serve ipv6-only clients january 2012 host software may ipv4 ipv6 networking software may support dual-stack hybrid dual-stack operation many popular applications networking capabilities compliant software transitioning mechanisms outlined ipv6 implemented major operating systems use commercial business home consumer environments personal computers smartphones running recent major operating system versions support ipv6 cablelabs consortium published 160 mbit/s docsis 3.0 ipv6-ready specification cable modems august 2006 docsis 2.0 updated docsis 2.0 ipv6 provide ipv6 support may available firmware upgrade addition nodes ipv6 enabled default software manufacturer may result inadvertent creation shadow networks causing ipv6 traffic flowing networks ipv4 security management place may also occur operating system upgrades newer operating system enables ipv6 default older one failing update security infrastructure accommodate ipv6 lead ipv6 traffic bypassing shadow networks occurred business networks enterprises replacing windows xp systems ipv6 stack enabled default windows 7 systems ipv6 stack implementors therefore recommended disabling ipv4 mapped addresses instead using dual-stack network supporting ipv4 ipv6 necessary research shown use fragmentation leveraged evade network security controls similar ipv4 result requires first fragment ipv6 packet contains entire ipv6 header chain pathological fragmentation cases forbidden additionally result research evasion ra-guard deprecated use fragmentation neighbor discovery discouraged use fragmentation secure neighbor discovery send due anticipated global growth internet internet engineering task force ietf early 1990s started effort develop next generation ip protocol beginning 1992 several proposals appeared expanded internet addressing system end 1992 ietf announced call white papers september 1993 ietf created temporary ad-hoc ip next generation ipng area deal specifically issues new area led allison mankin scott bradner directorate 15 engineers diverse backgrounds direction-setting preliminary document review working-group members j. allard microsoft steve bellovin jim bound digital equipment corporation ross callon wellfleet brian carpenter cern dave clark mit john curran nearnet steve deering xerox dino farinacci cisco paul francis ntt eric fleischmann boeing mark knopper ameritech greg minshall novell rob ullmann lotus lixia zhang xerox internet engineering task force adopted ipng model 25 july 1994 formation several ipng working groups 1996 series rfcs released defining internet protocol version 6 ipv6 starting version 5 used experimental internet stream protocol first rfc standardize ipv6 1995 became obsoleted 1998 july 2017 rfc replaced 1993 introduction classless inter-domain routing cidr routing ip address allocation internet extensive use network address translation nat delayed ipv4 address exhaustion final phase exhaustion started 3 february 2011 universities among early adopters ipv6 virginia tech deployed ipv6 trial location 2004 since expanded ipv6 deployment across campus network 2016 82 traffic network used ipv6 imperial college london experimenting ipv6 deployment since 2003 2016 ipv6 traffic networks averaged 20 40 significant portion ipv6 traffic generated high energy physics collaboration cern depends entirely ipv6 since 2008 domain name system dns supports ipv6 year ipv6 first used major world event 2008 summer olympic games beijing 4 domain names 16.2 networks internet ipv6 protocol support 2014 ipv4 still carried 99 worldwide internet traffic deployment ipv6 internet backbone progress 2018 25.3 54,000 autonomous systems advertised ipv4 ipv6 prefixes global border gateway protocol bgp routing database 243 networks advertised ipv6 prefix internet backbone transit networks offering ipv6 support exist every country globally except parts africa middle east china mid-2018 major european broadband isps deployed ipv6 majority customers british sky broadcasting provided 86 customers ipv6 deutsche telekom 56 deployment ipv6 xs4all netherlands 73 deployment belgium broadband isps voo telenet 73 63 ipv6 deployment respectively united states broadband isp comcast ipv6 deployment 66 2018 comcast reported estimated 36.1 million ipv6 users reported 22.3 million ipv6 users internet exchanges amsterdam seattle large exchanges publicly show ipv6 traffic statistics october 2018 tracking 2.9 7.7 growing 1.9 -2.6 per year respectively percentage users reaching google services ipv6 29 26 alexa top 1000 web servers support ipv6 according internet society report state ipv6 deployment 2018 major mobile network providers drove ipv6 adoption japan mobile network providers nippon telegraph telephone ntt kddi softbank pushed forward ipv6 deployment india ipv6 adoption advanced jio lte network covers india ’ 29 states reaches 80 country ’ population 2018 jio estimated 237.6 million ipv6 users united states ipv6 adoption pioneered verizon wireless 2009 verizon mandated ipv6 operation reduced ipv4 optional capability lte cellular hardware verizon productively deployed ipv6 across existing ipv4 network avoid network complexity arose networks using private network ipv4 address space 2018 80 traffic verizon wireless major content providers using ipv6 united states data centers transitioned ipv6 networking since 2018 facebook eliminating ipv4 data centers network-facing load balancers accept ipv4 ipv6 traffic linkedin microsoft stated intentions move networks ipv6 google linkedin akamai 2018 deploying ipv6 data center networks connecting natively ipv6 end users governments including united states china issued guidelines requirements ipv6 capability Target text information: generalized_ttl_security_mechanism.generalized ttl security mechanism generalized ttl security mechanism gtsm proposed internet data transfer security method relying packet time live ipv4 hop limit ipv6 thus protect protocol stack spoofing denial service attacks desired purpose proposal verify whether packet originated adjacent node protect router infrastructure overload-based attacks protocols gtsm enabled following procedure performed many people given credit creating idea among paul traina jon stewart similar method also proposed ryan mcdowell I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	9,339	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: natural-language_generation.natural-language generation natural-language generation nlg software process transforms structured data natural language used produce long form content organizations automate custom reports well produce custom content web mobile application also used generate short blurbs text interactive conversations chatbot might even read loud text-to-speech system automated nlg compared process humans use turn ideas writing speech psycholinguists prefer term language production process also described mathematical terms modeled computer psychological research nlg systems also compared translators artificial computer languages decompilers transpilers also produce human-readable code generated intermediate representation human languages tend considerably complex allow much ambiguity variety expression programming languages makes nlg challenging nlg may viewed opposite natural-language understanding whereas natural-language understanding system needs disambiguate input sentence produce machine representation language nlg system needs make decisions put concept words practical considerations building nlu vs. nlg systems symmetrical nlu needs deal ambiguous erroneous user input whereas ideas system wants express nlg generally known precisely nlg needs choose specific self-consistent textual representation many potential representations whereas nlu generally tries produce single normalized representation idea expressed nlg existed long time commercial nlg technology recently become widely available nlg techniques range simple template-based systems like mail merge generates form letters systems complex understanding human grammar nlg also accomplished training statistical model using machine learning typically large corpus human-written texts pollen forecast scotland system simple example simple nlg system could essentially template system takes input six numbers give predicted pollen levels different parts scotland numbers system generates short textual summary pollen levels output example using historical data july 1 2005 software produces grass pollen levels friday increased moderate high levels yesterday values around 6 7 across parts country however northern areas pollen levels moderate values 4 contrast actual forecast written human meteorologist data pollen counts expected remain high level 6 scotland even level 7 south east relief northern isles far northeast mainland scotland medium levels pollen count comparing two illustrates choices nlg systems must make discussed process generate text simple keeping list canned text copied pasted possibly linked glue text results may satisfactory simple domains horoscope machines generators personalised business letters however sophisticated nlg system needs include stages planning merging information enable generation text looks natural become repetitive typical stages natural-language generation proposed dale reiter content determination deciding information mention text instance pollen example deciding whether explicitly mention pollen level 7 south east document structuring overall organisation information convey example deciding describe areas high pollen levels first instead areas low pollen levels aggregation merging similar sentences improve readability naturalness instance merging two following sentences following single sentence lexical choice putting words concepts example deciding whether medium moderate used describing pollen level 4 referring expression generation creating referring expressions identify objects regions example deciding use northern isles far northeast mainland scotland refer certain region scotland task also includes making decisions pronouns types anaphora realization creating actual text correct according rules syntax morphology orthography example using future tense alternative approach nlg use end-to-end machine learning build system without separate stages words build nlg system training machine learning algorithm often lstm large data set input data corresponding human-written output texts end-to-end approach perhaps successful image captioning automatically generating textual caption image popular media paid attention nlg systems generate jokes see computational humor commercial perspective successful nlg applications data-to-text systems generate textual summaries databases data sets systems usually perform data analysis well text generation research shown textual summaries effective graphs visuals decision support computer-generated texts superior reader perspective human-written texts first commercial data-to-text systems produced weather forecasts weather data earliest system deployed fog used environment canada generate weather forecasts french english early 1990s success fog triggered work research commercial recent applications include uk met office text-enhanced forecast currently considerable commercial interest using nlg summarise financial business data indeed gartner said nlg become standard feature 90 modern bi analytics platforms nlg also used commercially automated journalism chatbots generating product descriptions e-commerce sites summarising medical records enhancing accessibility example describing graphs data sets blind people example interactive use nlg wysiwym framework stands see meant allows users see manipulate continuously rendered view nlg output underlying formal language document nlg input thereby editing formal language without learning content generation systems assist human writers makes writing process efficient effective content generation tool based web mining using search engines apis built tool imitates cut-and-paste writing scenario writer forms content various search results relevance verification essential filter irrelevant search results based matching parse tree query parse trees candidate answers alternative approach high-level structure human-authored text used automatically build template new topic automatically written wikipedia article several companies started since 2009 build systems transform data narrative using nlg ai techniques include narrative science phrasetech arria nlg automated insights retresco visual nlg yseop united robots scientific fields nlg researchers need test well systems modules algorithms work called evaluation three basic techniques evaluating nlg systems ultimate goal useful nlg systems helping people first techniques however task-based evaluations time-consuming expensive difficult carry especially require subjects specialised expertise doctors hence areas nlp task-based evaluations exception norm recently researchers assessing well human-ratings metrics correlate predict task-based evaluations work conducted context generation challenges shared-task events initial results suggest human ratings much better metrics regard words human ratings usually predict task-effectiveness least degree although exceptions ratings produced metrics often predict task-effectiveness well results preliminary case human ratings popular evaluation technique nlg contrast machine translation metrics widely used Target text information: aggregation_(linguistics).aggregation linguistics aggregation subtask natural language generation involves merging syntactic constituents sentences phrases together sometimes aggregation done conceptual level simple example syntactic aggregation merging two sentences john went shop john bought apple single sentence john went shop bought apple syntactic aggregation much complex example aggregation embed one constituents e.g. aggregate john went shop shop closed sentence john went shop closed pragmatic perspective aggregating sentences together often suggests reader sentences related case reader may confused example someone reads john went shop bought apple may infer apple bought shop case sentences aggregated aggregation algorithms must two things first issue deciding aggregate poorly understood aggegration decisions certainly depend semantic relations constituents mentioned also depend genre e.g. bureaucratic texts tend aggregated instruction manuals probably depend rhetorical discourse structure literacy level reader also probably important poor readers need shorter sentences integrated model brings factors together single algorithm regard second issue studies different types aggregation carried harbusch kempen describe several syntactic aggregation strategies terminology john went shop bought apple example forward conjunction reduction much less known conceptual aggregation di eugenio et al show conceptual aggregation done intelligent tutoring system demonstrate performing aggregation makes system effective conceptual aggregation make bigger impact syntactic aggregation unfortunately much software available performing aggregation however simplenlg system include limited support basic aggregation example following code causes simplenlg print man hungry buys apple I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	8,800	train
[''] Target text information: centurion_guard.centurion guard centurion guard pc hardware software based security product developed centurion technologies released 1996 many different releases versions product many distributed bill melinda gates foundation computers donated libraries I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,287	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: stingray_phone_tracker.stingray phone tracker stingray imsi-catcher controversial cellular phone surveillance device manufactured harris corporation initially developed military intelligence community stingray similar harris devices widespread use local state law enforcement agencies across canada united states united kingdom stingray also become generic name describe kinds devices stingray imsi-catcher passive digital analyzer active cell-site simulator capabilities operating active mode device mimics wireless carrier cell tower order force nearby mobile phones cellular data devices connect stingray family devices mounted vehicles aeroplanes helicopters unmanned aerial vehicles hand-carried versions referred trade name kingfish active mode stingray force compatible cellular device given area disconnect service provider cell site e.g. operated verizon etc establish new connection stingray cases accomplished stingray broadcast pilot signal either stronger made appear stronger pilot signals broadcast legitimate cell sites operating area common function cellular communications protocols cellular device connect cell site offering strongest signal stingrays exploit function means force temporary connections cellular devices within limited area process forcing connections compatible cellular devices given area stingray operator needs determine device desired surveillance target accomplished downloading imsi esn identifying data devices connected stingray context imsi equivalent identifier obtained cellular service provider third-party stingray downloads data directly device using radio waves cases imsi equivalent identifier target device known stingray operator beforehand case operator download imsi equivalent identifier device connects stingray downloaded imsi matches known imsi desired target dragnet end operator proceed conduct specific surveillance operations target device cases imsi equivalent identifier target known stingray operator goal surveillance operation identify one cellular devices used known area example visual surveillance conducted group protestors stingray used download imsi equivalent identifier phone within protest area identifying phones locating tracking operations conducted service providers forced turn account information identifying phone users cellular telephones radio transmitters receivers much like walkie-talkie however cell phone communicates repeater inside nearby cell tower installation installation devices take cell calls geographic area repeat cell installations repeat signals onward destination telephone either radio landline wires radio used also transmit caller voice/data back receiver cell telephone two-way duplex phone conversation exists via interconnections make work correctly system allows automatic increases decreases transmitter power individual cell phone tower repeater minimum transmit power used complete hold call active allows users hear heard continuously conversation goal hold call active use least amount transmitting power mainly conserve batteries efficient tower system sense cell phone coming clearly order cell phone boost transmit power user control boosting may occur split second whole conversation user remote location power boost may continuous addition carrying voice data cell phone also transmits data automatically boosted system detects need encoding transmissions ensures cross talk interference occurs two nearby cell users boosting power however limited design devices maximum setting standard systems high power thus overpowered secret systems using much boosted power take user cell phone overpowered way cell phone indicate change due secret radio programmed hide normal detection ordinary user know cell phone captured via overpowering boosts ways secret capture need overpower person shouting drowns someone whispering boost rf watts power cell telephone system overtake control system—in total even one conversation strategy requires rf power thus simple types secret control power boosting equipment installed anywhere antenna including vehicle perhaps even vehicle move secretly boosted system takes control manipulation possible simple recording voice data total blocking cell phones geographic area stingray used identify track phone compatible cellular data device even device engaged call accessing data services stingray closely resembles portable cellphone tower typically law enforcement officials place stingray vehicle compatible computer software stingray acts cellular tower send signals get specific device connect cell phones programmed connect cellular tower offering best signal phone stingray connect computer system determines strength signal thus distance device vehicle moves another location sends signals connects phone signal strength determined enough locations computer system centralizes phone able find cell phones programmed constantly search strongest signal emitted cell phone towers area course day cell phones connect reconnect multiple towers attempt connect strongest fastest closest signal way designed signals stingray emits far stronger coming surrounding towers reason cell phones vicinity connect stingray regardless cell phone owner ’ knowledge stingray capable locating device interfering device collecting personal data device fbi claimed used identify locate track cellular device stingray collect communications content forward service provider instead device causes disruption service scenario attempt cellular device user place call access data services fail stingray conducting surveillance august 21 2018 senator ron wyden noted harris corporation confirmed stingrays disrupt targeted phone communications additionally noted company claims cell-site simulators include feature detects permits delivery emergency calls 9-1-1 officials admitted office feature independently tested part federal communication commission ’ certification process able confirm feature capable detecting passing-through 9-1-1 emergency communications made people deaf hard hearing speech disabled using real-time text technology way software upgrades stingray similar harris products used intercept gsm communications content transmitted over-the-air target cellular device legitimate service provider cell site stingray way following man-in-the-middle attack 1 simulate cell site force connection target device 2 download target device imsi identifying information 3 conduct gsm active key extraction obtain target device stored encryption key 4 use downloaded identifying information simulate target device over-the-air 5 simulating target device establish connection legitimate cell site authorized provide service target device 6 use encryption key authenticate stingray service provider target device 7 forward signals target device legitimate cell site decrypting recording communications content gsm active key extraction performed stingray step three merits additional explanation gsm phone encrypts communications content using encryption key stored sim card copy stored service provider simulating target device explained man-in-the-middle attack service provider cell site ask stingray believes target device initiate encryption using key stored target device therefore stingray needs method obtain target device stored encryption key else man-in-the-middle attack fail gsm primarily encrypts communications content using a5/1 call encryption cypher 2008 reported gsm phone encryption key obtained using 1,000 worth computer hardware 30 minutes cryptanalysis performed signals encrypted using a5/1 however gsm also supports export weakened variant a5/1 called a5/2 weaker encryption cypher cracked real-time a5/1 a5/2 use different cypher strengths use underlying encryption key stored sim card therefore stingray performs gsm active key extraction step three man-in-the-middle attack follows 1 instruct target device use weaker a5/2 encryption cypher 2 collect a5/2 encrypted signals target device 3 perform cryptanalysis a5/2 signals quickly recover underlying stored encryption key encryption key obtained stingray uses comply encryption request made service provider man-in-the-middle attack rogue base station force unencrypted links supported handset software rogue base station send 'cipher mode settings element see gsm 04.08 chapter 10.5.2.9 phone element clearing one bit marks encryption used cases phone display could indicate use unsafe link user interface software phones interrogate handset radio subsystem use insecure mode display warning indication passive mode stingray operates either digital analyzer receives analyzes signals transmitted cellular devices and/or wireless carrier cell sites radio jamming device transmits signals block communications cellular devices wireless carrier cell sites passive mode meant stingray mimic wireless carrier cell site communicate directly cellular devices stingray test phone used conduct base station surveys process collecting information cell sites including identification numbers signal strength signal coverage areas conducting base station surveys stingray mimics cell phone passively collecting signals transmitted cell-sites area stingray base station survey data used narrow past locations cellular device used conjunction historical cell site location information hcsli obtained wireless carrier hcsli includes list cell sites sectors accessed cellular device date time access made law enforcement often obtain hcsli wireless carriers order determine particular cell phone located past information obtained law enforcement use map cell site locations determine past geographical locations cellular device however signal coverage area given cell site may change according time day weather physical obstructions relation cellular device attempts access service maps cell site coverage areas used law enforcement may also lack precision general matter reasons beneficial use stingray test phone map precise coverage areas cell sites appearing hcsli records typically done time day weather conditions effect hcsli logged using stingray conduct base station surveys manner allows mapping cell site coverage areas accurately match coverage areas effect cellular device used use devices frequently funded grants department homeland security los angeles police department used department homeland security grant 2006 buy stingray regional terrorism investigations however according electronic frontier foundation lapd using investigation imaginable addition federal law enforcement military intelligence agencies stingrays recent years purchased local state law enforcement agencies 2006 harris corporation employees directly conducted wireless surveillance using stingray units behalf palm bay police department — harris campus — response bomb threat middle school search conducted without warrant judicial oversight american civil liberties union commonly referred aclu confirmed local police cell site simulators washington nevada arizona alaska missouri new mexico georgia massachusetts state police cell site simulators oklahoma louisiana pennsylvania delaware local state police cell site simulators california texas minnesota wisconsin michigan illinois indiana tennessee north carolina virginia florida maryland new york 60 police use cell site simulators unknown remaining states however many agencies disclose use stingray technology statistics still potentially under-representation actual number agencies according recent information published american civil liberties union 72 law enforcement agencies 24 states stingray technology 2017 since 2014 numbers increased 42 agencies 17 states 60 following federal agencies united states validated use cell site simulators federal bureau investigation drug enforcement administration us secret service immigration customs enforcement us marshals service bureau alcohol tobacco firearms explosives us army us navy us marine corps us national guard us special command national security agency 60 several court decisions issued legality using stingray without warrant courts ruling warrant required others requiring warrant police vancouver bc canada admitted much speculation across country made use stingray device provided rcmp also stated intended make use devices future two days later statement edmonton police force taken confirming use devices said later mean create called miscommunication privacy international sunday times reported usage stingrays imsi-catchers ireland irish garda síochána ombudsman commission gsoc oversight agency irish police force garda síochána june 10 2015 bbc reported investigation sky news possible false mobile phone towers used london metropolitan police commissioner bernard hogan-howe refused comment february 2015 april 2016 12 companies united kingdom authorized export imsi-catcher devices states including saudi arabia uae turkey critics expressed concern export surveillance technology countries poor human rights records histories abusing surveillance technology increasing use devices largely kept secret court system public 2014 police florida revealed used devices least 200 additional times since 2010 without disclosing courts obtaining warrant one reasons tallahassee police provided pursuing court approval efforts would allegedly violate non-disclosure agreements ndas police sign manufacturer american civil liberties union filed multiple requests public records florida law enforcement agencies use cell phone tracking devices local law enforcement federal government resisted judicial requests information use stingrays refusing turn information heavily censoring june 2014 american civil liberties union published information court regarding extensive use devices local florida police publication united states marshals service seized local police surveillance records bid keep coming court cases police refused disclose information courts citing non-disclosure agreements signed harris corporation fbi defended agreements saying information technology could allow adversaries circumvent aclu said potentially unconstitutional government surveillance scale remain hidden public private corporation desires secrecy certainly concealed judges 2015 santa clara county pulled contract negotiations harris stingray units citing onerous restrictions imposed harris could released public records requests reason exiting negotiations recent years legal scholars public interest advocates legislators several members judiciary strongly criticized use technology law enforcement agencies critics called use devices government agencies warrantless cell phone tracking frequently used without informing court system obtaining warrant electronic frontier foundation called devices “ unconstitutional all-you-can-eat data buffet. ” june 2015 wnyc public radio published podcast daniel rigmaiden stingray device 2016 professor laura moy georgetown university law center filed formal complaint fcc regarding use devices law enforcement agencies taking position devices mimic properties cell phone towers agencies operating violation fcc regulation lack appropriate spectrum licenses number countermeasures stingray devices developed example crypto phones gmsk cryptophone firewalls identify thwart stingray actions alert user imsi capture 1-hop neighbor's text information: prism_(surveillance_program).prism surveillance program prism code name program united states national security agency nsa collects internet communications various u.s. internet companies program also known sigad prism collects stored internet communications based demands made internet companies google llc section 702 fisa amendments act 2008 turn data match court-approved search terms nsa use prism requests target communications encrypted traveled across internet backbone focus stored data telecommunication filtering systems discarded earlier get data easier handle among things prism began 2007 wake passage protect america act bush administration program operated supervision u.s. foreign intelligence surveillance court fisa court fisc pursuant foreign intelligence surveillance act fisa existence leaked six years later nsa contractor edward snowden warned extent mass data collection far greater public knew included characterized dangerous criminal activities disclosures published guardian washington post june 6 2013 subsequent documents demonstrated financial arrangement nsa special source operations division sso prism partners millions dollars documents indicate prism number one source raw intelligence used nsa analytic reports accounts 91 nsa internet traffic acquired fisa section 702 authority leaked information came light one day revelation fisa court ordering subsidiary telecommunications company verizon communications turn nsa logs tracking customers telephone calls u.s. government officials disputed aspects guardian washington post stories defended program asserting used domestic targets without warrant helped prevent acts terrorism receives independent oversight federal government executive judicial legislative branches june 19 2013 u.s. president barack obama visit germany stated nsa data gathering practices constitute circumscribed narrow system directed us able protect people prism publicly revealed classified documents program leaked journalists washington post guardian edward snowden time nsa contractor visit hong kong leaked documents included 41 powerpoint slides four published news articles documents identified several technology companies participants prism program including microsoft 2007 yahoo 2008 google 2009 facebook 2009 paltalk 2009 youtube 2010 aol 2011 skype 2011 apple 2012 speaker notes briefing document reviewed washington post indicated 98 percent prism production based yahoo google microsoft slide presentation stated much world electronic communications pass u.s. electronic communications data tend follow least expensive route rather physically direct route bulk world internet infrastructure based united states presentation noted facts provide united states intelligence analysts opportunities intercepting communications foreign targets electronic data pass united states snowden subsequent disclosures included statements government agencies united kingdom gchq also undertook mass interception tracking internet communications data described germany nightmarish true allegations nsa engaged dangerous criminal activity hacking civilian infrastructure networks countries universities hospitals private businesses alleged compliance offered limited restrictive effect mass data collection practices including americans since restrictions policy-based technically based change time adding additionally audits cursory incomplete easily fooled fake justifications numerous self-granted exceptions nsa policies encourage staff assume benefit doubt cases uncertainty number slides released edward snowden showing operation processes behind prism program faa referred section 702 fisa amendments act faa federal aviation administration widely known faa initialism french newspaper le monde disclosed new prism slides see page 4 7 8 coming prism/us-984xn overview presentation october 21 2013 british newspaper guardian disclosed new prism slides see pages 3 6 november 2013 one hand compares prism upstream program hand deals collaboration nsa threat operations center fbi wikimedia commons keeps copies leaked powerpoint slides along associated documents prism program special source operations sso division nsa tradition nsa intelligence alliances cooperates many 100 trusted u.s. companies since 1970s prior program terrorist surveillance program implemented wake september 11 attacks george w. bush administration widely criticized challenged illegal include warrants obtained foreign intelligence surveillance court prism authorized foreign intelligence surveillance court prism enabled president bush protect america act 2007 fisa amendments act 2008 immunizes private companies legal action cooperate u.s. government agencies intelligence collection 2012 act renewed congress president obama additional five years december 2017 according register fisa amendments act 2008 specifically authorizes intelligence agencies monitor phone email communications u.s. citizens week without obtaining warrant one parties outside u.s detailed description prism program found report nsa collection efforts section 702 faa released privacy civil liberties oversight board pclob july 2 2014 according report prism used collect internet communications telephone conversations internet communications collected bulk targeted way communications specific selectors like e-mail addresses gathered prism collection based upon keywords names actual collection process done data intercept technology unit ditu fbi behalf nsa sends selectors u.s. internet service providers previously served section 702 directive directive provider legally obliged hand ditu communications selectors provided government ditu sends communications nsa stored various databases depending type data content metadata already collected prism program may searched us non-us person identifiers kinds queries became known back-door searches conducted nsa fbi cia agencies slightly different protocols safeguards protect searches us person identifier internal nsa presentation slides included various media disclosures show nsa could unilaterally access data perform extensive in-depth surveillance live communications stored information examples including email video voice chat videos photos voice-over-ip chats skype file transfers social networking details snowden summarized general reality nsa fbi cia dia etc analyst access query raw sigint signals intelligence databases enter get results anything want according washington post intelligence analysts search prism data using terms intended identify suspicious communications targets analysts suspect least 51 percent confidence u.s. citizens process communication data u.s. citizens also collected unintentionally training materials analysts tell periodically report accidental collection non-foreign u.s. data nothing worry according guardian nsa access chats emails hotmail.com skype microsoft developed surveillance capability deal interception chats prism collection microsoft email services unaffected prism collects data prior encryption also according guardian glenn greenwald even low-level nsa analysts allowed search listen communications americans people without court approval supervision greenwald said low level analysts via systems like prism listen whatever emails want whatever telephone calls browsing histories microsoft word documents done need go court need even get supervisor approval part analyst added nsa databank years collected communications allows analysts search database listen calls read emails everything nsa stored look browsing histories google search terms 've entered also alerts activity people connected email address ip address future greenwald referring context foregoing quotes nsa program x-keyscore shortly publication reports guardian washington post united states director national intelligence james clapper june 7 2013 released statement confirming nearly six years government united states using large internet services companies facebook collect information foreigners outside united states defense national security threats statement read part guardian washington post articles refer collection communications pursuant section 702 foreign intelligence surveillance act contain numerous inaccuracies went say section 702 provision fisa designed facilitate acquisition foreign intelligence information concerning non-u.s. persons located outside united states used intentionally target u.s. citizen u.s. person anyone located within united states clapper concluded statement stating unauthorized disclosure information important entirely legal program reprehensible risks important protections security americans march 12 2013 clapper told united states senate select committee intelligence nsa wittingly collect type data millions hundreds millions americans clapper later admitted statement made march 12 2013 lie words responded thought truthful least untruthful manner saying june 7 2013 u.s. president barack obama referring prism program nsa telephone calls logging program said 've got two programs originally authorized congress repeatedly authorized congress bipartisan majorities approved congress continually briefed conducted whole range safeguards involved federal judges overseeing entire program throughout also said ca n't 100 percent security also 100 percent privacy zero inconvenience know 're going make choices society separate statements senior obama administration officials mentioned name source said congress briefed 13 times programs since 2009 june 8 2013 director national intelligence clapper made additional public statement prism released fact sheet providing information program described internal government computer system used facilitate government statutorily authorized collection foreign intelligence information electronic communication service providers court supervision authorized section 702 foreign intelligence surveillance act fisa 50 u.s.c § 1881a fact sheet stated surveillance activities published guardian washington post lawful conducted authorities widely known discussed fully debated authorized congress fact sheet also stated united states government unilaterally obtain information servers u.s. electronic communication service providers information obtained fisa court approval knowledge provider based upon written directive attorney general director national intelligence said attorney general provides fisa court rulings semi-annual reports prism activities congress provid ing unprecedented degree accountability transparency democratic senators udall wyden serve u.s. senate select committee intelligence subsequently criticized fact sheet inaccurate nsa director general keith alexander acknowledged errors stating fact sheet could precisely described requirements governing collection e-mail internet content us companies fact sheet withdrawn nsa website around june 26 closed-doors senate hearing around june 11 fbi director robert mueller said snowden leaks caused significant harm nation safety senate nsa director alexander defended program alexander defense immediately criticized senators udall wyden said saw evidence nsa programs produced uniquely valuable intelligence joint statement wrote gen alexander testimony yesterday suggested nsa bulk phone records collection program helped thwart 'dozens terrorist attacks plots mentioned appear identified using collection methods june 18 nsa director alexander said open hearing house intelligence committee congress communications surveillance helped prevent 50 potential terrorist attacks worldwide least 10 involving terrorism suspects targets united states 2001 2013 prism web traffic surveillance program contributed 90 percent cases according court records one example alexander gave regarding thwarted attack al qaeda new york stock exchange fact foiled surveillance several senators wrote director national intelligence clapper asking provide examples u.s. intelligence officials speaking condition anonymity told various news outlets june 24 already seeing said evidence suspected terrorists begun changing communication practices order evade detection surveillance tools disclosed snowden contrast swift forceful reactions previous day allegations government conducting surveillance united states citizens telephone records congressional leaders initially little say prism program day leaked information program published several lawmakers declined discuss prism citing top-secret classification others said aware program statements released president director national intelligence lawmakers began comment senator john mccain r-az senator dianne feinstein d-ca chair senate intelligence committee senator rand paul r-ky senator susan collins r-me member senate intelligence committee past member homeland security committee representative jim sensenbrenner r-wi principal sponsor patriot act representative mike rogers r-mi chairman permanent select committee intelligence senator mark udall d-co representative todd rokita r-in representative luis gutierrez d-il senator ron wyden d-or following statements lawmakers parties warned national security officials hearing house judiciary committee must change use sweeping national security agency surveillance programs face losing provisions foreign intelligence surveillance act allowed agency mass collection telephone metadata section 215 expires end 2015 unless realize 've got problem going renewed rep. jim sensenbrenner r-wis. author usa patriot act threatened hearing got changed 've got change operate section 215 otherwise two half years 're going anymore leaks classified documents pointed role special court enabling government secret surveillance programs members court maintained collaborating executive branch new york times however reported july 2013 dozen classified rulings nation surveillance court created secret body law giving national security agency power amass vast collections data americans pursuing terrorism suspects also people possibly involved nuclear proliferation espionage cyberattacks members u.s. congress pressed foreign intelligence surveillance court release declassified versions secret ruling court dismissed requests arguing decisions ca n't declassified contain classified information reggie walton current fisa presiding judge said statement perception court rubber stamp absolutely false rigorous review process applications submitted executive branch spearheaded initially five judicial branch lawyers national security experts judges ensure court authorizations comport applicable statutes authorize accusation rubber stamp rejected walton wrote letter senator patrick j. leahy annual statistics provided congress attorney general ... —frequently cited press reports suggestion court approval rate application 99 —reflect number final applications submitted acted court statistics reflect fact many applications altered prior final submission even withheld final submission entirely often indication judge would approve u.s. military acknowledged blocking access parts guardian website thousands defense personnel across country blocking entire guardian website personnel stationed throughout afghanistan middle east south asia spokesman said military filtering reports content relating government surveillance programs preserve network hygiene prevent classified material appearing unclassified parts computer systems access washington post also published information classified nsa surveillance programs disclosed edward snowden blocked time blocking access guardian reported former head austrian federal office protection constitution counterterrorism gert-rené polli stated knew prism program different name stated surveillance activities occurred austria well polli publicly stated 2009 received requests us intelligence agencies things would violation austrian law polli refused allow australian government said investigate impact prism program use pine gap surveillance facility privacy australian citizens australia former foreign minister bob carr said australians n't concerned prism cybersecurity high government list concerns australian foreign minister julie bishop stated acts edward snowden treachery offered staunch defence nation intelligence co-operation united states brazil president time dilma rousseff responded snowden reports nsa spied phone calls emails cancelling planned october 2013 state visit united states demanding official apology october 20 2013 n't come also rousseff classified spying unacceptable harsh words speech un general assembly september 24 2013 result boeing lost us 4.5 billion contract fighter jets sweden saab group canada national cryptologic agency communications security establishment cse said commenting prism would undermine cse ability carry mandate privacy commissioner jennifer stoddart lamented canada standards comes protecting personal online privacy stating fallen far behind report nations data protection authorities legal power make binding orders levy hefty fines take meaningful action event serious data breaches restricted 'soft approach persuasion encouragement potential publish names transgressors public interest push comes shove stoddart wrote short costly time-consuming court battle power enforce recommendations 20 october 2013 committee european parliament backed measure enacted would require american companies seek clearance european officials complying united states warrants seeking private data legislation consideration two years vote part efforts europe shield citizens online surveillance wake revelations far-reaching spying program u.s. national security agency germany france also ongoing mutual talks keep european email traffic going across american servers october 21 2013 french foreign minister laurent fabius summoned u.s ambassador charles rivkin quai d'orsay paris protest large-scale spying french citizens u.s. national security agency nsa paris prosecutors opened preliminary inquiries nsa program july fabius said ... obviously need go must quickly assure practices n't repeated germany receive raw prism data according reuters report german chancellor angela merkel said internet new us explain nature program matthew schofield mcclatchy washington bureau said roundly mocked statement gert-rené polli former austrian counter-terrorism official said 2013 absurd unnatural german authorities pretend known anything german army using prism support operations afghanistan early 2011 october 2013 reported nsa monitored merkel cell phone united states denied report following allegations merkel called president obama told spying friends never acceptable matter situation israeli newspaper calcalist discussed business insider article possible involvement technologies two secretive israeli companies prism program—verint systems narus finding prism program mexican government started constructing spying program spy citizens according jenaro villamil writer proceso cisen mexico intelligence agency started work ibm hewlett packard develop data gathering software facebook twitter emails social network sites going priority new zealand university otago information science associate professor hank wolfe said unofficially known five eyes alliance new zealand governments including united states australia canada britain dealt internal spying saying n't partners share information edward snowden live streamed google hangout kim dotcom julian assange alleged received intelligence new zealand nsa listening posts new zealand meeting european union leaders held week 21 october 2013 mariano rajoy spain prime minister said spying activities n't proper among partner countries allies 28 october 2013 spanish government summoned american ambassador james costos address allegations u.s. collected data 60 million telephone calls spain separately íñigo méndez de vigo spanish secretary state referred need maintain necessary balance security privacy concerns said recent allegations spying proven true improper unacceptable partners friendly countries united kingdom government communications headquarters gchq also surveillance program tempora access prism program june 2010 wrote 197 reports 2012 alone intelligence security committee uk parliament reviewed reports gchq produced basis intelligence sought us found case warrant interception place accordance legal safeguards contained uk law august 2013 guardian newspaper offices visited agents gchq ordered supervised destruction hard drives containing information acquired snowden original washington post guardian articles reporting prism noted one leaked briefing documents said prism involves collection data directly servers several major internet services providers corporate executives several companies identified leaked documents told guardian knowledge prism program particular also denied making information available government scale alleged news reports statements several companies named leaked documents reported techcrunch washington post follows response technology companies confirmation nsa able directly access companies servers new york times reported sources stated nsa gathering surveillance data companies using technical means response court orders specific sets data washington post suggested possible conflict prism slides company spokesmen result imprecision part nsa author another classified report obtained post arrangement described allowing 'collection managers send content tasking instructions directly equipment installed company-controlled locations rather directly company servers n context 'direct likely mean nsa receiving data sent deliberately tech companies opposed intercepting communications 're transmitted destination companies received order fisa amendments act forbidden law disclosing received order disclosing information order mark rumold staff attorney electronic frontier foundation told abc news may 28 2013 google ordered united states district court judge susan illston comply national security letter issued fbi provide user data without warrant kurt opsahl senior staff attorney electronic frontier foundation interview venturebeat said certainly appreciate google put transparency report appears transparency n't include would n't surprised subject gag order new york times reported june 7 2013 twitter declined make easier government companies compliant according people briefed negotiations companies held discussions national security personnel make data available efficiently securely cases companies made modifications systems support intelligence collection effort dialogues continued recent months general martin dempsey chairman joint chiefs staff met executives including facebook microsoft google intel details discussions provide insight disparity initial descriptions government program including training slide states collection directly servers companies denials providing data response legitimate fisa request approved fisa court legal requirement modifying systems make easier government collect data twitter could legally decline provide enhanced mechanism data transmission twitter companies effectively asked construct locked mailbox provide key government people briefed negotiations said facebook instance built system requesting sharing information google provide lockbox system instead transmits required data hand delivery ssh response publicity surrounding media reports data-sharing several companies requested permission reveal public information nature scope information provided response national security requests june 14 2013 facebook reported u.s. government authorized communication numbers aggregate range press release posted web site company reported six months ending december 31 2012 total number user-data requests facebook received government entities u.s. including local state federal including criminal national security-related requests – 9,000 10,000 company reported requests impacted 18,000 19,000 user accounts tiny fraction one percent 1.1 billion active user accounts day microsoft reported period received 6,000 7,000 criminal national security warrants subpoenas orders affecting 31,000 32,000 consumer accounts u.s. governmental entities including local state federal impacted tiny fraction microsoft global customer base google issued statement criticizing requirement data reported aggregated form stating lumping national security requests criminal request data would step backwards previous detailed practices website transparency report company said would continue seek government permission publish number extent fisa requests cisco systems saw huge drop export sales fears national security agency could using backdoors products september 12 2014 yahoo reported u.s. government threatened imposition 250,000 fines per day yahoo n't hand user data part nsa prism program known companies threatened fined providing data response legitimate fisa requests new york times editorial board charged obama administration lost credibility issue lamented years members congress ignored evidence domestic intelligence-gathering grown beyond control even seem disturbed learn every detail public calling texting habits reside n.s.a database wrote respect fisa-court context prism perversion american justice system judicial secrecy coupled one-sided presentation issues according new york times result court whose reach expanding far beyond original mandate without substantive check james robertson former federal district judge based washington served secret foreign intelligence surveillance act court three years 2002 2005 ruled bush administration landmark hamdan v. rumsfeld case said fisa court independent flawed government side represented effectively deliberations anyone judge tell judge needs hear sides case said james robertson without judges benefit adversarial debate suggested creating advocate security clearance would argue government filings robertson questioned whether secret fisa court provide overall legal approval surveillance programs saying court turned something like administrative agency changes brought foreign intelligence surveillance act 1978 amendments act 2008 expanded us government authority forcing court approve entire surveillance systems surveillance warrants previously handled court approving programmatic surveillance n't think judicial function robertson also said frankly stunned new york times report fisa court rulings created new body law broadening ability nsa use surveillance programs target terrorists suspects cases involving espionage cyberattacks weapons mass destruction former cia analyst valerie plame wilson former u.s. diplomat joseph wilson writing op-ed article published guardian said prism nsa data-mining programs might indeed effective hunting capturing actual terrorists n't enough information society make decision electronic frontier foundation eff international non-profit digital-rights group based u.s. hosting tool american resident write government representatives regarding opposition mass spying obama administration argument nsa surveillance programs prism boundless informant necessary prevent acts terrorism challenged several parties ed pilkington nicholas watt guardian said case najibullah zazi planned bomb new york city subway interviews involved parties u.s. british court documents indicated investigation case actually initiated response conventional surveillance methods old-fashioned tip-offs british intelligence services rather leads produced nsa surveillance michael daly daily beast stated even though tamerlan tsarnaev conducted boston marathon bombing brother dzhokhar tsarnaev visited al qaeda-affiliated inspire magazine website even though russian intelligence officials raised concerns u.s. intelligence officials tamerlan tsarnaev prism prevent carrying boston attacks daly observed problem national security agency gathering risk privacy apparently unable monitor risk safety ron paul former republican member congress prominent libertarian thanked snowden greenwald denounced mass surveillance unhelpful damaging urging instead transparency u.s. government actions called congress derelict giving much power government said elected president would ordered searches probable cause crime committed said prism program operated new york times columnist thomas l. friedman defended limited government surveillance programs intended protect american people terrorist acts yes worry potential government abuse privacy program designed prevent another 9/11—abuse far appear happened worry even another 9/11 ... another 9/11 fear 99 percent americans would tell members congress whatever need privacy damned make sure happen fear 'll reluctantly reluctantly trade government using data mining look suspicious patterns phone numbers called e-mail addresses—and go judge get warrant actually look content guidelines set congress—to prevent day fear give government license look anyone e-mail phone call anywhere anytime political commentator david brooks similarly cautioned government data surveillance programs necessary evil n't mass data sweeps well agencies going want go back old-fashioned eavesdropping lot intrusive conservative commentator charles krauthammer worried less legality prism nsa surveillance tools potential abuse without stringent oversight problem constitutionality ... need toughening congressional oversight judicial review perhaps even independent outside scrutiny plus periodic legislative revision—say reauthorization every couple years—in light efficacy safeguards nature external threat object abolish vital programs fix blog post david simon creator wire compared nsa programs including prism 1980s effort city baltimore add dialed number recorders pay phones know individuals called callers city believed drug traffickers using pay phones pagers municipal judge allowed city place recorders placement dialers formed basis show first season simon argued media attention regarding nsa programs faux scandal simon stated many classes people american society already faced constant government surveillance political activist frequent critic u.s. government policies noam chomsky argued governments capacity governments use whatever technology available combat primary enemy – population cnn/opinion research corporation poll conducted june 11 13 found 66 americans generally supported program however quinnipiac university poll conducted june 28 july 8 found 45 registered voters think surveillance programs gone far 40 saying go far enough compared 25 saying gone far 63 saying far enough 2010 polls shown similar shifts public opinion revelations programs leaked terms economic impact study released august information technology innovation foundation found disclosure prism could cost u.s. economy 21.5 35 billion lost cloud computing business three years sentiment around world general displeasure upon learning extent world communication data mining national leaders spoke nsa spoke national surveillance one national minister scathing comments national security agency data-mining program citing benjamin franklin society monitors controls observes citizens less free question costs hunting terrorists overshadows loss citizen privacy nick xenophon australian independent senator asked bob carr australian minister foreign affairs e-mail addresses australian parliamentarians exempt prism mainway marina and/or nucleon carr replied legal framework protect australians government would comment intelligence matters xenophon argued specific answer question taliban spokesperson zabiullah mujahid said knew past efforts trace system used technical resources foil efforts able stop succeeding far however cnn reported terrorist groups changed communications behaviors response leaks 2013 cloud security alliance surveyed cloud computing stakeholders reactions us prism spying scandal 10 non-us residents indicated cancelled project us-based cloud computing provider wake prism 56 said would less likely use us-based cloud computing service alliance predicted us cloud computing providers might lose much €26 billion 20 share cloud services foreign markets prism spying scandal reactions internet users china mixed viewing loss freedom worldwide seeing state surveillance coming secrecy story broke u.s. president barack obama chinese president xi jinping met california asked nsa hacking china spokeswoman ministry foreign affairs people republic china said china strongly advocates cybersecurity party-owned newspaper liberation daily described surveillance like nineteen eighty-four -style hong kong legislators gary fan claudia mo wrote letter obama stating revelations blanket surveillance global communications world leading democracy damaged image u.s. among freedom-loving peoples around world ai weiwei chinese dissident said even though know governments kinds things shocked information us surveillance operation prism abusively using government powers interfere individuals privacy important moment international society reconsider protect individual rights sophie 't veld dutch member european parliament called prism violation eu laws german federal commissioner data protection freedom information peter schaar condemned program monstrous added white house claims reassure given large number german users google facebook apple microsoft services expect german government ... committed clarification limitation surveillance steffen seibert press secretary chancellor office announced angela merkel put issues agenda talks barack obama pending visit berlin wolfgang schmidt former lieutenant colonel stasi said stasi would seen program dream come true since stasi lacked technology made prism possible schmidt expressed opposition saying height naivete think collected information wo n't used nature secret government organizations way protect people privacy allow government collect information first place many germans organized protests including one checkpoint charlie obama went berlin speak matthew schofield mcclatchy washington bureau said germans dismayed obama role allowing collection much information italian president guarantor protection personal data antonello soro said surveillance dragnet would legal italy would contrary principles legislation would represent serious violation cnil french data protection watchdog intimates google change privacy policies within three months 'll risk fines 150,000 euros spanish agency data protection aepd planning fine google 40k 300k euros fails clear past usage massive data spanish users william hague foreign secretary united kingdom dismissed accusations british security agencies circumventing british law using information gathered british citizens prism saying data obtained us united states involving uk nationals subject proper uk statutory controls safeguards david cameron said britain spy agencies received data collected prism acted within law 'm satisfied intelligence agencies fantastically important job country keep us safe operate within law malcolm rifkind chairman parliament intelligence security committee said british intelligence agencies seeking know content emails people living uk actually get lawful authority uk information commissioner office cautious saying would investigate prism alongside european data agencies real issues extent u.s. law agencies access personal data uk european citizens aspects u.s. law companies compelled provide information u.s. agencies potentially conflict european data protection law including uk data protection act ico raised european counterparts issue considered european commission discussions u.s government tim berners-lee inventor world wide web accused western governments practicing hypocrisy conducted spying internet criticized countries spying internet berners-lee stated internet spying make people feel reluctant access intimate details use internet certain way paraphrased steve robson daily mail said internet protected controlled governments large corporations minister external affairs salman khurshid defended prism program saying scrutiny access actual messages computer analysis patterns calls emails sent actually snooping specifically content anybody message conversation information got scrutiny able use prevent serious terrorist attacks several countries comments contradicted foreign ministry characterization violations privacy unacceptable minister communications information technology kapil sibal asked khurshid comments refused comment directly said know nature data information sought part prism even external ministry idea media felt khurshid defence prism india government rolling central monitoring system cms similar prism program khurshid comments criticized indian media well opposition party cpi stated upa government strongly protested surveillance bugging instead shocking khurshid sought justify shameful remark come time even close allies us like germany france protested snooping countries rajya sabha mp p. rajeev told times india act usa clear violation vienna convention diplomatic relations khurshid trying justify speed government india reject asylum application edward snowden shameful june 8 2013 director national intelligence issued fact sheet stating prism undisclosed collection data mining program rather internal government computer system used facilitate collection foreign intelligence information court supervision authorized section 702 foreign intelligence surveillance act fisa 50 u.s.c § 1881a section 702 provides attorney general director national intelligence may authorize jointly period 1 year effective date authorization targeting persons reasonably believed located outside united states acquire foreign intelligence information order authorize targeting attorney general director national intelligence need obtain order foreign intelligence surveillance court fisa court pursuant section 702 certify intelligence important national security united states may lost timely acquired time permit issuance order requesting order attorney general director national intelligence must certify fisa court significant purpose acquisition obtain foreign intelligence information need specify facilities property targeted receiving fisa court order determining emergency circumstances attorney general director national intelligence direct electronic communication service provider give access information facilities carry targeting keep targeting secret provider option 1 comply directive 2 reject 3 challenge fisa court provider complies directive released liability users providing information reimbursed cost providing provider rejects directive attorney general may request order fisa court enforce provider fails comply fisa court order punished contempt court finally provider petition fisa court reject directive case fisa court denies petition orders provider comply directive provider risks contempt court refuses comply fisa court order provider appeal fisa court denial foreign intelligence surveillance court review appeal court review decision supreme court writ certiorari review seal senate select committee intelligence fisa courts put place oversee intelligence operations period death j. edgar hoover beverly gage slate said created new mechanisms supposed stop kinds abuses men like hoover engineered instead looks come function rubber stamps expansive ambitions intelligence community j. edgar hoover longer rules washington turns n't need anyway laura donohue law professor georgetown university law center center national security law called prism nsa mass surveillance programs unconstitutional woodrow hartzog affiliate stanford law school center internet society commented aclu likely demonstrate legitimate first amendment harms chilling effects fourth amendment harms perhaps violation reasonable expectation privacy ... harm merely know certainty monitored government certainly argument people surveillance act differently experience loss autonomy less likely engage self exploration reflection less willing engage core expressive political activities dissenting speech government criticism interests first fourth amendment seek protect fisa amendments act faa section 702 referenced prism documents detailing electronic interception capture analysis metadata many reports letters concern written members congress suggest section faa particular legally constitutionally problematic targeting u.s. persons insofar collections occur u.s. published documents indicate aclu asserted following regarding faa regardless abuses problem faa fundamental statute unconstitutional senator rand paul introducing new legislation called fourth amendment restoration act 2013 stop nsa agencies united states government violating fourth amendment u.s. constitution using technology big data information systems like prism boundless informant besides information collection program started 2007 two programs sharing name prism parallel programs known collectively sigads gather data metadata sources sigad set defined sources targets types data collected legal authorities software associated sigads name umbrella sit blarney sigad summary set slides alongside cartoon insignia shamrock leprechaun hat describes ongoing collection program leverages ic intelligence community commercial partnerships gain access exploit foreign intelligence obtained global networks sigads like prism collect data isp level others take top-level infrastructure type collection known upstream upstream collection includes programs known blanket terms blarney fairview oakstar stormbrew individual sigads data integrated sigad gathered ways besides upstream service providers instance collected passive sensors around embassies even stolen individual computer network hacking attack sigads involve upstream collection instance data could taken directly service provider either agreement case prism means hacking ways according washington post much less known muscular program directly taps unencrypted data inside google yahoo private clouds collects twice many data points compared prism google yahoo clouds span globe tap done outside united states unlike prism muscular program requires fisa type warrants 1-hop neighbor's text information: privacy-enhancing_technologies.privacy-enhancing technologies privacy-enhancing technologies pet methods protecting data accordance law pet allow online users protect privacy personally identifiable information pii provided handled services applications pet uses techniques minimize possession personal data without losing functionality information system objective pets protect personal data ensure users technology information confidential management data protection priority organizations withhold responsibility pii allowing users take one following actions related personal data sent used online service providers merchants users goal privacy-enhancing technologies include increasing control personal data sent used online service providers merchants online users self-determination pets aim minimize personal data collected used service providers merchants use pseudonyms anonymous data credentials provide anonymity strive achieve informed consent giving personal data online service providers merchants privacy negotiations consumers service providers establish maintain refine privacy policies individualized agreements ongoing choice among service alternatives therefore providing possibility negotiate terms conditions giving personal data online service providers merchants data handling/privacy policy negotiation within private negotiations transaction partners may additionally bundle personal information collection processing schemes monetary non-monetary rewards pets provide possibility remotely audit enforcement terms conditions online service providers merchants assurance allow users log archive look past transfers personal data including data transferred conditions facilitate use legal rights data inspection correction deletion privacy-enhancing technologies distinguished based assumption assumed third-party trusted processing data model based control audit example technologies single entity violate privacy user assumes third-parties trusted data protection goal data minimization reduction trust third-parties examples technologies include used democratic elections examples existing privacy enhancing technologies examples privacy enhancing technologies researched developed include limited disclosure technology anonymous credentials online car rental negotiation enforcement data handling conditions data transaction log limited disclosure technology provides way protecting individuals privacy allowing share enough personal information service providers complete interaction transaction technology also designed limit tracking correlation users ’ interactions third parties limited disclosure uses cryptographic techniques allows users retrieve data vetted provider transmit data relying party relying parties trust authenticity integrity data anonymous credentials asserted properties rights credential holder n't reveal true identity holder information revealed holder credential willing disclose assertion issued user himself/herself provider online service third party another service provider government agency etc. example online car rental car rental agency n't need know true identity customer needs make sure customer 23 example customer drivers license health insurance i.e accidents etc customer paying thus real need know customers name address personal information anonymous credentials allow parties comfortable allow customer reveal much data car rental agency needs providing service data minimization allow car rental agency verify requirements get money ordering car online user instead providing classical name address credit card number provides following credentials issued pseudonyms i.e real name customer negotiation enforcement data handling conditions ordering product service online user online service provider merchant negotiate type personal data transferred service provider includes conditions shall apply handling personal data whether may sent third parties profile selling conditions e.g informing user time future shall deleted transfer personal data took place agreed upon data handling conditions technically enforced infrastructure service provider capable managing processing data handling obligations moreover enforcement remotely audited user example verifying chains certification based trusted computing modules verifying privacy seals/labels issued third party auditing organisations e.g data protection agencies thus instead user rely mere promises service providers abuse personal data users confident service provider adhering negotiated data handling conditions lastly data transaction log allows users ability log personal data send service provider time conditions logs stored allow users determine data sent establish type data possession specific service provider leads transparency pre-requisite control pets general anonymous credentials privacy policy negotiation Target text information: global_surveillance.global surveillance global surveillance refers mass surveillance entire populations across national borders roots traced back middle 20th century ukusa agreement jointly enacted united kingdom united states later expanded canada australia new zealand create present five eyes alliance alliance developed cooperation arrangements several third-party nations eventually resulted establishment global surveillance network code-named echelon 1971 existence however widely acknowledged governments mainstream media global surveillance disclosures edward snowden triggered debate right privacy digital age origins global surveillance traced back late 1940s ukusa agreement collaboratively enacted united kingdom united states eventually culminated creation global surveillance network code-named echelon 1971 aftermath 1970s watergate affair subsequent congressional inquiry led sen. frank church revealed nsa collaboration britain gchq routinely intercepted international communications prominent anti-vietnam war leaders jane fonda dr. benjamin spock decades later multi-year investigation european parliament highlighted nsa role economic espionage report entitled 'development surveillance technology risk abuse economic information 1999 however general public series detailed disclosures internal nsa documents june 2013 first revealed massive extent nsa spying foreign domestic leaked ex-contractor edward snowden even number older global surveillance programs prism xkeyscore tempora referenced 2013 release thousands documents many countries around world including western allies member states nato targeted five eyes strategic alliance australia canada new zealand uk usa—five english-speaking western countries aiming achieve total information awareness mastering internet analytical tools boundless informant confirmed nsa director keith b. alexander 26 september 2013 nsa collects stores phone records american citizens much data kept large storage facilities utah data center us 1.5 billion megaproject referred wall street journal symbol spy agency surveillance prowess 6 june 2013 britain guardian newspaper began publishing series revelations yet unknown american whistleblower revealed several days later ex-cia ex-nsa-contracted systems analyst edward snowden snowden gave cache documents two journalists glenn greenwald laura poitras greenwald later estimated cache contains 15,000 – 20,000 documents large detailed small two subsequent months publications became clear nsa operated complex web spying programs allowed intercept internet telephone conversations billion users dozens countries around world specific revelations made china european union latin america iran pakistan australia new zealand however published documentation reveals many programs indiscriminately collected bulk information directly central servers internet backbones almost invariably carry reroute information distant countries due central server backbone monitoring many programs overlapped interrelated among one another programs often carried assistance us entities united states department justice fbi sanctioned us laws fisa amendments act necessary court orders signed secret foreign intelligence surveillance court nsa programs directly aided national foreign intelligence agencies britain gchq australia dsd well large private telecommunications internet corporations verizon telstra google facebook snowden disclosures nsa surveillance activities continuation news leaks ongoing since early 2000s one year september 11 2001 attacks former u.s. intelligence official william binney publicly critical nsa spying u.s. citizens disclosures followed 16 december 2005 new york times published report headline bush lets u.s. spy callers without courts 2006 evidence nsa domestic surveillance u.s. citizens provided usa today newspaper released report 11 may 2006 regarding nsa massive database phone records collected tens millions u.s. citizens according usa today phone records provided several telecom companies verizon bellsouth 2008 security analyst babak pasdar revealed existence so-called quantico circuit team discovered 2003 brought update carrier security system circuit provided u.s. federal government backdoor network unnamed wireless provider later independently identified verizon snowden made first contact journalist glenn greenwald guardian late 2012 timeline mass surveillance disclosures snowden continued throughout entire year 2013 documents leaked snowden 2013 include court orders memos policy documents related wide range surveillance activities according april 2013 summary documents leaked snowden combat terrorism surveillance programs employed assess foreign policy economic stability countries gather commercial secrets statement addressed national congress brazil early august 2013 journalist glenn greenwald maintained u.s. government used counter-terrorism pretext clandestine surveillance order compete countries business industrial economic fields december 2013 letter brazilian government snowden wrote programs never terrorism 're economic spying social control diplomatic manipulation 're power according white house panel member nsa n't stop terrorist attack however nsa chief said surveillance programs stopped 54 terrorist plots interview der spiegel published 12 august 2013 former nsa director michael hayden admitted nsa steal secrets 're number one hayden also added steal stuff make safe make rich according documents seen news agency reuters secrets subsequently funnelled authorities across nation help launch criminal investigations americans federal agents instructed recreate investigative trail order cover information originated according congressional testimony keith b. alexander director national security agency one purposes data collection store phone records inside place searched assessed times asked senator mark udall goal nsa collect phone records americans alexander replied yes believe nation best interest put phone records lockbox could search nation needs united states nsa collecting phone records 300 million americans international surveillance tool xkeyscore allows government analysts search vast databases containing emails online chats browsing histories millions individuals britain global surveillance program tempora intercepts fibre-optic cables form backbone internet nsa prism surveillance program data already reached final destination would directly harvested servers following u.s. service providers microsoft yahoo google facebook paltalk aol skype youtube apple inc nsa uses analysis phone call e-mail logs american citizens create sophisticated graphs social connections identify associates locations certain times travelling companions personal information according top secret nsa documents leaked snowden single day 2012 nsa collected e-mail address books day nsa collects contacts estimated 500,000 buddy lists live-chat services well inbox displays web-based e-mail accounts taken together data enables nsa draw detailed maps person life based personal professional religious political connections federal agencies united states data gathered surveillance programs routinely shared u.s. federal bureau investigation fbi u.s. central intelligence agency cia addition nsa supplies domestic intercepts drug enforcement administration dea internal revenue service irs law enforcement agencies foreign countries result nsa secret treaties foreign countries data gathered surveillance programs routinely shared countries signatories ukusa agreement foreign countries also help operate several nsa programs xkeyscore see international cooperation special branch nsa called follow money ftm monitors international payments banking credit card transactions later stores collected data nsa financial databank tracfin mobile phone tracking refers act attaining position coordinates mobile phone according washington post nsa tracking locations mobile phones world tapping cables connect mobile networks globally serve u.s. cellphones well foreign ones process nsa collects 5 billion records phone locations daily basis enables nsa analysts map cellphone owners relationships correlating patterns movement time thousands millions phone users cross paths order decode private conversations nsa cracked commonly used cellphone encryption technology a5/1 according classified document leaked snowden agency process encrypted a5/1 even acquired encryption key addition nsa uses various types cellphone infrastructure links carrier networks determine location cellphone user tracked visitor location registers worldwide sales smartphones grew rapidly nsa decided take advantage smartphone boom particularly advantageous smartphone contains variety data sets would interest intelligence agency social contacts user behaviour interests location photos credit card numbers passwords according documents leaked snowden nsa set task forces assigned several smartphone manufacturers operating systems including apple inc. iphone ios operating system well google android mobile operating system similarly britain gchq assigned team study crack blackberry addition smaller nsa programs known scripts perform surveillance 38 different features ios 3 ios 4 operating systems include mapping feature voicemail photos well google earth facebook yahoo messenger contrast prism surveillance program front-door method access nominally approved fisa court muscular surveillance program noted unusually aggressive usage unorthodox hacking methods infiltrate yahoo google data centres around world program operated overseas united kingdom nsa presumes anyone using foreign data link foreigner therefore able collect content metadata previously unknown scale u.s. citizens residents according documents leaked snowden muscular surveillance program jointly operated nsa britain gchq agency see international cooperation five eyes made repeated attempts spy internet users communicating secret via anonymity network tor several clandestine operations involve implantation malicious code computers anonymous tor users visit infected websites cases nsa gchq succeeded blocking access anonymous network diverting tor users insecure channels cases nsa gchq able uncover identity anonymous users royal concierge surveillance program britain gchq agency uses automated monitoring system infiltrate reservation systems least 350 luxury hotels many different parts world related surveillance programs involve wiretapping room telephones fax machines used targeted hotels well monitoring computers hooked hotel network u.s. national security agency nsa u.s. central intelligence agency cia britain government communications headquarters gchq conducting surveillance networks many online games including massively multiplayer online role-playing games mmorpgs world warcraft well virtual worlds second life xbox gaming console according april 2013 summary disclosures nsa defined intelligence priorities scale 1 highest interest 5 lowest interest classified 30 countries 3rd parties cooperates also spies prominent targets included members adherents internet group known anonymous well potential whistleblowers according snowden nsa targeted reporters wrote critically government 9/11 part joint operation central intelligence agency cia nsa deployed secret eavesdropping posts eighty u.s. embassies consulates worldwide headquarters nato also used nsa experts spy european union 2013 documents provided edward snowden revealed following intergovernmental organizations diplomatic missions government ministries subjected surveillance five eyes world war ii brusa agreement signed governments united states united kingdom purpose intelligence sharing later formalized ukusa agreement 1946 secret treaty full text agreement released public 25 june 2010 although treaty later revised include countries denmark germany ireland norway turkey philippines information sharing performed so-called five eyes term referring following english-speaking western democracies respective intelligence agencies left sea-me-we 3 runs across afro-eurasian supercontinent japan northern germany one important submarine cables accessed five eyes singapore former british colony asia-pacific region blue dot plays vital role intercepting internet telecommunications traffic heading australia/japan europe vice versa intelligence-sharing agreement singapore australia allows rest five eyes gain access sea-me-we 3 right tat-14 telecommunications cable linking europe united states identified one assets critical infrastructure key resources usa foreign territory 2013 revealed british officials pressured handful telecommunications internet companies allow british government gain access tat-14 according leaked documents aside five eyes western countries also participated nsa surveillance system sharing information documents nsa lists approved sigint partners partner countries addition five eyes glenn greenwald said nsa often maintains partnerships paying partner develop certain technologies engage surveillance thus direct spying carried partner countries divided two groups second parties third parties second parties comprehensive cooperation nsa third parties focused cooperation however partner nsa automatically exempt country targeted nsa according internal nsa document leaked snowden nsa often target signals 3rd party foreign partners australian signals directorate asd formerly known defence signals directorate dsd shares information australian citizens members ukusa agreement according 2008 five eyes document leaked snowden data australian citizens shared foreign countries include bulk unselected unminimised metadata well medical legal religious information close cooperation members five eyes community asd runs secret surveillance facilities many parts southeast asia without knowledge australian diplomats addition asd cooperates security intelligence division sid republic singapore international operation intercept underwater telecommunications cables across eastern hemisphere pacific ocean march 2017 reported advice five eyes intelligence alliance 500 iraqi syrian refugees refused entry australia last year communications security establishment canada csec offers nsa resources advanced collection processing analysis set covert sites request nsa us-canada signt relationship dates back secret alliance formed world war ii formalized 1949 canusa agreement behalf nsa csec opened secret surveillance facilities 20 countries around world well communications security establishment canada revealed following global surveillance disclosures engaging surveillance wifi hotspots major canadian airports collecting meta-data use engaging surveillance travelers even days departure said airports politiets efterretningstjeneste pet denmark domestic intelligence agency exchanges data nsa regular basis part secret agreement united states one 9-eyes ukusa agreement denmark relationship nsa closer nsa relationship germany sweden spain belgium italy directorate-general external security dgse france maintains close relationship nsa gchq discussions increased cooperation began november 2006 early 2010s extent cooperation joint interception digital data dgse nsa noted increased dramatically 2011 formal memorandum data exchange signed dgse nsa facilitated transfer millions metadata records dgse nsa december 2012 8 january 2013 70 million metadata records handed nsa french intelligence agencies bundesnachrichtendienst bnd germany systematically transfers metadata german intelligence sources nsa december 2012 alone bnd provided nsa 500 million metadata records nsa granted bundesnachrichtendienst access x-keyscore exchange german surveillance programs mira4 veras early 2013 hans-georg maaßen president german domestic security agency bundesamt für verfassungsschutz bfv made several visits headquarters nsa according classified documents german government maaßen agreed transfer data records persons monitored germany bfv via xkeyscore nsa addition bfv works closely eight u.s. government agencies including cia project 6 jointly operated cia bfv bnd massive database containing personal information photos license plate numbers internet search histories telephone metadata developed gain better understanding social relationships presumed jihadists 2012 bfv handed 864 data sets personal information cia nsa seven u.s. intelligence agencies exchange bnd received data u.s. intelligence agencies 1,830 occasions newly acquired data handed bfv stored domestically accessible system known nadis wn israeli sigint national unit isnu routinely receives raw unfiltered data u.s. citizens nsa however secret nsa document leaked snowden revealed u.s. government officials explicitly exempted forms data sharing isnu stated memorandum detailing rules data sharing u.s. citizens isnu obligated according undated memorandum ground rules intelligence sharing nsa isnu laid march 2009 data sharing agreement isnu allowed retain identities u.s. citizens excluding u.s. government officials year 2011 nsa asked japanese government intercept underwater fibre-optic cables carrying phone internet data asia-pacific region however japanese government refused comply reign muammar gaddafi libyan regime forged partnership britain secret service mi6 u.s. central intelligence agency cia obtain information libyan dissidents living united states canada exchange gaddafi allowed western democracies use libya base extraordinary renditions algemene inlichtingen en veiligheidsdienst aivd netherlands receiving storing data internet users gathered u.s. intelligence sources nsa prism surveillance program meeting february 2013 aivd mivd briefed nsa attempts hack internet forums collect data users using technology known computer network exploitation cne norwegian intelligence service nis confirmed data collected agency shared americans kjell grandhagen head norwegian military intelligence told reporters news conference share information partners partners share us ... talking huge amounts traffic data cooperation nsa nis gained access russian targets kola peninsula civilian targets general nis provides information nsa politicians energy armament top secret memo nsa lists following years milestones norway-united states america signt agreement norus agreement nsa perceives nis one reliable partners agencies also cooperate crack encryption systems mutual targets according nsa norway made objections requests defence ministry singapore security intelligence division sid secretly intercepting much fibre optic cable traffic passing asian continent close cooperation australian signals directorate asd/dsd singapore sid able intercept sea-me-we 3 southeast asia-middle east-western europe 3 well sea-me-we 4 telecommunications cables access international telecommunications channels facilitated singapore government-owned operator singtel temasek holdings multibillion-dollar sovereign wealth fund majority stake singtel maintained close relations country intelligence agencies information gathered government singapore transferred government australia part intelligence sharing agreement allows five eyes maintain stranglehold communications across eastern hemisphere close cooperation centro nacional de inteligencia cni nsa intercepted 60.5 million phone calls spain single month försvarets radioanstalt fra sweden codenamed sardines allowed five eyes access underwater cables baltic sea 5 december 2013 sveriges television swedish television revealed fra conducting clandestine surveillance operation targeting internal politics russia operation conducted behalf nsa receives data handed fra according documents leaked snowden fra sweden granted access nsa international surveillance program xkeyscore federal intelligence service ndb switzerland exchanges information nsa regularly basis secret agreement circumvent domestic surveillance restrictions addition nsa granted access swiss surveillance facilities leuk canton valais herrenschwanden canton bern part swiss surveillance program onyx according ndb agency maintains working relationships 100 international organizations however ndb denied form cooperation nsa although nsa direct access switzerland onyx surveillance program director ndb acknowledged possible u.s. intelligence agencies gain access switzerland surveillance system british government allowed nsa store personal data british citizens project minaret anti-vietnam war dissidents united states jointly targeted gchq nsa cia pays us 10 million year gain access international phone records including u.s. citizens nsa foreign affairs directorate interacts foreign intelligence services members five eyes implement global surveillance fbi acts liaison u.s. intelligence agencies silicon valley giants microsoft early 2010s dhs conducted joint surveillance operation fbi crack dissidents occupy wall street protest movement nsa supplies domestic intercepts drug enforcement administration dea internal revenue service irs law enforcement agencies use intercepted data initiate criminal investigations us citizens federal agents instructed recreate investigative trail order cover information originated weeks september 11 attacks u.s. president george w. bush signed patriot act ensure disruption government ability conduct global surveillance patriot act extended u.s. president barack obama may 2011 extend federal government legal authority conduct additional forms surveillance roving wiretaps 70 percent united states intelligence community budget earmarked payment private firms according forbes magazine defense technology company lockheed martin currently usa biggest defense contractor destined nsa powerful commercial partner biggest contractor terms dollar revenue joint operation nsa american telecommunications corporation operates room 641a sbc communications building san francisco spy internet traffic cia pays us 10 million year gain access international phone records including u.s. citizens projects developed booz allen hamilton include strategic innovation group identify terrorists social media behalf government agencies fiscal year 2013 booz allen hamilton derived 99 income government largest portion revenue coming u.s. army 2013 booz allen hamilton hailed bloomberg businessweek world profitable spy organization british telecommunications code-named remedy major supplier telecommunications granted britain intelligence agency gchq unlimited access network undersea cables according documents leaked snowden american multinational corporation microsoft helped nsa circumvent software encryption safeguards also allowed federal government monitor web chats outlook.com portal 2013 microsoft worked fbi allow nsa gain access company cloud storage service skydrive french telecommunications corporation orange s.a. shares customer call data french intelligence agency dgse intercepted data handed gchq rsa security paid us 10 million nsa introduce cryptographic backdoor encryption products strategic forecasting inc. commonly known stratfor global intelligence company offering information governments private clients including dow chemical company lockheed martin northrop grumman raytheon u.s. department homeland security u.s. defense intelligence agency u.s. marine corps british telecommunications company vodafone code-named gerontic granted britain intelligence agency gchq unlimited access network undersea cables according documents leaked snowden in-q-tel receives us 56 million year government support venture capital firm enables cia invest silicon valley palantir technologies data mining corporation close ties fbi nsa cia based palo alto california company developed data collection analytical program known prism 2011 revealed company conducted surveillance glenn greenwald several countries evaded global surveillance constructing secret bunker facilities deep earth surface despite north korea priority target nsa internal documents acknowledged know much kim jong un regime intentions october 2012 iran police chief esmail ahmadi moghaddam alleged google search engine spying tool western intelligence agencies six months later april 2013 country announced plans introduce islamic google earth evade global surveillance libya evaded surveillance building hardened buried bunkers least 40 feet ground level global surveillance disclosure caused tension bilateral relations united states several allies economic partners well relationship european union 12 august 2013 president obama announced creation independent panel outside experts review nsa surveillance programs panel due established director national intelligence james r. clapper consult provide assistance according survey undertaken human rights group pen international disclosures chilling effect american writers fearing risk targeted government surveillance 28 pen american members curbed usage social media 16 self-censored avoiding controversial topics writings I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,930	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: mobile_operating_system.mobile operating system mobile operating system mobile os operating system phones tablets smartwatches mobile devices computers typical laptops 'mobile operating systems usually used considered mobile ones originally designed desktop computers historically need specific mobile features distinction becoming blurred newer operating systems hybrids made uses mobile operating systems combine features personal computer operating system features useful mobile handheld use usually including following considered essential modern mobile systems wireless inbuilt modem sim tray telephony data connection touchscreen cellular bluetooth wi-fi protected access wi-fi global positioning system gps mobile navigation video- single-frame picture cameras speech recognition voice recorder music player near field communication infrared blaster q1 2018 383 million smartphones sold 86.2 percent running android 12.9 percent running ios android alone popular popular desktop operating system windows general smartphone use even without tablets outnumber desktop use mobile devices mobile communications abilities e.g. smartphones contain two mobile operating systemsthe main user-facing software platform supplemented second low-level proprietary real-time operating system operates radio hardware research shown low-level systems may contain range security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations gain high levels control mobile device mobile operating systems majority use since 2017 measured web use even smartphones running excluding tablets used kind device thus traditional desktop os minority used kind os see usage share operating systems however variations occur popularity regions desktop-minority also applies days regions united states united kingdom mobile operating system milestones mirror development mobile phones smartphones operating systems often run atop baseband real time operating systems handle hardware aspects phone android based modified linux kernel mobile operating system developed google inc besides largest installed base worldwide smartphones also popular operating system general purpose computers category includes desktop computers mobile devices even though android popular operating system regular desktop personal computers pcs although android operating system free open-source software devices sold much software bundled including google apps vendor-installed software proprietary software closed source android releases 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.6 used exclusively mobile phones android 2.x releases mostly used mobile phones also tablets android 3.0 tablet-oriented release officially run mobile phones phone tablet compatibility merged android 4.0 current android version 9.0 pie android releases named sweets dessert items except first second releases android one software experience runs unmodified android operating system closely resembles running pixel devices previously google nexus program unlike stock androids running market android one ui closely resembles pixel ui due android one software experience developed google distributed partners signup program nokia xiaomi thus overall ui intended clean possible oem partners may tweak add additional apps cameras firmware otherwise apps handled google proprietary apps update handled google internally tested oem distributed via ota update end users designed alibaba based android amazfit os mobile operating system based android develop xiaomi backed huami higher-end amazfit series smartwatch amazfit pace verge stratos due android based operating system therefore side loaded android apk file run smartwatch similar miui although amazfit os based open source aosp consists closed source proprietary software blackberry secure operating system developed blackberry based android open source project aosp officially announced name android based front-end touch interface august 2017 announcement blackberry secure running blackberry brand devices blackberry priv dtek 50/60 blackberry keyone currently blackberry plan license blackberry secure oem coloros custom front-end touch interface based android open source project aosp developed oppo electronics corp. oppo officially releases coloros every oppo device released official rom oneplus one emotion user interface emui front-end touch interface developed huawei technologies co. ltd. based google android open source project aosp emui preinstalled huawei honor devices based open source android operating system consists closed source proprietary software /e/ operating system forked source code lineageos based android supports currently 76 devices april 2019 /e/ targets android smart phone devices uses microg replacement google play services flyme os operating system developed meizu technology co. ltd. open source os based google android open source project aosp flyme os mainly installed meizu smartphones mx series however also official rom support android devices funtouch os fork android developed vivo funtouch os difference traditional android ui funtouch os includes features unavailable former customizable gestures communication drawer bottom top swipe security centre lock screen resize options long screen shot eye protection changing warmer color temperature others funtouch os respects looks similar ios made apple grapheneos formerly named android hardening variant android runs pixel 2 pixel 3 hardware mainly developed daniel micay aims focus security privacy htc sense software suite developed htc used primarily company android-based devices serving successor htc touchflo 3d software windows mobile sense modifies many aspects android user experience incorporating added features altered home screen keyboard widgets htc-developed applications redesigned applications first device sense htc hero released 2009 indus os custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp developed indus os team based india longer valid 2018indus os available micromax intex karbonn indian smartphone brands lg ux formerly named optimus ui front-end touch interface developed lg electronics partners featuring full touch user interface sometimes incorrectly identified operating system lg ux used internally lg sophisticated feature phones tablet computers available licensing external parties optimus ui 2 based android 4.1.2 released optimus k ii optimus neo 3 features refined user interface compared prior version based android 4.1.1 would include together new functionality voice shutter quick memo lineage android distribution custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp serves successor highly popular custom rom cyanogenmod forked december 2016 cyanogen inc. announced discontinuing development shut infrastructure behind project since cyanogen inc. retained rights cyanogen name project rebranded fork lineageos similar cyanogenmod include proprietary apps unless user installs allows android users longer obtain update support manufacturer continue updating os version latest one based official release google aosp heavy theme customization mifavor custom android ui developed zte smartphone running android platform similar android ui mifavor replace stock apps zte owns apps however ux still closely similar stock android mi user interface miui developed chinese electronic company xiaomi inc. mobile operating system based android open source project aosp miui mostly found xiaomi smartphones mi redmi series however also official rom support android devices although miui based aosp open source consists closed source proprietary software miui poco custom mobile operating system based miui based android open source project aosp like predecessor also develop xiaomi inc unlike original miui miui poco specifically customized poco series smartphone including difference ui frequent update compare original miui like miui based open source aosp miui poco also consists closed source proprietary software oxygenos based open source android open source project aosp developed oneplus replace cyanogen os oneplus devices oneplus one preinstalled oneplus 2 oneplus x oneplus 3 oneplus 3t oneplus 5 oneplus 5t oneplus 6 stated oneplus oxygenos focused stabilizing maintaining stock like found nexus devices consists mainly google apps minor ui customization maintain sleekness pure android pixel ui developed google based open source android unlike nexus phones google shipped stock android ui came first generation pixel phones slightly modified compared stock android part google pixel software pixel ui home launcher closed source proprietary thus available pixel family devices however third party mods allow non pixel smartphones install pixel launcher google feed integration replicant custom mobile operating system based android proprietary drivers bloat closed source software removed samsung experience formerly called touchwiz front-end touch interface developed samsung electronics partners featuring full touch user interface sometimes incorrectly identified independent operating system samsung experience used internally samsung smartphones feature phones tablet computers available licensing external parties closed source proprietary android version samsung experience also comes samsung-made apps preloaded except starting galaxy s6 removed samsung pre-loaded apps installed leaving one galaxy apps save storage space initially due removal microsd release samsung galaxy s8 s8+ samsung experience 8.1 preinstall introducing new function known samsung dex similar concept microsoft continuum samsung dex allowed high end galaxy devices s8/s8+ note 8 connect docking station extends functionality allow desktop-like functionality connecting keyboard mouse monitor samsung also announced linux galaxy allows use standard linux distribution dex platform sony xperia ui formerly known timescape ui front-end ui developed sony mobile formerly sony ericsson sony xperia series running android platform sony xperia ui mostly consists sony application sony music formerly known walkman music player albums video player time timescape ui ui different standard android ui instead traditional apps dock bottom part located four corner home screen middle screen consist widget however recent development ui closely resemble stock android zenui front-end touch interface developed asus partners featuring full touch user interface zenui used asus android phones tablet computers available licensing external parties zenui also comes preloaded asus-made apps like zenlink pc link share link party link remote link non-android operating systems listed following sections chrome os operating system designed google based linux kernel uses google chrome web browser principal user interface result chrome os primarily supports web applications google announced project july 2009 conceiving operating system applications user data reside cloud hence chrome os primarily runs web applications due increase popularity 2 1 pcs recent chromebooks introduced touch screen capability android applications starting become available operating system 2014 2016 access android apps entire google play store introduced supported chrome os devices support android applications chromebook devices positioned tablet based instead notebooks chrome os available pre-installed hardware google manufacturing partners open source equivalent chromium os compiled downloaded source code early google provided design goals chrome os otherwise released technical description fuchsia capability-based real-time operating system rtos currently developed google first discovered mysterious code post github august 2016 without official announcement contrast prior google-developed operating systems chrome os android based linux kernels fuchsia based new microkernel called zircon derived little kernel small operating system intended embedded systems upon inspection media outlets noted code post github suggested fuchsia capability run universal devices embedded systems smartphones tablets personal computers may 2017 fuchsia updated user interface along developer writing project experimental prompting media speculation google intentions operating system including possibility replacing android liteos lightweight open source real-time operating system part huawei 1+2+1 internet things solution similar google android things samsung tizen huawei liteos features lightweight low-power fast-response multi-sensor collaboration multi-protocol interconnect connectivity enabling iot terminals quickly access network huawei liteos make intelligent hardware development easier thereby accelerating realization interconnection things currently liteos introduce consumer market huawei watch gt series smartbands current liteos version list pureos debian gnu/linux derivative using free software developed purism already used purism laptops planned use librem 5 smartphone purism partnership gnome kde aims separate cpu baseband processor include hardware kill switches phone wi-fi bluetooth camera microphone baseband processor provide gnome kde plasma mobile options desktop environment sailfish os jolla open source gnu general public license gpl middleware stack core comes mer sailfish due jolla business model due alliances various partners due intentional design os internals capable adopt several layers third party software including jolla software e.g jolla ui proprietary software closed source components proprietary many different kinds licences however user replace open source components like e.g nemo ui instead jolla ui nokia abandoned 2011 meego project meego team left nokia established jolla company use meego mer business opportunities mer standard allows launched hardware kernel compatible mer 2012 linux sailfish os based meego using middleware mer core stack distribution launched public use first device jolla smartphone unveiled may 20 2013 2015 jolla tablet launched brics countries declared officially supported os jolla started licensing sailfish os 2.0 third parties devices sold updateable sailfish 2.0 limits sailfish os version release named finnish lake tizen based linux kernel mobile operating system hosted linux foundation together support tizen association guided technical steering group composed intel samsung tizen operating system devices including smartphones tablets in-vehicle infotainment ivi devices smart tvs open source system however sdk closed source proprietary aims offer consistent user experience across devices tizen main components linux kernel webkit runtime according intel tizen combines best limo meego html5 apps emphasized meego encouraging members transition tizen stating future belongs html5-based applications outside relatively small percentage apps firmly convinced investment needs shift toward html5 tizen targeted variety platforms handsets touch pc smart tvs in-vehicle entertainment may 17 2013 tizen released version 2.1 code-named nectarine tizen open source ux ui layer developed samsung mainly closed source proprietary touchwiz ui samsung z series smartphone current tizen version list ubuntu touch canonical ltd.. open source uses gpl license ubuntu touch os built using android linux kernel using android drivers services via lxc container use java-like code android desktop environment ubuntu touch planned available one default desktop options librem 5 running pureos operating system though canonical formally announced discontinuing ubuntu mobile os integral component unity8 independent german non-profit ubports community/ foundation paperwork pending local berlin-government decided take project canonical started ubuntu touch based ubuntu 15.04 vivid vervet ubports upgraded base nearest current long-term support version ubuntu 16.04 lts xenial xerus original canonical ubuntu touch version list ubports ubuntu touch version list plasma mobile kde desktop environment mobile phones intended compatible several different mobile phone operating systems including pureos running librem 5 open source mobile operating systems active development include luneos based webos postmarketos based alpine linux gnu/linux distribution maemo leste meizu pro 5 ubuntu edition meizu mx4 ubuntu edition running ubuntu touch necuno using gnu/linux distribution plasma mobile desktop kde proprietary version amazfit os develop xiaomi backed huami amazfit bip smartwatch however instead based android based proprietary operating system thus able install third party apps apks ios formerly named iphone os created apple inc second largest installed base worldwide smartphones largest profits due aggressive price competition android-based manufacturers closed source proprietary built open source darwin operating system iphone ipod touch ipad second third-generation apple tv use ios derived macos native third party applications officially supported release iphone os 2.0 july 11 2008 jailbreaking allowed third party applications installed recent years jailbreaking scene changed drastically due apple continued efforts secure operating system prevent unauthorized modifications currently jailbreaks recent iterations ios semi-untethered requires device re-jailbroken every boot exploits jailbreaks becoming increasingly hard find use currently ios devices developed apple manufactured foxconn another apple partners watchos operating system apple watch developed apple inc based ios operating system many similar features released april 24 2015 along apple watch device runs watchos currently widely used wearable operating system features focus convenience able place phone calls send texts health fitness heart rate tracking current version watchos operating system watchos 5 windows 10 personal computer operating system developed released microsoft part windows nt family operating systems released july 29 2015 like predecessors designed run across multiple microsoft product pcs tablets windows user interface revised handle transitions mouse-oriented interface touchscreen-optimized interface based available input devices‍—‌particularly 2-in-1 pcs windows 10 also introduces universal apps expanding metro-style apps apps designed run across multiple microsoft product families nearly identical code‍—‌including pcs tablets smartphones embedded systems xbox one surface hub mixed reality current windows 10 version list kaios kai based firefox os unlike mobile operating systems focus smartphones kaios developed mainly feature phones giving access advanced technologies usually found smartphones app stores wi-fi/4g capabilities blackberry 10 based qnx os blackberry smartphone os closed source proprietary runs phones tablets manufactured blackberry one dominant platforms world late 2000s global market share reduced significantly mid-2010s late 2016 blackberry announced continue support os promise release 10.3.3 therefore blackberry 10 would receive major updates blackberry partners would focus android base development current blackberry 10 version list windows 10 mobile formerly called windows phone microsoft closed source proprietary unveiled february 15 2010 windows phone includes user interface inspired microsoft metro design language integrated microsoft services onedrive office xbox music xbox video xbox live games bing also integrates many non-microsoft services facebook google accounts windows phone devices made primarily microsoft mobile/nokia also htc samsung january 21 2015 microsoft announced windows phone brand phased replaced windows 10 mobile bringing tighter integration unification pc counterpart windows 10 provide platform smartphones tablets screen sizes 8 inches october 2017 microsoft officially announced would longer push major updates windows 10 mobile instead would put maintenance mode microsoft would push bug fixes general improvements therefore windows 10 mobile would receive new feature updates current windows 10 mobile version list cyanogenmod custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp custom rom co-developed cyanogenmod community os include proprietary apps unless user installed due open source nature cyanogenmod allowed android users could longer obtain update support manufacturer continue updating os version latest one based official releases google aosp heavy theme customization last version os cyanogenmod 13 based android asus december 24 2016 cyanogenmod announced blog would longer releasing cyanogenmod updates development moved lineageos cyanogen os based cyanogenmod maintained cyanogen inc however included proprietary apps available commercial uses firefox os project name boot gecko also known b2g mozilla open source mobile operating system released mozilla public license built android linux kernel used android drivers use java-like code android according ars technica mozilla says b2g motivated desire demonstrate standards-based open web potential competitive alternative existing single-vendor application development stacks offered dominant mobile operating systems september 2016 mozilla announced work firefox os ceased b2g-related code would removed mozilla-central meego non-profit organization linux foundation open source gpl 2010 mobile world congress barcelona nokia intel unveiled meego mobile operating system combined moblin maemo create open-sourced experience users across devices 2011 nokia announced would longer pursue meego favor windows phone nokia announced nokia n9 june 21 2011 nokia connection event singapore lg announced support platform maemo platform developed nokia smartphones internet tablets open source gpl based debian gnu/linux draws much graphical user interface gui frameworks libraries gnome project uses matchbox window manager gtk-based hildon gui application framework webos developed palm webos open source mobile operating system running linux kernel initially developed palm launched palm pre acquired hp two phones veer pre 3 tablet touchpad running webos introduced 2011 august 18 2011 hp announced webos hardware would discontinued would continue support update webos software develop webos ecosystem hp released webos open source name open webos plans update additional features february 25 2013 hp announced sale webos lg electronics used operating system smart internet-connected tvs however hp retained patents underlying webos cloud-based services app catalog 1999 research motion released first blackberry devices providing secure real-time push-email communications wireless devices services blackberry messenger provide integration communications single inbox september 2012 rim announced 200 millionth blackberry smartphone shipped september 2014 around 46 million active blackberry service subscribers early 2010s rim undergone platform transition changing company name blackberry limited making new devices new platform named blackberry 10 windows mobile discontinued operating system microsoft replaced windows phone closed source proprietary windows ce operating system windows mobile middleware widely spread asia mostly uses android two improved variants operating system windows mobile 6 professional touch screen devices windows mobile 6 standard unveiled february 2007 criticized user interface optimized touch input fingers instead usable stylus like ios mobile os supports touch screen physical bluetooth keyboard configurations microsoft phased windows mobile os focus windows phone windows phone family mobile operating systems developed microsoft smartphones replacement successor windows mobile zune windows phone features new user interface derived metro design language windows phone replaced windows 10 mobile 2015 symbian platform developed nokia models smartphones proprietary software however used ericsson sonyericsson sending benq operating system discontinued 2012 although slimmed-down version basic phones still developed july 2014 microsoft officially shelved platform favor windows phone acquisition nokia bada platform stylized bada korean 바다 operating system mobile devices smartphones tablet computers developed samsung electronics name derived 바다 bada meaning ocean sea korean ranges mid- high-end smartphones foster adoption bada os since 2011 samsung reportedly considered releasing source code open-source license expanding device support include smart tvs samsung announced june 2012 intentions merge bada tizen project would meanwhile use bada operating system parallel google android os microsoft windows phone smartphones bada-powered devices branded wave name samsung android-powered devices branded name galaxy february 25 2013 samsung announced stop developing bada moving development tizen instead bug reporting finally terminated april 2014 palm os/garnet os access co closed source proprietary webos introduced palm january 2009 successor palm os web 2.0 technologies open architecture multitasking abilities 2006 android ios exist 64 million smartphones sold 2018 q1 383.5 million smartphones sold global market share 85.9 android 14.1 ios according statcounter web use statistics proxy use smartphones alone without tablets majority use globally desktop computers used much less android particular popular windows use varies however continent smartphones way popular biggest continents i.e asia desktop still popular though north america desktop still popular many countries overall 44.9 first quarter 2017 smartphones popular even many developed countries countries continent desktop-minority european countries south america e.g haiti north america asia africa smartphone-majority poland turkey highest 57.68 62.33 respectively ireland smartphone use 45.55 outnumbers desktop use mobile whole gains majority including tablet share 9.12 spain also slightly desktop-minority range measured mobile web use varies lot country statcounter press release recognizes india amongst world leaders use mobile surf internet big countries share around 80 desktop 19.56 russia trailing 17.8 mobile use desktop rest smartphones alone without tablets first gained majority december 2016 desktop-majority lost month n't christmas-time fluke close majority smartphone majority happened march 2017 week november 7–13 2016 smartphones alone without tablets overtook desktop first time short period non-full-month mobile-majority applies countries paraguay south america poland europe turkey asia africa world still desktop-majority e.g united states 54.89 days however territories united states puerto rico desktop way majority windows 30 overtaken android october 22 2016 subsequent weekends mobile showed majority since october 27 desktop n't shown majority even weekdays smartphones alone showed majority since december 23 end year share topping 58.22 christmas day mobile -majority share smartphones tablets could added giving 63.22 majority unusually high top similarly high also happened monday april 17 2017 smartphones share slightly lower tablet share slightly higher combined 62.88 formerly according statcounter press release world turned desktop-minority 49 desktop use month mobile n't ranked higher tablet share added exceed desktop share note Target text information: indus_os.indus os indus os formerly known firstouch indian mobile operating system based android currently available english 23 indian regional languages spoken 95 indian population active user base 10 million company app marketplace app bazaar 400,000 apps indus os partnered phone brands gionee itel micromax_informatics intex technologies karbonn mobiles celkon swipe elite trio mobiles indus os founded 2015 rakesh deshmukh akash dongre sudheer b three alumni indian institute technology bombay hari padmanabhan iit kanpur alumni industry veteran serial entrepreneur seed investor company indus os raised total 13 million series funding led omidyar network jsw ventures ventureast company also funded among others angel investors mayank singhal temasek holdings pranay chulet founder quikr amit gupta naveen tewari co-founders inmobi kunal bahl rohit bansal co-founders snapdeal may 2015 micromax_informatics started shipping latest version unite 3 unite series smartphones firstouch os operating system available english 10 indian languages key feature operating system swipe-to-translate indus swipe helped users translate transliterate english text regional languages operating system also app marketplace app bazaar 5000 applications regional languages popular application marketplace microsoft skype available popular indian regional languages including hindi december 2015 firstouch announced collaboration government india ministry electronics information technology previously known department electronics deity introduce text-to-speech technology regional languages operating system regional app marketplace app bazaar integrated carrier billing facility hence allows users download apps regional languages without requiring email id paying credit cards 90 indus os users activated app bazaar smartphones 75 use monthly basis app bazaar 50000 applications regional languages operating system features english 23 regional languages assamese bengali gujarati hindi kannada malayalam marathi odia punjabi tamil telugu urdu company patented keyboard allows word prediction matra prediction auto correction swipe-to-translate transliterate features users indus os offices mumbai delhi dhaka currently 70-member team company also plans open office china effort partner international smartphone brands operating system received positive review firstpost tech2 rehan hooda review intex aqua supre+ claimed indus os shining factor otherwise ordinary smartphone abhishek baxi android authority review operating system said unlike stock android custom android skins support indian languages indus os menu items icon texts et al appear chosen regional language big win app bazaar support carrier billing allowing users download paid apps games via mobile balance pre-paid get billed post-paid ’ mighty convenient consumers great motivator app developers publishers indus os economic times telecom award 2016 innovation developing oem product category may 7 2016 indus os declared second popular os india according research study conducted counterpoint research may 2016 os second popular india 7.6 market share greater market share microsoft apple android remains popular 82.3 indus os awarded prestigious tie50 silicon valley top start-up award year 2016 et telecom award 2016 'innovation development oem product indus os 'digital startup year award drivers digital awards 2016 nasscom announced indus os one top 10 startups india nasscom product conclave 2016 company also awarded aegis graham bell award digital india category alongside vodafone india year 2016 gsma nominated indus os annual global mobile awards mobile world congress barcelona 2017 category best mobile innovation emerging markets indus os brand year award technology category world consulting research corporation mumbai december 21 2016 mint newspaper mit technology review named akash dongre co-founder chief product officer indus os one top innovators age 35 india emtech 2017 event indus os also named superbrand super startups awarded 30+ innovative business models india october 2017 indus os awarded confederation indian industry industrial innovation award one top 10 startup india company story also documented case study ivey publishing also distributed harvard business review I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,125	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_and_network_surveillance.computer network surveillance computer network surveillance monitoring computer activity data stored hard drive data transferred computer networks internet monitoring often carried covertly may completed governments corporations criminal organizations individuals may may legal may may require authorization court independent government agencies computer network surveillance programs widespread today almost internet traffic monitored surveillance allows governments agencies maintain social control recognize monitor threats prevent investigate criminal activity advent programs total information awareness program technologies high-speed surveillance computers biometrics software laws communications assistance law enforcement act governments possess unprecedented ability monitor activities citizens however many civil rights privacy groups reporters without borders electronic frontier foundation american civil liberties union expressed concern increasing surveillance citizens end even already mass surveillance society limited political and/or personal freedoms fear led numerous lawsuits hepting v. hacktivist group anonymous hacked government websites protest considers draconian surveillance vast majority computer surveillance involves monitoring data traffic internet example united states communications assistance law enforcement act mandates phone calls broadband internet traffic emails web traffic instant messaging etc available unimpeded real-time monitoring federal law enforcement agencies packet capture also known packet sniffing monitoring data traffic computer network data sent computers internet networks takes form small chunks called packets routed destination assembled back complete message packet capture appliance intercepts packets may examined analyzed computer technology needed perform traffic analysis sift intercepted data look important/useful information communications assistance law enforcement act u.s. telecommunications providers required install packet capture technology federal law enforcement intelligence agencies able intercept customers broadband internet voice internet protocol voip traffic far much data gathered packet sniffers human investigators manually search thus automated internet surveillance computers sift vast amount intercepted internet traffic filtering reporting investigators bits information interesting example use certain words phrases visiting certain types web sites communicating via email chat certain individual group billions dollars per year spent agencies information awareness office nsa fbi development purchase implementation operation systems intercept analyze data extracting information useful law enforcement intelligence agencies similar systems used iranian secret police identify suppress dissidents technology allegedly installed german siemens ag finnish nokia internet rapid development become primary form communication people potentially subject internet surveillance advantages disadvantages network monitoring instance systems described web 2.0 greatly impacted modern society tim ’ reilly first explained concept web 2.0 stated web 2.0 provides communication platforms user generated self-produced content motivating people communicate friends online however internet surveillance also disadvantage one researcher uppsala university said web 2.0 surveillance directed large user groups help hegemonically produce reproduce surveillance providing user-generated self-produced content characterize web 2.0 surveillance mass self-surveillance surveillance companies monitor people focused work entertainment yet employers also monitor employees order protect company assets control public communications importantly make sure employees actively working productive emotionally affect people cause emotions like jealousy research group states ... set test prediction feelings jealousy lead ‘ creeping ’ partner facebook women particularly likely engage partner monitoring response jealousy study shows women become jealous people online group virtual assistant become social integration lives currently virtual assistant amazon alexa call 911 local services constantly listening command recording parts conversations help improve algorithms law enforcement able called using virtual assistant law enforcement would able access information saved device device connected home internet law enforcement would exact location individual calling law enforcement virtual assistance devices popular many debate lack privacy devices listening every conversation owner even owner talking virtual assistant device still listening conversation hopes owner need assistance well gather data corporate surveillance computer activity common data collected often used marketing purposes sold corporations also regularly shared government agencies used form business intelligence enables corporation better tailor products and/or services desirable customers data also sold corporations use aforementioned purpose used direct marketing purposes targeted advertisements ads targeted user search engine analyzing search history emails use free webmail services kept database one important component prevention establishing business purposes monitoring may include following second component prevention determining ownership technology resources ownership firm networks servers computers files e-mail explicitly stated distinction employee personal electronic devices limited proscribed owned firm instance google search stores identifying information web search ip address search phrase used stored database 18 months google also scans content emails users gmail webmail service order create targeted advertising based people talking personal email correspondences google far largest internet advertising agency—millions sites place google advertising banners links websites order earn money visitors click ads page containing google advertisements adds reads modifies cookies visitor computer cookies track user across sites gather information web surfing habits keeping track sites visit sites information along information email accounts search engine histories stored google use build profile user deliver better-targeted advertising united states government often gains access databases either producing warrant simply asking department homeland security openly stated uses data collected consumer credit direct marketing agencies augmenting profiles individuals monitoring addition monitoring information sent computer network also way examine data stored computer hard drive monitor activities person using computer surveillance program installed computer search contents hard drive suspicious data monitor computer use collect passwords and/or report back activities real-time operator internet connection keylogger example type program normal keylogging programs store data local hard drive programmed automatically transmit data network remote computer web server multiple ways installing software common remote installation using backdoor created computer virus trojan tactic advantage potentially subjecting multiple computers surveillance viruses often spread thousands millions computers leave backdoors accessible network connection enable intruder remotely install software execute commands viruses trojans sometimes developed government agencies cipav magic lantern often however viruses created people spyware installed marketing agencies used gain access security breaches create another method cracking computer gain access network attacker install surveillance software remotely servers computers permanent broadband connections vulnerable type attack another source security cracking employees giving information users using brute force tactics guess password one also physically place surveillance software computer gaining entry place computer stored install compact disc floppy disk thumbdrive method shares disadvantage hardware devices requires physical access computer one well-known worm uses method spreading stuxnet one common form surveillance create maps social networks based data social networking sites well traffic analysis information phone call records nsa call database internet traffic data gathered calea social network maps data mined extract useful information personal interests friendships affiliations wants beliefs thoughts activities many u.s. government agencies defense advanced research projects agency darpa national security agency nsa department homeland security dhs currently investing heavily research involving social network analysis intelligence community believes biggest threat u.s. comes decentralized leaderless geographically dispersed groups types threats easily countered finding important nodes network removing requires detailed map network jason ethier northeastern university study modern social network analysis said following scalable social network analysis program developed information awareness office shown possible monitor computers distance commercially available equipment detecting radiation emitted crt monitor form computer surveillance known tempest involves reading electromagnetic emanations computing devices order extract data distances hundreds meters ibm researchers also found computer keyboards key emits slightly different noise pressed differences individually identifiable conditions possible log key strokes without actually requiring logging software run associated computer 2015 lawmakers california passed law prohibiting investigative personnel state force businesses hand digital communication without warrant calling electronic communications privacy act time california state senator jerry hill introduced bill making law enforcement agencies disclose information usage information stingray phone tracker device law took effect january 2016 require cities operate new guidelines relation law enforcement use device legislators holding public office disagreed technology warrantless tracking city wants use device must heard public hearing cities pulled using stingray santa clara county also shown adi shamir et al. even high frequency noise emitted cpu includes information instructions executed policeware software designed police citizens monitoring discussion interaction citizens within u.s. carnivore first incarnation secretly installed e-mail monitoring software installed internet service providers networks log computer communication including transmitted e-mails magic lantern another application time running targeted computer trojan style performing keystroke logging cipav deployed fbi multi-purpose spyware/trojan clipper chip formerly known myk-78 small hardware chip government install phones designed nineties intended secure private communication data reading voice messages encoded decode clipper chip designed clinton administration “ …protect personal safety national security developing information anarchy fosters criminals terrorists foreign foes. ” government portrays solving secret codes cryptographic age technology created thus raised controversy public clipper chip thought next “ big brother ” tool led failure clipper proposal even though many attempts consumer broadband digital television promotion act cbdtpa bill proposed united states congress cbdtpa known security systems standards certification act sssca draft form killed committee 2002 cbdtpa become law would prohibited technology could used read digital content copyright music video e-books without digital rights management drm prevented access material without permission copyright holder german-speaking countries spyware used made government sometimes called govware countries like switzerland germany legal framework governing use software known examples include swiss minipanzer megapanzer german r2d2 trojan surveillance censorship different surveillance performed without censorship harder engage censorship without form surveillance even surveillance lead directly censorship widespread knowledge belief person computer use internet surveillance lead self-censorship march 2013 reporters without borders issued special report internet surveillance examines use technology monitors online activity intercepts electronic communication order arrest journalists citizen-journalists dissidents report includes list state enemies internet bahrain china iran syria vietnam countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights computer network surveillance increase countries report also includes second list corporate enemies internet amesys france blue coat systems u.s. gamma uk germany hacking team italy trovicor germany companies sell products liable used governments violate human rights freedom information neither list exhaustive likely expanded future protection sources longer matter journalistic ethics journalists equip digital survival kit exchanging sensitive information online storing computer hard-drive mobile phone individuals associated high-profile rights organizations dissident groups protest groups reform groups urged take extra precautions protect online identities 1-hop neighbor's text information: mass_surveillance.mass surveillance mass surveillance intricate surveillance entire substantial fraction population order monitor group citizens surveillance often carried local federal governments governmental organisations organizations like nsa fbi may also carried corporations either behalf governments initiative depending nation laws judicial systems legality permission required engage mass surveillance varies single indicative distinguishing trait totalitarian regimes also often distinguished targeted surveillance mass surveillance often cited necessary fight terrorism prevent crime social unrest protect national security control population conversely mass surveillance equally often criticized violating privacy rights limiting civil political rights freedoms illegal legal constitutional systems another criticism increasing mass surveillance could lead development surveillance state electronic police state civil liberties infringed political dissent undermined cointelpro-like programs state could referred totalitarian state 2013 practice mass surveillance world governments called question edward snowden ‘ 2013 global surveillance disclosure reporting based documents snowden leaked various media outlets triggered debate civil liberties right privacy digital age mass surveillance considered global issue privacy international 2007 survey covering 47 countries indicated increase surveillance decline performance privacy safeguards compared previous year balancing factors eight countries rated 'endemic surveillance societies eight china malaysia russia scored lowest followed jointly singapore united kingdom jointly taiwan thailand united states best ranking given greece judged 'adequate safeguards abuse many countries throughout world already adding thousands surveillance cameras urban suburban even rural areas example september 2007 american civil liberties union aclu stated danger tipping genuine surveillance society completely alien american values potential dark future every move every transaction every communication recorded compiled stored away ready examined used us authorities whenever want 12 march 2013 reporters without borders published special report internet surveillance report included list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights five countries placed initial list bahrain china iran syria vietnam bahrain one five countries reporters without borders march 2013 list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights level internet filtering surveillance bahrain one highest world royal family represented areas internet management sophisticated tools disposal spying subjects online activities dissidents news providers closely monitored surveillance increasing china one five countries reporters without borders march 2013 list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights internet access china owned controlled state communist party many foreign journalists china said take granted telephones tapped email monitored tools put place filter monitor internet collectively known great firewall china besides usual routing regulations allow access ip address particular domain name blocked great firewall makes large-scale use deep packet inspection dpi technology monitor block access based keyword detection great firewall ability dynamically block encrypted connections one country main isps china unicom automatically cuts connection soon used transmit encrypted content monitoring system developed china confined great firewall monitoring also built social networks chat services voip private companies directly responsible chinese authorities surveillance networks ensure banned messages circulated qq application owned firm tencent allows authorities monitor detail exchanges internet users seeking certain keywords expressions author message identified user number qq application effectively giant trojan horse since march 2012 new legislation requires new users micro-blogging sites register using name telephone number skype one world popular internet telephone platforms closely monitored skype services china available local partner tom media group chinese-language version skype known tom-skype slightly different downloadable versions countries report opennet initiative asia says everyday conversations captured servers interception storage conversation may triggered sender recipient name keywords occur conversation 30 january new york times reported target attacks chinese government first breach took place 13 september 2012 newspaper preparing publish article fortune amassed family outgoing prime minister wen jiabao newspaper said purpose attacks identify sources supplied newspaper information corruption among prime minister entourage wall street journal cnn also said targets cyber attacks china february twitter disclosed accounts 250,000 subscribers victims attacks china similar carried new york times mandiant company engaged nyt secure network identified source attacks group hackers called advanced persistent threat 1 unit people liberation army operating 12-story building suburbs shanghai hundreds possibly thousands staff direct support chinese government newest form mass surveillance china social credit system citizens businesses given deducted good behavior points depending choices digital revolution one world biggest mass surveillance operations carried stasi secret police former east germany time state collapsed 1989 stasi built estimated civilian network 300,000 informants approximately one fifty population monitored even minute hints political dissent among citizens many west germans visiting friends family east germany also subject stasi spying well many high-ranking west german politicians persons public eye east german citizens well aware government spying led culture mistrust touchy political issues discussed comfort four walls closest friends family members widely maintaining façade unquestioning followership public right privacy highly developed area law europe data protection directive regulates processing personal data within european union comparison us data protection law comparable instead us regulates data protection sectoral basis since early 2012 european union working general data protection regulation replace data protection directive harmonise data protection privacy law 20 october 2013 committee european parliament backed measure enacted could require american companies seek clearance european officials complying united states warrants seeking private data vote part efforts europe shield citizens online surveillance wake revelations far-reaching spying program u.s. national security agency european union justice rights commissioner viviane reding said question arisen whether large-scale collection processing personal information us surveillance programmes necessary proportionate meet interests national security eu also asking us changes us legislation match legal redress offered europe american citizens europe go courts feel rights infringed europeans without right residence america eu us arrangement implement international safe harbor privacy principles struck european court justice new framework transatlantic data flows called eu-us privacy shield adopted july 2016 april 2014 european court justice declared invalid eu data retention directive court said violates two basic rights respect private life protection personal data legislative body european union passed data retention directive 15 december 2005 requires telecommunication operators retain metadata telephone internet telecommunication services periods less six months two years date communication determined eu member state upon request make data available various governmental bodies access information limited investigation serious crimes warrant required access undertaken seventh framework programme research technological development fp7 science society multidisciplinary mission oriented mass surveillance activities example indect hide funded european commission association industrial partners indect project intelligent information system supporting observation searching detection security citizens urban environment develops intelligent urban environment observation system register exchange operational data automatic detection recognition intelligent processing information abnormal behaviour violence main expected results indect project hide homeland security biometric identification personal detection ethics research project funded european commission within scope seventh rtd framework programme fp7 consortium coordinated emilio mordini explored ethical privacy implications biometrics personal detection technologies focusing continuum personal detection authentication identification mass surveillance 2002 german citizens tipped wiretapping software error led phone number allocated german secret service listed mobile telephone bills indian parliament passed information technology act 2008 debate giving government fiat power tap communications without court order warrant section 69 act states section 69 empowers central government/state government/ authorized agency intercept monitor decrypt information generated transmitted received stored computer resource necessary expedient interest sovereignty integrity india defence india security state friendly relations foreign states public order preventing incitement commission cognizable offence investigation offence india setting national intelligence grid called natgrid would fully set may 2011 individual data ranging land records internet logs air rail pnr phone records gun records driving license property records insurance income tax records would available real time oversight uid unique identification authority india given every indian february 2011 government would able track people real time national population registry citizens established 2011 census fingerprints iris scans would taken along gps records household per initial plan access combined data given 11 agencies including research analysis wing intelligence bureau enforcement directorate national investigation agency central bureau investigation directorate revenue intelligence narcotics control bureau several states within india already installed cctv surveillance systems face matching capabilities using biometrics aadhaar andhra pradesh telangana using information linked aadhaar across different agencies create 360-degree profile person calling integration information hub states planning follow model iran one five countries reporters without borders march 2013 list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved naturally active efforts news providers government runs controls almost country institutions regulating managing legislating telecommunications supreme council cyberspace headed president ahmadinejad established march 2012 determines digital policy construction parallel iranian internet high connection speed fully monitored censored almost complete tools used iranian authorities monitor control internet include data interception tools capable deep packet inspection interception products leading chinese companies zte huawei use products provided huawei mobin net leading national provider mobile broadband used analyze email content track browsing history block access sites products zta sold telecommunication company iran tci offer similar services plus possibility monitoring mobile network european companies source spying data analysis tools products designed ericsson nokia siemens networks later trovicor use companies sold sms interception user location products mobile communication company iran irancell iran two biggest mobile phone companies 2009 used identify iranian citizens post-election uprising 2009 use israeli surveillance devices also detected iran network traffic management surveillance device netenforcer provided israel denmark resold iran similarly us equipment found way iran via chinese company zte july 2018 malaysian police announced creation malaysian internet crime children investigation unit micac equipped real-time mass internet surveillance software developed united states tasked monitoring malaysian internet users focus pornography child pornography system creates data library users includes details ip addresses websites locations duration frequency use files uploaded downloaded struggling drug trafficking criminal groups decades mexico strengthening military mass surveillance approximately half population mexico support democracy form government believe authoritarian system better social matters solved relevance political beliefs may make easier mass surveillance take spread within country necessarily mean end democratic institutions whole—such free elections permanence critical mass media—but means strengthening mechanisms exercising power exclude dialogue transparency social agreement developing intelligence agencies mexico radar means security according 2004 report government netherlands carries clandestine wire-taps intercepts country per capita world dutch military intelligence service mivd operates satellite ground station intercept foreign satellite links also facility eavesdrop foreign high-frequency radio traffic attained nickname ‘ surveillance state ’ north korea government complete control forms telecommunications internet routine sent prison camp communicating outside world government enforces restrictions around types appliances north koreans may home case radio tv sets pick signals nearby south korea china russia attempt mask way government actively spies citizens north korea increasing number citizens smartphones however devices heavily controlled used censor observe everything north koreans phones reuters reported 2015 koryolink north korea official mobile phone network around 3 million subscribers country 24 million obviously order digital data draw citizens must access phones things online sorm sorm-2 laws enable complete monitoring communication electronic traditional eight state agencies without warrant laws seem conflict article 23 constitution russia states 2015 european court human rights ruled legislation violated article 8 european convention human rights zakharov v. russia yarovaya law required storage unconditional access private communication data law enforcement singapore known city sensors singapore surveillance structure spreads widely closed-circuit television public areas even around neighbourhood internet monitoring/ traffic monitoring use surveillance metadata government initiatives singapore sim card registration mandatory even prepaid card singapore government rights access communication data singapore largest telecompany singtel close relations government singapore laws broadly phrased allow government obtain sensitive data text-messages email call logs web surfing history people without need court permission installation mass surveillance cameras singapore effort act deterrence terror attacks also public security loan sharks illegal parking part singapore smart nation initiative build network sensors collect connect data city life including citizen movement singapore government rolled 1000 sensors ranging computer chips surveillance cameras track almost everything singapore air quality public safety 2014 2016 bid increase security singapore police force installed 62,000 police cameras 10,000 housing development board hdb blocks covering lifts multi-storey car parks rising security concerns number cctv cameras public areas monitoring public transport system commercial/ government buildings singapore set increase 2018 singapore government would rolling new advanced surveillance systems starting singapore maritime borders new panoramic electro-optic sensors put place north south coasts monitoring 360-degree view area tethered unmanned aerial vehicle uav also operational used search rescue operations including hostage situations public order incidents according 2017 report privacy international spain may part group 21 european countries withholding information also known data retention 2014 many defense lawyers tried overturn multiple cases used mass storage evidence convict according european agency fundamental rights prior 2009 national defence radio establishment fra limited wireless signals intelligence sigint although left largely unregulated december 2009 new legislation went effect allowing fra monitor cable bound signals passing swedish border communications service providers legally required confidentiality transfer cable communications crossing swedish borders specific interaction points data may accessed court order fra contested since change legislation mainly public perception change would enable mass surveillance fra categorically deny allegation allowed initialize surveillance direct access communication lines sigint authorized special court meet set narrow requirements something minister defence sten tolgfors quoted saying render debate mass surveillance invalid due architecture internet backbones nordic area large portion norwegian finnish traffic also affected swedish wiretapping syria one five countries reporters without borders march 2013 list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights syria stepped web censorship cyber-monitoring country civil war intensified least 13 blue coat proxy servers use skype calls intercepted social engineering techniques phishing malware attacks use failed coup attempt june 15 2016 led authoritarian shift uses mass surveillance suppress opposite views digital surveillance part everyday life due box government puts turkish citizens increasingly difficult release academic knowledge beyond turkish government wants released digital physical strong hold knowledge goes regime today surveillance academicians goes along state oppression turkey hard say happen next years turkey become increasingly authoritarian centralization state power along digitalization expands scope state surveillance digitalization centralization state power closely related regime power becomes prominent conjuncture national security terrorism turkey main explanations world topic although clearly happening according report human rights joint platform published february 23 2017 nine months period state emergency number dismissed academicians reached 4,811 increasing 7,619 addition academicians working universities closed failed coup attempt extended surveillance turkey helped control population massive scale state surveillance united kingdom formed part public consciousness since 19th century postal espionage crisis 1844 sparked first panic privacy citizens however 20th century electronic surveillance capabilities grew wartime signal intelligence pioneering code breaking 1946 government communications headquarters gchq formed united kingdom united states signed bilateral ukusa agreement 1948 later broadened include canada australia new zealand well cooperation several third-party nations became cornerstone western intelligence gathering special relationship uk usa growth internet development world wide web series media reports 2013 revealed recent programs techniques involving gchq tempora use capabilities controlled laws made uk parliament particular access content private messages interception communication must authorized warrant signed secretary state addition european union data privacy law applies uk law uk exhibits governance safeguards well use electronic surveillance investigatory powers tribunal judicial oversight body intelligence agencies ruled december 2014 legislative framework united kingdom breach european convention human rights however tribunal stated february 2015 one particular aspect data-sharing arrangement allowed uk intelligence services request data us surveillance programs prism upstream contravention human rights law prior two paragraphs additional information providing details procedures safeguards disclosed public december 2014 december 2014 ruling investigatory powers tribunal found legislative framework united kingdom permit mass surveillance gchq collects analyses data bulk practice mass surveillance report privacy security published intelligence security committee parliament also came view although found past shortcomings oversight said legal framework simplified improve transparency view supported independent reports interception communications commissioner however notable civil liberties groups continue express strong views contrary plan appeal ruling european court human rights others criticised viewpoints turn regulation investigatory powers act 2000 rip ripa significant piece legislation granted regulated powers public bodies carry surveillance investigation 2002 uk government announced plans extend regulation investigatory powers act least 28 government departments would given powers access metadata citizens web e-mail telephone fax records without warrant without subject knowledge protection freedoms act 2012 includes several provisions related controlling restricting collection storage retention use information government databases supported three major political parties uk parliament passed data retention investigatory powers act july 2014 ensure police security services retain existing powers access phone internet records superseded investigatory powers act 2016 comprehensive statute made public number previously secret powers equipment interference bulk retention metadata intelligence agency use bulk personal datasets enables government require internet service providers mobile phone companies maintain records content customers internet connections 12 months addition created new safeguards including requirement judges approve warrants authorised secretary state come force act informed two reports david anderson qc uk independent reviewer terrorism legislation question trust 2015 report bulk powers review 2016 contains detailed appraisal 60 case studies operational case powers often characterised mass surveillance may yet require amendment consequence legal cases brought court justice european union european court human rights many advanced nation-states implemented laws partially protect citizens unwarranted intrusion human rights act 1998 data protection act 1998 united kingdom laws require formal warrant private data may gathered government uk member european union participates programs subject eu policies directives surveillance vast majority video surveillance cameras uk operated government bodies private individuals companies especially monitor interiors shops businesses according 2011 freedom information act requests total number local government operated cctv cameras around 52,000 entirety uk prevalence video surveillance uk often overstated due unreliable estimates requoted example one report 2002 extrapolated small sample estimate number cameras uk 4.2 million 500,000 london reliable estimates put number private local government operated cameras united kingdom around 1.85 million 2011 historically mass surveillance used part wartime censorship control communications could damage war effort aid enemy example world wars every international telegram united states sent companies western union reviewed us military wars surveillance continued programs black chamber following world war project shamrock following world war ii cointelpro projects conducted u.s. federal bureau investigation fbi 1956 1971 targeted various subversive organizations including peaceful anti-war racial equality activists albert einstein martin luther king jr billions dollars per year spent agencies national security agency nsa federal bureau investigation fbi develop purchase implement operate systems carnivore echelon narusinsight intercept analyze immense amount data traverses internet telephone system every day since september 11 2001 terrorist attacks vast domestic intelligence apparatus built collect information using nsa fbi local police state homeland security offices military criminal investigators intelligence apparatus collects analyzes stores information millions american citizens many accused wrongdoing mail isolation control tracking program u.s postal service photographs exterior every piece paper mail processed united states — 160 billion pieces 2012 u.s. postmaster general stated system primarily used mail sorting images available possible use law enforcement agencies created 2001 following anthrax attacks killed five people sweeping expansion 100-year-old program called mail cover targets people suspected crimes fbi developed computer programs magic lantern cipav remotely install computer system order monitor person computer activity nsa gathering information financial records internet surfing habits monitoring e-mails also performed extensive analysis social networks myspace prism special source operation system legally immunized private companies cooperate voluntarily u.s. intelligence collection according register fisa amendments act 2008 specifically authorizes intelligence agencies monitor phone email communications u.s. citizens week without obtaining warrant one parties outside u.s. prism first publicly revealed 6 june 2013 classified documents program leaked washington post guardian american edward snowden communications assistance law enforcement act calea requires u.s. telecommunications internet service providers modify networks allow easy wiretapping telephone voip broadband internet traffic early 2006 usa today reported several major telephone companies providing telephone call records u.s. citizens national security agency nsa storing large database known nsa call database report came heels allegations u.s. government conducting electronic surveillance domestic telephone calls without warrants 2013 existence hemisphere project provides telephone call data federal agencies became publicly known traffic cameras meant help enforce traffic laws intersections may used law enforcement agencies purposes unrelated traffic violations cameras allow identification individuals inside vehicle license plate data collected time stamped cross reference data used police department homeland security funding networks surveillance cameras cities towns part efforts combat terrorism new york city police department infiltrated compiled dossiers protest groups 2004 republican national convention leading 1,800 arrests modern surveillance united states thought wartime effort snowden disclosed depth information national security agency june 2013 constant development improvements internet technology made easier mass surveillance take hold revelations allow critical commentators raise questions scrutinize implementation use abuse networking technologies devices software systems partake “ global surveillant assemblage ” bogard 2006 collier ong 2004 haggerty ericson 2000 murakami wood 2013 nsa collected millions verizon user telephone records 2013-2014 nsa also collected data google facebook program called 'prism journalists snowden published nearly 7,000 top-secret documents since yet information disclosed seems less 1 entire information access every individual private records seems directly contradict fourth amendment vietnam one five countries reporters without borders march 2013 list state enemies internet countries whose governments involved active intrusive surveillance news providers resulting grave violations freedom information human rights country 16 service providers directly indirectly controlled vietnamese communist party industry leader vietnam posts telecommunications group controls 74 per cent market state-owned viettel enterprise vietnamese armed forces fpt telecom private firm accountable party depends market leaders bandwidth service providers major instruments control surveillance bloggers monitored government frequently undergo man-in-the-middle attacks designed intercept data meant sent secure https sites allowing passwords communication intercepted according july 2012 freedom house report 91 percent survey respondents connected internet mobile devices government monitors conversations tracks calls activists reactionaries result digital revolution many aspects life captured stored digital form concern expressed governments may use information conduct mass surveillance populations commercial mass surveillance often makes use copyright laws user agreements obtain typically uninformed 'consent surveillance consumers use software related materials allows gathering information would technically illegal performed government agencies data often shared government agencies thereby practice defeating purpose privacy protections one common forms mass surveillance carried commercial organizations many people willing join supermarket grocery loyalty card programs trading personal information surveillance shopping habits exchange discount groceries although base prices might increased encourage participation program programs like google adsense opensocial increasing pool so-called web gadgets social gadgets google-hosted services many web sites internet effectively feeding user information sites visited users also social connections google facebook also keep information although acquisition limited page views within facebook data valuable authorities advertisers others interested profiling users trends web site marketing performance google facebook others increasingly becoming guarded data reach increases data becomes inclusive making valuable new features like geolocation give even increased admission monitoring capabilities large service providers like google also enabled track one physical movements users using mobile devices especially syncing without user interaction google gmail service increasingly employing features work stand-alone application also might activate web browser even active synchronizing feature mentioned google i/o 2009 developer conference showing upcoming html5 features google others actively defining promoting 2008 world economic forum davos google ceo eric schmidt said arrival truly mobile web offering new generation location-based advertising set unleash 'huge revolution mobile world congress barcelona 16 february 2010 google presented vision new business model mobile operators trying convince mobile operators embrace location-based services advertising google advertising provider would mean every mobile operator using location-based advertising service would revealing location mobile customers google organizations like electronic frontier foundation constantly informing users importance privacy considerations technologies like geolocation computer company microsoft patented 2011 product distribution system camera capture device monitors viewers consume product allowing provider take remedial action actual viewers match distribution license reporters without borders march 2013 special report internet surveillance contained list corporate enemies internet companies sell products liable used governments violate human rights freedom information five companies initial list amesys france blue coat systems u.s. gamma group uk germany hacking team italy trovicor germany list exhaustive likely expanded future surveillance state country government engages pervasive surveillance large numbers citizens visitors widespread surveillance usually justified necessary national security prevent crime acts terrorism may also used stifle criticism opposition government examples early surveillance states include former soviet union former east germany large network informers advanced technology base computing spy-camera technology states today technologies mass surveillance use databases pattern recognition software cross-correlate information obtained wire tapping including speech recognition telecommunications traffic analysis monitoring financial transactions automatic number plate recognition tracking position mobile telephones facial recognition systems like recognize people appearance gait dna profiling etc development smart cities seen increased adoption surveillance technologies governments although primary purpose surveillance cities use information communication technologies improve urban environment implementation technology number cities resulted increased efficiencies urban infrastructure well improved community participation sensors systems monitor smart city infrastructure operations activities aim help run efficiently example city could use less electricity traffic run smoothly fewer delays citizens use city safety hazards dealt faster citizen infractions rules prevented city infrastructure power distribution roads traffic lights example dynamically adjusted respond differing circumstances development smart city technology also led increase potential unwarranted intrusions privacy restrictions upon autonomy widespread incorporation information communication technologies within daily life urban residents results increases surveillance capacity states extent individuals may unaware information accessed access occurs purpose possible conditions could give rise development electronic police state shanghai amsterdam san jose dubai barcelona madrid stockholm new york cities use various techniques smart city technology electronic police state state government aggressively uses electronic technologies record collect store organize analyze search distribute information citizens electronic police states also engage mass government surveillance landline cellular telephone traffic mail email web surfing internet searches radio forms electronic communication well widespread use video surveillance information usually collected secret crucial elements politically based long government afford technology populace permit used electronic police state form continual use electronic mass surveillance result constant low-level fear within population lead self-censorship exerts powerful coercive force upon populace seventeen factors judging development electronic police state suggested electronic police state 2008 national rankings list includes factors apply forms police states use identity documents police enforcement go considerably beyond emphasize use technology gather process information collected concept monitored government collects large audience curious citizens mass surveillance prominently featured wide array books films media advances technology last century led possible social control internet conditions late capitalism many directors writers enthralled potential stories could come mass surveillance perhaps iconic example fictional mass surveillance george orwell 1949 novel nineteen eighty-four depicts dystopian surveillance state works focus mass surveillance 1-hop neighbor's text information: information_security.information security information security sometimes shortened infosec practice protecting information mitigating information risks part information risk management typically involves preventing least reducing probability unauthorized/inappropriate access use disclosure disruption deletion/destruction corruption modification inspection recording devaluation although may also involve reducing adverse impacts incidents information may take form e.g electronic physical. tangible e.g paperwork intangible e.g knowledge information security primary focus balanced protection confidentiality integrity availability data also known cia triad maintaining focus efficient policy implementation without hampering organization productivity largely achieved structured risk management process involves standardize discipline academics professionals collaborate offer guidance policies industry standards password antivirus software firewall encryption software legal liability security awareness training forth standardization may driven wide variety laws regulations affect data accessed processed stored transferred destroyed however implementation standards guidance within entity may limited effect culture continual improvement n't adopted core information security information assurance act maintaining confidentiality integrity availability cia information ensuring information compromised way critical issues arise issues include limited natural disasters computer/server malfunction physical theft paper-based business operations still prevalent requiring set information secuy practices enterprise digital initiatives increasingly emphasized information assurance typically dealt information technology security specialists specialists apply information security technology often form computer system worthwhile note computer necessarily mean home desktop computer device processor memory devices range non-networked standalone devices simple calculators networked mobile computing devices smartphones tablet computers security specialists almost always found major enterprise/establishment due nature value data within larger businesses responsible keeping technology within company secure malicious cyber attacks often attempt acquire critical private information gain control internal systems field information security grown evolved significantly recent years offers many areas specialization including securing networks allied infrastructure securing applications databases security testing information systems auditing business continuity planning electronic record discovery digital forensics information security professionals stable employment 80 percent professionals change employer employment period year number professionals projected continuously grow 11 percent annually 2014 2019 information security threats come many different forms common threats today software attacks theft intellectual property identity theft theft equipment information sabotage information extortion people experienced software attacks sort viruses worms phishing attacks trojan horses common examples software attacks theft intellectual property also extensive issue many businesses information technology field identity theft attempt act someone else usually obtain person personal information take advantage access vital information social engineering theft equipment information becoming prevalent today due fact devices today mobile prone theft also become far desirable amount data capacity increases sabotage usually consists destruction organization website attempt cause loss confidence part customers information extortion consists theft company property information attempt receive payment exchange returning information property back owner ransomware many ways help protect attacks one functional precautions conduct periodical user awareness number one threat organisation users internal employees also called insider threats governments military corporations financial institutions hospitals non-profit organisations private businesses amass great deal confidential information employees customers products research financial status confidential information business customers finances new product line fall hands competitor black hat hacker business customers could suffer widespread irreparable financial loss well damage company reputation business perspective information security must balanced cost gordon-loeb model provides mathematical economic approach addressing concern individual information security significant effect privacy viewed differently various cultures possible responses security threat risk since early days communication diplomats military commanders understood necessary provide mechanism protect confidentiality correspondence means detecting tampering julius caesar credited invention caesar cipher c. 50 b.c. created order prevent secret messages read message fall wrong hands however part protection achieved application procedural handling controls sensitive information marked indicate protected transported trusted persons guarded stored secure environment strong box postal services expanded governments created official organizations intercept decipher read reseal letters e.g. u.k. secret office founded 1653 mid-nineteenth century complex classification systems developed allow governments manage information according degree sensitivity example british government codified extent publication official secrets act 1889 time first world war multi-tier classification systems used communicate information various fronts encouraged greater use code making breaking sections diplomatic military headquarters encoding became sophisticated wars machines employed scramble unscramble information volume information shared allied countries second world war necessitated formal alignment classification systems procedural controls arcane range markings evolved indicate could handle documents usually officers rather enlisted troops stored increasingly complex safes storage facilities developed enigma machine employed germans encrypt data warfare successfully decrypted alan turing regarded striking example creating using secured information procedures evolved ensure documents destroyed properly failure follow procedures led greatest intelligence coups war e.g. capture u-570 end twentieth century early years twenty-first century saw rapid advancements telecommunications computing hardware software data encryption availability smaller powerful less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within reach small business home user computers quickly became interconnected internet rapid growth widespread use electronic data processing electronic business conducted internet along numerous occurrences international terrorism fueled need better methods protecting computers information store process transmit academic disciplines computer security information assurance emerged along numerous professional organizations sharing common goals ensuring security reliability information systems various definitions information security suggested summarized different sources cia triad confidentiality integrity availability heart information security members classic infosec triad—confidentiality integrity availability—are interchangeably referred literature security attributes properties security goals fundamental aspects information criteria critical information characteristics basic building blocks however debate continues whether cia triad sufficient address rapidly changing technology business requirements recommendations consider expanding intersections availability confidentiality well relationship security privacy principles accountability sometimes proposed pointed issues non-repudiation fit well within three core concepts 1992 revised 2002 oecd guidelines security information systems networks proposed nine generally accepted principles awareness responsibility response ethics democracy risk assessment security design implementation security management reassessment building upon 2004 nist engineering principles information technology security proposed 33 principles derived guidelines practices 1998 donn parker proposed alternative model classic cia triad called six atomic elements information elements confidentiality possession integrity authenticity availability utility merits parkerian hexad subject debate amongst security professionals 2011 open group published information security management standard o-ism3 standard proposed operational definition key concepts security elements called security objectives related access control 9 availability 3 data quality 1 compliance technical 4 2009 dod software protection initiative released three tenets cybersecurity system susceptibility access flaw capability exploit flaw neither models widely adopted information security confidentiality property information made available disclosed unauthorized individuals entities processes similar privacy two words n't interchangeable rather confidentiality component privacy implements protect data unauthorized viewers examples confidentiality electronic data compromised include laptop theft password theft sensitive emails sent incorrect individuals information security data integrity means maintaining assuring accuracy completeness data entire lifecycle means data modified unauthorized undetected manner thing referential integrity databases although viewed special case consistency understood classic acid model transaction processing information security systems typically provide message integrity alongside confidentiality information system serve purpose information must available needed means computing systems used store process information security controls used protect communication channels used access must functioning correctly high availability systems aim remain available times preventing service disruptions due power outages hardware failures system upgrades ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks flood incoming messages target system essentially forcing shut realm information security availability often viewed one important parts successful information security program ultimately end-users need able perform job functions ensuring availability organization able perform standards organization stakeholders expect involve topics proxy configurations outside web access ability access shared drives ability send emails executives oftentimes understand technical side information security look availability easy fix often requires collaboration many different organizational teams network operations development operations incident response policy/change management successful information security team involves many different key roles mesh align cia triad provided effectively law non-repudiation implies one intention fulfill obligations contract also implies one party transaction deny received transaction party deny sent transaction important note technology cryptographic systems assist non-repudiation efforts concept core legal concept transcending realm technology instance sufficient show message matches digital signature signed sender private key thus sender could sent message nobody else could altered transit data integrity alleged sender could return demonstrate digital signature algorithm vulnerable flawed allege prove signing key compromised fault violations may may lie sender assertions may may relieve sender liability assertion would invalidate claim signature necessarily proves authenticity integrity sender may repudiate message authenticity integrity pre-requisites non-repudiation certified information systems auditor cisa review manual 2006 provides following definition risk management risk management process identifying vulnerabilities threats information resources used organization achieving business objectives deciding countermeasures take reducing risk acceptable level based value information resource organization two things definition may need clarification first process risk management ongoing iterative process must repeated indefinitely business environment constantly changing new threats vulnerabilities emerge every day second choice countermeasures controls used manage risks must strike balance productivity cost effectiveness countermeasure value informational asset protected risk analysis risk evaluation processes limitations since security incidents occur emerge context rarity uniqueness give rise unpredictable threats analysis phenomena characterized breakdowns surprises side-effects requires theoretical approach able examine interpret subjectively detail incident risk likelihood something bad happen causes harm informational asset loss asset vulnerability weakness could used endanger cause harm informational asset threat anything man-made act nature potential cause harm likelihood threat use vulnerability cause harm creates risk threat use vulnerability inflict harm impact context information security impact loss availability integrity confidentiality possibly losses lost income loss life loss real property pointed possible identify risks possible eliminate risk remaining risk called residual risk risk assessment carried team people knowledge specific areas business membership team may vary time different parts business assessed assessment may use subjective qualitative analysis based informed opinion reliable dollar figures historical information available analysis may use quantitative analysis research shown vulnerable point information systems human user operator designer human iso/iec 27002:2005 code practice information security management recommends following examined risk assessment broad terms risk management process consists given risk management choose accept risk based upon relative low value asset relative low frequency occurrence relative low impact business leadership may choose mitigate risk selecting implementing appropriate control measures reduce risk cases risk transferred another business buying insurance outsourcing another business reality risks may disputed cases leadership may choose deny risk selecting implementing proper security controls initially help organization bring risk acceptable levels control selection follow based risk assessment controls vary nature fundamentally ways protecting confidentiality integrity availability information iso/iec 27001 defined controls different areas organizations implement additional controls according requirement organization iso/iec 27002 offers guideline organizational information security standards administrative controls consist approved written policies procedures standards guidelines administrative controls form framework running business managing people inform people business run day-to-day operations conducted laws regulations created government bodies also type administrative control inform business industry sectors policies procedures standards guidelines must followed – payment card industry data security standard pci dss required visa mastercard example examples administrative controls include corporate security policy password policy hiring policies disciplinary policies administrative controls form basis selection implementation logical physical controls logical physical controls manifestations administrative controls paramount importance logical controls also called technical controls use software data monitor control access information computing systems passwords network host-based firewalls network intrusion detection systems access control lists data encryption examples logical controls important logical control frequently overlooked principle least privilege requires individual program system process granted access privileges necessary perform task blatant example failure adhere principle least privilege logging windows user administrator read email surf web violations principle also occur individual collects additional access privileges time happens employees job duties change employees promoted new position employees transferred another department access privileges required new duties frequently added onto already existing access privileges may longer necessary appropriate physical controls monitor control environment work place computing facilities also monitor control access facilities include doors locks heating air conditioning smoke fire alarms fire suppression systems cameras barricades fencing security guards cable locks etc separating network workplace functional areas also physical controls important physical control frequently overlooked separation duties ensures individual complete critical task example employee submits request reimbursement also able authorize payment print check applications programmer also server administrator database administrator roles responsibilities must separated one another information security must protect information throughout lifespan initial creation information final disposal information information must protected motion rest lifetime information may pass many different information processing systems many different parts information processing systems many different ways information information systems threatened fully protect information lifetime component information processing system must protection mechanisms building layering overlapping security measures called defense depth contrast metal chain famously strong weakest link defense depth strategy aims structure one defensive measure fail measures continue provide protection recall earlier discussion administrative controls logical controls physical controls three types controls used form basis upon build defense depth strategy approach defense depth conceptualized three distinct layers planes laid one top additional insight defense depth gained thinking forming layers onion data core onion people next outer layer onion network security host-based security application security forming outermost layers onion perspectives equally valid provides valuable insight implementation good defense depth strategy important aspect information security risk management recognizing value information defining appropriate procedures protection requirements information information equal information requires degree protection requires information assigned security classification first step information classification identify member senior management owner particular information classified next develop classification policy policy describe different classification labels define criteria information assigned particular label list required security controls classification factors influence classification information assigned include much value information organization old information whether information become obsolete laws regulatory requirements also important considerations classifying information information systems audit control association isaca business model information security also serves tool security professionals examine security systems perspective creating environment security managed holistically allowing actual risks addressed type information security classification labels selected used depend nature organization examples employees organization well business partners must trained classification schema understand required security controls handling procedures classification classification particular information asset assigned reviewed periodically ensure classification still appropriate information ensure security controls required classification place followed right procedures access protected information must restricted people authorized access information computer programs many cases computers process information must also authorized requires mechanisms place control access protected information sophistication access control mechanisms parity value information protected sensitive valuable information stronger control mechanisms need foundation access control mechanisms built start identification authentication access control generally considered three steps identification authentication authorization identification assertion someone something person makes statement hello name john doe making claim however claim may may true john doe granted access protected information necessary verify person claiming john doe really john doe typically claim form username entering username claiming person username belongs authentication act verifying claim identity john doe goes bank make withdrawal tells bank teller john doe claim identity bank teller asks see photo id hands teller driver license bank teller checks license make sure john doe printed compares photograph license person claiming john doe photo name match person teller authenticated john doe claimed similarly entering correct password user providing evidence he/she person username belongs three different types information used authentication strong authentication requires providing one type authentication information two-factor authentication username common form identification computer systems today password common form authentication usernames passwords served purpose increasingly inadequate usernames passwords slowly replaced supplemented sophisticated authentication mechanisms time-based one-time password algorithms person program computer successfully identified authenticated must determined informational resources permitted access actions allowed perform run view create delete change called authorization authorization access information computing services begins administrative policies procedures policies prescribe information computing services accessed conditions access control mechanisms configured enforce policies different computing systems equipped different kinds access control mechanisms may even offer choice different access control mechanisms access control mechanism system offers based upon one three approaches access control may derived combination three approaches non-discretionary approach consolidates access control centralized administration access information resources usually based individuals function role organization tasks individual must perform discretionary approach gives creator owner information resource ability control access resources mandatory access control approach access granted denied basing upon security classification assigned information resource examples common access control mechanisms use today include role-based access control available many advanced database management systems simple file permissions provided unix windows operating systems group policy objects provided windows network systems kerberos radius tacacs simple access lists used many firewalls routers effective policies security controls must enforceable upheld effective policies ensure people held accountable actions u.s. treasury guidelines systems processing sensitive proprietary information example states failed successful authentication access attempts must logged access information must leave type audit trail also need-to-know principle needs effect talking access control principle gives access rights person perform job functions principle used government dealing difference clearances even though two employees different departments top-secret clearance must need-to-know order information exchanged within need-to-know principle network administrators grant employee least amount privileges prevent employees accessing supposed need-to-know helps enforce confidentiality-integrity-availability triad need-to-know directly impacts confidential area triad information security uses cryptography transform usable information form renders unusable anyone authorized user process called encryption information encrypted rendered unusable transformed back original usable form authorized user possesses cryptographic key process decryption cryptography used information security protect information unauthorized accidental disclosure information transit either electronically physically information storage cryptography provides information security useful applications well including improved authentication methods message digests digital signatures non-repudiation encrypted network communications older less secure applications telnet file transfer protocol ftp slowly replaced secure applications secure shell ssh use encrypted network communications wireless communications encrypted using protocols wpa/wpa2 older less secure wep wired communications itu‑t g.hn secured using aes encryption x.1035 authentication key exchange software applications gnupg pgp used encrypt data files email cryptography introduce security problems implemented correctly cryptographic solutions need implemented using industry-accepted solutions undergone rigorous peer review independent experts cryptography length strength encryption key also important consideration key weak short produce weak encryption keys used encryption decryption must protected degree rigor confidential information must protected unauthorized disclosure destruction must available needed public key infrastructure pki solutions address many problems surround key management terms reasonable prudent person due care due diligence used fields finance securities law many years recent years terms found way fields computing information security u.s. federal sentencing guidelines make possible hold corporate officers liable failing exercise due care due diligence management information systems business world stockholders customers business partners governments expectation corporate officers run business accordance accepted business practices compliance laws regulatory requirements often described reasonable prudent person rule prudent person takes due care ensure everything necessary done operate business sound business principles legal ethical manner prudent person also diligent mindful attentive ongoing due care business field information security harris offers following definitions due care due diligence due care steps taken show company taken responsibility activities take place within corporation taken necessary steps help protect company resources employees nowiki due diligence /nowiki continual activities make sure protection mechanisms continually maintained operational attention made two important points definitions first due care steps taken show means steps verified measured even produce tangible artifacts second due diligence continual activities means people actually things monitor maintain protection mechanisms activities ongoing organizations responsibility practicing duty care applying information security duty care risk analysis standard docra provides principles practices evaluating risk considers parties could affected risks docra helps evaluate safeguards appropriate protecting others harm presenting reasonable burden increased data breach litigation companies must balance security controls compliance mission software engineering institute carnegie mellon university publication titled governing enterprise security ges implementation guide defines characteristics effective security governance include incident response plan group policies dictate organizations reaction cyber attack security breach identified plan initiated important note legal implications data breach knowing local federal laws critical every plan unique needs organization involve skill set part team example lawyer may included response plan help navigate legal implications data breach mentioned every plan unique plans include following good preparation includes development incident response team skills need used team would penetration testing computer forensics network security etc team also keep track trends cybersecurity modern attack strategies training program end users important well modern attack strategies target users network part incident response plan identifies security event end user reports information admin notices irregularities investigation launched incident log crucial part step members team updating log ensure information flows fast possible identified security breach occurred next step activated phase irt works isolate areas breach took place limit scope security event phase important preserve information forensically analyzed later process containment could simple physically containing server room complex segmenting network allow spread virus threat identified removed affected systems could include using deleting malicious files terminating compromised accounts deleting components events require step however important fully understand event moving step help ensure threat completely removed stage systems restored back original operation stage could include recovery data changing user access information updating firewall rules policies prevent breach future executing step system could still vulnerable future security threats step information gathered process used make future decisions security step crucial ensure future events prevented using information train admins critical process step also used process information distributed entities experienced security event change management formal process directing controlling alterations information processing environment includes alterations desktop computers network servers software objectives change management reduce risks posed changes information processing environment improve stability reliability processing environment changes made objective change management prevent hinder necessary changes implemented change information processing environment introduces element risk even apparently simple changes unexpected effects one management many responsibilities management risk change management tool managing risks introduced changes information processing environment part change management process ensures changes implemented inopportune times may disrupt critical business processes interfere changes implemented every change needs managed kinds changes part everyday routine information processing adhere predefined procedure reduces overall level risk processing environment creating new user account deploying new desktop computer examples changes generally require change management however relocating user file shares upgrading email server pose much higher level risk processing environment normal everyday activity critical first steps change management defining change communicating definition b defining scope change system change management usually overseen change review board composed representatives key business areas security networking systems administrators database administration application developers desktop support help desk tasks change review board facilitated use automated work flow application responsibility change review board ensure organization documented change management procedures followed change management process follows change management procedures simple follow easy use greatly reduce overall risks created changes made information processing environment good change management procedures improve overall quality success changes implemented accomplished planning peer review documentation communication iso/iec 20000 visible ops handbook implementing itil 4 practical auditable steps full book summary information technology infrastructure library provide valuable guidance implementing efficient effective change management program information security business continuity management bcm concerns arrangements aiming protect organization critical business functions interruption due incidents least minimize effects bcm essential organization keep technology business line current threats continuation business usual bcm included organizations risk analysis plan ensure necessary business functions need keep going event type threat business function encompasses whereas bcm takes broad approach minimizing disaster-related risks reducing probability severity incidents disaster recovery plan drp focuses specifically resuming business operations quickly possible disaster disaster recovery plan invoked soon disaster occurs lays steps necessary recover critical information communications technology ict infrastructure disaster recovery planning includes establishing planning group performing risk assessment establishing priorities developing recovery strategies preparing inventories documentation plan developing verification criteria procedure lastly implementing plan partial listing governmental laws regulations various parts world significant effect data processing information security important industry sector regulations also included significant impact information security describing simply security aware employees information security culture ideas customs social behaviors organization impact information security positive negative ways cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization way employees think feel security actions take big impact information security organizations roer petric 2017 identify seven core dimensions information security culture organizations andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously information security culture analysis change authors commented never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation international organization standardization iso consortium national standards institutes 157 countries coordinated secretariat geneva switzerland iso world largest developer standards iso 15443 information technology – security techniques – framework security assurance iso/iec 27002 information technology – security techniques – code practice information security management iso-20000 information technology – service management iso/iec 27001 information technology – security techniques – information security management systems – requirements particular interest information security professionals us national institute standards technology nist non-regulatory federal agency within u.s. department commerce nist computer security division develops standards metrics tests validation programs well publishes standards guidelines increase secure planning implementation management operation nist also custodian u.s. federal information processing standard publications fips internet society professional membership society 100 organizations 20,000 individual members 180 countries provides leadership addressing issues confront future internet organizational home groups responsible internet infrastructure standards including internet engineering task force ietf internet architecture board iab isoc hosts requests comments rfcs includes official internet protocol standards rfc-2196 site security handbook information security forum isf global nonprofit organization several hundred leading organizations financial services manufacturing telecommunications consumer goods government areas undertakes research information security practices offers advice biannual standard good practice detailed advisories members institute information security professionals iisp independent non-profit body governed members principal objective advancing professionalism information security practitioners thereby professionalism industry whole institute developed iisp skills framework framework describes range competencies expected information security information assurance professionals effective performance roles developed collaboration private public sector organizations world-renowned academics security leaders german federal office information security german bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bsi bsi-standards 100-1 100-4 set recommendations including methods processes procedures approaches measures relating information security bsi-standard 100-2 it-grundschutz methodology describes information security management implemented operated standard includes specific guide baseline protection catalogs also known it-grundschutz catalogs 2005 catalogs formerly known baseline protection manual catalogs collection documents useful detecting combating security-relevant weak points environment cluster collection encompasses september 2013 4,400 pages introduction catalogs it-grundschutz approach aligned iso/iec 2700x family european telecommunications standards institute standardized catalog information security indicators headed industrial specification group isg isi Target text information: cypherpunks_(book).cypherpunks book cypherpunks freedom future internet 2012 book julian assange discussion internet activists cypherpunks jacob appelbaum andy müller-maguhn jérémie zimmermann primary topic society relationship information security book authors warn internet become tool police state world inadvertently heading toward form totalitarianism promote use cryptography protect state surveillance introduction assange says book manifesto ... warning told guardian journalist decca aitkenhead assange later wrote guardian strong cryptography vital tool fighting state oppression saying message book cypherpunks cypherpunks published books content derives discussions june 2012 appelbaum müller-maguhn zimmermann assange tv show world tomorrow I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	197	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: eclipselink.eclipselink eclipselink open source eclipse persistence services project eclipse foundation software provides extensible framework allows java developers interact various data services including databases web services object xml mapping oxm enterprise information systems eis eclipselink supports number persistence standards including eclipselink based toplink product oracle contributed source code create eclipselink project original contribution toplink 11g code base entire code-base/feature set contributed ejb 2 container-managed persistence cmp minor oracle application server specific integration removed differs toplink essentials glassfish contribution include key enterprise features package names changed code configuration moved around toplink mapping workbench user interface also contributed project eclipselink intended path forward persistence oracle toplink intended next major release oracle toplink include eclipselink well next major release oracle application server eclipselink supports usage osgi environment sun microsystems selected eclipselink project reference implementation jpa 2.0. oracle jpa 2.1 1-hop neighbor's text information: language_workbench.language workbench language workbench tool set tools enables software development language-oriented programming software development paradigm language workbench typically include tools support definition reuse composition domain-specific languages together integrated development environment language workbenches introduced popularized martin fowler 2005 language workbenches usually support 1-hop neighbor's text information: generic_eclipse_modeling_system.generic eclipse modeling system generic eclipse modeling system gems configurable toolkit creating domain-specific modeling program synthesis environments eclipse project aims bridge gap communities experienced visual metamodeling tools like built around eclipse modeling technologies eclipse modeling framework emf graphical modeling framework gmf gems helps developers rapidly create graphical modeling tool visual language description metamodel without coding third-generation languages graphical modeling tools created gems automatically support complex capabilities remote updating querying template creation styling cascading style sheets css model linking configuration accomplished metamodels specifying modeling paradigm application domain i.e domain-specific modeling language dsml modeling paradigm contains syntactic semantic presentation information regarding domain concepts used construct models relationships may exist among concepts concepts may organized viewed modeler rules governing construction models modeling paradigm defines family models created using resultant modeling environment built-in metamodeling language based uml class diagram notation metamodels ecore readable formats used well metamodel constraints specified declarative languages e.g ocl prolog alternatively java metamodel created gems plug-in generator invoked create modeling tool generated plug-in uses eclipse graphical editing framework gef draw2d plug-in visualize dsml diagram gems extension points used create interpreter traverses domain-specific model generates code interpreters also interpret model provide executable semantics perform complex analyses Target text information: xtext.xtext xtext open-source software framework developing programming languages domain-specific languages dsls unlike standard parser generators xtext generates parser also class model abstract syntax tree well providing fully featured customizable eclipse-based ide xtext developed eclipse project part eclipse modeling framework project licensed eclipse public license first version xtext published 2006 openarchitectureware project last version released oaw project version 4.3 since beginning 2008 xtext developed eclipse eclipse modeling project joining eclipse annual simultaneous release xtext released version 0.7.0 june 2009 1.0 june 2010 2.0 june 2011 2.3 june 2012 2.5 december 2013 2.6 may 2014 2.7 september 2014 framework mainly developed german company itemis specify language developer write grammar xtext grammar language grammar describes ecore model derived textual notation definition code generator derives antlr parser classes object model used independently eclipse xtext includes features integrate well eclipse-based ide xtext languages ide highly configurable language infrastructure ide wired using dependency injection guice default components easily replaced binding customized ones instead since version 2.0 xtext facilitated development domain-specific languages java virtual machine referring compiling java artifacts tight integration eclipse java development toolkit reusable expression languages library enables rich behavior within dsl code generator written xtend hooked language jvm languages enough map dsl concepts java artifacts get holistic java integration alternative interpreter also available time writing article xtext homepage listed around 40 commercial non-commercial projects several application domains using xtext general-purpose language xtend also built xtext I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	7,777	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: pwnie_awards.pwnie awards pwnie awards recognize excellence incompetence field information security winners selected committee security industry professionals nominations collected information security community awards presented yearly black hat security conference name pwnie award based word pwn hacker slang meaning compromise control based previous usage word pronounced similarly name pwnie awards pronounced pony meant sound like tony awards awards ceremony broadway theater new york city pwnie awards founded 2007 alexander sotirov dino dai zovi following discussions regarding dino discovery cross-platform quicktime vulnerability alexander discovery ani file processing vulnerability internet explorer award best server-side bug went security researchers discovered heartbleed best client-side bug went george hotz finding bug chrome os epic fail award went apple goto fail bug ios os x award best server-side bug went sergey golubchik mysql authentication bypass flaw two awards best client-side bug given sergey glazunov pinkie pie google chrome flaws presented part google pwnium contest award best privilege escalation bug went mateusz jurczyk j00ru vulnerability windows kernel affected 32-bit versions windows award innovative research went travis goodspeed way send network packets would inject additional packets award best song went control nerdcore rapper dual core new category award tweetie pwnie award twitter followers judges went musclenerd iphone dev team representative ios jailbreaking community epic fail award presented metasploit creator hd moore f5 networks static root ssh key issue award accepted employee f5 unusual winner category usually accept award ceremony nominees included linkedin data breach exposing password hashes antivirus industry failing detect threats stuxnet duqu flame award epic 0wnage went flame md5 collision attack recognizing sophisticated serious piece malware weakened trust windows update system 1-hop neighbor's text information: unix-like.unix-like unix-like sometimes referred unx nix operating system one behaves manner similar unix system necessarily conforming certified version single unix specification unix-like application one behaves like corresponding unix command shell standard defining term difference opinion possible degree given operating system application unix-like term include free open-source operating systems inspired bell labs unix designed emulate features commercial proprietary work-alikes even versions based licensed unix source code may sufficiently unix-like pass certification bear unix trademark open group owns unix trademark administers single unix specification unix name used certification mark approve construction unix-like consider misuse trademark guidelines require unix presented uppercase otherwise distinguished surrounding text strongly encourage using branding adjective generic word system discourage use hyphenated phrases parties frequently treat unix genericized trademark add wildcard character name make abbreviation like unx nix since unix-like systems often unix-like names aix a/ux hp-ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix xinu xnu patterns literally match many system names still generally recognized refer unix descendant work-alike system even completely dissimilar names darwin/macos illumos/solaris freebsd 2007 wayne r. gray sued dispute status unix trademark lost case lost appeal court upholding trademark ownership unix-like systems started appear late 1970s early 1980s many proprietary versions idris 1978 unos 1982 coherent 1983 uniflex 1985 aimed provide businesses functionality available academic users unix allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing unix 1979 variety proprietary systems developed based including aix hp-ux irix sunos tru64 ultrix xenix largely displaced proprietary clones growing incompatibility among systems led creation interoperability standards including posix single unix specification various free low-cost unrestricted substitutes unix emerged 1980s 1990s including 4.4bsd linux minix turn basis commercial unix-like systems bsd/os macos several versions mac os x/macos running intel-based mac computers certified single unix specification bsd variants descendants unix developed university california berkeley unix source code bell labs however bsd code base evolved since replacing code since bsd variants certified compliant single unix specification referred unix-like rather unix dennis ritchie one original creators unix expressed opinion unix-like systems linux de facto unix systems eric s. raymond rob landley suggested three kinds unix-like systems systems historical connection codebase commercial unix systems fall category bsd systems descendants work done university california berkeley late 1970s early 1980s systems original code still trace ancestry designs systemslargely commercial naturehave determined open group meet single unix specification allowed carry unix name systems commercial derivatives system v code base one form another although apple macos 10.5 later bsd variant certified systems ibm z/os earned trademark posix compatibility layer otherwise inherently unix systems many ancient unix systems longer meet definition broadly unix-like system behaves manner roughly consistent unix specification including program manages login command line sessions specifically refer systems linux minix behave similarly unix system genetic trademark connection code base free/open-source implementations unix design whether genetic unix fall restricted definition third category due expense obtaining open group certification costs thousands dollars commercial closed source systems around 2001 linux given opportunity get certification including free help posix chair andrew josey symbolic price one dollar activities make linux posix-compliant josey prepared list differences posix standard linux standard base specification august 2005 project shut missing interest lsb work group non-unix-like operating systems provide unix-like compatibility layer variable degrees unix-like functionality means windows-unix interoperability include 1-hop neighbor's text information: shellshock_(software_bug).shellshock software bug shellshock also known bashdoor family security bugs unix bash shell first disclosed 24 september 2014 shellshock could enable attacker cause bash execute arbitrary commands gain unauthorized access many internet-facing services web servers use bash process requests 12 september 2014 stéphane chazelas informed bash maintainer chet ramey discovery original bug called bashdoor working security experts developed patch fix issue assigned vulnerability identifier existence bug announced public bash updates fix ready distribution bug chazelas discovered caused bash unintentionally execute commands commands concatenated end function definitions stored values environment variables within days publication variety related vulnerabilities discovered ramey addressed series patches attackers exploited shellshock within hours initial disclosure creating botnets compromised computers perform distributed denial-of-service attacks vulnerability scanning security companies recorded millions attacks probes related bug days following disclosure potential compromise millions unpatched systems shellshock compared heartbleed bug severity shellshock bug affects bash program various unix-based systems use execute command lines command scripts often installed system default command-line interface analysis source code history bash shows bugs existed since bash version 1.03 released september 1989 shellshock privilege escalation vulnerability offers way users system execute commands unavailable happens bash function export feature whereby command scripts created one running instance bash shared subordinate instances feature implemented encoding scripts within table shared instances known environment variable list new instance bash scans table encoded scripts assembles one command defines script new instance executes command new instance assumes scripts found list come another instance verify verify command built properly formed script definition therefore attacker execute arbitrary commands system exploit bugs may exist bash command interpreter attacker way manipulate environment variable list cause bash run presence bug announced public bash updates fix ready distribution though took time computers updated close potential security issue within hour announcement bash vulnerability reports machines compromised bug 25 september 2014 botnets based computers compromised exploits based bug used attackers distributed denial-of-service ddos attacks vulnerability scanning kaspersky labs reported machines compromised attack dubbed thanks-rob conducting ddos attacks three targets identify 26 september 2014 shellshock-related botnet dubbed wopbot reported used ddos attack akamai technologies scan united states department defense 26 september security firm incapsula noted 17,400 attacks 1,800 web domains originating 400 unique ip addresses previous 24 hours 55 attacks coming china united states 30 september website performance firm cloudflare said tracking approximately 1.5 million attacks probes per day related bug 6 october widely reported yahoo servers compromised attack related shellshock issue yet next day denied shellshock specifically allowed attacks maintainer bash warned first discovery bug fix followed soon companies distributors informed matter publicly disclosed cve identifier cve-2014-6271 however release patch subsequent reports different yet related vulnerabilities 26 september 2014 two open-source contributors david a. wheeler norihiro tanaka noted additional issues even patching systems using recently available patches email addressed oss-sec list bash bug list wheeler wrote patch continues 'whack-a-mole job fixing parsing errors began first patch bash parser certain many many many vulnerabilities however rather general reasoning without actually presenting exploitation examples implied restricting bash functionality effect bash scripts wo n't work even intended harm users 27 september 2014 michał zalewski google inc. announced discovery bash vulnerabilities one based upon fact bash typically compiled without address space layout randomization 1 october zalewski released details final bugs confirmed patch florian weimer red hat posted 25 september indeed prevent done using fuzzing technique aid software utility known american fuzzy lop original form vulnerability involves specially crafted environment variable containing exported function definition followed arbitrary commands bash incorrectly executes trailing commands imports function vulnerability tested following command systems affected vulnerability commands display word vulnerable result bash executing command echo vulnerable embedded specially crafted environment variable named x discovered michał zalewski vulnerability relates parsing function definitions environment variables bash cause segfault also discovered michał zalewski relates parsing function definitions environment variables bash day original vulnerability published tavis ormandy discovered related bug demonstrated following code vulnerable system would execute command date unintentionally example system patch cve-2014-6271 cve-2014-7169 system displays syntax errors notifying user cve-2014-6271 prevented still writes file named 'echo working directory containing result 'date call system patched cve-2014-6271 cve-2014-7169 simply echo word date file echo created shown florian weimer todd sabin found bug relates out-of-bounds memory access error bash parser code example vulnerability leverages use multiple « eof declarations nested documents vulnerable system echo text cve-2014-7186 vulnerable redir_stack also found florian weimer off-by-one error bash parser code allowing out-of-bounds memory access example vulnerability leverages use multiple done declarations vulnerable system echo text cve-2014-7187 vulnerable word_lineno test requires shell supports brace expansion 24 september 2014 bash maintainer chet ramey provided patch version bash43-025 bash 4.3 addressing cve-2014-6271 already packaged distribution maintainers 24 september bash43-026 followed addressing cve-2014-7169 cve-2014-7186 discovered florian weimer red hat posted patch code unofficially 25 september ramey incorporated bash bash43-027.—these patches provided code helpful know compile rebuild new bash binary executable file patch file remaining source code files next day red hat officially presented according updates red hat enterprise linux another day fedora 21 canonical ltd. presented updates ubuntu long term support versions saturday 27 september sunday updates suse linux enterprise following monday tuesday end month mac os x updates appeared 1 october 2014 michał zalewski google inc. finally stated weimer code bash43-027 fixed first three bugs even remaining three published bash43-027 including two discoveries means earlier distribution updates updates required cover six issues also covered ibm hardware management console Target text information: michał_zalewski.michał zalewski michał zalewski born 19 january 1981 also known user name lcamtuf computer security expert white hat hacker poland former google inc. employee currently vp security engineering snap inc.. prolific vulnerability researcher frequent bugtraq poster since mid-1990s written number programs unix-like operating systems 2005 zalewski wrote silence wire field guide passive reconnaissance indirect attacks computer security book published starch press subsequently translated number languages 2011 zalewski wrote tangled web guide securing modern web applications also published starch press continued research browser security named one 15 influential people security among 100 influential people zalewski one original creators argante virtual open source operating system among projects also created p0f american fuzzy lop I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,931	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: motherboard.motherboard motherboard sometimes alternatively known mainboard main circuit board system board baseboard planar board logic board colloquially mobo main printed circuit board pcb found general purpose computers expandable systems holds allows communication many crucial electronic components system central processing unit cpu memory provides connectors peripherals unlike backplane motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems central processor chipset input/output memory controllers interface connectors components integrated general purpose use applications motherboard specifically refers pcb expansion capability name suggests board often referred mother components attached often include peripherals interface cards daughtercards sound cards video cards network cards hard drives forms persistent storage tv tuner cards cards providing extra usb firewire slots variety custom components similarly term mainboard applied devices single board additional expansions capability controlling boards laser printers televisions washing machines mobile phones embedded systems limited expansion abilities prior invention microprocessor digital computer consisted multiple printed circuit boards card-cage case components connected backplane set interconnected sockets old designs copper wires discrete connections card connector pins printed circuit boards soon became standard practice central processing unit cpu memory peripherals housed individual printed circuit boards plugged backplane ubiquitous s-100 bus 1970s example type backplane system popular computers 1980s apple ii ibm pc published schematic diagrams documentation permitted rapid reverse-engineering third-party replacement motherboards usually intended building new computers compatible exemplars many motherboards offered additional performance features used upgrade manufacturer original equipment late 1980s early 1990s became economical move increasing number peripheral functions onto motherboard late 1980s personal computer motherboards began include single ics also called super i/o chips capable supporting set low-speed peripherals keyboard mouse floppy disk drive serial ports parallel ports late 1990s many personal computer motherboards included consumer-grade embedded audio video storage networking functions without need expansion cards higher-end systems 3d gaming computer graphics typically retained graphics card separate component business pcs workstations servers likely need expansion cards either robust functions higher speeds systems often fewer embedded components laptop notebook computers developed 1990s integrated common peripherals even included motherboards upgradeable components trend would continue smaller systems introduced turn century like tablet computer netbook memory processors network controllers power source storage would integrated systems motherboard provides electrical connections components system communicate unlike backplane also contains central processing unit hosts subsystems devices typical desktop computer microprocessor main memory essential components connected motherboard components external storage controllers video display sound peripheral devices may attached motherboard plug-in cards via cables modern microcomputers increasingly common integrate peripherals motherboard important component motherboard microprocessor supporting chipset provides supporting interfaces cpu various buses external components chipset determines extent features capabilities motherboard modern motherboards include additionally nearly motherboards include logic connectors support commonly used input devices usb mouse devices keyboards early personal computers apple ii ibm pc included minimal peripheral support motherboard occasionally video interface hardware also integrated motherboard example apple ii rarely ibm-compatible computers ibm pc jr. additional peripherals disk controllers serial ports provided expansion cards given high thermal design power high-speed computer cpus components modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks mounting points fans dissipate excess heat motherboards produced variety sizes shape called computer form factor specific individual computer manufacturers however motherboards used ibm-compatible systems designed fit various case sizes desktop computer motherboards use atx standard form factor — even found macintosh sun computers built commodity components case motherboard power supply unit psu form factor must match though smaller form factor motherboards family fit larger cases example atx case usually accommodate microatx motherboard.computers generally use highly integrated miniaturized customized motherboards one reasons laptop computers difficult upgrade expensive repair often failure one laptop component requires replacement entire motherboard usually expensive desktop motherboard cpu socket central processing unit slot electrical component attaches printed circuit board pcb designed house cpu also called microprocessor special type integrated circuit socket designed high pin counts cpu socket provides many functions including physical structure support cpu support heat sink facilitating replacement well reducing cost importantly forming electrical interface cpu pcb cpu sockets motherboard often found desktop server computers laptops typically use surface mount cpus particularly based intel x86 architecture cpu socket type motherboard chipset must support cpu series speed steadily declining costs size integrated circuits possible include support many peripherals motherboard combining many functions one pcb physical size total cost system may reduced highly integrated motherboards thus especially popular small form factor budget computers typical motherboard different number connections depending standard form factor standard modern atx motherboard typically two three pci-express 16x connection graphics card one two legacy pci slots various expansion cards one two pci-e 1x superseded pci standard eatx motherboard two four pci-e 16x connection graphics cards varying number pci pci-e 1x slots sometimes also pci-e 4x slot vary brands models motherboards two pci-e 16x slots allow 2 monitors without special hardware use special graphics technology called sli nvidia crossfire amd allow 2 4 graphics cards linked together allow better performance intensive graphical computing tasks gaming video editing etc motherboards generally air cooled heat sinks often mounted larger chips northbridge modern motherboards insufficient improper cooling cause damage internal components computer cause crash passive cooling single fan mounted power supply sufficient many desktop computer cpu late 1990s since required cpu fans mounted heat sinks due rising clock speeds power consumption motherboards connectors additional computer fans integrated temperature sensors detect motherboard cpu temperatures controllable fan connectors bios operating system use regulate fan speed alternatively computers use water cooling system instead many fans small form factor computers home theater pcs designed quiet energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs typically requires use low-power cpu well careful layout motherboard components allow heat sink placement 2003 study found spurious computer crashes general reliability issues ranging screen image distortions i/o read/write errors attributed software peripheral hardware aging capacitors pc motherboards ultimately shown result faulty electrolyte formulation issue termed capacitor plague standard motherboards use electrolytic capacitors filter dc power distributed around board capacitors age temperature-dependent rate water based electrolytes slowly evaporate lead loss capacitance subsequent motherboard malfunctions due voltage instabilities capacitors rated 2000 hours operation expected design life roughly doubles every lifetime 3 4 years expected however many manufacturers deliver substandard capacitors significantly reduce life expectancy inadequate case cooling elevated temperatures around cpu socket exacerbate problem top blowers motherboard components kept effectively doubling motherboard lifetime mid-range high-end motherboards hand use solid capacitors exclusively every 10 °c less average lifespan multiplied approximately three resulting 6-times higher lifetime expectancy capacitors may rated 5000 10000 12000 hours operation extending projected lifetime comparison standard solid capacitors motherboards contain non-volatile memory initialize system load startup software usually operating system external peripheral device microcomputers apple ii ibm pc used rom chips mounted sockets motherboard power-up central processor would load program counter address boot rom start executing instructions rom instructions initialized tested system hardware displayed system information screen performed ram checks loaded initial program peripheral device none available computer would perform tasks memory stores display error message depending model design computer rom version example apple ii original ibm pc microsoft cassette basic rom would start program could loaded disk modern motherboard designs use bios stored eeprom chip soldered socketed motherboard boot operating system non-operating system boot programs still supported modern ibm pc-descended machines nowadays assumed boot program complex operating system microsoft windows linux power first supplied motherboard bios firmware tests configures memory circuitry peripherals power-on self test post may include testing following things recent motherboards bios may also patch central processor microcode bios detects installed cpu one errata published many motherboards use update bios called uefi 1-hop neighbor's text information: socket_g34.socket g34 socket g34 land grid array cpu socket designed amd support amd multi-chip module opteron 6000-series server processors g34 launched march 29 2010 alongside initial grouping opteron 6100 processors designed socket g34 supports four ddr3 sdram channels two die 1944 pin cpu package socket g34 available four-socket arrangements change socket f cpus supporting eight-socket arrangements however four socket g34 cpus eight dies identical eight socket f cpus amd declined extend socket g34 eight-way operation citing shrinking demand 4-socket market amd targeting socket g34 high-end two-socket market four-socket market lower-end two-socket market serviced monolithic-die socket c32 cpus half core count equivalent socket g34 cpus socket g34 originally started socket g3 used g3mx expand memory capacity socket g3 g3mx canceled altogether replaced socket g34 socket g34 introduced march 2010 k10-based 8-core 12-core magny-cours opteron 6100 series cpus socket g34 also supports bulldozer-based 4-core 8-core 12-core 16-core opteron 6200 interlagos cpus piledriver-based 4-core 8-core 12-core 16-core opteron 6300 abu dhabi cpus 1-hop neighbor's text information: amd_socket_g3.amd socket g3 socket g3 originally part codenamed piranha server platform supposed intermediate successor socket f socket f+ used amd opteron processor dual-processor 2p server platforms scheduled launched 2009 socket g3 would accompanied socket g3 memory extender socket g3mx connecting large amounts memory single microprocessor g3mx chip placed motherboard amd planned socket g3 arrive advent previously planned 8-core mcm chip code named montreal since q1 2008 plan 8-core mcm server chip based 45 nm k10.5 design scrapped favor 6-core fully integrated mpu design code named istanbul use existing socket f/f+ platform produced nvidia broadcom well fiorano introduced amd 2009 however socket g3 officially discontinued march 2008 socket successor socket f lga 1974-pin socket g34 Target text information: socket_g3_memory_extender.socket g3 memory extender socket g3 memory extender short g3mx planned advanced micro devices solution problem connecting large amounts memory single microprocessor g3mx expected available amd 800s series chipset server market starting 2009 officially cancelled together cancellation socket g3 early 2008 electrical limitations preclude connecting 2 unbuffered ddr sdram dimms 4 buffered dimms single shared bus also impractical manufacture single chip two ddr memory buses channels thus impossible connect 8 dimms single chip typically per-processor limitation well obvious solution use narrower higher-speed bus interface memory implement point-to-point link daisy-chaining additional modules however intel made two attempts neither hugely successful amd answer g3mx chip similar amb intended placed motherboard dimm connect multiple dimms minimize latency designed daisy-chained g3mx asymmetrical link processor match typical memory usage patterns 20 differential signals supply read data processor 13 differential signals receive commands write data totals 66 pins less half required ddr2 ddr3 interface thus processor easily 4 g3mx memory interfaces 4 buffered dimms attached allowing 16 dimms feed one processor I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	8,004	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: flow_control_(data).flow control data data communications flow control process managing rate data transmission two nodes prevent fast sender overwhelming slow receiver provides mechanism receiver control transmission speed receiving node overwhelmed data transmitting node flow control distinguished congestion control used controlling flow data congestion actually occurred flow control mechanisms classified whether receiving node sends feedback sending node flow control important possible sending computer transmit information faster rate destination computer receive process happen receiving computers heavy traffic load comparison sending computer receiving computer less processing power sending computer stop-and-wait flow control simplest form flow control method message broken multiple frames receiver indicates readiness receive frame data sender waits receipt acknowledgement ack every frame specified time called time receiver sends ack let sender know frame data received correctly sender send next frame ack frame ack lost transmission frame re-transmitted re-transmission process known arq automatic repeat request problem stop-and wait one frame transmitted time often leads inefficient transmission sender receives ack transmit new packet time sender channel unutilised pros advantage method flow control simplicity cons sender needs wait ack every frame transmits source inefficiency particularly bad propagation delay much longer transmission delay stop wait also create inefficiencies sending longer transmissions longer transmissions sent likely chance error protocol messages short errors likely detected early inefficiency created single messages broken separate frames makes transmission longer method flow control receiver gives transmitter permission transmit data window full window full transmitter must stop transmitting receiver advertises larger window sliding-window flow control best utilized buffer size limited pre-established typical communication sender receiver receiver allocates buffer space n frames n buffer size frames sender send receiver accept n frames without wait acknowledgement sequence number assigned frames order help keep track frames receive acknowledgement receiver acknowledges frame sending acknowledgement includes sequence number next frame expected acknowledgement announces receiver ready receive n frames beginning number specified sender receiver maintain called window size window less equal buffer size sliding window flow control far better performance stop-and-wait flow control example wireless environment data rates low noise level high waiting acknowledgement every packet transferred feasible therefore transferring data bulk would yield better performance terms higher throughput sliding window flow control point point protocol assuming entity tries communicate current data transfer complete window maintained sender indicates frames send sender sends frames window waits acknowledgement opposed acknowledging every frame sender shifts window corresponding sequence number thus indicating frames within window starting current sequence number sent automatic repeat request arq algorithm used error correction negative acknowledgement nak causes retransmission word error well next n–1 words value n usually chosen time taken transmit n words less round trip delay transmitter receiver back therefore buffer needed receiver normalized propagation delay tp length l propagation velocity v tt bitrate r framerate f get utilization must define window size n n greater equal 2a 1 utilization 1 full utilization transmission channel less 2a 1 equation must used compute utilization selective repeat connection oriented protocol transmitter receiver window sequence numbers protocol maximum number messages sent without acknowledgement window becomes full protocol blocked acknowledgement received earliest outstanding message point transmitter clear send messages section geared towards idea comparing stop-and-wait sliding window subsets go back n selective repeat error free formula_1 errors formula_2 define throughout average number blocks communicated per transmitted block convenient calculate average number transmissions necessary communicate block quantity denote 0 determine equation formula_3 transmit flow control may occur transmission rate may controlled network dte requirements transmit flow control occur independently two directions data transfer thus permitting transfer rates one direction different transfer rates direction transmit flow control flow control performed common rs-232 pairs control lines usually referred hardware flow control hardware flow control typically handled dte master end first raising asserting line command side example hardware flow control half-duplex radio modem computer interface case controlling software modem computer may written give priority incoming radio signals outgoing data computer paused lowering cts modem detects reception conversely xon/xoff usually referred software flow control open-loop flow control mechanism characterized feedback receiver transmitter simple means control widely used allocation resources must prior reservation hop-to-hop type open-loop flow control inherent problems maximizing utilization network resources resource allocation made connection setup using cac connection admission control allocation made using information already old news lifetime connection often over-allocation resources reserved unused capacities wasted open-loop flow control used atm cbr vbr ubr services see traffic contract congestion control open-loop flow control incorporates two controls controller regulator regulator able alter input variable response signal controller open-loop system feedback feed forward mechanism input output signals directly related increased traffic variability also lower arrival rate system higher loss rate open control system controllers operate regulators regular intervals assurance output variable maintained desired level may cheaper use model open-loop model unstable closed-loop flow control mechanism characterized ability network report pending network congestion back transmitter information used transmitter various ways adapt activity existing network conditions closed-loop flow control used abr see traffic contract congestion control transmit flow control described form closed-loop flow control system incorporates basic control elements sensor transmitter controller regulator sensor used capture process variable process variable sent transmitter translates variable controller controller examines information respect desired value initiates correction action required controller communicates regulator action needed ensure output variable value matching desired value therefore high degree assurance output variable maintained desired level closed-loop control system feedback feed forward system feedback closed-loop system feed-back mechanism directly relates input output signals feed-back mechanism monitors output variable determines additional correction required output variable value fed backward used initiate corrective action regulator control loops industry feedback type feed-forward closed loop system measured process variable input variable measured signal used fashion feedback system closed-loop model produces lower loss rate queuing delays well results congestion-responsive traffic closed-loop model always stable number active lows bounded sliding window 1-hop neighbor's text information: central_processing_unit.central processing unit central processing unit cpu also called central processor main processor electronic circuitry within computer carries instructions computer program performing basic arithmetic logic controlling input/output i/o operations specified instructions computer industry used term central processing unit least since early 1960s traditionally term cpu refers processor specifically processing unit control unit cu distinguishing core elements computer external components main memory i/o circuitry form design implementation cpus changed course history fundamental operation remains almost unchanged principal components cpu include arithmetic logic unit alu performs arithmetic logic operations processor registers supply operands alu store results alu operations control unit orchestrates fetching memory execution instructions directing coordinated operations alu registers components modern cpus microprocessors cpu contained single metal-oxide-semiconductor mos integrated circuit ic chip ic contains cpu may also contain memory peripheral interfaces components computer integrated devices variously called microcontrollers systems chip soc computers employ multi-core processor single chip containing two cpus called cores context one speak single chips sockets array processors vector processors multiple processors operate parallel unit considered central also exists concept virtual cpus abstraction dynamical aggregated computational resources early computers eniac physically rewired perform different tasks caused machines called fixed-program computers since term cpu generally defined device software computer program execution earliest devices could rightly called cpus came advent stored-program computer idea stored-program computer already present design j. presper eckert john william mauchly eniac initially omitted could finished sooner june 30 1945 eniac made mathematician john von neumann distributed paper entitled first draft report edvac outline stored-program computer would eventually completed august 1949 edvac designed perform certain number instructions operations various types significantly programs written edvac stored high-speed computer memory rather specified physical wiring computer overcame severe limitation eniac considerable time effort required reconfigure computer perform new task von neumann design program edvac ran could changed simply changing contents memory edvac however first stored-program computer manchester baby small-scale experimental stored-program computer ran first program 21 june 1948 manchester mark 1 ran first program night 16–17 june 1949 early cpus custom designs used part larger sometimes distinctive computer however method designing custom cpus particular application largely given way development multi-purpose processors produced large quantities standardization began era discrete transistor mainframes minicomputers rapidly accelerated popularization integrated circuit ic ic allowed increasingly complex cpus designed manufactured tolerances order nanometers miniaturization standardization cpus increased presence digital devices modern life far beyond limited application dedicated computing machines modern microprocessors appear electronic devices ranging automobiles cellphones sometimes even toys von neumann often credited design stored-program computer design edvac design became known von neumann architecture others konrad zuse suggested implemented similar ideas so-called harvard architecture harvard mark completed edvac also used stored-program design using punched paper tape rather electronic memory key difference von neumann harvard architectures latter separates storage treatment cpu instructions data former uses memory space modern cpus primarily von neumann design cpus harvard architecture seen well especially embedded applications instance atmel avr microcontrollers harvard architecture processors relays vacuum tubes thermionic tubes commonly used switching elements useful computer requires thousands tens thousands switching devices overall speed system dependent speed switches tube computers like edvac tended average eight hours failures whereas relay computers like slower earlier harvard mark failed rarely end tube-based cpus became dominant significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed reliability problems early synchronous cpus ran low clock rates compared modern microelectronic designs clock signal frequencies ranging 100 khz 4 mhz common time limited largely speed switching devices built design complexity cpus increased various technologies facilitated building smaller reliable electronic devices first improvement came advent transistor transistorized cpus 1950s 1960s longer built bulky unreliable fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes relays improvement complex reliable cpus built onto one several printed circuit boards containing discrete individual components 1964 ibm introduced ibm system/360 computer architecture used series computers capable running programs different speed performance significant time electronic computers incompatible one another even made manufacturer facilitate improvement ibm used concept microprogram often called microcode still sees widespread usage modern cpus system/360 architecture popular dominated mainframe computer market decades left legacy still continued similar modern computers like ibm zseries 1965 digital equipment corporation dec introduced another influential computer aimed scientific research markets pdp-8 transistor-based computers several distinct advantages predecessors aside facilitating increased reliability lower power consumption transistors also allowed cpus operate much higher speeds short switching time transistor comparison tube relay increased reliability dramatically increased speed switching elements almost exclusively transistors time cpu clock rates tens megahertz easily obtained period additionally discrete transistor ic cpus heavy usage new high-performance designs like simd single instruction multiple data vector processors began appear early experimental designs later gave rise era specialized supercomputers like made cray inc fujitsu ltd. period method manufacturing many interconnected transistors compact space developed integrated circuit ic allowed large number transistors manufactured single semiconductor-based die chip first basic non-specialized digital circuits gates miniaturized ics cpus based building block ics generally referred small-scale integration ssi devices ssi ics ones used apollo guidance computer usually contained dozen transistors build entire cpu ssi ics required thousands individual chips still consumed much less space power earlier discrete transistor designs ibm system/370 follow-on system/360 used ssi ics rather solid logic technology discrete-transistor modules dec pdp-8/i ki10 pdp-10 also switched individual transistors used pdp-8 pdp-10 ssi ics extremely popular pdp-11 line originally built ssi ics eventually implemented lsi components became practical mosfet metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor also known mos transistor invented mohamed atalla dawon kahng bell labs 1959 demonstrated 1960 led development mos metal-oxide-semiconductor integrated circuit proposed kahng 1961 fabricated fred heiman steven hofstein rca 1962 high scalability much lower power consumption higher density bipolar junction transistors mosfet made possible build high-density integrated circuits lee boysel published influential articles including 1967 manifesto described build equivalent 32-bit mainframe computer relatively small number large-scale integration circuits lsi way build lsi chips chips hundred gates build using mos semiconductor manufacturing process either pmos logic nmos logic cmos logic however companies continued build processors bipolar transistor–transistor logic ttl chips bipolar junction transistors faster mos chips 1970s companies datapoint continued build processors ttl chips early 1980s 1960s mos ics slower initially considered useful applications required low power following development silicon-gate mos technology federico faggin fairchild semiconductor 1968 mos ics largely replaced bipolar ttl standard chip technology early 1970s microelectronic technology advanced increasing number transistors placed ics decreasing number individual ics needed complete cpu msi lsi ics increased transistor counts hundreds thousands 1968 number ics required build complete cpu reduced 24 ics eight different types ic containing roughly 1000 mosfets stark contrast ssi msi predecessors first lsi implementation pdp-11 contained cpu composed four lsi integrated circuits advances mos ic technology led invention microprocessor early 1970s since introduction first commercially available microprocessor intel 4004 1971 first widely used microprocessor intel 8080 1974 class cpus almost completely overtaken central processing unit implementation methods mainframe minicomputer manufacturers time launched proprietary ic development programs upgrade older computer architectures eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors backward-compatible older hardware software combined advent eventual success ubiquitous personal computer term cpu applied almost exclusively microprocessors several cpus denoted cores combined single processing chip previous generations cpus implemented discrete components numerous small integrated circuits ics one circuit boards microprocessors hand cpus manufactured small number ics usually one overall smaller cpu size result implemented single die means faster switching time physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance allowed synchronous microprocessors clock rates ranging tens megahertz several gigahertz additionally ability construct exceedingly small transistors ic increased complexity number transistors single cpu many fold widely observed trend described moore law proven fairly accurate predictor growth cpu ic complexity 2016 complexity size construction general form cpus changed enormously since 1950 basic design function changed much almost common cpus today accurately described von neumann stored-program machines moore law longer holds concerns arisen limits integrated circuit transistor technology extreme miniaturization electronic gates causing effects phenomena like electromigration subthreshold leakage become much significant newer concerns among many factors causing researchers investigate new methods computing quantum computer well expand usage parallelism methods extend usefulness classical von neumann model fundamental operation cpus regardless physical form take execute sequence stored instructions called program instructions executed kept kind computer memory nearly cpus follow fetch decode execute steps operation collectively known instruction cycle execution instruction entire process repeats next instruction cycle normally fetching next-in-sequence instruction incremented value program counter jump instruction executed program counter modified contain address instruction jumped program execution continues normally complex cpus multiple instructions fetched decoded executed simultaneously section describes generally referred classic risc pipeline quite common among simple cpus used many electronic devices often called microcontroller largely ignores important role cpu cache therefore access stage pipeline instructions manipulate program counter rather producing result data directly instructions generally called jumps facilitate program behavior like loops conditional program execution use conditional jump existence functions processors instructions change state bits flags register flags used influence program behaves since often indicate outcome various operations example processors compare instruction evaluates two values sets clears bits flags register indicate one greater whether equal one flags could used later jump instruction determine program flow first step fetch involves retrieving instruction represented number sequence numbers program memory instruction location address program memory determined program counter pc stores number identifies address next instruction fetched instruction fetched pc incremented length instruction contain address next instruction sequence often instruction fetched must retrieved relatively slow memory causing cpu stall waiting instruction returned issue largely addressed modern processors caches pipeline architectures see instruction cpu fetches memory determines cpu decode step performed circuitry known instruction decoder instruction converted signals control parts cpu way instruction interpreted defined cpu instruction set architecture isa often one group bits field within instruction called opcode indicates operation performed remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required operation operands operands may specified constant value called immediate value location value may processor register memory address determined addressing mode cpu designs instruction decoder implemented hardwired unchangeable circuit others microprogram used translate instructions sets cpu configuration signals applied sequentially multiple clock pulses cases memory stores microprogram rewritable making possible change way cpu decodes instructions fetch decode steps execute step performed depending cpu architecture may consist single action sequence actions action various parts cpu electrically connected perform part desired operation action completed typically response clock pulse often results written internal cpu register quick access subsequent instructions cases results may written slower less expensive higher capacity main memory example addition instruction executed arithmetic logic unit alu inputs connected pair operand sources numbers summed alu configured perform addition operation sum operand inputs appear output alu output connected storage e.g. register memory receive sum clock pulse occurs sum transferred storage resulting sum large i.e. larger alu output word size arithmetic overflow flag set hardwired cpu circuitry set basic operations perform called instruction set operations may involve example adding subtracting two numbers comparing two numbers jumping different part program basic operation represented particular combination bits known machine language opcode executing instructions machine language program cpu decides operation perform decoding opcode complete machine language instruction consists opcode many cases additional bits specify arguments operation example numbers summed case addition operation going complexity scale machine language program collection machine language instructions cpu executes actual mathematical operation instruction performed combinational logic circuit within cpu processor known arithmetic logic unit alu general cpu executes instruction fetching memory using alu perform operation storing result memory beside instructions integer mathematics logic operations various machine instructions exist loading data memory storing back branching operations mathematical operations floating-point numbers performed cpu floating-point unit fpu control unit cu component cpu directs operation processor tells computer memory arithmetic logic unit input output devices respond instructions sent processor directs operation units providing timing control signals computer resources managed cu directs flow data cpu devices john von neumann included control unit part von neumann architecture modern computer designs control unit typically internal part cpu overall role operation unchanged since introduction arithmetic logic unit alu digital circuit within processor performs integer arithmetic bitwise logic operations inputs alu data words operated called operands status information previous operations code control unit indicating operation perform depending instruction executed operands may come internal cpu registers external memory may constants generated alu input signals settled propagated alu circuitry result performed operation appears alu outputs result consists data word may stored register memory status information typically stored special internal cpu register reserved purpose address generation unit agu sometimes also called address computation unit acu execution unit inside cpu calculates addresses used cpu access main memory address calculations handled separate circuitry operates parallel rest cpu number cpu cycles required executing various machine instructions reduced bringing performance improvements performing various operations cpus need calculate memory addresses required fetching data memory example in-memory positions array elements must calculated cpu fetch data actual memory locations address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations addition subtraction modulo operations bit shifts often calculating memory address involves one general-purpose machine instruction necessarily decode execute quickly incorporating agu cpu design together introducing specialized instructions use agu various address-generation calculations offloaded rest cpu often executed quickly single cpu cycle capabilities agu depend particular cpu architecture thus agus implement expose address-calculation operations also include advanced specialized instructions operate multiple operands time furthermore cpu architectures include multiple agus one address-calculation operation executed simultaneously bringing performance improvements capitalizing superscalar nature advanced cpu designs example intel incorporates multiple agus sandy bridge haswell microarchitectures increase bandwidth cpu memory subsystem allowing multiple memory-access instructions executed parallel high-end microprocessors desktop laptop server computers memory management unit translating logical addresses physical ram addresses providing memory protection paging abilities useful virtual memory simpler processors especially microcontrollers usually n't include mmu cpu cache hardware cache used central processing unit cpu computer reduce average cost time energy access data main memory cache smaller faster memory closer processor core stores copies data frequently used main memory locations cpus different independent caches including instruction data caches data cache usually organized hierarchy cache levels l1 l2 l3 l4 etc. modern fast cpus specialized exceptions multiple levels cpu caches first cpus used cache one level cache unlike later level 1 caches split l1d data l1i instructions almost current cpus caches split l1 cache also l2 caches larger processors l3 caches well l2 cache usually split acts common repository already split l1 cache every core multi-core processor dedicated l2 cache usually shared cores l3 cache higher-level caches shared cores split l4 cache currently uncommon generally dynamic random-access memory dram rather static random-access memory sram separate die chip also case historically l1 bigger chips allowed integration generally cache levels possible exception last level extra level cache tends bigger optimized differently types caches exist counted towards cache size important caches mentioned translation lookaside buffer tlb part memory management unit mmu cpus caches generally sized powers two 4 8 16 etc kib mib larger non-l1 sizes although ibm z13 96 kib l1 instruction cache cpus synchronous circuits means employ clock signal pace sequential operations clock signal produced external oscillator circuit generates consistent number pulses second form periodic square wave frequency clock pulses determines rate cpu executes instructions consequently faster clock instructions cpu execute second ensure proper operation cpu clock period longer maximum time needed signals propagate move cpu setting clock period value well worst-case propagation delay possible design entire cpu way moves data around edges rising falling clock signal advantage simplifying cpu significantly design perspective component-count perspective however also carries disadvantage entire cpu must wait slowest elements even though portions much faster limitation largely compensated various methods increasing cpu parallelism see however architectural improvements alone solve drawbacks globally synchronous cpus example clock signal subject delays electrical signal higher clock rates increasingly complex cpus make difficult keep clock signal phase synchronized throughout entire unit led many modern cpus require multiple identical clock signals provided avoid delaying single signal significantly enough cause cpu malfunction another major issue clock rates increase dramatically amount heat dissipated cpu constantly changing clock causes many components switch regardless whether used time general component switching uses energy element static state therefore clock rate increases energy consumption causing cpu require heat dissipation form cpu cooling solutions one method dealing switching unneeded components called clock gating involves turning clock signal unneeded components effectively disabling however often regarded difficult implement therefore see common usage outside low-power designs one notable recent cpu design uses extensive clock gating ibm powerpc-based xenon used xbox 360 way power requirements xbox 360 greatly reduced another method addressing problems global clock signal removal clock signal altogether removing global clock signal makes design process considerably complex many ways asynchronous clockless designs carry marked advantages power consumption heat dissipation comparison similar synchronous designs somewhat uncommon entire asynchronous cpus built without using global clock signal two notable examples arm compliant amulet mips r3000 compatible minimips rather totally removing clock signal cpu designs allow certain portions device asynchronous using asynchronous alus conjunction superscalar pipelining achieve arithmetic performance gains altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs perform comparable better level synchronous counterparts evident least excel simpler math operations combined excellent power consumption heat dissipation properties makes suitable embedded computers every cpu represents numerical values specific way example early digital computers represented numbers familiar decimal base 10 numeral system values others employed unusual representations ternary base three nearly modern cpus represent numbers binary form digit represented two-valued physical quantity high low voltage related numeric representation size precision integer numbers cpu represent case binary cpu measured number bits significant digits binary encoded integer cpu process one operation commonly called word size bit width data path width integer precision integer size cpu integer size determines range integer values directly operate example 8-bit cpu directly manipulate integers represented eight bits range 256 2 discrete integer values integer range also affect number memory locations cpu directly address address integer value representing specific memory location example binary cpu uses 32 bits represent memory address directly address 2 memory locations circumvent limitation various reasons cpus use mechanisms bank switching allow additional memory addressed cpus larger word sizes require circuitry consequently physically larger cost consume power therefore generate heat result smaller 4- 8-bit microcontrollers commonly used modern applications even though cpus much larger word sizes 16 32 64 even 128-bit available higher performance required however benefits larger word size larger data ranges address spaces may outweigh disadvantages cpu internal data paths shorter word size reduce size cost example even though ibm system/360 instruction set 32-bit instruction set system/360 model 30 model 40 8-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required four cycles one 8 bits operands even though motorola 68000 series instruction set 32-bit instruction set motorola 68000 motorola 68010 16-bit data paths arithmetic logical unit 32-bit add required two cycles gain advantages afforded lower higher bit lengths many instruction sets different bit widths integer floating-point data allowing cpus implementing instruction set different bit widths different portions device example ibm system/360 instruction set primarily 32 bit supported 64-bit floating point values facilitate greater accuracy range floating point numbers system/360 model 65 8-bit adder decimal fixed-point binary arithmetic 60-bit adder floating-point arithmetic many later cpu designs use similar mixed bit width especially processor meant general-purpose usage reasonable balance integer floating point capability required description basic operation cpu offered previous section describes simplest form cpu take type cpu usually referred subscalar operates executes one instruction one two pieces data time less one instruction per clock cycle process gives rise inherent inefficiency subscalar cpus since one instruction executed time entire cpu must wait instruction complete proceeding next instruction result subscalar cpu gets hung instructions take one clock cycle complete execution even adding second execution unit see improve performance much rather one pathway hung two pathways hung number unused transistors increased design wherein cpu execution resources operate one instruction time possibly reach scalar performance one instruction per clock cycle however performance nearly always subscalar less one instruction per clock cycle attempts achieve scalar better performance resulted variety design methodologies cause cpu behave less linearly parallel referring parallelism cpus two terms generally used classify design techniques methodology differs ways implemented well relative effectiveness afford increasing cpu performance application one simplest methods used accomplish increased parallelism begin first steps instruction fetching decoding prior instruction finishes executing simplest form technique known instruction pipelining used almost modern general-purpose cpus pipelining allows one instruction executed given time breaking execution pathway discrete stages separation compared assembly line instruction made complete stage exits execution pipeline retired pipelining however introduce possibility situation result previous operation needed complete next operation condition often termed data dependency conflict cope additional care must taken check sorts conditions delay portion instruction pipeline occurs naturally accomplishing requires additional circuitry pipelined processors complex subscalar ones though significantly pipelined processor become nearly scalar inhibited pipeline stalls instruction spending one clock cycle stage improvement upon idea instruction pipelining led development method decreases idle time cpu components even designs said superscalar include long instruction pipeline multiple identical execution units load-store units arithmetic-logic units floating-point units address generation units superscalar pipeline multiple instructions read passed dispatcher decides whether instructions executed parallel simultaneously dispatched available execution units resulting ability several instructions executed simultaneously general instructions superscalar cpu able dispatch simultaneously waiting execution units instructions completed given cycle difficulty design superscalar cpu architecture lies creating effective dispatcher dispatcher needs able quickly correctly determine whether instructions executed parallel well dispatch way keep many execution units busy possible requires instruction pipeline filled often possible gives rise need superscalar architectures significant amounts cpu cache also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction speculative execution register renaming out-of-order execution transactional memory crucial maintaining high levels performance attempting predict branch path conditional instruction take cpu minimize number times entire pipeline must wait conditional instruction completed speculative execution often provides modest performance increases executing portions code may needed conditional operation completes out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges order instructions executed reduce delays due data dependencies also case single instruction stream multiple data stream—a case lot data type processed— modern processors disable parts pipeline single instruction executed many times cpu skips fetch decode phases thus greatly increases performance certain occasions especially highly monotonous program engines video creation software photo processing case portion cpu superscalar part part suffers performance penalty due scheduling stalls intel p5 pentium two superscalar alus could accept one instruction per clock cycle fpu could accept one instruction per clock cycle thus p5 integer superscalar floating point superscalar intel successor p5 architecture p6 added superscalar capabilities floating point features therefore afforded significant increase floating point instruction performance simple pipelining superscalar design increase cpu ilp allowing single processor complete execution instructions rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle modern cpu designs least somewhat superscalar nearly general purpose cpus designed last decade superscalar later years emphasis designing high-ilp computers moved cpu hardware software interface isa strategy long instruction word vliw causes ilp become implied directly software reducing amount work cpu must perform boost ilp thereby reducing design complexity another strategy achieving performance execute multiple threads processes parallel area research known parallel computing flynn taxonomy strategy known multiple instruction stream multiple data stream mimd one technology used purpose multiprocessing mp initial flavor technology known symmetric multiprocessing smp small number cpus share coherent view memory system scheme cpu additional hardware maintain constantly up-to-date view memory avoiding stale views memory cpus cooperate program programs migrate one cpu another increase number cooperating cpus beyond handful schemes non-uniform memory access numa directory-based coherence protocols introduced 1990s smp systems limited small number cpus numa systems built thousands processors initially multiprocessing built using multiple discrete cpus boards implement interconnect processors processors interconnect implemented single chip technology known chip-level multiprocessing cmp single chip multi-core processor later recognized finer-grain parallelism existed single program single program might several threads functions could executed separately parallel earliest examples technology implemented input/output processing direct memory access separate thread computation thread general approach technology introduced 1970s systems designed run multiple computation threads parallel technology known multi-threading mt approach considered cost-effective multiprocessing small number components within cpu replicated support mt opposed entire cpu case mp mt execution units memory system including caches shared among multiple threads downside mt hardware support multithreading visible software mp thus supervisor software like operating systems undergo larger changes support mt one type mt implemented known temporal multithreading one thread executed stalled waiting data return external memory scheme cpu would quickly context switch another thread ready run switch often done one cpu clock cycle ultrasparc t1 another type mt simultaneous multithreading instructions multiple threads executed parallel within one cpu clock cycle several decades 1970s early 2000s focus designing high performance general purpose cpus largely achieving high ilp technologies pipelining caches superscalar execution out-of-order execution etc trend culminated large power-hungry cpus intel pentium 4 early 2000s cpu designers thwarted achieving higher performance ilp techniques due growing disparity cpu operating frequencies main memory operating frequencies well escalating cpu power dissipation owing esoteric ilp techniques cpu designers borrowed ideas commercial computing markets transaction processing aggregate performance multiple programs also known throughput computing important performance single thread process reversal emphasis evidenced proliferation dual core processor designs notably intel newer designs resembling less superscalar p6 architecture late designs several processor families exhibit cmp including x86-64 opteron athlon 64 x2 sparc ultrasparc t1 ibm power4 power5 well several video game console cpus like xbox 360 triple-core powerpc design playstation 3 7-core cell microprocessor less common increasingly important paradigm processors indeed computing general deals data parallelism processors discussed earlier referred type scalar device name implies vector processors deal multiple pieces data context one instruction contrasts scalar processors deal one piece data every instruction using flynn taxonomy two schemes dealing data generally referred single instruction stream multiple data stream simd single instruction stream single data stream sisd respectively great utility creating processors deal vectors data lies optimizing tasks tend require operation example sum dot product performed large set data classic examples types tasks include multimedia applications images video sound well many types scientific engineering tasks whereas scalar processor must complete entire process fetching decoding executing instruction value set data vector processor perform single operation comparatively large set data one instruction possible application tends require many steps apply one operation large set data early vector processors cray-1 associated almost exclusively scientific research cryptography applications however multimedia largely shifted digital media need form simd general-purpose processors become significant shortly inclusion floating-point units started become commonplace general-purpose processors specifications implementations simd execution units also began appear general-purpose processors early simd specifications like hp multimedia acceleration extensions max intel mmx integer-only proved significant impediment software developers since many applications benefit simd primarily deal floating-point numbers progressively developers refined remade early designs common modern simd specifications usually associated one isa notable modern examples include intel sse powerpc-related altivec also known vmx cloud computing involve subdividing cpu operation virtual central processing units vcpus host virtual equivalent physical machine virtual system operating several physical machines operating tandem managed whole grouped computing memory resources form cluster systems possible dynamically add remove cluster resources available host cluster level partitioned resources pools fine granularity performance speed processor depends among many factors clock rate generally given multiples hertz instructions per clock ipc together factors instructions per second ips cpu perform many reported ips values represented peak execution rates artificial instruction sequences branches whereas realistic workloads consist mix instructions applications take longer execute others performance memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance issue barely considered mips calculations problems various standardized tests often called benchmarks purposesuch specinthave developed attempt measure real effective performance commonly used applications processing performance computers increased using multi-core processors essentially plugging two individual processors called cores sense one integrated circuit ideally dual core processor would nearly twice powerful single core processor practice performance gain far smaller 50 due imperfect software algorithms implementation increasing number cores processor i.e dual-core quad-core etc increases workload handled means processor handle numerous asynchronous events interrupts etc take toll cpu overwhelmed cores thought different floors processing plant floor handling different task sometimes cores handle tasks cores adjacent single core enough handle information due specific capabilities modern cpus simultaneous multithreading uncore involve sharing actual cpu resources aiming increased utilization monitoring performance levels hardware use gradually became complex task response cpus implement additional hardware logic monitors actual use various parts cpu provides various counters accessible software example intel performance counter monitor technology Target text information: basic09.basic09 basic09 structured basic programming language dialect developed microware behalf motorola then-new motorola 6809 cpu released february 1980 primarily used os-9 operating system released 1979 microware also released version os-9/68k 68000 microware basic contrast typical basics era basic09 includes multi-pass compiler produces compact bytecode known i-code i-code replaces number data structures found basics direct pointers code values speeding performance users compile code using codice_1 command point called directly os-9 operated native code case packed code cut-down version basic09 runtime system used runb improving memory footprint load time language includes number structured programming additions including local variables ability ignore line numbers favor named routines user-defined structures several distinct base data types including 16-bit 8-bit byte integers addition floating point strings key difference basic09 conventional basics era like canonical microsoft basic addition codice_2/codice_3 structure created separately executable blocks code code codice_2 common complete programs basics including variables local code executed stand-alone fashion codice_2s called using codice_6 command could include variables function-call semantics instance codice_7 calls procedure named codice_8 takes two parameters parameters imported procedure using codice_9 keyword example codice_10 side-effect use named procedures resulting memory workspace effect namespace respect basic09 system appears user directory callable programs contrasts typical basics one program available given time construction larger programs calling library-like code generally requires source code copy pasted separate programs basic09 user codice_11 procedures name workspace call code construct larger programs separately stored procedures addition code workspace program called codice_6 procedure name could found would look disk file name run worked basic09 code also executable program including machine language files meant basic09 could easily call system routines addition codice_6 common basic commands likewise used names instance codice_14 would print source code list procedure named bob codice_15 prints procedures currently memory adding codice_16 codice_17 added pretty printing indented loops branches improve readability one could also codice_18 codice_11 procedures storage addition organizational properties codice_2 basic09 also included number extensions flow control statements found basic provide structure instance codice_21 statement could used traditional codice_21 ... codice_23 format single line could used structured multi-line format codice_24 loops naturally structured format codice_25 placed line basic09 also added codice_26 codice_27 additional clarity working non-indexed loops also included center-exit codice_28 used codice_29 statement testing anywhere loop body basic09 included several built-in data types addition traditional string string 40-bit floating point real types found basics era also included 16-bit signed integer 8-bit unsigned byte logical boolean type boolean types packed bytes single boolean used entire 8-bit byte store single value language provided separate bytewise boolean operators bitwise operations bytes integers contrast basics also operated different base types basic09 decorate variable name indicate type instead used codice_30 definitions instance codice_31 declare two boolean variables codice_32 array five integers additionally basic09 included codice_33 keyword allowed compound types defined element listed single line separated semicolons instance defines employee record type named codice_34 three elements codice_35 codice_36 codice_37 employee_record type used definition like type instance codice_38 defines array 100 employee_record elements accessed code using dot notation instance codice_39 line numbers used basic dialects primarily way support editor users would edit particular lines code typing number text following either adding replacing lines already memory every line code number also made suitable indicating target codice_40 codice_41 compared languages like fortran separate line label used purpose basic09 normally use line numbers editor modified allow user edit lines without referring number however basic09 assume sort full-screen capability using cursor keys option instead system separate editor prompt allowed user move using keys moving forward backward one line time insert new line code without line number user left blank start statement note language case sensitive user-provided values like procedure variable names keywords keywords typed editor lower case shown upper case program codice_17ed basic09 allowed multiple statements single line code used separator instead used dialects used colon codice_43 assignment operator addition normal codice_44 codice_43 identical effect codice_44 made difference assignments comparisons obvious internal multipass compiler converts basic09 source code tokenized optimized bytecode called i-code i-code differs traditional tokenizing approach found basics number items placed directly memory instead using references looked instance ms-based interpreters variable reference code left string format variable codice_47 would represented memory three letters val execution variable encountered code interpreter look string table variables find associated storage address memory finally read value stored location table usually constructed value follows name save time final lookup contrast i-code address variable determined advance reference code replaced address avoids runtime search variable table optimizations include separate codice_24 routine used index variable integer separate integer real math libraries added performance basic09 also included codice_1 command took procedure name returned optimized version optimizations included removing non-coding instructions like code comments replacement constant expressions single value instance codice_1 would recognize codice_51 contains constants right replaces code codice_52 requires single operation runtime addition removing division square root codice_1 reduced memory footprint procedure improved performance 10 30 although common run programs within basic09 enviornment basics basic09 also shipped separate run-only version code known runb runb removed editing debugging features system half size full basic09 result purpose runb primarily run packed modules called programs meant user typed name basic09 module os/9 command line module marked packed opened run runb instead basic09 reduces memory footprint improves load time I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,327	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: transient_execution_cpu_vulnerabilities.transient execution cpu vulnerabilities transient execution cpu vulnerabilities vulnerabilities computer system speculative execution optimization implemented microprocessor exploited leak secret data unauthorized party classic example spectre since january 2018 many different vulnerabilities identified modern computers highly parallel devices composed components different performance characteristics operation branch yet performed earlier slow operation memory read yet completed microprocessor may attempt predict result earlier operation execute later operation speculatively acting prediction correct prediction may based recent behavior system earlier slower operation completes microprocessor determines whether prediction correct incorrect correct execution proceeds uninterrupted incorrect microprocessor rolls back speculatively executed operations repeats original instruction real result slow operation terms directly visible behavior computer speculatively executed code never happened however speculative execution may affect state certain components microprocessor cache effect may discovered careful monitoring timing subsequent operations attacker arrange speculatively executed code may directly written attacker may suitable gadget found targeted system operates secret data unauthorized access different effect cache different values secret data may able discover value secret data starting 2017 multiple examples vulnerabilities identified publication starting early 2018 hardware mitigations impose close zero performance loss firmware and/or os mitigations might incur quite significant performance loss depending workload 8th generation coffee lake architecture table also applies wide range previously released intel cpus limited architectures based intel core pentium 4 intel atom starting silvermont vulnerabilities associated cpu speculative execution 1-hop neighbor's text information: nop_(code).nop code computer science nop no-op noop pronounced op short operation assembly language instruction programming language statement computer protocol command nothing computer instruction sets include instruction whose explicit purpose change state programmer-accessible registers status flags memory often takes well-defined number clock cycles execute instruction sets nop simulated executing instruction operands cause effect e.g sparc processor instruction codice_1 recommended solution nop commonly used timing purposes force memory alignment prevent hazards occupy branch delay slot render void existing instruction jump place-holder replaced active instructions later program development replace removed instructions reorganizing would problematic time-consuming cases nop minor side effects example motorola 68000 series processors nop opcode causes synchronization pipeline listed nop instruction cpu architectures hardware design point view unmapped areas bus often designed return zeroes since nop slide behavior often desirable gives bias coding all-zeroes opcode nop sometimes used description action performed function sequence programming language statements function code effect might also called redundant code common compiler optimization detection removal kind code code may required grammar programming language allow blank ada codice_2 statement serves nop syntax forbids control statements functions empty codice_2 statement must used specify action required thus programmer forgets write sequence statements program fail compile second line example single c statement behaves like nop practice compilers generate code statement statement performs addition discards result indeed statement without side effects affect control flow e.g. break return removed result computation discarded simplest possible statement c behaves like nop so-called null statement semi-colon context requiring statement compiler required generate nop instruction case typically instructions whatsoever would generated alternatively empty block compound statement may used may legible cases body function block must used empty c statements empty – simple statements must end semicolon compound statements enclosed braces need following semicolon thus contexts statement grammatically required null statement used null statement useless syntactic use wider context e.g. within context loop alternatively tersely note last form may confusing generates warning compilers compiler options semicolon usually indicates end function call instruction placed round parenthesis end line code continues calling function getchar returns \n newline character essentially fast-forwarding current reading location standard input beginning next line fortran codice_4 statement used contexts last statement loop although used anywhere functionality c used used null statement fact due specification language begin end block semicolon optional end statement thus semicolon used superfluous also block consisting codice_5 may used placeholder indicate action even placed inside another begin end block python programming language codice_6 statement effect executed thus serves nop primarily used ensure correct syntax due python indentation-sensitive syntax example syntax definition class requires indented block class logic expressed codice_6 empty jquery library provides function codice_8 nothing angular framework provides angular.noop function performs operations 'codice_9 colon character shell builtin similar effect nop do-nothing operation technically nop changes special parameter exit status last command 0 may considered synonym shell builtin 'true exit status true 0 lodash library provides function codice_10 returns undefined nothing many computer protocols telnet include nop command client issue request response server without requesting actions command used ensure connection still alive server responsive noop command part following protocols partial list note unlike protocols listed imap4 noop command specific purpose allows server send pending notifications client telnet ftp servers respond noop command ok +ok programmers added quirky responses client example codice_11 daemon minix responds noop message nops often involved cracking software checks serial numbers specific hardware software requirements presence absence hardware dongles etc accomplished altering functions subroutines bypass security checks instead simply return expected value checked instructions security check routine unused would replaced nops thus removing software security functionality without attracting attention nop opcode used form nop slide allows code execute exact value instruction pointer indeterminate e.g. buffer overflow causes function return address stack overwritten 1-hop neighbor's text information: side_effect_(computer_science).side effect computer science computer science operation function expression said side effect modifies state variable value outside local environment say observable effect besides returning value main effect invoker operation state data updated outside operation may maintained inside stateful object wider stateful system within operation performed example side effects include modifying non-local variable modifying static local variable modifying mutable argument passed reference performing i/o calling side-effect functions presence side effects program behaviour may depend history order evaluation matters understanding debugging function side effects requires knowledge context possible histories degree side effects used depends programming paradigm imperative programming commonly used produce side effects update system state contrast declarative programming commonly used report state system without side effects functional programming side effects rarely used lack side effects makes easier formal verifications program functional languages standard ml scheme scala restrict side effects customary programmers avoid functional language haskell expresses side effects i/o stateful computations using monadic actions assembly language programmers must aware hidden side effects—instructions modify parts processor state mentioned instruction mnemonic classic example hidden side effect arithmetic instruction implicitly modifies condition codes hidden side effect explicitly modifies register overt effect one potential drawback instruction set hidden side effects many instructions side effects single piece state like condition codes logic required update state sequentially may become performance bottleneck problem particularly acute processors designed pipelining since 1990 out-of-order execution processor may require additional control circuitry detect hidden side effects stall pipeline next instruction depends results effects absence side effects necessary sufficient condition referential transparency referential transparency means expression function call replaced value requires expression pure say expression must deterministic always give value input side-effect free side effects caused time taken operation execute usually ignored discussing side effects referential transparency cases hardware timing testing operations inserted specifically temporal side effects e.g codice_1 codice_2 instructions change state taking amount time complete function codice_3 side effects said idempotent sequential composition codice_4 called twice list arguments second call side effects assuming procedures called end first call start second call instance consider following python code codice_5 idempotent second call codice_5 argument change visible program state codice_7 already set 5 first call set 5 second call thus keeping value note distinct idempotence function composition codice_8 example absolute value idempotent function composition one common demonstration side effect behavior assignment operator c++ example assignment returns right operand side effect assigning value variable allows syntactically clean multiple assignment operator right associates equates result assigning 3 codice_9 gets assigned codice_10 presents potential hangup novice programmers may confuse Target text information: side-channel_attack.side-channel attack computer security side-channel attack attack based information gained implementation computer system rather weaknesses implemented algorithm e.g cryptanalysis software bugs timing information power consumption electromagnetic leaks even sound provide extra source information exploited side-channel attacks require technical knowledge internal operation system although others differential power analysis effective black-box attacks rise web 2.0 applications software-as-a-service also significantly raised possibility side-channel attacks web even transmissions web browser server encrypted e.g. https wifi encryption according researchers microsoft research indiana university many powerful side-channel attacks based statistical methods pioneered paul kocher attempts break cryptosystem deceiving coercing people legitimate access typically considered side-channel attacks see social engineering rubber-hose cryptanalysis general classes side channel attack include cases underlying principle physical effects caused operation cryptosystem side provide useful extra information secrets system example cryptographic key partial state information full partial plaintexts forth term cryptophthora secret degradation sometimes used express degradation secret key material resulting side-channel leakage works monitoring security critical operations aes t-table entry modular exponentiation multiplicand accesses attacker able recover secret key depending accesses made made victim deducing encryption key also unlike side-channel attacks method create fault ongoing cryptographic operation invisible victim 2017 cache-based vulnerabilities discovered cpus dubbed meltdown spectre allow attacker leak memory contents processes operating system timing attack watches data movement cpu memory hardware running cryptosystem algorithm simply observing variations long takes perform cryptographic operations might possible determine entire secret key attacks involve statistical analysis timing measurements demonstrated across networks power-analysis attack provide even detailed information observing power consumption hardware device cpu cryptographic circuit attacks roughly categorized simple power analysis spa differential power analysis dpa fluctuations current also generate radio waves enabling attacks analyze measurements electromagnetic emanations attacks typically involve similar statistical techniques power-analysis attacks historical analogues modern side-channel attacks known recently declassified nsa document reveals far back 1943 engineer bell telephone observed decipherable spikes oscilloscope associated decrypted output certain encrypting teletype according former mi5 officer peter wright british security service analyzed emissions french cipher equipment 1960s 1980s soviet eavesdroppers suspected planted bugs inside ibm selectric typewriters monitor electrical noise generated type ball rotated pitched strike paper characteristics signals could determine key pressed power consumption devices causes heating offset cooling effects temperature changes create thermally induced mechanical stress stress create low level acoustic emissions operating cpus 10 khz cases recent research shamir et al suggested information operation cryptosystems algorithms obtained way well acoustic cryptanalysis attack surface cpu chip cases cpu package observed infrared images also provide information code executed cpu known thermal-imaging attack optical side-channel attack examples include gleaning information hard disk activity indicator reading small number photons emitted transistors change state side-channel attacks rely relationship information emitted leaked side channel secret data countermeasures fall two main categories 1 eliminate reduce release information 2 eliminate relationship leaked information secret data make leaked information unrelated rather uncorrelated secret data typically form randomization ciphertext transforms data way undone cryptographic operation e.g. decryption completed first category displays special shielding lessen electromagnetic emissions reducing susceptibility tempest attacks commercially available power line conditioning filtering help deter power-monitoring attacks although measures must used cautiously since even small correlations remain compromise security physical enclosures reduce risk surreptitious installation microphones counter acoustic attacks micro-monitoring devices cpu power-draw thermal-imaging attacks another countermeasure still first category jam emitted channel noise instance random delay added deter timing attacks although adversaries compensate delays averaging multiple measurements generally using measurements analysis amount noise side channel increases adversary needs collect measurements another countermeasure first category use security analysis software identify certain classes side channel attacks found design stages underlying hardware timing attacks cache attacks identifiable certain commercially available security analysis software platforms allow testing identify attack vulnerability well effectiveness architectural change circumvent vulnerability comprehensive method employ countermeasure create secure development lifecycle hardware includes utilizing available security analysis platforms respective stages hardware development lifecycle case timing attacks targets whose computation times quantized discrete clock cycle counts effective countermeasure design software isochronous run exactly constant amount time independently secret values makes timing attacks impossible countermeasures difficult implement practice since even individual instructions variable timing cpus one partial countermeasure simple power attacks differential power-analysis attacks design software pc-secure program counter security model pc-secure program execution path depend secret values words conditional branches depend public information even though multiply operations draw power nop practically cpus using constant execution path prevents operation-dependent power differences differences power choosing one branch another leaking secret information architectures instruction execution time data-dependent pc-secure program also immune timing attacks another way code non-isochronous modern cpus memory cache accessing infrequently used information incurs large timing penalty revealing information frequency use memory blocks cryptographic code designed resist cache attacks attempts use memory predictable fashion accessing input outputs program data according fixed pattern example data-dependent table lookups must avoided cache could reveal part lookup table accessed partial countermeasures attempt reduce amount information leaked data-dependent power differences operations use power correlated number 1 bits secret value using constant-weight code using fredkin gates dual-rail encoding reduce leakage information hamming weight secret value although exploitable correlations likely remain unless balancing perfect balanced design approximated software manipulating data complement together several secure cpus built asynchronous cpus global timing reference cpus intended make timing power attacks difficult subsequent research found timing variations asynchronous circuits harder remove typical example second category decorrelation technique known blinding case rsa decryption secret exponent formula_1 corresponding encryption exponent formula_2 modulus formula_3 technique applies follows simplicity modular reduction omitted formulas decrypting computing result formula_4 given ciphertext formula_5 system picks random number formula_6 encrypts public exponent formula_2 obtain formula_8 decryption done formula_9 obtain formula_10 since decrypting system chose formula_6 compute inverse modulo formula_3 cancel factor formula_6 result obtain formula_4 actual result decryption attacks require collecting side-channel information operations data controlled attacker blinding effective countermeasure since actual operation executed randomized version data attacker control even knowledge another general countermeasure effective side-channel attacks masking countermeasure principle masking avoid manipulating sensitive value formula_5 directly rather manipulate sharing set variables called shares formula_16 formula_17 formula_18 xor operation attacker must recover values shares get meaningful information I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,389	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: faust_(programming_language).faust programming language faust functional audio stream domain-specific purely functional programming language implementing signal processing algorithms form libraries audio plug-ins standalone applications faust program denotes signal processor mathematical function applied input signal fed faust programming model combines functional programming approach block diagram syntax faust program ’ describe sound group sounds signal processor program source organized set definitions least definition keyword codice_1 equivalent codice_2 c faust compiler translates faust code c++ object may interface c++ code produce full program generated code works sample level therefore suited implement low-level dsp functions like recursive filters code may also embedded self-contained depend dsp library runtime system deterministic behavior constant memory size semantics faust driven simple well-defined allows faust compiler semantically driven instead compiling program literally compiles mathematical function denotes may promote component reuse moreover access exact semantics faust program simplify preservation issues faust textual language block diagram oriented combines two approaches functional programming algebraic block diagrams constructed via function composition faust relies block diagram algebra five composition operations faust programs define codice_1 function operates incoming data analogous codice_2 function programming languages following example produces silence second example copies input signal output involves codice_5 primitive denotes identity function signals another example sums stereo signal mono signal using codice_6 primitive faust primitives analogous c counterpart numbers lifted signals example faust primitive codice_7 operates signal x applying c function codice_7 sample x c numerical functions counterpart faust signal processing primitives specific faust example delay operator codice_9 takes two input signals x signal delayed delay applied produces output signal x − contrary max-like visual programming languages user manual connections faust primitives assembled block diagrams using set high-level block diagram composition operations using sequential composition operator codice_10 output codice_6 routed input codice_12 compute absolute value signal example parallel composition using codice_13 operator arranges left right expressions parallel analogous stereo cable operators arbitrarily combined following code multiplies input signal 0.5 may rewritten curried form recursive composition operator codice_14 used create block diagrams cycles include implicit one-sample delay example integrator takes input signal x computes output signal x t−1 using specific architecture files faust program used produce code variety platforms plug-in formats architecture files act wrappers describe interactions host audio gui system 10 architectures supported new ones may implemented anyone useful option makes possible generate block diagram representation program one svg graphic files useful note difference block diagram generated c++ code stated key idea compile block diagram literally mathematical function denotes modern c/c++ compilers also ’ compile programs literally complex semantics c/c++ due side effects pointer aliasing etc ’ go far direction distinct advantage purely functional language allows compilers advanced optimisations faust semantics almost haskell arrows type class however arrow type class bound signal processors arrow combinators restrictive faust counterparts e.g. nesting parallel composition preserved inputs operands codice_15 must match exactly 1-hop neighbor's text information: supercollider.supercollider supercollider environment programming language originally released 1996 james mccartney real-time audio synthesis algorithmic composition since evolving system used developed scientists artists working sound efficient expressive dynamic programming language providing framework acoustic research algorithmic music interactive programming live coding released terms gplv2 2002 supercollider free open-source software starting version 3 supercollider environment split two components server scsynth client sclang components communicate using osc open sound control sc language combines object-oriented structure smalltalk features functional programming languages c-family syntax sc server application supports simple c c++ plugin apis making easy write efficient sound algorithms unit generators combined graphs calculations external control server happens via osc possible use languages applications supercollider sound generation bundled optimised command-line executable named scsynth cases controlled within supercollider programming language used independently audio server following features supernova independent implementation server architecture adds multi-processor support explicit parallel grouping synthesis nodes supercollider programming language dynamically typed garbage-collected single-inheritance object-oriented functional language similar smalltalk syntax similar lisp c programming language architecture strikes balance needs realtime computation flexibility simplicity abstract language like many functional languages implements functions first-class objects may composed functions methods default argument values variable length argument lists called order keyword arguments closures lexical scope lexical dynamic features typical functional languages supported including creation closures via partial application explicit currying tail call optimization list comprehensions coroutines specifics include implicit expansion tuples stateless pattern system constant-time message lookup real-time garbage collection allows large systems efficient handle signal processing flexibly supporting methods reflective conversational literate programming supercollider makes relatively easy find new sound algorithms develop custom software well custom frameworks regards domain specific knowledge general e.g. allows represent properties time pitch variable degrees abstraction copious example implementations specific purposes supercollider language allows users construct cross-platform graphical user interfaces applications standard class library user interface components may extended number available frameworks interactive programming system supports programmatic access rich-text code files may used generate vector graphics algorithmically server controlled using open sound control osc variety applications used control server supercollider language environments see typically used osc-aware systems used pure data third-party clients supercollider server exist including rsc3 scheme client hsc3 based haskell scalacollider based scala overtone based clojure sonic pi distinct development environments mentioned provide interface supercollider programming language instead communicate directly audio server provide approaches facilitating user expression supercollider runs macos linux windows freebsd opensuse operating systems multiple language-editing environments clients used supercollider see also demonstrated supercollider run android ios supercollider code commonly edited used within cross-platform ide supports linux mac windows development environments supercollider support include versatile dynamic programming language supercollider used live coding i.e performances involve performer modifying executing code fly specific kinds proxies serve high level placeholders synthesis objects swapped modified runtime environments allow sharing modification objects process declarations networks various extension libraries support different abstraction access sound objects e.g dewdrop_lib allows live creation modification pseudo-classes -objects 1-hop neighbor's text information: csound.csound csound computer programming language sound also known sound compiler audio programming language precisely audio dsl called csound written c opposed predecessors free software available lgpl csound originally written mit barry vercoe 1985 based earlier system called music 11 turn followed music-n model initiated max mathews bell labs development continued throughout 1990s 2000s led john fitch university bath first documented version 5 release version 5.01 march 18 2006 many developers contributed notably istvan varga gabriel maldonado robin whittle richard karpen michael gogins matt ingalls steven yi richard boulanger victor lazzarini developed many years currently nearly 1700 unit generators one greatest strengths completely modular extensible user csound closely related underlying language structured audio extensions mpeg-4 saol csound takes two specially formatted text files input orchestra describes nature instruments score describes notes parameters along timeline csound processes instructions files renders audio file real-time audio stream output orchestra score files may unified single structured file using markup language tags csd file filename extension .csd simple example unified csound data file produces wave file containing one-second sine wave tone 1 khz sample rate 96 khz many programming languages writing long programs csound eased using integrated environment editing previewing testing debugging one officially supported csoundqt many features automatic code insertion integrated documentation browser integrated widgets graphically controlling parameters realtime plus button playing code version 5.01 released march 18 2006 – 20 years csound first release csound 5 available binary source code linux microsoft windows mac os x sourceforge csound project much improved expanded compared original software effectively made software library api variety front ends developed addition basic c api also python java lisp tcl c++ among bindings like one haskell allows control csound purely functional environment use plug-ins allows additional capabilities without modifications csound code possibility write user-defined opcodes extensions original language ladspa dssi supported vst support removed real-time performance midi added 1990s another addition support fltk widgets graphical interface components sliders knobs etc controlling real-time audio integration custom graphical interfaces written python csound 6 development since features hashed csound conference held 2011 hanover csound 6 released july 2013 available github csound 6 also available android major new features csound 6 include development csound 6 led john ffitch steven yi victor lazzarini currently csound score note events generated real time opposed instruments definable compile time csound first starts csound 6 limitation removed set sound processors defined compiled load time individual processing objects spawned destroyed real time input audio processed real time output generated also real time note events triggered based osc communications within instrument instance spawned midi entered stdin typing terminal sending textual statements another program use csound 5 live performance tool augmented variety third-party software live event sheet within csoundqt used modify score real-time addition interfaces programming languages used script csound paper detailing use csound qt pure data real-time musical synthesis presented 2012 linux audio conference ounk project attempts integrate python csound csoundac provides way algorithmic composition python using csound backend audivation csound live packages various opcodes max/msp wrappers suitable use ableton live csound also available mobile systems ios android csound5 chosen audio/music development system olpc project xo-1 laptop platform Target text information: hierarchical_music_specification_language.hierarchical music specification language hierarchical music specification language hmsl music programming language written 1980s larry polansky phil burk david rosenboom mills college written top forth allowed creation real-time interactive music performance systems algorithmic composition software kind program requires high degree musical informatics distributed frog peak music runs light memory footprint ~1 megabyte macintosh amiga systems unlike csound languages audio synthesis hmsl primarily language making music interfaces sound-making devices built-in midi classes however high degree built-in understanding music performance practice tuning systems score reading main interface manipulation musical parameters metaphor shapes created altered combined create musical texture either response real-time scheduled events score hmsl widely used composers working algorithmic composition twenty years addition authors also composers hmsl used pieces nick didkovsky hub james tenney tom erbe pauline oliveros java port hmsl developed nick didkovsky name jmsl designed interface jsyn api I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	8,958	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: runlevel.runlevel runlevel mode operation computer operating systems implement unix system v-style initialization conventionally seven runlevels exist numbered zero six sometimes used synonym one levels one runlevel executed startup run levels executed one another i.e runlevel 2 3 4 executed sequentially order runlevel defines state machine boot different runlevels typically assigned necessarily particular order single-user mode multi-user mode without network services started multi-user mode network services started system shutdown system reboot system states exact setup configurations varies operating systems linux distributions example runlevel 4 might multi-user gui no-server configuration one distribution nothing another runlevels commonly follow general patterns described article however distributions employ certain specific configurations standard practice computer enters runlevel zero halts enters runlevel six reboots intermediate runlevels 1–5 differ terms drives mounted network services started default runlevels typically 3 4 5 lower runlevels useful maintenance emergency repairs since usually n't offer network services particular details runlevel configuration differ widely among operating systems also among system administrators various linux distributions traditional script used version 7 unix first replaced runlevels systemd states major distributions although systemd used default major linux distributions runlevels still used means provided sysvinit project linux kernel booted program reads file determine behavior runlevel unless user specifies another value kernel boot parameter system attempt enter start default runlevel systems conforming linux standard base lsb need provide exact run levels given give meanings described may map level described different level provides equivalent functionality slackware linux uses runlevel 1 maintenance linux distributions runlevels 2 3 5 identically configured console services active runlevel 4 adds x window system starting solaris 10 smf service management facility used instead svr4 run levels latter emulated preserve compatibility legacy startup scripts aix follow system v r4 svr4 runlevel specification runlevels 0 9 available well c h 0 1 reserved 2 default normal multi-user mode runlevels 3 9 free defined administrator runlevels c h allow execution processes runlevel without killing processes started another runlevels true runlevels used tell init command enter maintenance mode system enters maintenance mode another runlevel system console used terminal 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: operating_system_service_management.operating system service management computing mechanisms techniques managing services often differ operating system examples operating system service management init I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,218	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: mpc5xx.mpc5xx mpc5xx family processors mpc555 mpc565 32-bit powerpc embedded microprocessors operate 40 66 mhz frequently used automotive applications including engine transmission controllers delphi corporation use either mpc561 mpc565 engine controllers supply general motors nearly 2009 model gm north america vehicles using mpc5xx engine controller bosch also used mpc5xx throughout edc-16 series diesel engine controllers cummins b series diesel engine ecu generally considered microcontrollers integrated peripheral set unusual architecture mmu large on-chip sram large much 1 mb low latency access on-chip flash memories means architecture tailored control applications instead block-address translation hardware-driven fixed-page address translation prescribed first powerpc specification 5xx cores provided software-driven translation mechanism supported variable page sizes model basis embedded mmu model current power isa specification mpc5xx – powerpc 5xx family processors share common naming scheme development powerpc 5xx family discontinued favour flexible powerful powerpc 55xx family peripherals model vary frequently include analog-to-digital converters adc time processor units tpu gpio uarts/serial qsmcm mpc5xx family descends mpc8xx powerquicc family core means uses harvard architecture single issue core unlike 8xx family 5xx variants floating point unit earlier chips like mpc509 instruction cache recent chips capability contain large amounts flash memory on-board capable bursting instructions processor low-cost chips omit flash memory adds lot die area driving price chip many controller applications run long control loops large dataset low latency deterministic access data instruction routines important data stored on-chip sram available datapath processor single cycle performance quite good data must accessed off-chip frequently performance reduced chip burst data accesses external ram slow bus access protocol simple memory interface programmed setting default memory location writing base registers chips quite popular hobbyists well automotive industrial developers 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_structure_alignment.data structure alignment data structure alignment refers way data arranged accessed computer memory consists three separate related issues data alignment data structure padding packing cpu modern computer hardware performs reads writes memory efficiently data naturally aligned generally means data address multiple data size data alignment refers aligning elements according natural alignment ensure natural alignment may necessary insert padding structure elements last element structure although data structure alignment fundamental issue modern computers many computer languages computer language implementations handle data alignment automatically ada pl/i pascal certain c c++ implementations rust c assembly language allow least partial control data structure padding may useful certain special circumstances memory address said n-byte aligned multiple n bytes n power 2 context byte smallest unit memory access i.e memory address specifies different byte n -byte aligned address would minimum log n least-significant zeros expressed binary alternate wording b-bit aligned designates b/8 byte aligned address ex 64-bit aligned 8 bytes aligned memory access said aligned data accessed n bytes long datum address n -byte aligned memory access aligned said misaligned note definition byte memory accesses always aligned memory pointer refers primitive data n bytes long said aligned allowed contain addresses n -byte aligned otherwise said unaligned memory pointer refers data aggregate data structure array aligned primitive datum aggregate aligned note definitions assume primitive datum power two bytes long case 80-bit floating-point x86 context influences conditions datum considered aligned data structures stored memory stack static size known bounded heap dynamic size known unbounded computer accesses memory single memory word time long memory word size least large largest primitive data type supported computer aligned accesses always access single memory word may true misaligned data accesses highest lowest bytes datum within memory word computer must split datum access multiple memory accesses requires lot complex circuitry generate memory accesses coordinate handle case memory words different memory pages processor must either verify pages present executing instruction able handle tlb miss page fault memory access instruction execution processor designs deliberately avoid introducing complexity instead yield alternative behavior event misaligned memory access example implementations arm architecture prior armv6 isa require mandatory aligned memory access multi-byte load store instructions depending specific instruction issued result attempted misaligned access might round least significant bits offending address turning aligned access sometimes additional caveats throw mmu exception mmu hardware present silently yield potentially unpredictable results starting armv6 architecture support added handle unaligned access many necessarily circumstances single memory word accessed operation atomic i.e whole memory word read written devices must wait read write operation completes access may true unaligned accesses multiple memory words e.g first word might read one device words written another device second word read first device value read neither original value updated value although failures rare difficult identify although compiler interpreter normally allocates individual data items aligned boundaries data structures often members different alignment requirements maintain proper alignment translator normally inserts additional unnamed data members member properly aligned addition data structure whole may padded final unnamed member allows member array structures properly aligned padding inserted structure member followed member larger alignment requirement end structure changing ordering members structure possible change amount padding required maintain alignment example members sorted descending alignment requirements minimal amount padding required minimal amount padding required always less largest alignment structure computing maximum amount padding required complicated always less sum alignment requirements members minus twice sum alignment requirements least aligned half structure members although c c++ allow compiler reorder structure members save space languages might also possible tell c c++ compilers pack members structure certain level alignment e.g pack 2 means align data members larger byte two-byte boundary padding members one byte long one use packed structures conserve memory example structure containing single byte four-byte integer would require three additional bytes padding large array structures would use 37.5 less memory packed although accessing structure might take longer compromise may considered form space–time tradeoff although use packed structures frequently used conserve memory space may also used format data structure transmission using standard protocol however usage care must also taken ensure values struct members stored endianness required protocol often network byte order may different endianness used natively host machine following formulas provide number padding bytes required align start data structure mod modulo operator example padding add offset 0x59d 4-byte aligned structure 3 structure start 0x5a0 multiple 4 however alignment offset already equal align second modulo align offset mod align mod align return zero therefore original value left unchanged since alignment definition power two modulo operation reduced bitwise boolean operation following formulas produce aligned offset bitwise bitwise data structure members stored sequentially memory structure member data1 always precede data2 data2 always precede data3 type short stored two bytes memory member data structure depicted would 2-byte aligned data1 would offset 0 data2 offset 2 data3 offset 4 size structure would 6 bytes type member structure usually default alignment meaning unless otherwise requested programmer aligned pre-determined boundary following typical alignments valid compilers microsoft visual c++ borland/codegear c++builder digital mars dmc gnu gcc compiling 32-bit x86 notable differences alignment lp64 64-bit system compared 32-bit system data types dependent implementation structure members various types totaling 8 bytes compilation compilation data structure supplemented padding bytes ensure proper alignment members compiled size structure 12 bytes important note last member padded number bytes required total size structure multiple largest alignment structure member alignment int case 4 linux-32bit/gcc case 3 bytes added last member pad structure size 12 bytes alignment int × 3 example total size structure 5 size multiple 4 alignment float example total size structure 5 8 either size multiple 2 alignment short 2 linux-32bit/gcc possible change alignment structures reduce memory require conform existing format reordering structure members changing compiler ’ alignment “ packing ” structure members compiled size structure matches pre-compiled size 8 bytes note replaced thus eliminated longer necessary structure already aligned size long word alternative method enforcing structure aligned one byte boundary cause pre-processor discard pre-determined alignment structure members thus padding bytes would inserted standard way defining alignment structure members compilers use directives specify packing inside source files example structure would compiled size 6 bytes 32-bit system directives available compilers microsoft borland gnu many others another example microsoft compilers particularly risc processor unexpected relationship project default packing /zp directive directive directive used reduce packing size structure project default packing leads interoperability problems library headers use example project packing smaller reason setting project packing value default 8 bytes would break directives used library headers result binary incompatibilities structures limitation present compiling x86 would beneficial allocate memory aligned cache lines array partitioned one thread operate sub-array boundaries unaligned cache lines could lead performance degradation example allocate memory double array size 10 aligned cache 64 bytes alignment concerns affect areas much larger c structure purpose efficient mapping area hardware address translation mechanism pci remapping operation mmu instance 32-bit operating system 4 kib 4096 bytes page arbitrary 4 kib chunk data instead usually region memory aligned 4 kib boundary aligning page page-sized boundary lets hardware map virtual address physical address substituting higher bits address rather complex arithmetic example assume tlb mapping virtual address 0x2cfc7000 physical address 0x12345000 note addresses aligned 4 kib boundaries accessing data located virtual address va=0x2cfc7abc causes tlb resolution 0x2cfc7 0x12345 issue physical access pa=0x12345abc 20/12-bit split luckily matches hexadecimal representation split 5/3 digits hardware implement translation simply combining first 20 bits physical address 0x12345 last 12 bits virtual address 0xabc also referred virtually indexed abc physically tagged 12345 block data size 2 1 always one sub-block size 2 aligned 2 bytes dynamic allocator knowledge alignment used provide aligned buffers price factor two space loss aligntonext p r works adding aligned increment clearing r least significant bits p possible implementation 1-hop neighbor's text information: call_stack.call stack computer science call stack stack data structure stores information active subroutines computer program kind stack also known execution stack program stack control stack run-time stack machine stack often shortened stack although maintenance call stack important proper functioning software details normally hidden automatic high-level programming languages many computer instruction sets provide special instructions manipulating stacks call stack used several related purposes main reason one keep track point active subroutine return control finishes executing active subroutine one called yet complete execution control handed back point call activations subroutines may nested level recursive special case hence stack structure example subroutine codice_1 calls subroutine codice_2 four different places codice_2 must know return execution completes accomplish address following instruction jumps codice_2 return address pushed onto call stack call since call stack organized stack caller pushes return address onto stack called subroutine finishes pulls pops return address call stack transfers control address called subroutine calls yet another subroutine push another return address onto call stack information stacking unstacking program dictates pushing consumes space allocated call stack error called stack overflow occurs generally causing program crash adding subroutine entry call stack sometimes called winding conversely removing entries unwinding usually exactly one call stack associated running program accurately task thread process although additional stacks may created signal handling cooperative multitasking setcontext since one important context referred stack implicitly task however forth programming language data stack parameter stack accessed explicitly call stack commonly referred stack see high-level programming languages specifics call stack usually hidden programmer given access set functions memory stack example abstraction assembly languages hand require programmers involved manipulating stack actual details stack programming language depend upon compiler operating system available instruction set noted primary purpose call stack store return addresses subroutine called location address instruction calling routine later resume needs saved somewhere using stack save return address important advantages alternative calling conventions one task stack thus subroutine thread-safe active simultaneously different tasks different things another benefit providing reentrancy recursion automatically supported function calls recursively return address needs stored activation function later used return function activation stack structures provide capability automatically depending language operating-system machine environment call stack may serve additional purposes including example typical call stack used return address locals parameters known call frame environments may fewer functions assigned call stack forth programming language example ordinarily return address counted loop parameters indexes possibly local variables stored call stack environment named return stack although data temporarily placed using special return-stack handling code long needs calls returns respected parameters ordinarily stored separate data stack parameter stack typically called stack forth terminology even though call stack since usually accessed explicitly forths also third stack floating-point parameters call stack composed stack frames also called activation records activation frames machine dependent abi-dependent data structures containing subroutine state information stack frame corresponds call subroutine yet terminated return example subroutine named codice_2 currently running called subroutine codice_1 top part call stack might laid like adjacent picture diagram like drawn either direction long placement top direction stack growth understood furthermore independently architectures differ whether call stacks grow towards higher addresses towards lower addresses logic diagram independent addressing choice stack frame top stack currently executing routine stack frame usually includes least following items push order stack frame sizes differ different functions invocations particular function popping frame stack constitute fixed decrement stack pointer function return stack pointer instead restored frame pointer value stack pointer function called stack frame contains stack pointer top frame immediately stack pointer mutable register shared invocations frame pointer given invocation function copy stack pointer function invoked locations fields frame defined relative either top frame negative offsets stack pointer relative top frame positive offsets frame pointer location frame pointer must inherently defined negative offset stack pointer systems stack frame field contain previous value frame pointer register value caller executing example stack frame codice_2 would memory location holding frame pointer value codice_1 uses shown diagram value saved upon entry subroutine restored upon return field known location stack frame enables code access frame successively underneath currently executing routine frame also allows routine easily restore frame pointer caller frame returns programming languages support nested subroutines also field call frame points stack frame latest activation procedure closely encapsulates callee i.e immediate scope callee called access link static link keeps track static nesting dynamic recursive calls provides routine well routines may invoke access local data encapsulating routines every nesting level architectures compilers optimization cases store one link enclosing level immediately enclosing deeply nested routines access shallow data traverse several links strategy often called display access links optimized away inner function access non-constant local data encapsulation case pure functions communicating via arguments return values example historical computers burroughs large systems special display registers support nested functions compilers modern machines ubiquitous x86 simply reserve words stack pointers needed purposes stack frame subroutine caller considered overlap overlap consisting area parameters passed caller callee environments caller pushes argument onto stack thus extending stack frame invokes callee environments caller preallocated area top stack frame hold arguments supplies subroutines calls area sometimes termed outgoing arguments area callout area approach size area calculated compiler largest needed called subroutine usually call stack manipulation needed site call subroutine minimal good since many call sites subroutine called values actual arguments evaluated call site since specific particular call either pushed onto stack placed registers determined used calling convention actual call instruction branch link typically executed transfer control code target subroutine called subroutine first code executed usually termed subroutine prologue since necessary housekeeping code statements routine begun instruction set architectures instruction used call subroutine puts return address register rather pushing onto stack prologue commonly save return address pushing value onto call stack although called subroutine call routines may leave value register similarly current stack pointer and/or frame pointer values may pushed frame pointers used prologue typically set new value frame pointer register stack pointer space stack local variables allocated incrementally changing stack pointer forth programming language allows explicit winding call stack called return stack subroutine ready return executes epilogue undoes steps prologue typically restore saved register values frame pointer value stack frame pop entire stack frame stack changing stack pointer value finally branch instruction return address many calling conventions items popped stack epilogue include original argument values case usually stack manipulations need done caller calling conventions however caller responsibility remove arguments stack return returning called function pop top frame stack perhaps leaving return value general act popping one frames stack resume execution elsewhere program called stack unwinding must performed non-local control structures used used exception handling case stack frame function contains one entries specifying exception handlers exception thrown stack unwound handler found prepared handle catch type thrown exception languages control structures require general unwinding pascal allows global goto statement transfer control nested function previously invoked outer function operation requires stack unwound removing many stack frames necessary restore proper context transfer control target statement within enclosing outer function similarly c codice_11 codice_12 functions act non-local gotos common lisp allows control happens stack unwound using codice_13 special operator applying continuation stack logically unwound rewound stack continuation way implement continuations example using multiple explicit stacks application continuation simply activate stack wind value passed scheme programming language allows arbitrary thunks executed specified points unwinding rewinding control stack continuation invoked call stack sometimes inspected program running depending program written compiled information stack used determine intermediate values function call traces used generate fine-grained automated tests cases like ruby smalltalk implement first-class continuations example gnu debugger gdb implements interactive inspection call stack running paused c program taking regular-time samples call stack useful profiling performance programs subroutine pointer appears call stack sampling data many times likely code bottleneck inspected performance problems language free pointers non-checked array writes c mixing control flow data affects execution code return addresses saved frame pointers simple program data parameters return values call stack security risk possibly exploitable stack buffer overflows common type buffer overflows one attacks involves filling one buffer arbitrary executable code overflowing buffer overwrite return address value points directly executable code result function returns computer executes code kind attack easily blocked w^x similar attacks succeed even w^x protection enabled including return-to-libc attack attacks coming return-oriented programming various mitigations proposed storing arrays completely separate location return stack case forth programming language Target text information: motorola_68000_series.motorola 68000 series motorola 68000 series also termed 680x0 m68000 m68k 68k family 32-bit cisc microprocessors 1980s early 1990s popular personal computers workstations primary competitors intel x86 microprocessors well known processors powering early apple macintosh commodore amiga sinclair ql atari st sega genesis mega drive several others although modern desktop computers based processors 68000 series derivative processors still widely used embedded systems motorola ceased development 68000 series architecture 1994 replacing powerpc architecture developed conjunction ibm apple computer part aim alliance 68010 68020 68030 68040 68060 68000 line processors used variety systems modern high-end texas instruments calculators ti-89 ti-92 voyage 200 lines members palm pilot series run palm os 1.x 4.x os 5.x arm-based even radiation-hardened versions critical control systems space shuttle however became well known processors powering desktop computers apple macintosh commodore amiga sinclair ql atari st several others 68000 also processor choice 1980s unix workstations servers firms sun microsystems next silicon graphics sgi 68000 version cp/m called cp/m-68k initially proposed atari st operating system atari chose atari tos instead also perhaps significantly first several versions adobe postscript interpreters 68000-based 68000 apple laserwriter laserwriter plus clocked faster version used macintosh computers fast 68030 later postscript interpreters including standard resolution laserwriter iintx iif iig also 300 dpi higher resolution laserwriter pro 600 series usually 600 dpi limited 300 dpi minimum ram installed high resolution linotronic imagesetters 200ps 1500+ dpi 300ps 2500+ dpi thereafter adobe generally preferred risc processor competitors postscript clones already gone riscs often amd 29000-series early 68000-based adobe postscript interpreters hardware named cold war-era u.s. rockets missiles atlas redstone etc today systems either end-of-line case atari using different processors case macintosh amiga sun sgi since platforms peak market share 1980s original manufacturers either longer support operating system hardware business however gnu/linux netbsd openbsd operating systems still include support 68000 processors 68000 processors also used sega genesis mega drive snk neo geo consoles main cpu consoles sega saturn used 68000 audio processing i/o tasks atari jaguar included 68000 intended basic system control input processing due jaguar unusual assortment heterogeneous processors also frequently used running game logic many arcade boards also used 68000 processors including boards capcom snk sega microcontrollers derived 68000 family used huge variety applications example cpu32 coldfire microcontrollers manufactured millions automotive engine controllers many proprietary video editing systems used 68000 processors category name macrosystem casablanca black box easy use graphic interface 1997 intended amateur hobby videographer market also worth noting earlier bigger professional counterpart called draco 1995 groundbreaking quantel paintbox series early based 24-bit paint effects system originally released 1981 lifetime used nearly entire range 68000 family processors sole exception 68060 never implemented design another contender video arena abekas 8150 dve system used 680ec30 trinity play later renamed globecaster uses several 68030s bosch fgs-4000/4500 video graphics system manufactured robert bosch corporation later bts 1983 used 68000 main processor drove several others perform 3d animation computer could easily apply gouraud phong shading run modified motorola versados operating system people familiar pdp-11 vax usually feel comfortable 68000 exception split general-purpose registers specialized data address registers 68000 architecture many ways 32-bit pdp-11 orthogonal instruction set many processors came e.g. 8080 e.g. x86 typically possible combine operations freely operands rather restricted using certain addressing modes certain instructions property made programming relatively easy humans also made easier write code generators compilers 68000 instruction set divided following broad categories 68050 though one point project within motorola odd-numbered releases always reactions issues raised within prior even numbered part hence generally expected 68050 would reduced 68040 power consumption thus heat dissipation improved exception handling fpu used smaller feature size optimized microcode line program use instructions many optimizations included 68060 part design goals number reasons likely 68060 development intel 80486 progressing quickly motorola assumed would 68060 demanding project 68050 cancelled early development also revision 68060 motorola process shifting away 68000 88k processor lines new powerpc business 68070 never developed would revised 68060 likely superior fpu pipelining widely speculated upon usenet motorola mainly used even numbers major revisions cpu core 68000 68020 68040 68060 68010 revised version 68000 minor modifications core likewise 68030 revised 68020 powerful features none significant enough classify major upgrade core cpu 68070 designation licensed somewhat slower version 16/32-bit 68000 basic dma controller i²c host on-chip serial port 68070 used main cpu philips cd-i cpu however produced philips officially part motorola 680x0 lineup 4th-generation 68060 shared features intel p5 microarchitecture personal computers xt/370 at/370 pc-based ibm-compatible mainframes included two modified motorola 68000 processors custom microcode emulate s/370 mainframe instructions mainline 68000 processors demise 68000 family used extent microcontroller embedded microprocessor versions chips include ones listed i.e cpu32 aka 68330 coldfire quicc dragonball advent fpga technology international team hardware developers re-created 68000 many enhancements fpga core core known 68080 used vampire-branded amiga accelerators 1980s early 1990s 68000 widely used desktop computers mainly competed intel x86 architecture used ibm pc compatibles generation 1 68000 cpus primarily competed 16-bit 8086 8088 80286 generation 2 competed 80386 first 32-bit x86 processor generation 3 80486 fourth generation competed p5 pentium line nearly widely used predecessors since much old 68000 marketplace either defunct nearly case atari next converting newer architectures powerpc macintosh amiga sparc sun mips silicon graphics sgi dozens processor architectures currently successful embedded systems microcontrollers much simpler smaller cheaper 68000 others relatively sophisticated capable running complex software embedded versions 68000 often compete processors derived powerpc arm mips superh architectures among others I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,447	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: virustotal.virustotal virustotal website created spanish security company hispasec sistemas launched june 2004 acquired google inc. september 2012 company ownership switched january 2018 chronicle subsidiary alphabet inc.. virustotal aggregates many antivirus products online scan engines check viruses user antivirus may missed verify false positives files 550 mb uploaded website sent via email anti-virus software vendors receive copies files flagged scans passed engine help improve software extension virustotal capability users also scan suspect urls search virustotal dataset virustotal dynamic analysis malware uses cuckoo sandbox virustotal selected pc world one best 100 products 2007 virustotal windows uploader application integrates explorer right-click contextual menu listed send virus total application also launches manually submitting url program currently running os virustotal stores name various hashes scanned file already scanned files identified known e.g. vt default sha256 hash without uploading complete files sha256 query url form codice_1 file uploads normally limited 128 mb 2017 virustotal discontinued support windows uploader several browser extensions available vtzilla mozilla firefox vtchromizer google chrome vtexplorer internet explorer allow user download files directly virustotal web application prior storing computer well scanning urls service also offers android app employs public api search installed application virustotal previously scanned ones show status application previously scanned submitted api key must provided restrictions public api usage may apply see public api virustotal provides free service public api allows automation online features upload scan files submit scan urls access finished scan reports make automatic comments urls samples restrictions apply requests made public api requiring individual api key freely obtained online signing low priority scan queue limited number requests per time frame etc antivirus engines used detection uploading files. ref name= files/url /ref antivirus scanning engines used url scanning utilities used provide additional info uploaded files files uploaded virustotal may shared freely anti-malware companies also retained store virustotal page states virustotal confidentiality files urls sent virustotal shared antivirus vendors security companies help improving services products believe eventually lead safer internet better end-user protection default file/url submitted virustotal detected least one scanner freely sent scanners detect resource additionally files urls enter private store may accessed premium mainly security/antimalware companies/organizations virustotal users improve security products services 1-hop neighbor's text information: dr._web.dr web dr.web software suite developed russian anti-malware company doctor web first released 1992 became first anti-virus service russia company also offers anti-spam solutions used yandex scan e-mail attachments also features add-on major browsers checks links online version dr web dr.web withdrawn av tests virus bulletin vb100 around 2008 stating believe virus scans viruses different subject real world malware attacks staunch anti-adware policy led software developers complaints dr web treated virus free applications virus receive responds dr web try contact dr web resolve issue dr.web discovered trojan backdoor.flashback variant affected 600,000 macs dr.web discovered trojan.skimer.18 trojan works like atm software skimmer trojan intercept transmit bank card information processed atms well data stored card pin code dr.web discovered ransomware linux.encoder.1 affected 2,000 linux users linux.encoder.2 discovered later turned earlier version ransomware doctor web received threat supposedly trojan writers criminal organization sponsoring malware development promotion march 31 two arson attacks carried igor daniloff anti-virus laboratory st. petersburg company received second threat doctor web released statement company considers duty provide users ultimate protection encroachments cybercriminals consequently efforts aimed identifying studying atm threats atm shield 1-hop neighbor's text information: malwarebytes.malwarebytes malwarebytes inc. american internet security company offices santa clara california clearwater florida tallinn estonia cork ireland specializes protecting home computers smartphones companies malwarebytes formally established january 2008 marcin kleczynski bruce harrison ceo vice president research malwarebytes respectively though origins company date back 2004 kleczynski became involved forums discussing computer viruses 2011 malwarebytes acquired hphosts website blacklisting company tracks blacklisted websites ad servers june 2015 company announced moving headquarters 10 almaden boulevard san jose california new office space two top floors 12-story 3979 freedom circle santa clara company reported growth 10 million users one year 2014–2015 increase revenue 1653 2014 2015 malwarebytes fixed 250 million computers five billion malware threats worldwide several malwarebytes products become well known computer world malwarebytes anti-malware available two different versions one free download home computers professional version 14-day free trial advance malwarebytes anti-exploit uses exploit mitigation protect vulnerable programs attack endpoint security advanced anti-ransomware technology package unveiled january 2016 three products incorporated single program called malwarebytes 3.0 premium paid program 14-day free trial period malwarebytes anti-exploit longer available free standalone product malwarebytes inc. informally established 2004 ceo founder marcin kleczynski originally poland still teenager attending high school bensenville illinois time working technician computer repair shop chicago noticed whenever infected computers arrived would generally reformat computer regardless infection minor mother computer became infected kleczynski learned virus n't directly attacked finding neither mcafee symantec would remove malware system later recalled 've never angry got computer infected professed mother told fix penalty death kleczynski posted forum spywareinfo popular time able learn cure took three days company unofficially founded kleczynski conversed became friends several editors forum tempted buy unused domain one site regulars bruce harrison kleczynski wrote inaugural version company software 2006 worked college roommate produce freely available program called rogueremover utility specialized fighting type infection known rogues scam computer users giving away credit card information fake anti-virus software rogueremover proved instrumental developing malwarebytes anti-malware kleczynski able set forum enabled improve software feedback kleczynski harrison formally launched malwarebytes january 21 2008 kleczynski studying computer science university illinois bruce became vp research malwarebytes hired doug swanson experience freeware development work new company marcus chung e-commerce expert formerly worked greenborder hired chief operating officer kleczynski harrison reportedly made 600,000 first year selling software despite met personally time 2011 malwarebytes acquired hphosts website blacklisting company tracks blacklisted websites ad servers necessary development protect new internet protocol addresses web servers distribute malware advise internet service providers shut malicious activity year company claimed removed five billion pieces malware three years following year company launched corporate market enterprise product aimed desktop-based anti-malware detection protection 2013 malwarebytes acquired zerovulnerabilitylabs inc. security research development company founded pedro bustamante protects software applications known zero-day exploits used exploit kits web-based vulnerability exploits corporate-targeted attacks expanded malware removal protection android platform launch malwarebytes anti-malware mobile launched usb-based product called malwarebytes techbench aimed helping technicians remove malware 2014 malwarebytes received 30 million funding highland capital following year announced treated 250 million computers worldwide representing 20–25 working business computers 2013 claimed removed five billion malware threats computers first five years june 2015 company announced moving headquarters 10 almaden boulevard san jose california new office space two top floors 12-story 3979 freedom circle santa clara california new office twice size former office company reported growth 10 million users one year 25 35 million active users time increase revenue 1653 2014 2015 kleczynski named one forbes magazine '30 30 january 2016 malwarebytes unveiled advanced anti-ransomware package endpoint security announced raised 50 million investment fidelity management research company kleczynski stated funds would used primarily company hiring product development marketing assets june malwarebytes announced strong growth sales 75 percent first quarter year compared 2015 billings surpassing 100 million corporate subscription base company reported grown 90 september proofpoint inc. ceo gary steele joined company board directors kleczynski citing deep expertise security software industry proven ability increasing sales revenue main reasons appointment october company purchased adwcleaner windows program used clean adware computers february 2017 company acquired saferbytes italian security start-up specialized anti-malware anti-exploit anti-rootkit cloud av sandbox technologies december 2016 malwarebytes anti-malware updated built ground combined 3 flagship products anti-malware anti-exploit anti-ransomware renamed malwarebytes anti-malware malwarebytes malwarebytes also functions anti-virus according release statement ceo marcin kleczynski states malwarebytes engine advantage many traditional antivirus programs developed 2008 many others developed late 1990s little idea malware would look like 15 years line states makes easier us adapt malware evolves new york times describes system hybrid heuristics behavior signature engine designed detect block malware vendors ca n't detect according dean takahashi venturebeat malwarebytes complements antivirus software vendors symantec mcafee anti-malware working anti-virus software attack problem different directions remarked malwarebytes cleans machines already infected pro version stops machine getting infected first place early development days rogueremover malwarebytes thrives community feedback runs two sub-forums complementing main forum known false positives malware contribution false positives reported allowing company update database within hours malware contribution allowing quickly report missing download kleczynski quoted saying still try work like bootstrapped company 'd rather build products customers buy rather sell something may need. ” malwarebytes several products 2011 available 36 different languages malwarebytes anti-malware offers two different versions one free download home computers professional version 14-day free trial advance offering real-time protection malware automated scanning automatic updating malwarebytes anti-malware mobile free android app protects smartphones mobile malware preventing unauthorized access personal data identifying tracking applications rating 4.4 google play store 2014 company launched malwarebytes anti-malware 2.0 improved user interface dashboard 2014 company launched malwarebytes anti-exploit shields selected applications attacks exploit mitigation protect vulnerable programs anti-exploit also comes free paid version windows computers free version stops exploits browsers java whilst paid product adds protection wider range software applications anti-exploit received four stars pc magazine v3 magazine security innovation year award 2016 malwarebytes anti-exploit merged premium version malwarebytes version 3.0 standalone application offered perpetual beta july 2015 malwarebytes acquired adwaremedic released malwarebytes anti-malware mac detects malware adware potentially unwanted programs macintosh computers january 2016 malwarebytes unveiled malwarebytes endpoint security advanced anti-ransomware technology described first solution offer multiple layers protection unknown ransomware company sponsored survey osterman research 540 firms united states united kingdom canada germany found nearly 40 companies experienced ransomeware incidents 34 percent accounted loss revenue guardian reported one-fifth british companies charged 10,000 unlock files increasing demand anti-ransomeware technology endpoint inception beta reportedly downloaded 200,000 businesses consumers first six months year malwarebytes also numerous tools junkware removal tool remove adware anti-rootkit beta remove repair rootkits startuplite boost speed windows reboot fileassassin prevent locked files software license requires arbitration county reside forbids class action suits reverse engineering sharing limits warranties liability even free version may shared since track use separately user malwarebyte privacy policy lists many types information collect store including software running user computer programs installed use malwarebytes says collect name email address mailing address phone number ... company name company size business type ... internet protocol ip addresses browser type internet service provider isp referring/exit pages files viewed site ... operating system date/time stamp and/or clickstream data ... type device use operating system version unique device identifier ... language ... 32- 64-bit ... information windows security/action center including security settings programs installed use ... license ... represents console system number seats managed installation console endpoint domain information ... organization ip address licensed different limits use sale sharing data general put time limits long keep data except ip address users ask deletion pii text says save locations ip addresses including mobile devices go get gps locations mobile devices ask access track location based information mobile device time downloading using mobile apps services say get antenna locations also collect detailed information malware exploits find tied user license number device identifier vendor ... file path exploit process ... command-line arguments passed exploit ... potentially copy exploit executable list license number pii certificate truste among things certifies company limits information collected limits use specified privacy notice 2018 key individuals working malwarebytes included Target text information: panda_security.panda security panda security spanish company specializes creating products security started antivirus software also provides develops cybersecurity software includes security products services businesses home users protection tools systems networks emails private information 2005 panda security fourth largest antivirus vendor worldwide 3.2 marketplace november 2015 opswat measured panda security market share 3.6 company whose shares previously 100 held urizarbarrena announced 24 april 2007 sale 75 shares southern european investment group investindustrial private equity firm gala capital 30 july 2007 company changed name panda software panda security urizarbarrena replaced jorge dinares almost one year later 3 june 2008 amidst flagging sales board directors voted replace dinares juan santana ceo santana resigned september 2011 replaced josé sancho acting ceo panda security rated jan 2018 gartner analysts endpoint protection visionary technological milestones include launch security systems saas concept security service antivirus solutions provide protection cloud cloud computing based panda calls collective intelligence security model panda introduced market 2007 according ceo main benefit security model provides allows automatic scanning threats instead manual scans carried companies firm subsidiaries us italy switzerland germany austria belgium netherlands france uk sweden finland spain japan additionally franchises another 44 countries us subsidiary five management turnovers since 2007 moving headquarters orlando florida 2009 late 2009 panda security created partnership web trust help fight war viruses panda previously embroiled lawsuit one channel partners external technologies inc 2013 panda prevailed lawsuit external technologies recovering judgment excess 100,000 prevailing claims asserted external panda 3 august 2010 new office location menlo park california publicly announced panda ceo via twitter account 2012 firm tenth largest antivirus vendor worldwide 2.0 marketplace truprevent introduced 2003 firm technologies proactive protection opposed traditional antivirus products provide reactive protection offers generic protection many techniques used new malware policies rules developed based new vulnerabilities appear daily collective intelligence ” firm protection system automatically detect scan classify malware real time introduced 2007 technology implemented 2009 2010 antivirus products home users panda cloud antivirus company classified first antivirus history provides protection cloud 2015 panda security obtained best rate protection real world protection test av-comparatives 2018 panda antivirus received gold award av-comparatives whole product dynamic “ real-world ” protection test panda security named company year 2016 leading spanish newspaper el suplemento innovative work growth outreach history panda adaptive defense first endpoint detection response edr security solution achieve eal2+ security certification common criteria standard published boe official state bulletin may 2018 listed h “ qualified security product ” spanish national cryptologic center may 2018 2016 named best advanced persistent threat apt solution computing magazines security excellence awards 2018 recognised pc pro a-list security product second year running received pro editor choice award calling “ smarter average protection solution ” I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	202	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: klout.klout klout website mobile app used social media analytics rate users according online social influence via klout score numerical value 1 100 determining user score klout measured size user social media network correlated content created measure users interact content klout launched 2008 lithium technologies acquired site march 2014 closed service may 25 2018 klout used bing facebook foursquare google+ instagram linkedin twitter youtube wikipedia data create klout user profiles assigned unique klout score klout scores ranged 1 100 higher scores corresponding higher ranking breadth strength one online social influence twitter users assigned score users registered klout could link multiple social networks network data aggregated influence user klout score klout measured influence using data points twitter following count follower count retweets list memberships many spam/dead accounts following influential people retweet unique mentions information combined data number social network followings interactions come klout score social networks influenced user klout score twitter facebook google+ linkedin individuals pages corporate/business youtube instagram klout well wikipedia accounts flickr blogger tumblr last.fm wordpress bing also linked users however weigh klout score microsoft announced strategic investment klout september 2012 whereby bing would access klout influence technology klout would access bing search data scoring algorithm klout scores supplemented three nominally specific measures klout calls true reach amplification network impact true reach based size user engaged audience actively engage user messages amplification score relates likelihood one messages generate actions retweets mentions likes comments network impact reflects computed influence value person engaged audience primary business model klout involved companies paying klout perks campaigns company offers free services products klout users match pre-defined set criteria including scores topics geographic locations klout users receive perks obligation write hope effectively advertise products social media klout offered perks program since 2010 according klout ceo joe fernandez 50 partnerships established november 2011 may 2013 klout announced users claimed 1 million perks across 400 campaigns march 2013 klout announced intention begin displaying business analytics aimed helping business brand users learn online audiences september 2012 klout announced information-sharing partnership bing search engine showing klout scores bing searches allowing klout users post items selected bing social media several objections klout methodology raised regarding process scores generated overall societal effect critics pointed klout scores representative influence person really highlighted barack obama president united states lower influence score number bloggers social critics argued klout score devalued authentic online communication promoted social ranking stratification trying quantify human interaction klout attempted address criticisms updated algorithms barack obama importance better reflected site criticized violating privacy minors exploiting users profit john scalzi described principle behind klout operation socially evil exploitation users status anxiety charles stross described service internet equivalent herpes blogging analysis klout terms conditions revealed company business model illegal united kingdom conflicted data protection act 1998 stross advised readers delete klout accounts opt klout services ben rothke concluded klout work cut seems like need beta longer klout applauded trying measure monstrosity called social influence results influence truth carry little influence klout criticised opacity methodology claimed advanced machine learning techniques used leveraging network theory sean golliher analysed klout scores twitter users found simple logarithm number followers sufficient explain 95 variance november 2015 klout released academic paper discussing methodology ieee bigdata 2015 conference spite controversy employers made hiring decisions based klout scores reported article wired man recruited vp position fifteen years experience consulting companies including america online ford kraft eliminated candidate specifically klout score time 34 favour candidate score 67 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm 1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett-packard.hewlett-packard hewlett-packard company commonly referred hp stylized hp hewlett-packard american multinational information technology company headquartered palo alto california developed provided wide variety hardware components well software related services consumers small- medium-sized businesses smbs large enterprises including customers government health education sectors company founded one-car garage palo alto bill hewlett david packard initially produced line electronic test equipment hp world leading pc manufacturer 2007 q2 2013 time lenovo ranked ahead hp hp specialized developing manufacturing computing data storage networking hardware designing software delivering services major product lines included personal computing devices enterprise industry standard servers related storage devices networking products software diverse range printers imaging products hp directly marketed products households small- medium-sized businesses enterprises well via online distribution consumer-electronics office-supply retailers software partners major technology vendors hp also services consulting business around products partner products hewlett-packard company events included spin-off electronic bio-analytical measurement instruments part business agilent technologies 1999 merger compaq 2002 acquisition eds 2008 led combined revenues 118.4 billion 2008 fortune 500 ranking 9 2009 november 2009 hp announced acquisition 3com deal closing april 12 2010 april 28 2010 hp announced buyout palm inc. 1.2 billion september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hewlett-packard spun enterprise products services business hewlett packard enterprise november 1 2015 hewlett-packard held onto pc printer businesses renamed hp inc. bill hewlett david packard graduated degrees electrical engineering stanford university 1935 company originated garage nearby palo alto fellowship past professor frederick terman stanford great depression considered terman mentor forming hewlett-packard 1938 packard hewlett began part-time work rented garage initial capital investment us 538 1939 hewlett packard decided formalize partnership tossed coin decide whether company founded would called hewlett-packard hp packard-hewlett hp incorporated august 18 1947 went public november 6 1957 many projects worked first financially successful product precision audio oscillator model hp200a innovation use small incandescent light bulb known pilot light temperature dependent resistor critical portion circuit negative feedback loop stabilized amplitude output sinusoidal waveform allowed sell model 200a 89.40 competitors selling less stable oscillators 200 model 200 series generators continued production least 1972 200ab still tube-based improved design years one company earliest customers walt disney productions bought eight model 200b oscillators 71.50 use certifying fantasound surround sound systems installed theaters movie fantasia worked counter-radar technology artillery shell fuses world war ii allowed packard hewlett exempt draft hp recognized symbolic founder silicon valley although actively investigate semiconductor devices years traitorous eight abandoned william shockley create fairchild semiconductor 1957 hewlett-packard hp associates division established around 1960 developed semiconductor devices primarily internal use hp associates co-founded another former bell labs researcher mosfet mos transistor inventor mohamed atalla served director semiconductor research instruments calculators products using semiconductor devices hp associates 1960s hp partnered sony yokogawa electric companies japan develop several high-quality products products huge success high costs building hp-looking products japan hp yokogawa formed joint venture yokogawa-hewlett-packard 1963 market hp products japan hp bought yokogawa electric share hewlett-packard japan 1999 hp spun small company dynac specialize digital equipment name picked hp logo hp could turned upside reverse reflect image logo dy new company eventually dynac changed dymec folded back hp 1959 hp experimented using digital equipment corporation dec minicomputers instruments deciding would easier build another small design team deal dec hp entered computer market 1966 hp 2100 hp 1000 series minicomputers simple accumulator-based design two accumulator registers hp 1000 models two index registers series produced 20 years spite several attempts replace forerunner hp 9800 hp 250 series desktop business computers hp 3000 advanced stack-based design business computing server later redesigned risc technology hp 2640 series smart intelligent terminals introduced forms-based interfaces ascii terminals also introduced screen labeled function keys commonly used gas pumps bank atms hp 2640 series included one first bit mapped graphics displays combined hp 2100 21mx f-series microcoded scientific instruction set enabled first commercial wysiwyg presentation program bruno later became program hp-draw hp 3000 although scoffed formative days computing hp would eventually surpass even ibm world largest technology vendor terms sales although programma 101 first commercial desktop computer hp identified wired magazine producer world first device called personal computer hewlett-packard 9100a introduced 1968 programma 101 called computer personale italian fiera di milano 1966 hp called desktop calculator bill hewlett said called computer would rejected customers computer gurus n't look like ibm therefore decided call calculator nonsense disappeared engineering triumph time logic circuit produced without integrated circuits assembly cpu entirely executed discrete components crt display magnetic-card storage printer price around 5,000 machine keyboard cross scientific calculator adding machine alphabetic keyboard steve wozniak co-founder apple originally designed apple computer working hp offered right first refusal work take company wanted stay scientific business industrial markets wozniak said hp turned 5 times loyalty hp made hesitant start apple steve jobs company earned global respect variety products introduced world first handheld scientific electronic calculator 1972 hp-35 first handheld programmable 1974 hp-65 first alphanumeric programmable expandable 1979 hp-41c first symbolic graphing calculator hp-28c like scientific business calculators oscilloscopes logic analyzers measurement instruments reputation sturdiness usability latter products part spin-off agilent product line later spun agilent keysight technologies company design philosophy period summarized design guy next bench 98x5 series technical desktop computers started 1975 9815 cheaper 80 series technical computers started 1979 85 machines used version basic programming language available immediately switched used proprietary magnetic tape storage hp computers similar capabilities much later ibm personal computer although limitations available technology forced prices high 1984 hp introduced inkjet laser printers desktop along scanner product line later developed successful multifunction products significant single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines print mechanisms hp tremendously popular laserjet line laser printers depend almost entirely canon inc. components print engines turn use technology developed xerox hp develops hardware firmware software convert data dots printing march 3 1986 hp registered hp.com domain name making ninth internet .com domain ever registered 1987 palo alto garage hewlett packard started business designated california state historical landmark 1990s hp expanded computer product line initially targeted university research business users reach consumers hp also grew acquisitions bought apollo computer 1989 convex computer 1995 later decade hp opened hpshopping.com independent subsidiary sell online direct consumers 2005 store renamed hp home home office store 1995 1998 hewlett-packard sponsors english football team tottenham hotspur 1999 businesses related computers storage imaging spun hp form agilent technologies agilent spin-off largest initial public offering history silicon valley spin-off created 8 billion company 30,000 employees manufacturing scientific instruments semiconductors optical networking devices electronic test equipment telecom wireless r production july 1999 hp appointed carly fiorina formerly lucent first female ceo fortune-20 company dow jones industrial average fiorina received larger signing offer predecessors fiorina served ceo technology downturn early 2000s led merger compaq disastrous according cnn led firing 30,000 u.s. employees leadership company doubled size tenure ceo beset damaging leaks hp board directors asked fiorina step 2005 following boardroom disagreement resigned february 9 2005 1997 hp sold 120 million worth printers computer products iran european subsidiary dubai-based east distributor despite u.s. export sanctions prohibiting deals imposed bill clinton executive orders issued 1995 story initially reported boston globe triggered inquiry sec hp responded products worth 120 million sold fiscal year 2008 distribution way redington gulf company based netherlands sales took place foreign subsidiary hp violated sanctions hp named redington gulf wholesaler year 2003 turn published press release stating seeds redington-hewlett-packard relationship sowed six years ago one market — iran time redington gulf three employees whose sole purpose sell hp products iran market according former officials worked sanctions hp using loophole routing sales foreign subsidiary hp ended relationship redington gulf sec inquiry september 3 2001 hp announced agreement reached compaq merge two companies may 2002 passing shareholder vote hp officially merged compaq prior plans place consolidate companies product teams product lines compaq already taken digital equipment corporation 1998 hp therefore still offers support former digital equipment products pdp-11 vax alphaserver merger occurred proxy fight bill hewlett son walter objected merger compaq bought tandem computers 1997 started ex-hp employees digital equipment corporation 1998 following strategy hp became major player desktops laptops servers many different markets merger compaq new ticker symbol became hpq combination two previous symbols hwp cpq show significance alliance also key letters two companies hewlett-packard compaq latter company famous q logo products 2004 hp released dv 1000 series including hp pavilion dv 1658 1040 two years later may 2006 hp began campaign computer personal campaign designed bring back fact pc personal product campaign utilized viral marketing sophisticated visuals website www.hp.com/personal ads featured pharrell petra nemcova mark burnett mark cuban alicia keys jay-z gwen stefani shaun white january 2005 following years performance included hp compaq merger fell short disappointing earning reports board asked fiorina resign chair chief executive officer company following news fiorina departure hp stock jumped 6.9 percent robert wayman chief financial officer hp served interim ceo board undertook formal search replacement mark hurd ncr corporation hired take ceo president effective 1 april 2005 hurd board top choice given revival ncr took place leadership 2006 hp unveiled several new products including desktops enhanced notebooks workstation software manage openview client configuration manager 2.0 year hp share price skyrocketed due consistent results last couple quarters year hurd plan cutback hp workforce lower costs july 2007 hp signed definitive agreement acquire opsware cash tender deal values company 14.25 per share combined opsware software oracle enterprise management software first years hurd new role hp stock price doubled end fiscal 2007 hp hit 100 billion mark first time company annual revenue reached 104 billion allowing hp overtake competitor ibm may 13 2008 hp electronic data systems eds announced signed definitive agreement hp would purchase eds june 30 hp announced waiting period hart-scott-rodino antitrust improvements act 1976 expired transaction still requires eds stockholder approval regulatory clearance european commission non-u.s. jurisdictions subject satisfaction waiver closing conditions specified merger agreement agreement finalized august 26 2008 13 billion publicly announced eds would re-branded eds hp company first targeted layoff 24,600 former eds workers announced september 15 2008 company 2008 annual report gave number 24,700 completed end 2009 round factored purchase price 19.5 billion liability goodwill september 23 2009 eds known hp enterprise services november 11 2009 3com hewlett-packard announced hewlett-packard would acquiring 3com 2.7 billion cash acquisition one biggest size among series takeovers acquisitions technology giants push way become one-stop shops since beginning financial crisis 2007 tech giants constantly felt pressure expand beyond current market niches dell purchased perot systems recently invade technology consulting business area previously dominated ibm hewlett-packard latest move marked incursion enterprise networking gear market dominated cisco april 28 2010 palm inc. hewlett-packard announced hp would buy palm 1.2 billion cash debt announcement rumored either htc dell research motion hp would buy palm adding palm handsets hp product line created overlap ipaq series mobile devices thought significantly improve hp mobile presence ipaqdevices selling well buying palm gave hp library valuable patents well mobile operating platform known webos july 1 2010 acquisition palm final purchase palm webos began big gamble – build hp ecosystem july 1 2011 hp launched first tablet named hp touchpad bringing webos tablet devices september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hp acquisition palm phased compaq brand august 6 2010 ceo mark hurd resigned amid controversy cfo cathie lesjak assumed role interim ceo hurd turned hp around widely regarded one silicon valley star ceos leadership hp became largest computer company world measured total revenue accused sexual harassment colleague allegations deemed baseless investigation led questions concerning 1000 20000 private expenses lack disclosure related friendship observers argued hurd innocent board asked resignation avoid negative pr public analysis divided saw commendable tough action hp handling expenses irregularities saw ill-advised hasty expensive reaction ousting remarkably capable leader turned business around hp hurd oversaw series acquisitions worth 20 billion allowed company expand services networking equipment smartphones shares hp dropped 8.4 after-hours trading hitting 52-week low 9 billion market capitalization shaved larry ellison publicly attacked hp board ousting stating hp board made worst personnel decision since idiots apple board fired steve jobs many years ago september 30 2010 léo apotheker named hp new ceo president apotheker appointment sparked strong reaction oracle chief executive larry ellison complained apotheker charge sap one subsidiaries systematically stealing software oracle sap accepted subsidiary closed illegally accessed oracle intellectual property following hurd departure hp seen market problematic margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy broadly aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector august 18 2011 hp announced would strategically exit smartphone tablet computer business focusing higher-margin strategic priorities cloud solutions software emphasis enterprise commercial government markets also contemplated selling personal computer division spinning separate company quitting 'pc business continuing sell servers equipment business customers strategy already undertaken ibm 2005 hp stock continued drop 40 including 25 one day august 19 2011 company abruptly announced number decisions discontinue webos device business mobile phones tablet computers intent sell personal computer division time hp largest personal computer manufacturer world acquire british big data software firm autonomy 79 premium seen externally absurdly high price business known concerns accounts media analysts described hp actions botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings ultimately cost apotheker job autonomy acquisition objected even hp cfo september 22 2011 hp board directors fired apotheker chief executive effective immediately replaced fellow board member former ebay chief meg whitman raymond j lane executive chairman though apotheker served barely ten months received 13 million compensation hp lost 30 billion market capitalization tenure weeks later hp announced review concluded pc division integrated critical business operations company reaffirmed commitment personal systems group year later november 2012 wrote-down almost 9 billion related autonomy acquisition see takeover autonomy became subject intense litigation hp accused autonomy previous management fraudulently exaggerating autonomy financial position called law enforcement regulators countries autonomy previous management accused hp textbook obfuscation finger pointing protect hp executives criticism conceal hp culpability prior knowledge autonomy financial position gross mismanagement autonomy acquisition march 21 2012 hp said printing pc divisions would become one unit headed todd bradley pc division printing chief vyomesh joshi leaving company may 23 2012 hp announced plans lay approximately 27,000 employees posting profit decline 31 second quarter 2012 profit decline account growing popularity smart phones tablets mobile devices slowed sale personal computers may 30 2012 hp unveiled first net zero energy data center hp data center plans use solar energy renewable sources instead traditional power grids july 10 2012 hp server monitoring software discovered previously unknown security vulnerability security warning given customers two vulnerabilities patch released one month later hp official site training center hacked defaced pakistani hacker known 'hitcher demonstrate web vulnerability september 10 2012 hp revised restructuring figures cutting 29,000 jobs hp already cut 3,800 jobs – around 7 percent revised 29,000 figure – july 2012 december 31 2013 hp revised number jobs cut 29,000 34,000 october 2014 current number jobs cut end 2013 24,600 end 2013 company 317,500 employees may 22 2014 hp announced would cut 11,000 16,000 jobs addition 34,000 announced 2013 gradually shaping hp nimble lower-cost customer partner-centric company successfully compete across rapidly changing landscape ceo meg whitman said time june 2014 hp discover customer event las vegas meg whitman martin fink announced project radically new computer architecture called machine based memristors silicon photonics machine supposed come commercialization end decade meanwhile representing 75 research activity hp labs october 6 2014 hewlett-packard announced planning split two separate companies separating personal computer printer businesses technology services split first reported wall street journal confirmed media would result two publicly traded companies hewlett packard enterprise hp inc. meg whitman would serve chairman hp inc. ceo hewlett packard enterprise patricia russo would chairman enterprise business dion weisler would ceo hp inc. october 29 2014 hewlett-packard announced new sprout personal computer may 2015 company announced would selling controlling 51 percent stake chinese data-networking business tsinghua unigroup fee least 2.4 billion november 1 2015 previously announced hewlett-packard changed name hp inc. spun hewlett packard enterprise new publicly traded company hp inc. retains hewlett-packard stock price history stock ticker symbol hewlett packard enterprise trades symbol hp global operations directed headquarters palo alto california usa u.s. operations directed facility unincorporated harris county texas near houston latin america offices unincorporated miami-dade county florida u.s. near miami europe offices meyrin switzerland near geneva also research center paris-saclay cluster 20 km south paris france asia-pacific offices singapore also large operations leixlip ireland austin texas boise idaho corvallis oregon fort collins colorado roseville california saint petersburg florida san diego california tulsa oklahoma vancouver washington conway arkansas plano texas former headquarters eds hp acquired uk hp based large site bracknell berkshire offices various uk locations including landmark office tower london 88 wood street recent acquisition 3com expand employee base marlborough massachusetts company also large workforce numerous offices bucharest romania bangalore india address back end operations mphasis headquartered bangalore also enabled hp increase footprint city subsidiary eds company acquired hp produces lines printers scanners digital cameras calculators pdas servers workstation computers computers home small-business use many computers came 2002 merger compaq hp promotes supplying hardware software also full range services design implement support infrastructure hp imaging printing group ipg described company 2005 leading imaging printing systems provider world printer hardware printing supplies scanning devices providing solutions across customer segments individual consumers small medium businesses large enterprises products technology associated ipg include december 23 2008 hp released iprint photo iphone free downloadable software application allows printing 4 x 6 photos hp personal systems group psg claims one leading vendors personal computers pcs world based unit volume shipped annual revenue psg deals hp resold apple ipod november 2005 hp enterprise business eb incorporates hp technology services enterprise services amalgamation former eds known hp services hp enterprise security services oversees professional services network security information security information assurance/ compliancy hp software division enterprise servers storage networking group essn enterprise servers storage networking group essn oversees back end products like storage servers hp networking former procurve responsible nw family products business unit essn hp software division company enterprise software unit years hp produced marketed brand enterprise-management software hp openview september 2005 hp purchased several software companies part publicized deliberate strategy augment software offerings large business customers hp software sells several categories software including hp software also provides software service saas cloud computing solutions software services including consulting education professional services support hp office strategy technology four main functions office strategy technology comes hp labs research arm hp founded 1966 hp labs aims deliver new technologies create business opportunities go beyond hp current strategies examples recent hp labs technology includes memory spot chip 2006 hp idealab provides web forum early-state innovations encourage open feedback consumers development community hp also offers managed services provide complete it-support solutions companies organizations examples include founders developed management style came known hp way hewlett words hp way core ideology ... includes deep respect individual dedication affordable quality reliability commitment community responsibility view company exists make technical contributions advancement welfare humanity following tenets hp way july 2007 company announced met target set 2004 recycle one billion pounds electronics toner ink cartridges set new goal recycling two billion pounds hardware end 2010 2006 company recovered 187 million pounds electronics 73 percent closest competitor 2008 hp released supply chain emissions data — industry first september 2009 newsweek ranked hp 1 2009 green rankings america 500 largest corporations according environmentalleader.com hewlett-packard earned number one position due greenhouse gas ghg emission reduction programs first major company report ghg emissions associated supply chain according ranking addition hp made effort remove toxic substances products though greenpeace targeted company better hp took top spot corporate responsibility magazine 100 best corporate citizens list 2010 list cited pr week one america important business rankings hp beat russell 1000 index companies leadership seven categories including environment climate changes corporate philanthropy 2009 hp ranked fifth fortune magazine named hp one world admired companies 2010 placing 2 computer industry 32 overall list top 50 year computer industry hp ranked 1 social responsibility long-term investment global competitiveness use corporate assets may 2011 hp released global responsibility report covering accomplishments 2010 report company tenth provides comprehensive view hp global citizenship programs performance goals describes hp uses technology influence expertise make positive impact world company 2009 report best corporate responsibility report year 2009 reports claims hp decreased total energy use 9 percent compared 2008 hp recovered total 118,000 tonnes electronic products supplies recycling 2009 including 61 million print cartridges april 2010 san francisco chronicle article hp one 12 companies commended designing products safe start following principles green chemistry commendations came environment california environmental advocacy group praised select companies golden state bay area efforts keep planet clean green may 2010 hp named one world ethical companies ethisphere institute second year row hp made list ethisphere reviewed researched analyzed thousands nominations 100 countries 35 industries create 2010 list hp one 100 companies earn distinction top winner computer hardware vendor recognized ethisphere honors firms promote ethical business standards practices going beyond legal minimums introducing innovative ideas benefit public hp listed greenpeace guide greener electronics ranks electronics manufacturers according policies sustainability energy climate green products november 2011 hp secured 1st place 15 ranking climbing 3 places increased score 5.9 5.5 scored points new sustainable operations criteria best program measuring reducing emissions greenhouse gases suppliers scoring maximum points thorough paper procurement policy november 2012 report hp ranked second score 5.7 hp especially well disclosure externally verified greenhouse gas emissions setting targets reducing however greenpeace reports hp risks penalty point future editions due fact member trade associations commented energy efficiency standards hp earned recognition work area data privacy security 2010 company ranked 4 ponemon institute annual study trusted companies privacy since 2006 hp worked directly u.s. congress federal trade commission ftc department commerce establish new strategy federal legislation hp played key role work toward december 2010 ftc report protecting consumer privacy era rapid change winning nine straight annual respected company china awards economic observer peking university hp china added 10 year contribution award list accolades award aims identify companies business china outstanding sustained performance business operations development corporate social responsibility 2012 rankings consumer electronics companies progress relating conflict minerals enough project rated hp second 24 companies calling pioneer progress according businessweek study hp world 11th valuable brand 2009 hp many sponsorships one well known sponsorship epcot walt disney world resort 1995 1999 2013 hp shirt sponsor premier league club tottenham hotspur f.c 1997 1999 sponsors australian football league club north melbourne football club also sponsored bmw williams formula 1 team 2005 sponsorship formerly held compaq 2010 sponsor renault f1 hewlett-packard also naming rights arrangement hp pavilion san jose home san jose sharks nhl hockey team 2013 arena naming rights acquired sap ag renaming arena sap center san jose company also maintains number corporate sponsorships business sector including sponsorships trade organisations including fespa print trade exhibitions o'reilly media velocity web development conference acquisition compaq 2002 hp maintained compaq presario brand low-end home desktops laptops hp compaq brand business desktops laptops hp proliant brand intel-architecture servers hp pavilion brand used home entertainment laptops home desktops tandem nonstop servers branded hp integrity nonstop march 2003 hp restated first-quarter cash flow operations reducing 18 percent accounting error actual cash flow operations 647 million 791 million reported earlier hp shifted 144 million net cash used investing activities september 5 2006 shawn cabalfin david o'neil newsweek wrote hp general counsel behest chairwoman patricia dunn contracted team independent security experts investigate board members several journalists order identify source information leak turn security experts recruited private investigators used spying technique known pretexting pretexting involved investigators impersonating hp board members nine journalists including reporters cnet new york times wall street journal order obtain phone records information leaked related hp long-term strategy published part cnet article january 2006 hp employees accused criminal acts since acquitted november 2007 hewlett-packard released bios update covering wide range laptops intent speed computer fan well run constantly whether computer reason prevent overheating defective nvidia graphics processing units gpus shipped many original equipment manufacturers including hewlett-packard dell apple defect concerned new packaging material used nvidia 2007 onwards joining graphics chip onto motherboard perform well thermal cycling prone develop stress cracks – effectively severing connection gpu motherboard leading blank screen july 2008 hp issued extension initial one-year warranty replace motherboards selected models however option extended models defective nvidia chipsets despite research showing computers also affected fault furthermore replacement motherboard temporary fix since fault inherent units affected models point manufacture including replacement motherboards offered hp free 'repair since point several websites documenting issue notably www.hplies.com forum dedicated refer hewlett-packard multi-million dollar cover issue www.nvidiadefect.com details specifics fault offers advice owners affected computers several small-claims lawsuits filed several states well suits filed countries hewlett-packard also faced class-action lawsuit 2009 i7 processor computers complainants stated systems locked within 30 minutes powering consistently even replaced newer i7 systems lockups continued june 15 2011 hp filed lawsuit california superior court santa clara claiming oracle corporation breached agreement support itanium microprocessor used hp high-end enterprise servers june 15 2011 hp sent formal legal demand letter oracle attempt force world 3 software maker reverse decision discontinue software development intel itanium microprocessor build servers hp lawsuit 2012 requiring oracle continue produce software compatible itanium processor hp awarded 3 billion damages oracle june 30 2016 hp argued oracle canceling support damaged hp itanium server brand oracle announced appeal decision damages november 2012 hp recorded writedown around 8.8 billion related acquisition year earlier uk based autonomy corporation plc hp accused autonomy deliberately inflating value company prior takeover former management team autonomy flatly rejected charge autonomy specialized analysis large scale unstructured big data 2010 uk largest successful software business maintained aggressively entrepreneurial marketing approach controls described rod iron said include zero tolerance firing weakest 5 sales force quarter compensating best sales staff like rock stars time hp fired previous ceo expenses irregularities year appointed léo apotheker ceo president hp seen problematic market margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector part strategy autonomy acquired hp october 2011 hp paid 10.3 billion 87.3 shares valuing autonomy around 11.7 billion £7.4 billion overall premium around 79 market price deal widely criticized absurdly high botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings objected even hp cfo within year apotheker fired major culture clashes became apparent hp written 8.8 billion autonomy value hp claim resulted accounting improprieties misrepresentations disclosure failures previous management turn accuse hp textbook example defensive stalling conceal evidence prior knowledge gross mismanagement undermining company noting public awareness since 2009 financial reporting issues even hp cfo disagreed price paid external observers generally state small part write-off appears due accounting mis-statements hp overpaid businesses previously serious fraud office united kingdom u.s. securities exchange commission joined fbi investigating potential anomalies hp incurred much damage stock falling decades low three lawsuits brought shareholders hp fall value hp shares august 2014 united states district court judge threw proposed settlement autonomy previous management argued would collusive intended divert scrutiny hp responsibility knowledge essentially engaging plaintiff attorneys existing cases redirecting previous autonomy vendors management fee 48 million plaintiffs agreeing end claims hp management similarly redirect claims previous autonomy vendors management january 2015 sfo closed investigation likelihood successful prosecution low dispute still litigated us investigated uk ireland financial reporting council june 9 2015 hp agreed pay 100 million investors bought hp shares august 19 2011 november 20 2012 settle suite autonomy purchase october 25 2012 richard falk human rights council special rapporteur situation human rights palestinian territories occupied since 1967 called boycotting hp together businesses profiting israeli settlements occupied palestinian lands brought operations line international human rights humanitarian law 2014 presbyterian church voted move forward divestment hp protest israeli policies toward palestinians 2015 city portland human rights commission requested place caterpillar g4s hewlett-packard motorola solutions city buy list april 9 2014 administrative proceeding securities exchange commission settled hp consenting order acknowledging hp violated foreign corrupt practices act fcpa hp subsidiaries russia poland mexico made improper payments government officials obtain retain lucrative public contracts sec order finds hp subsidiary russia paid 2 million agents various shell companies russian government official retain multimillion-dollar contract federal prosecutor office poland hp subsidiary provided gifts cash bribes worth 600,000 polish government official obtain contracts national police agency part bid win software sale mexico state-owned petroleum company hp subsidiary mexico paid 1 million inflated commissions consultant close ties company officials money funneled one officials hp agreed pay 108 million settle sec charges parallel criminal case Target text information: peter_zandan.peter zandan peter a. zandan born 1953 american entrepreneur field market research data science zandan currently global vice chairman hill+knowlton strategies leads company worldwide research operations founder intelliquest information group inc. austin-based global research firm served chairman ceo 1984 1998 taking company public 1996 intelliquest zandan pioneered use electronic surveys internet field market research 1999 zandan founded served ceo zilliant pricing optimization company zandan played active role austin texas community 2014 developed sponsored zandan poll annual survey among austin residents covers variety topics including economy affordability growth education policy issues overall cultural identity austin zandan currently member president circle national academies sciences engineering medicine zandan also serves board klru public television station austin texas member advisory council red mccombs school business ut austin moved austin 1970s zandan earned mba ph.d. evaluation research university texas austin born longmeadow massachusetts zandan received bachelor degree history university massachusetts 1975 latter half 1970s zandan moved mexico pursue international studies several years abroad returned united states earned mba ph.d. evaluation research 1983 university texas zandan founded first major company 1984 name intelliquest intelliquest focused changing way companies performed market research pioneering ‘ disk-by-mail ’ methodologies later utilizing internet based electronic surveys zandan served company chairman ceo 15 years intelliquest fastest growing market research company worldwide 1990s provided new product marketing branding services corporations apple ibm mckinsey co. microsoft hewlett-packard intelliquest provided marketing information technology companies direct marketing services internet marketers additionally supplied information tech markets subscription proprietary project basis zandan leadership intelliquest grew 500 employees offices austin silicon valley new york city london zandan took company public 1996 nasdaq exchange acquired wpp 1999 1998 company bought zandan stepped away day-to-day management operations company pursue interests 1998 peter zandan founded zilliant inc another austin-based corporation zilliant developed leader strategic pricing management providing software solutions enable corporations outline manage e-commerce pricing understood “ internet allows companies better understand customers preferences ” zandan helped develop flagship product called zilliant intelligent pricing solution zips tested real-time customer pricing behavior monitored activity market opportunities offering business-to-business predictive pricing sales applications zilliant grew quickly continues operate successfully peter zandan currently global vice chairman hill+knowlton strategies developed firm reputation management communications research offerings zandan provided assistance international brand development clients financial services energy technology healthcare retail industries specifically zandan leads research+data insights rdi corporation underneath umbrella organization hill+knowlton strategies zandan helped rdi yield data-based insights deliver metrics counsel brand health communication data analytics june 2013 zandan selected member president circle national academy science purpose president circle engage leaders various scientific disciplines engineering medicine effort ensure intellectual financial resources sustain/enhance research president circle honorary association membership acquired invitations presidents three academies along honored 1998 lifetime member mccombs business school advisory council starting zandan served board public television station klru since year also invested advised new media companies including wize inc. klout sold lithium technologies next big sound sold pandora peter zandan angel investing companies next big sound allowed continue remain active part startup company scene peter zandan impacted austin community social analytics work external involvement zandan poll annual report surveys austin-area residents assess attitudes community economy health transportation city longtime citizen austin zandan watched community grow years wanted create objective tool measure austinites felt community evolving zandan provides gift austin community help klru hill+knowlton strategies rdi cambia information group poll expanded areas “ cultural identity ” affordability order increase understanding dialogue key community issues zandan also received austin “ soul city ” business award contributions community co-chair austin 360 summit one-day issues conference austin high-tech executives additionally chairs austin city limits committee member board directors klru-tv growing intelliquest one fastest-growing market research firms 1990s peter zandan received ernst young entrepreneur year award 1993 high technology electronics award represents elite corp men women recognized exceptional entrepreneurial achievements due extensive work austin area peter zandan also awarded “ best visionary ” award austin chronicle weekly newspaper austin texas I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	3,510	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cross-platform_software.cross-platform software computing cross-platform software also multi-platform software platform-independent software computer software implemented multiple computing platforms cross-platform software may divided two types one requires individual building compilation platform supports one directly run platform without special preparation e.g. software written interpreted language pre-compiled portable bytecode interpreters run-time packages common standard components platforms example cross-platform application may run microsoft windows linux macos cross-platform programs may run many existing platforms two platforms cross-platform frameworks qt flutter nativescript xamarin phonegap ionic react native exist aid cross-platform development platform refer type processor cpu hardware given operating system application runs type operating system computer combination type hardware type operating system running example common platform microsoft windows running x86 architecture well-known desktop computer platforms include linux/unix macos cross-platform however many devices smartphones also effectively computer platforms less commonly thought way application software written depend features particular platform—either hardware operating system virtual machine runs java platform virtual machine platform runs many operating systems hardware types common platform software written hardware platform refer instruction set architecture example x86 architecture variants ia-32 x86-64 machines often run one version microsoft windows though run operating systems well including linux openbsd netbsd macos freebsd 32-bit arm architectures newer 64-bit version common smartphones tablet computers run android ios mobile operating systems software platforms either operating system programming environment though commonly combination notable exception java uses operating system independent virtual machine compiled code known world java bytecode examples software platforms previously noted java platform exception general rule operating system software platform java language typically compiles virtual machine virtual cpu runs code written language enables executable binary run systems implement java virtual machine jvm java programs executed natively using java processor n't common mostly used embedded systems java code running jvm access os-related services like disk i/o network access appropriate privileges granted jvm makes system calls behalf java application setup allows users decide appropriate protection level depending acl example disk network access usually enabled desktop applications browser-based applets jni also used enable access operating system specific functions currently java standard edition programs run microsoft windows macos several unix-like operating systems several non-unix-like operating systems like embedded systems mobile applications browser plugins used windows mac based devices android built-in support java also subsets java java card java platform micro edition designed resource-constrained devices piece software considered cross-platform must able function one computer architecture operating system developing program time-consuming task different operating systems different application programming interfaces api example linux uses different api application software windows software written particular operating system automatically work architectures operating system supports one example august 2006 openoffice.org natively run amd64 intel 64 lines processors implementing x86-64 standards computers since changed openoffice.org suite software “ mostly ” ported 64-bit systems also means program written popular programming language c c++ mean run operating systems support programming language—or even operating system different architecture web applications typically described cross-platform ideally accessible various web browsers within different operating systems applications generally employ client–server system architecture vary widely complexity functionality wide variability significantly complicates goal cross-platform capability routinely odds goal advanced functionality basic web applications perform processing stateless server pass result client web browser user interaction application consists simple exchanges data requests server responses types applications norm early phases world wide web application development applications follow simple transaction model identical serving static web pages today still relatively common especially cross-platform compatibility simplicity deemed critical advanced functionalities prominent examples advanced web applications include web interface gmail a9.com google maps website live search service bing microsoft advanced applications routinely depend additional features found recent versions popular web browsers dependencies include ajax javascript dynamic html svg components rich internet applications older versions popular web browsers tend lack support certain features competing interests cross-platform compatibility advanced functionality numerous alternative web application design strategies emerged strategies include graceful degradation attempts provide similar functionality users platforms diminishing functionality least common denominator limited client browsers example user attempting use limited-feature browser access gmail may notice gmail switches basic mode reduced functionality differs cross-platform techniques attempt provide equivalent functionality adequate functionality across platforms multiple codebase applications maintain distinct codebases different hardware os platforms equivalent functionality obviously requires duplication effort maintaining code worthwhile amount platform-specific code high strategy relies one codebase may compiled multiple platform-specific formats one technique conditional compilation technique code common platforms repeated blocks code relevant certain platforms made conditional interpreted compiled needed another technique separation functionality disables functionality supported client browsers operating systems still delivering complete application user see also separation concerns technique used web development interpreted code scripting languages query platform running execute different blocks conditionally third-party libraries attempt simplify cross-platform capability hiding complexities client differentiation behind single unified api responsive web design rwd web design approach aimed crafting visual layout sites provide optimal viewing experience—easy reading navigation minimum resizing panning scrolling—across wide range devices mobile phones desktop computer monitors little platform-specific code used technique one complicated aspect cross-platform web application design need software testing addition complications mentioned previously additional restriction web browsers prohibit installation different versions browser operating system although several development approaches companies use target multiple platforms result software requires substantial manual effort testing maintenance across supported platforms techniques full virtualization sometimes used workaround problem using tools page object model cross platform tests scripted way one test case usable multiple versions app long different versions similar user interfaces versions tested one time one test case web applications becoming increasingly popular many computer users still use traditional application software rely client/web-server architecture distinction traditional web applications always clear features installation methods architectures web traditional applications overlap blur distinction nevertheless simplifying distinction common useful generalization traditionally modern computing application software distributed end-users binary file especially executable files executables support operating system computer architecture built for—which means making single cross-platform executable would something massive task generally replaced offering selection executables platforms supported software distributed binary executable software written c c++ programmer must build software different operating system computer architecture i.e must use toolset translates—transcompiles—a single codebase multiple binary executables example firefox open-source web browser available windows macos powerpc x86 apple inc. calls universal binary linux bsd multiple computer architectures four platforms case windows macos linux bsd separate executable distributions although come source code use different toolsets perform different builds may sufficient achieve variety working executables different platforms case software engineer must port i.e amend code suitable new computer architecture operating system example program firefox already runs windows x86 family modified re-built run linux x86 potentially architectures well multiple versions code may stored separate codebases merged one codebase conditional compilation see note porting must accompanied cross-platform building reverse case alternative porting cross-platform virtualization allows applications compiled one cpu operating system run system different cpu and/or operating system without modification source code binaries example apple rosetta built intel-based macintosh computers runs applications compiled previous generation macs used powerpc cpus another example ibm powervm lx86 allows linux/x86 applications run unmodified linux/power operating system script considered cross-platform interpreter available multiple platforms script uses facilities provided language script written python unix-like system likely run little modification windows python also runs windows also one implementation python run scripts e.g. ironpython .net framework goes many open-source programming languages available scripting languages unlike binary executable files script used computers software interpret script script generally stored plain text text file may issues however type new line character sits lines generally however little work done make script written one system run another quite popular cross-platform scripting interpreted languages cross-platform multi-platform term also apply video games released range video game consoles specialized computers dedicated task playing games examples cross-platform video games include miner 2049er fifa video game series nhl series minecraft released across variety gaming platforms wii playstation 3 xbox 360 personal computers pcs mobile devices characteristics particular system may lengthen time taken implement video game across multiple platforms video game may initially released platforms later released remaining platforms typically situation occurs new gaming system released video game developers need acquaint hardware software associated new console games may become cross-platform licensing agreements developers video game console manufacturers limit development game one particular console example disney could create game intention release latest nintendo sony game consoles disney license game sony first disney may exchange required release game solely sony ’ console short time indefinitely—effectively prohibiting cross-platform release duration several developers implemented means play games online using different platforms psyonix epic games microsoft valve corporation possess technology allows xbox 360 playstation 3 gamers play pc gamers leaving decision platform use consumers first game allow level interactivity pc console games quake 3 games feature cross-platform online play include rocket league street fighter v killer instinct paragon fable fortune minecraft better together update windows 10 vr editions pocket edition xbox one cross-platform programming practice actively writing software work one platform different ways approaching problem writing cross-platform application program one approach simply create multiple versions program different source trees —in words microsoft windows version program might one set source code files macintosh version might another foss *nix system might another straightforward approach problem potential considerably expensive development cost development time especially corporate entities idea behind create two different programs ability behave similarly also possible means developing cross-platform application result problems bug tracking fixing two different source trees would different programmers thus different defects version another approach used depend pre-existing software hides differences platforms—called abstraction platform—such program unaware platform running could said programs platform agnostic programs run java virtual machine jvm built fashion applications mix various methods cross-platform programming create final application example firefox web browser uses abstraction build lower-level components separate source subtrees implementing platform-specific features like gui implementation one scripting language help facilitate ease portability firefox implements xul css javascript extending browser addition classic netscape-style browser plugins much browser written xul css javascript well number tools available help facilitate process cross-platform programming certain issues associated cross-platform development include 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: hyperfun.hyperfun hyperfun hyperdimensional functions programming language software used create visualize fabricate volumetric 3d higher-dimensional models team maintaining hyperfun project freely associated group researchers students different countries world uk russia france japan norway usa others called digital materialization group digitalmaterial.org hyperfun allows users easily model objects quality found reality nature system based new mathematical framework geometry function representation frep provides uniform method model surface geometry internal composition simultaneously also compact precise framework represent objects unlimited complexity properties compared traditional modeling systems hyperfun able digitally describe create modify models real imagined object environment technically complex geometric objects hyperfun constructed simple primitives various operations performed object three-dimensional space defined function point coordinates f x z continuous real function positive inside object negative outside takes zero value surface similarly multidimensional object defined function several variables f x1 x2 x3 ... xn example object changing time defined f x z representing time attributes color material density also defined corresponding functions constitutes new paradigm procedural function-based volume modeling rendering object shape properties locally evaluated request using black box procedures I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	4,931	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_data_storage.computer data storage digvijay singh computer data storage often called storage memory technology consisting computer components recording media used retain digital data core function fundamental component computers central processing unit cpu computer manipulates data performing computations practice almost computers use storage hierarchy puts fast expensive small storage options close cpu slower larger cheaper options farther away generally fast volatile technologies lose data power referred memory slower persistent technologies referred storage even first computer designs charles babbage analytical engine percy ludgate analytical machine clearly distinguished processing memory babbage stored numbers rotations gears ludgate stored numbers displacements rods shuttles distinction extended von neumann architecture cpu consists two main parts control unit arithmetic logic unit alu former controls flow data cpu memory latter performs arithmetic logical operations data without significant amount memory computer would merely able perform fixed operations immediately output result would reconfigured change behavior acceptable devices desk calculators digital signal processors specialized devices von neumann machines differ memory store operating instructions data computers versatile need hardware reconfigured new program simply reprogrammed new in-memory instructions also tend simpler design relatively simple processor may keep state successive computations build complex procedural results modern computers von neumann machines modern digital computer represents data using binary numeral system text numbers pictures audio nearly form information converted string bits binary digits value 1 0 common unit storage byte equal 8 bits piece information handled computer device whose storage space large enough accommodate binary representation piece information simply data example complete works shakespeare 1250 pages print stored five megabytes 40 million bits one byte per character data encoded assigning bit pattern character digit multimedia object many standards exist encoding e.g. character encodings like ascii image encodings like jpeg video encodings like mpeg-4 adding bits encoded unit redundancy allows computer detect errors coded data correct based mathematical algorithms errors generally occur low probabilities due random bit value flipping physical bit fatigue loss physical bit storage ability maintain distinguishable value 0 1 due errors inter intra-computer communication random bit flip e.g. due random radiation typically corrected upon detection bit group malfunctioning physical bits always specific defective bit known group definition depends specific storage device typically automatically fenced-out taken use device replaced another functioning equivalent group device corrected bit values restored possible cyclic redundancy check crc method typically used communications storage error detection detected error retried data compression methods allow many cases database represent string bits shorter bit string compress reconstruct original string decompress needed utilizes substantially less storage tens percents many types data cost computation compress decompress needed analysis trade-off storage cost saving costs related computations possible delays data availability done deciding whether keep certain data compressed security reasons certain types data e.g. credit-card information may kept encrypted storage prevent possibility unauthorized information reconstruction chunks storage snapshots generally lower storage hierarchy lesser bandwidth greater access latency cpu traditional division storage primary secondary tertiary off-line storage also guided cost per bit contemporary usage memory usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory typically dram dynamic ram forms fast temporary storage storage consists storage devices media directly accessible cpu secondary tertiary storage typically hard disk drives optical disc drives devices slower ram non-volatile retaining contents powered historically memory called core memory main memory real storage internal memory meanwhile non-volatile storage devices referred secondary storage external memory auxiliary/peripheral storage primary storage also known main memory internal memory prime memory often referred simply memory one directly accessible cpu cpu continuously reads instructions stored executes required data actively operated also stored uniform manner historically early computers used delay lines williams tubes rotating magnetic drums primary storage 1954 unreliable methods mostly replaced magnetic core memory core memory remained dominant 1970s advances integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory become economically competitive led modern random-access memory ram small-sized light quite expensive time particular types ram used primary storage also volatile i.e lose information powered shown diagram traditionally two sub-layers primary storage besides main large-capacity ram main memory directly indirectly connected central processing unit via memory bus actually two buses diagram address bus data bus cpu firstly sends number address bus number called memory address indicates desired location data reads writes data memory cells using data bus additionally memory management unit mmu small device cpu ram recalculating actual memory address example provide abstraction virtual memory tasks ram types used primary storage volatile uninitialized start computer containing storage would source read instructions order start computer hence non-volatile primary storage containing small startup program bios used bootstrap computer read larger program non-volatile secondary storage ram start execute non-volatile technology used purpose called rom read-only memory terminology may somewhat confusing rom types also capable random access many types rom literally read updates possible however slow memory must erased large portions re-written embedded systems run programs directly rom similar programs rarely changed standard computers store non-rudimentary programs rom rather use large capacities secondary storage non-volatile well costly recently primary storage secondary storage uses refer historically called respectively secondary storage tertiary storage secondary storage also known external memory auxiliary storage differs primary storage directly accessible cpu computer usually uses input/output channels access secondary storage transfer desired data primary storage secondary storage non-volatile retaining data power shut modern computer systems typically two orders magnitude secondary storage primary storage secondary storage less expensive modern computers hard disk drives hdds solid-state drives ssds usually used secondary storage access time per byte hdds ssds typically measured milliseconds one thousandth seconds access time per byte primary storage measured nanoseconds one billionth seconds thus secondary storage significantly slower primary storage rotating optical storage devices cd dvd drives even longer access times examples secondary storage technologies include usb flash drives floppy disks magnetic tape paper tape punched cards ram disks disk read/write head hdds reaches proper placement data subsequent data track fast access reduce seek time rotational latency data transferred disks large contiguous blocks sequential block access disks orders magnitude faster random access many sophisticated paradigms developed design efficient algorithms based upon sequential block access another way reduce i/o bottleneck use multiple disks parallel order increase bandwidth primary secondary memory secondary storage often formatted according file system format provides abstraction necessary organize data files directories also providing metadata describing owner certain file access time access permissions information computer operating systems use concept virtual memory allowing utilization primary storage capacity physically available system primary memory fills system moves least-used chunks pages swap file page file secondary storage retrieving later needed lot pages moved slower secondary storage system performance degraded tertiary storage tertiary memory level secondary storage typically involves robotic mechanism mount insert dismount removable mass storage media storage device according system demands data often copied secondary storage use primarily used archiving rarely accessed information since much slower secondary storage e.g 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds primarily useful extraordinarily large data stores accessed without human operators typical examples include tape libraries optical jukeboxes computer needs read information tertiary storage first consult catalog database determine tape disc contains information next computer instruct robotic arm fetch medium place drive computer finished reading information robotic arm return medium place library tertiary storage also known nearline storage near online formal distinction online nearline offline storage example always-on spinning hard disk drives online storage spinning drives spin automatically massive arrays idle disks maid nearline storage removable media tape cartridges automatically loaded tape libraries nearline storage tape cartridges must manually loaded offline storage off-line storage computer data storage medium device control processing unit medium recorded usually secondary tertiary storage device physically removed disconnected must inserted connected human operator computer access unlike tertiary storage accessed without human interaction off-line storage used transfer information since detached medium easily physically transported additionally case disaster example fire destroys original data medium remote location probably unaffected enabling disaster recovery off-line storage increases general information security since physically inaccessible computer data confidentiality integrity affected computer-based attack techniques also information stored archival purposes rarely accessed off-line storage less expensive tertiary storage modern personal computers secondary tertiary storage media also used off-line storage optical discs flash memory devices popular much lesser extent removable hard disk drives enterprise uses magnetic tape predominant older examples floppy disks zip disks punched cards storage technologies levels storage hierarchy differentiated evaluating certain core characteristics well measuring characteristics specific particular implementation core characteristics volatility mutability accessibility addressability particular implementation storage technology characteristics worth measuring capacity performance non-volatile memory retains stored information even constantly supplied electric power suitable long-term storage information volatile memory requires constant power maintain stored information fastest memory technologies volatile ones although universal rule since primary storage required fast predominantly uses volatile memory dynamic random-access memory form volatile memory also requires stored information periodically reread rewritten refreshed otherwise would vanish static random-access memory form volatile memory similar dram exception never needs refreshed long power applied loses content power supply lost uninterruptible power supply ups used give computer brief window time move information primary volatile storage non-volatile storage batteries exhausted systems example emc symmetrix integrated batteries maintain volatile storage several minutes utilities hdparm sar used measure io performance linux full disk encryption volume virtual disk encryption andor file/folder encryption readily available storage devices hardware memory encryption available intel architecture supporting total memory encryption tme page granular memory encryption multiple keys mktme sparc m7 generation since october 2015.. commonly used data storage media semiconductor magnetic optical paper still sees limited usage fundamental storage technologies all-flash arrays afas proposed development semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits store information semiconductor memory chip may contain millions tiny transistors capacitors volatile non-volatile forms semiconductor memory exist modern computers primary storage almost exclusively consists dynamic volatile semiconductor memory dynamic random-access memory since turn century type non-volatile semiconductor memory known flash memory steadily gained share off-line storage home computers non-volatile semiconductor memory also used secondary storage various advanced electronic devices specialized computers designed early 2006 notebook desktop computer manufacturers started using flash-based solid-state drives ssds default configuration options secondary storage either addition instead traditional hdd magnetic storage uses different patterns magnetization magnetically coated surface store information magnetic storage non-volatile information accessed using one read/write heads may contain one recording transducers read/write head covers part surface head medium must moved relative another order access data modern computers magnetic storage take forms early computers magnetic storage also used optical storage typical optical disc stores information deformities surface circular disc reads information illuminating surface laser diode observing reflection optical disc storage non-volatile deformities may permanent read media formed write media reversible recordable read/write media following forms currently common use magneto-optical disc storage optical disc storage magnetic state ferromagnetic surface stores information information read optically written combining magnetic optical methods magneto-optical disc storage non-volatile sequential access slow write fast read storage used tertiary off-line storage 3d optical data storage also proposed light induced magnetization melting magnetic photoconductors also proposed high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage paper data storage typically form paper tape punched cards long used store information automatic processing particularly general-purpose computers existed information recorded punching holes paper cardboard medium read mechanically later optically determine whether particular location medium solid contained hole technologies allow people make marks paper easily read machine—these widely used tabulating votes grading standardized tests barcodes made possible object sold transported computer readable information securely attached group bits malfunction may resolved error detection correction mechanisms see storage device malfunction requires different solutions following solutions commonly used valid storage devices device mirroring typical raid designed handle single device failure raid group devices however second failure occurs raid group completely repaired first failure data lost probability single failure typically small thus probability two failures raid group time proximity much smaller approximately probability squared i.e. multiplied database tolerate even smaller probability data loss raid group replicated mirrored many cases mirroring done geographically remotely different storage array handle also recovery disasters see disaster recovery secondary tertiary storage may connect computer utilizing computer networks concept pertain primary storage shared multiple processors lesser degree large quantities individual magnetic tapes optical magneto-optical discs may stored robotic tertiary storage devices tape storage field known tape libraries optical storage field optical jukeboxes optical disk libraries per analogy smallest forms either technology containing one drive device referred autoloaders autochangers robotic-access storage devices may number slots holding individual media usually one picking robots traverse slots load media built-in drives arrangement slots picking devices affects performance important characteristics storage possible expansion options adding slots modules drives robots tape libraries may 10 100,000 slots provide terabytes petabytes near-line information optical jukeboxes somewhat smaller solutions 1,000 slots robotic storage used backups high-capacity archives imaging medical video industries hierarchical storage management known archiving strategy automatically migrating long-unused files fast hard disk storage libraries jukeboxes files needed retrieved back disk 1-hop neighbor's text information: citrix_virtual_apps.citrix virtual apps citrix virtual apps formerly winframe metaframe presentation server xenapp application virtualization software produced citrix systems allows windows applications accessed via individual devices shared server cloud system citrix virtual apps application virtualization software delivers centrally-hosted windows applications local devices without necessity installing flagship product citrix formerly known names winframe metaframe presentation server citrix virtual apps software uses flexcast management architecture fma proprietary architecture citrix virtualization products delivers individual applications opposed entire desktops devices also used citrix workspace deliver apps part complete virtual desktop environment citrix virtual apps windows applications used devices typically could run including macintosh computers mobile devices google chromebooks conversely enables otherwise incompatible apps run windows desktops citrix virtual apps accessed devices via citrix receiver software delivered on-premises data centers public private hybrid clouds precursor virtual apps called winframe multi-user operating system based windows nt 3.51 released 1995 winframe one first products distributed citrix stage product development citrix systems licensed windows nt 3.51 base operating system microsoft core development citrix delivered multiwin engine allowed multiple users logon execute applications winframe server citrix later license multiwin technology microsoft forming basis microsoft terminal services repackaged versions windows 95 citrix winframe client included also available citrix metaframe superseded winframe 1998 product renamed several times became metaframe xp 2002 metaframe xp presentation server 2003 rebranded presentation server 2005 products focused remote access applications server-based computing 2008 product renamed xenapp xen taken company acquisition xensource 2007 2010 2012 citrix issued two updates xenapp xenapp 6 launched 2010 included new central management console called appcenter 2012 xenapp 6.5 released update included new feature called instant app access aimed reduce application launch time 2013 version 7.0 released update combined xendesktop xenapp one application called xendesktop flex management architecture fma prior versions xenapp used company independent management architecture ima 2014 version 7.5 released xenapp separate xendesktop also built fma 2018 xenapp rebranded citrix virtual apps Target text information: citrix_workspace.citrix workspace citrix workspace formerly citrix workspace suite digital workspace software platform developed citrix systems allows multiple users remotely access operate microsoft windows desktops running datacenter public private cloud via devices located elsewhere users able access virtual desktops applications citrix workspace app applications delivered managed via citrix virtual apps virtualization technology led xendesktop first developed 2000 open-source hypervisor research project led ian pratt university cambridge called xen project x86 pratt founded company called xensource 2004 made commercial version xen hypervisor 2007 citrix acquired xensource releasing xendesktop version 2.0 2008 company continues release updated versions xendesktop 7.6 featuring hdx technology enhancements audio video graphics user experience well reduction storage costs associated virtual desktop deployments result improvements citrix provisioning services 2018 software renamed citrix workspace product aim give employees ability work anywhere cutting information technology management costs desktops applications centralized xendesktop also aims provide security data stored devices end users instead saved centralized datacenter cloud infrastructure citrix developed software use medium large enterprise customers citrix workspace able manage deliver applications desktops using connection broker called desktop delivery controller supports multiple hypervisors including citrix hypervisor vmware vsphere microsoft hyper-v nutanix acropolis create virtual machines run applications desktops software allows several types delivery methods compatible multiple architectures including desktops servers datacenters private public hybrid clouds virtualized applications delivered virtual desktops using virtual apps I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	5,535	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_backup_software.list backup software list backup software performs data backups archivers transfer protocols version control systems often used backups software focused backup listed see comparison backup software features systems listed light purple background longer active development 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_backup_software.comparison backup software feature comparison backup software general comparison see list backup software Target text information: bup.bup bup backup system written python uses several formats git capable handling large files like operating system images block-based deduplication optional par2-based error correction bup development began 2010 accepted debian year bup uses git packfile format writing packfiles directly avoiding garbage collection bup available source notably part following distributions I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	9,925	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: personal_cloud.personal cloud personal cloud collection digital content services accessible device personal cloud tangible entity place gives users ability store synchronize stream share content relative core moving one platform screen location another created connected services applications reflects sets consumers ’ expectations next-generation computing services work four primary types personal cloud use today online cloud nas device cloud server device cloud home-made clouds online cloud also sometimes referred public cloud online cloud cloud computing model online resources like software data storage made available internet service provider online cloud model cloud services provided virtualized system constructed using pooled shared physical resources accessed internet typically individual organization little control ecosystem online cloud hosted core infrastructure shared many individuals organizations data applications provided service provider logically segregated authorized allowed access network-attached storage nas device computer connected network provides file-based data storage services devices network although may technically possible run software nas device designed general purpose server cloud nas remote storage accessed internet local cloud nas often used backups archiving one benefits nas cloud data cloud accessed time anywhere main drawback however speed transfer rate fast network connection data accessed therefore fairly slow three examples nas personal clouds cloud western digital cloudbox lacie central seagate many ways cloud servers work way physical servers functions perform different typically cloud server on-premises device connected internet gives users functions available online cloud added benefit security files control premises server cloud historically enterprise-based deployed businesses needing in-house cloud however also in-house options available individual users open-source owncloud runs linux cloudlocker device stoamigo nimbus project technologically proficient user common solution using personal cloud create home-made cloud system connecting external usb hard drive wi-fi router enables wired wireless computers access usb hard drive use storage retrieving files user needs share network thereby acting like cloud challenge home-made cloud order set user certain degree skills technology network setup solution novices average consumers setup done tech expert biggest issue security leaving files accessible anyone technical knowledge every router supports type access modification three biggest routers allow type connection linksys netgear asus 1-hop neighbor's text information: python_(programming_language).python programming language python interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language created guido van rossum first released 1991 python design philosophy emphasizes code readability notable use significant whitespace language constructs object-oriented approach aim help programmers write clear logical code small large-scale projects python dynamically typed garbage-collected supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming python often described batteries included language due comprehensive standard library python conceived late 1980s successor abc language python 2.0 released 2000 introduced features like list comprehensions garbage collection system capable collecting reference cycles python 3.0 released 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible much python 2 code run unmodified python 3 due concern amount code written python 2 support python 2.7 last release 2.x series extended 2020 language developer guido van rossum shouldered sole responsibility project july 2018 shares leadership member five-person steering council python interpreters available many operating systems global community programmers develops maintains cpython open source reference implementation non-profit organization python software foundation manages directs resources python cpython development python conceived late 1980s guido van rossum centrum wiskunde informatica cwi netherlands successor abc language inspired setl capable exception handling interfacing amoeba operating system implementation began december 1989 van rossum continued python lead developer july 12 2018 announced permanent vacation responsibilities python benevolent dictator life title python community bestowed upon reflect long-term commitment project chief decision-maker january 2019 active python core developers elected brett cannon nick coghlan barry warsaw carol willing van rossum five-member steering council lead project python 2.0 released 16 october 2000 many major new features including cycle-detecting garbage collector support unicode python 3.0 released 3 december 2008 major revision language completely backward-compatible many major features backported python 2.6.x 2.7.x version series releases python 3 include codice_1 utility automates least partially translation python 2 code python 3 python 2.7 end-of-life date initially set 2015 postponed 2020 concern large body existing code could easily forward-ported python 3 january 2017 google announced work python 2.7 go transcompiler improve performance concurrent workloads python multi-paradigm programming language object-oriented programming structured programming fully supported many features support functional programming aspect-oriented programming including metaprogramming metaobjects magic methods many paradigms supported via extensions including design contract logic programming python uses dynamic typing combination reference counting cycle-detecting garbage collector memory management also features dynamic name resolution late binding binds method variable names program execution python design offers support functional programming lisp tradition codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 functions list comprehensions dictionaries sets generator expressions standard library two modules itertools functools implement functional tools borrowed haskell standard ml language core philosophy summarized document zen python pep 20 includes aphorisms rather functionality built core python designed highly extensible compact modularity made particularly popular means adding programmable interfaces existing applications van rossum vision small core language large standard library easily extensible interpreter stemmed frustrations abc espoused opposite approach python strives simpler less-cluttered syntax grammar giving developers choice coding methodology contrast perl one way motto python embraces one—and preferably one—obvious way design philosophy alex martelli fellow python software foundation python book author writes describe something 'clever considered compliment python culture python developers strive avoid premature optimization reject patches non-critical parts cpython reference implementation would offer marginal increases speed cost clarity speed important python programmer move time-critical functions extension modules written languages c use pypy just-in-time compiler cython also available translates python script c makes direct c-level api calls python interpreter important goal python developers keeping fun use reflected language name—a tribute british comedy group monty python—and occasionally playful approaches tutorials reference materials examples refer spam eggs famous monty python sketch instead standard foo bar common neologism python community pythonic wide range meanings related program style say code pythonic say uses python idioms well natural shows fluency language conforms python minimalist philosophy emphasis readability contrast code difficult understand reads like rough transcription another programming language called unpythonic users admirers python especially considered knowledgeable experienced often referred pythonists pythonistas pythoneers python meant easily readable language formatting visually uncluttered often uses english keywords languages use punctuation unlike many languages use curly brackets delimit blocks semicolons statements optional fewer syntactic exceptions special cases c pascal python uses whitespace indentation rather curly brackets keywords delimit blocks increase indentation comes certain statements decrease indentation signifies end current block thus program visual structure accurately represents program semantic structure feature also sometimes termed off-side rule python statements include among others python support tail call optimization first-class continuations according guido van rossum never however better support coroutine-like functionality provided 2.5 extending python generators 2.5 generators lazy iterators information passed unidirectionally generator python 2.5 possible pass information back generator function python 3.3 information passed multiple stack levels python expressions similar languages c java python distinction expressions statements rigidly enforced contrast languages common lisp scheme ruby leads duplicating functionality example statements part expression list comprehensions lambda expressions expressions contain statements particular case assignment statement codice_78 form part conditional expression conditional statement advantage avoiding classic c error mistaking assignment operator codice_79 equality operator codice_36 conditions codice_81 syntactically valid probably unintended c code codice_82 causes syntax error python methods objects functions attached object class syntax codice_83 normal methods functions syntactic sugar codice_84 python methods explicit codice_85 parameter access instance data contrast implicit codice_85 codice_87 object-oriented programming languages e.g. c++ java objective-c ruby python uses duck typing typed objects untyped variable names type constraints checked compile time rather operations object may fail signifying given object suitable type despite dynamically typed python strongly typed forbidding operations well-defined example adding number string rather silently attempting make sense python allows programmers define types using classes often used object-oriented programming new instances classes constructed calling class example codice_88 codice_89 classes instances metaclass codice_90 instance allowing metaprogramming reflection version 3.0 python two kinds classes old-style new-style syntax styles difference whether class codice_91 inherited directly indirectly new-style classes inherit codice_91 instances codice_90 versions python 2 python 2.2 onwards kinds classes used old-style classes eliminated python 3.0 long term plan support gradual typing python 3.5 syntax language allows specifying static types checked default implementation cpython experimental optional static type checker named mypy supports compile-time type checking python usual c language arithmetic operators codice_50 codice_95 codice_96 codice_33 codice_58 also codice_34 exponentiation e.g codice_100 codice_101 new matrix multiply codice_35 operator included version 3.5 additionally unary operator codice_103 essentially inverts bits one argument integers means codice_104 operators include bitwise shift operators codice_105 shifts codice_106 left codice_107 places codice_108 codice_109 shifts codice_106 right codice_107 places codice_112 behavior division changed significantly time division integers produces accurate floating point results rounding towards negative infinity though different languages adds consistency instance means equation codice_126 always true also means equation codice_127 valid positive negative values codice_128 however maintaining validity equation means result codice_129 expected half-open interval 0 b codice_130 positive integer lie interval b 0 codice_130 negative python provides codice_132 function rounding float nearest integer tie-breaking versions 3 use round-away-from-zero codice_133 1.0 codice_134 −1.0 python 3 uses round even codice_135 2 codice_136 2 python allows boolean expressions multiple equality relations manner consistent general use mathematics example expression codice_137 tests whether codice_128 less codice_130 codice_130 less codice_141 c-derived languages interpret expression differently c expression would first evaluate codice_142 resulting 0 1 result would compared codice_141 python extensive built-in support arbitrary precision arithmetic integers transparently switched machine-supported maximum fixed-precision usually 32 64 bits belonging python type codice_144 arbitrary precision belonging python type codice_145 needed latter l suffix textual representation python 3 distinction codice_144 codice_145 types eliminated behavior entirely contained codice_144 class codice_149 type/class module codice_150 since version 2.4 provides decimal floating point numbers arbitrary precision several rounding modes codice_151 type module codice_152 since version 2.6 provides arbitrary precision rational numbers due python extensive mathematics library third-party library numpy extends native capabilities frequently used scientific scripting language aid problems numerical data processing manipulation python large standard library commonly cited one greatest strengths provides tools suited many tasks internet-facing applications many standard formats protocols mime http supported includes modules creating graphical user interfaces connecting relational databases generating pseudorandom numbers arithmetic arbitrary precision decimals manipulating regular expressions unit testing parts standard library covered specifications example web server gateway interface wsgi implementation codice_153 follows pep 333 modules specified code internal documentation test suites supplied however standard library cross-platform python code modules need altering rewriting variant implementations python implementations including cpython include read–eval–print loop repl permitting function command line interpreter user enters statements sequentially receives results immediately shells including idle ipython add abilities auto-completion session state retention syntax highlighting well standard desktop integrated development environments web browser-based ides sagemath intended developing science math-related python programs pythonanywhere browser-based ide hosting environment canopy ide commercial python ide emphasizing scientific computing cpython reference implementation python written c meeting c89 standard several select c99 features compiles python programs intermediate bytecode executed virtual machine cpython distributed large standard library written mixture c native python available many platforms including windows modern unix-like systems platform portability one earliest priorities pypy fast compliant interpreter python 2.7 3.5 just-in-time compiler brings significant speed improvement cpython stackless python significant fork cpython implements microthreads use c memory stack thus allowing massively concurrent programs pypy also stackless version micropython circuitpython python 3 variants optimised microcontrollers includes lego mindstorms ev3 just-in-time python compilers developed unsupported 2005 nokia released python interpreter series 60 mobile phones named pys60 includes many modules cpython implementations additional modules integrate symbian operating system project kept up-to-date run variants s60 platform several third-party modules available nokia n900 also supports python gtk widget libraries enabling programs written run target device several compilers high-level object languages either unrestricted python restricted subset python language similar python source language performance comparison various python implementations non-numerical combinatorial workload presented euroscipy '13 python development conducted largely python enhancement proposal pep process primary mechanism proposing major new features collecting community input issues documenting python design decisions python coding style covered pep 8 outstanding peps reviewed commented python community steering council enhancement language corresponds development cpython reference implementation mailing list python-dev primary forum language development specific issues discussed roundup bug tracker maintained python.org development originally took place self-hosted source-code repository running mercurial python moved github january 2017 cpython public releases come three types distinguished part version number incremented many alpha beta release-candidates also released previews testing final releases although rough schedule release often delayed code ready python development team monitors state code running large unit test suite development using buildbot continuous integration system community python developers also contributed 86,000 software modules python package index pypi official repository third-party python libraries major academic conference python pycon also special python mentoring programmes pyladies python name derived british comedy group monty python python creator guido van rossum enjoyed developing language monty python references appear frequently python code culture example metasyntactic variables often used python literature spam eggs instead traditional foo bar official python documentation also contains various references monty python routines prefix py- used show something related python examples use prefix names python applications libraries include pygame binding sdl python commonly used create games pyqt pygtk bind qt gtk python respectively pypy python implementation originally written python python api documentation generators include since 2003 python consistently ranked top ten popular programming languages tiobe programming community index third popular language behind java c selected programming language year 2007 2010 2018 empirical study found scripting languages python productive conventional languages c java programming problems involving string manipulation search dictionary determined memory consumption often better java much worse c c++ large organizations use python include wikipedia google yahoo cern nasa facebook amazon instagram spotify smaller entities like ilm ita social news networking site reddit written entirely python python serve scripting language web applications e.g. via mod_wsgi apache web server web server gateway interface standard api evolved facilitate applications web frameworks like django pylons pyramid turbogears web2py tornado flask bottle zope support developers design maintenance complex applications pyjs ironpython used develop client-side ajax-based applications sqlalchemy used data mapper relational database twisted framework program communications computers used example dropbox libraries numpy scipy matplotlib allow effective use python scientific computing specialized libraries biopython astropy providing domain-specific functionality sagemath mathematical software notebook interface programmable python library covers many aspects mathematics including algebra combinatorics numerical mathematics number theory calculus python successfully embedded many software products scripting language including finite element method software abaqus 3d parametric modeler like freecad 3d animation packages 3ds max blender cinema 4d lightwave houdini maya modo motionbuilder softimage visual effects compositor nuke 2d imaging programs like gimp inkscape scribus paint shop pro musical notation programs like scorewriter capella gnu debugger uses python pretty printer show complex structures c++ containers esri promotes python best choice writing scripts arcgis also used several video games adopted first three available programming languages google app engine two java go python commonly used artificial intelligence projects help libraries like tensorflow keras scikit-learn scripting language modular architecture simple syntax rich text processing tools python often used natural language processing many operating systems include python standard component ships linux distributions amigaos 4 freebsd package netbsd openbsd package macos used command line terminal many linux distributions use installers written python ubuntu uses ubiquity installer red hat linux fedora use anaconda installer gentoo linux uses python package management system portage python used extensively information security industry including exploit development sugar software one laptop per child xo developed sugar labs written python raspberry pi single-board computer project adopted python main user-programming language libreoffice includes python intends replace java python python scripting provider core feature since version 4.0 7 february 2013 python design philosophy influenced many programming languages python development practices also emulated languages example practice requiring document describing rationale issues surrounding change language python pep also used tcl erlang python received tiobe programming language year awards 2007 2010 2018 award given language greatest growth popularity year measured tiobe index 1-hop neighbor's text information: dropbox_(service).dropbox service dropbox file hosting service operated american company dropbox inc. headquartered san francisco california offers cloud storage file synchronization personal cloud client software dropbox founded 2007 mit students drew houston arash ferdowsi startup company initial funding seed accelerator combinator dropbox praised receiving crunchie award 2010 best internet application macworld 2009 editor choice award software ranked one valuable startups us world valuation us 10 billion described one combinator successful investments date however dropbox also experienced criticism generated controversy issues including security breaches privacy concerns dropbox blocked china since 2014 five star privacy rating electronic frontier foundation dropbox brings files together one central place creating special folder user computer contents folders synchronized dropbox servers computers devices user installed dropbox keeping files up-to-date devices dropbox uses freemium business model users offered free account set storage size paid subscriptions available offer capacity additional features dropbox basic users given two gigabytes free storage space dropbox plus users given two terabytes storage space well additional features including advanced sharing controls remote wipe optional extended version history add-on dropbox offers computer apps microsoft windows apple macos linux computers mobile apps ios android windows phone smartphones tablets march 2013 company acquired mailbox popular email app april 2014 company introduced dropbox carousel photo video gallery app mailbox carousel shut december 2015 key features apps implemented regular dropbox service october 2015 officially announced dropbox paper collaborative document editor reported effort expand operations towards businesses march 2016 dropbox 500 million users dropbox founder drew houston conceived dropbox concept repeatedly forgetting usb flash drive student mit 2009 meet team post dropbox blog wrote existing services time suffered problems internet latency large files bugs made think much began making something personal use realized could benefit others problems houston founded evenflow inc. may 2007 company behind dropbox shortly thereafter secured seed funding combinator dropbox officially launched 2008 techcrunch disrupt annual technology conference owing trademark disputes proxy inc. evenflow dropbox official domain name get dropbox.com october 2009 acquired current domain dropbox.com october 2009 evenflow inc. renamed dropbox inc interview techcrunch founder stories october 2011 houston explained demo video released dropbox early days one viewer arash ferdowsi ferdowsi impressed formed partnership regards competition houston stated easy explain idea actually really hard dropbox seen steady user growth since inception surpassed 1 million registered users milestone april 2009 followed 2 million september 3 million november passed 50 million users october 2011 100 million november 2012 200 million november 2013 400 million june 2015 500 million march 2016 july 2012 dropbox acquired tapengage startup enables advertisers publishers collaborate tablet-optimized advertising following december dropbox acquired two companies audiogalaxy startup allowing users store music files playlists cloud stream device snapjoy company allowed users aggregate archive view digital photos cameras phones popular apps like flickr instagram picasa view online via ios app july 2013 dropbox acquired endorse mobile coupon startup may 2014 dropbox acquired bubbli startup built innovative ways incorporating 3d technology 2d views packaging mobile app january 2015 dropbox acquired cloudon company provided mobile applications document editing creation time dropbox told techcrunch cloudon base herzliya would become first dropbox office israel july dropbox acquired clementine enterprise communication service april 2014 dropbox acquired photo-sharing company loom would shut integrated then-recently announced carousel document-sharing startup hackpad dropbox later announced april 2017 hackpad would shut july 19 notes migrated dropbox paper dropbox computer apps microsoft windows apple macos linux computers mobile apps ios android windows phone smartphones tablets also offers website interface part partnership microsoft dropbox announced universal windows 10 app january 2016 dropbox apps offer automatic photo uploading feature allowing users automatically upload photos videos cameras tablets sd cards smartphones dedicated camera uploads folder dropbox users given 500 megabytes extra space uploading first photo given 3 gigabytes extra space users continue using method photos july 2014 dropbox introduced streaming sync computer apps streaming sync described new supercharged synchronization speed large files improves upload download time 2 times august 2015 dropbox announced availability universal 2nd factor usb security keys providing two-factor authentication logging services dropbox received initial funding seed accelerator combinator dropbox also raised us 1.2 million series funding sequoia capital 2007 along interest amount converted equity part series investment included fresh slug us 6 million bringing total amount us 7.25 million round closed 2008 documents filed 2009 may 2010 report wall street journal said since founder drew houston started reading eric ries lean startup blog year ago company started trickling new features ready instead waiting launch fully featured product helps test customer appetite says dubbing practice minimum viable product techcrunch reported july 2011 dropbox looking raise us 200 us 300 million valuation end 5 billion 10 billion range ... quite step previous funding rounds totalled tiny 7.2 million noted forbes article dropbox revenue track hit 240 million 2011 april 2012 dropbox announced bono edge two members irish rock band u2 individual investors company march 2017 bloomberg reported dropbox secured us 600 million credit line company expected file initial public offering ipo soon year february 2018 dropbox filed ipo listed nasdaq company initial intent raise 500 million dropbox stock rose 42 percent 29.89 first day trading march 23 2018 may 2018 dropbox never profitable reports positive cash flow dropbox uses freemium business model users offered free account set storage size paid subscriptions available offer capacity additional features dropbox basic users given two gigabytes free storage space expanded referrals users recommend service people people start using service user awarded additional 500 megabytes storage space dropbox basic users earn 16 gigabytes referral program dropbox plus subscription named dropbox pro prior march 2017 gives users 2 terabytes storage space well additional features including november 2013 dropbox announced changes dropbox business would enable users connect personal dropbox business dropbox device folders properly labeled personal work come password contacts settings files furthermore dropbox announced shared audit logs remote wipe business administrators account transfers new features business offering january 2017 dropbox introduced smart sync business enterprise customers feature lets windows macos users see files dropbox folder download specific files on-demand similarly dropbox basic dropbox plus users also earn extra space referrals plus users earn 1 gigabyte per referral 32 gigabytes dropbox business dropbox solution corporations adding business-centered functionality teams including collaboration tools advanced security control unlimited file recovery user management granular permissions options unlimited storage large organizations dropbox offers dropbox enterprise highest tier product offerings adding domain management tools assigned dropbox customer support member help expert advisors deployment user training july 2016 dropbox announced new adminx administrator dashboard business customers offering improved control company files users june 2017 adminx dashboard given redesign additional administrator functions log-in durations custom password strength parameters granular subdomain verifications specified teams september 2012 facebook dropbox integrated allow users facebook groups share files using dropbox 2013 samsung pre-loaded dropbox mobile application android devices dropbox provided extra space users owning samsung devices november 2014 dropbox announced partnership microsoft integrate dropbox microsoft office applications ios android office 365 applications web july 10 2018 dropbox announced partnership salesforce aiming improve brand engagement team productivity dropbox software enables users drop file designated folder file automatically uploaded dropbox cloud-based service made available user computers devices also dropbox software installed keeping file up-to-date systems file user dropbox folder changed dropbox uploads pieces file changed whenever possible file folder deleted users recover within 30 days dropbox plus users recovery time extended one year purchasing extended version history add-on dropbox accounts accessed emails replied year automatically deleted dropbox also offers lan sync feature instead receiving information data dropbox servers computers local network exchange files directly potentially significantly improving synchronization speeds originally dropbox servers computer apps written python july 2014 dropbox began migrating performance-critical backend infrastructure go september 2012 dropbox website code base rewritten javascript coffeescript dropbox originally used amazon s3 storage system store user files 2014 2016 gradually moved away amazon use hardware referred magic pocket due dropbox description place keep stuff ’ get lost always access june 2017 company announced major global network expansion aiming increase synchronization speeds cutting costs expansion starting 14 cities across 7 countries 3 continents adds hundreds gigabits internet connectivity transit providers regional global isps hundreds new peering partners exchange traffic directly rather isp dropbox uses ssl transfers synchronization stores data via advanced encryption standard aes -256 encryption functionality dropbox integrated third-party applications application programming interface api dropbox prevents sharing copyrighted data checking hash files shared public folders users blacklist copyrighted material applies files folders shared users publicly files kept individual dropbox folder shared march 2013 dropbox acquired mailbox popular email app mailbox ceo gentry underwood saying rather grow mailbox 've decided join forces dropbox build together deal developers mailbox joined dropbox kept mailbox running stand-alone app mailbox ceo stated still struggling keep demand want use dropbox ceo drew houston said felt could help mailbox reach much different audience much faster acquisition reported cost 100 million december 2015 dropbox announced shut-down mailbox blog post drew houston arash ferdowsi explained 'll ... using 've learned mailbox build new ways communicate collaborate dropbox april 2014 dropbox introduced carousel photo video gallery combines photos dropbox photos phone automatically backs new ones take carousel sorted photos event date december 2015 dropbox announced shut-down carousel blog post drew houston arash ferdowsi explained 'll taking key features carousel back place photos live dropbox app april 2015 dropbox launched dropbox notes collaborative note-taking service beta testing phase prompting speculation dropbox planning bring product compete google docs techcrunch noted dropbox notes appeared new version project composer previous iteration service roots acquisition hackpad april 2014 october 2015 dropbox announced upcoming launch dropbox paper collaborative document editor noted media result development dropbox notes service earlier 2015 dropbox paper entered open beta august 2016 allowing anyone join test product mobile apps android ios also released january 2017 dropbox paper officially launched aimed businesses dropbox paper described one part online document one part collaboration one part task management tool one part content hub rob baesman dropbox head product allows importing editing collaboration number file types google microsoft others users devised number uses mashups technology expand dropbox functionality include sending files dropbox via gmail using dropbox sync instant messaging chat logs bittorrent management password management remote application launching system monitoring free web hosting service dropbox received several awards including crunchie award 2010 best internet application macworld 2009 editor choice award software nominated 2010 webby award 2010 mac design awards ars technica 2011 business insider named dropbox world sixth valuable startup 2017 publication ranked dropbox eighth valuable us startup valuation 10 billion described one combinator successful investments date apple launched cloud storage service later 2011 icloud n't hold back dropbox growth dropbox mobile iphone app release 2010 among top 10 best apps selected alex ahlund former ceo two websites focused mobile apps company android app also selected one top five best apps list compiled 2010 jason hiner zdnet founders drew houston arash ferdowsi named among top 30 30 entrepreneurs inc. 2011 january 2012 dropbox named startup year techcrunch 2016 company ranked 2 forbes cloud 100 list dropbox subject criticism controversy related multiple incidents including june 2011 authentication problem let accounts accessed several hours without passwords july 2011 privacy policy update language suggesting dropbox ownership users data concerns dropbox employee access users information july 2012 email spam recurrence february 2013 leaked government documents june 2013 information dropbox considered inclusion national security agency prism surveillance program july 2014 comment nsa whistleblower edward snowden criticizing dropbox encryption leak 68 million account passwords internet august 2016 january 2017 accidental data restoration incident years-old supposedly deleted files reappeared users accounts dropbox headquarters located san francisco originally market street expansion china basin landing building july 2011 allowing significant space increase number employees grew company needed expansion february 2014 signed lease two buildings brannan street needing substantial amounts space company started shopping remaining available space companies sublease november 2015 dropbox expanded second u.s. office austin texas february 2014 state texas city austin provided 1.7 million performance-based incentives package dropbox exchange locating office austin december 2012 dropbox set office dublin ireland first office outside united states Target text information: cloudike.cloudike cloudike brandable file storage platform operated cloudike inc. headquartered san jose california platform provides cloud storage file synchronization contact synchronization personal cloud client software company data storage approach similar dropbox google drive apple icloud store user data provide access files smartphones laptops tablets etc main difference apart functionality end-users cloudike personal cloudike offers customization businesses cloudike enterprise brands widely known white-label cloudike started 2013 saas-platform grew multi-tier cloud solution used build white-label enterprise data storages oems mobile internet service providers platform modules enterprise data administration storage api integration billing systems cloudike enables building large-scale file storages based openstack swift amazon s3 storage systems compatible amazon s3 apis synchronize user files server cloudike provides desktop clients windows macos android ios devices cloudike offers mobile clients files contact lists accessed via web browser data updates synchronized computers mobile devices associated user accounts cloudike based set programmatic interfaces apis written python uses python frameworks django tornado create rest api message broker software rabbitmq mongodb build contact synchronization mechanism cloudike utilizes sabredav framework web-frontend part single page application based angularjs end-user features enterprise modules several cloud platforms provide white-label services similar cloudike list contains cloud storage platforms might directly indirectly compete cloudike I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	5,791	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: wdc_65c816.wdc 65c816 w65c816s also 65c816 65816 8/16-bit microprocessor mpu developed sold western design center wdc introduced 1983 w65c816s enhanced version wdc 65c02 8-bit mpu cmos enhancement venerable mos technology 6502 nmos mpu 65816 cpu apple iigs super nintendo entertainment system 65 part designation comes 65c02 compatibility mode 816 signifies mpu selectable 8– 16–bit register sizes addition availability 16 bit registers w65c816s features extended memory addressing 24-bits supporting 16 megabytes random-access memory enhanced instruction set 16 bit stack pointer well several new electrical signals improved system hardware management reset w65c816s starts emulation mode meaning substantially behaves 65c02 thereafter w65c816s may switched native mode two instruction sequence causing enable enhanced features yet still maintain substantial degree backward compatibility 65c02 software however unlike pdip40 version 65c02 pin-compatible replacement nmos ancestor pdip40 w65c816s pin-compatible 6502 family mpu related w65c816s w65c802 internal structure 16-bit support used 40-pin layout compatible original 6502 allowed used drop-in replacement certain roles lack new address pins limited 64 kb memory see extensive use longer produced 1981 bill mensch founder ceo wdc began development 65c02 production partners primarily rockwell semiconductor synertek primary goal 65c02 effort move original 6502 nmos process 65c02 cmos would allow run much lower power levels somewhere running clock speeds number new opcodes bug fixes also worked design development w65c816s commenced 1982 mensch consulted apple computer new version apple ii series personal computers would among things improved graphics sound apple wanted mpu would software compatible 6502 use apple ii ability address memory load store 16 bit words result 65c816 finished march 1984 samples provided apple atari second half year full release 1985 mensch aided design process sister kathryn responsible part device layout process also led 65c802 identical inside 65c816 produced fabrication lines diverged last metalization stages chip connected external pins 65c802 pins layout original 6502 allowed used drop-in replacement still allowing 16-bit processing cpu used however used original pinout 16 addressing pins could therefore access 64 kb external memory typically hardware manufacturers designed project ground used 65c816 rather 65c802 resulting latter withdrawn production apple subsequently integrated 65c816 apple iigs computer basic 65c816 design second-sourced gte sanyo others mid-to-late 1980s early 1990s 1990s 65c816 65c02 converted fully static core made possible completely stop processor clock without losing data registers feature along use asynchronous static ram made possible produce designs used minimal power standby state w65c816s available wdc 40 pin pdip plcc44 package well core asic integration example winbond w55v9x series tv edutainment ics wdc fabless semiconductor company works various foundries produce w65c816s well compatible products discrete processors available number electronics distributors designers wish include w65c816s functionality custom asic wdc offers rtl register-transfer level code verilog wdc 65816 features 65c816 two modes emulation mode 16-bit operations registers invisible chip appeared original 6502 cycle timings opcodes native mode made additional features visible cpu automatically returned emulation mode powered reset allowed drop-in replace 6502 obvious change 65c816 running 16-bit mode expansion various registers 8-bit 16-bit values affects accumulator x index registers stack pointer sp affect program counter p always 16-bit running native mode two bits status register change meaning original 6502 bits 4 5 used although bit 4 sometimes referred b reak flag native mode bit 4 becomes x flag bit 5 becomes flag bits control whether index registers x and/or accumulator/memory 8-bit 16-bit values zeros bits indicate 16-bit values ones indicate 8-bit values bits normally zero chip started remain switched native mode might immediately obvious one would want use 16-bit registers 8-bit mode switching 8-bit mode using new codice_1 set bit processor status codice_2 reset instructions means subsequent instructions accessing registers read single byte instead two instance bit set 1 codice_3 instruction issued single byte address 1234 read thereby reducing number cycles needed execute instruction particularly useful dealing 8-bit character data instance running 16-bit mode operations registers effect 16-bits instance left shift codice_4 shift 16 bits major change system running native mode memory model expanded 24-bit format original 16-bit format 6502 handled using 8-bit offset registers data bank register dbr program bank register pbr addresses code remain original 16-bit format values dbr pbr prepended form 24-bit address main memory means instructions access data within 64 kb page bank referred data outside page needs accessed dbr change likewise instructions lie anywhere memory using pbr branch jump instructions within bank addition register set direct page register set base address formerly called zero page referred direct page direct page offers special addressing mode requires one byte offer significantly improved performance used wisely 6502 direct page always first 256 bytes memory thus zero page whereas 16-bit register offset location 24-bit memory current mode operation stored emulation bit enough bits left status register hold new mode bit unique solution used mode bit left invisible unable directly accessed new codice_5 exchange carry emulation exchanges value emulation bit c arry bit bit 0 status register instance one wants enter native mode processor started one would use codice_6 clear carry bit codice_5 write emulation bit returning 6502 mode uses codice_8 cpu switches native mode upper 8-bits registers initially set zero read written complete 16-bit values point assuming x 16-bit mode system switches back 8-bit mode value upper 8-bits maintained return system switches back native systems based 65816 variants also used c-one supercpu enhancements commodore 64 1-hop neighbor's text information: non-maskable_interrupt.non-maskable interrupt computing non-maskable interrupt nmi hardware interrupt standard interrupt-masking techniques system ignore typically occurs signal attention non-recoverable hardware errors nmis may masked using proprietary methods specific particular nmi nmi often used response time critical interrupt never disabled normal system operation uses include reporting non-recoverable hardware errors system debugging profiling handling special cases like system resets modern computer architectures typically use nmis handle non-recoverable errors need immediate attention therefore interrupts masked normal operation system errors include non-recoverable internal system chipset errors corruption system memory parity ecc errors data corruption detected system peripheral buses systems computer user trigger nmi hardware software debugging interfaces system reset buttons programmers typically use debugging nmis diagnose fix faulty code cases nmi execute interrupt handler transfers control special monitor program program developer inspect machine memory examine internal state program instant interruption also allows debugging diagnosing computers appear hung older architectures nmis used interrupts typically never disabled required response time hidden signals examples include floppy disk controller amstrad pcw 8087 coprocessor x86 used ibm pc compatibles even though intel recommended connecting normal interrupt low battery signal hp 95lx original ibm pc nmi triggered parity error detected system memory reported external device either case pc would display error message halt later pc clones used nmi conceal hardware differences standard pc computers nmi would generated program attempted access incompatible hardware bios interrupt handler would translate program request match hardware actually present smm 386sl better way 8-bit home computers used nmi line permit warm start system locked typically would restore control registers known good values stored rom without destroying whatever data user might currently loaded commodore 8-bit machines restore key hooked directly indirectly nmi line 6502-series cpu reset would take place nmi handler routine rom detected run/stop also held restore struck combination commodore version three finger salute commodore also connected mos technology 6526 cia 2 c64 c128 processor nmi line part means software emulation 6551 acia accomplished atari 8-bit line used system reset button purpose debugging nmis appeared number forms including apple macintosh programmers button certain key combinations sun workstations introduction windows 2000 microsoft allowed use nmi cause system either break debugger dump contents memory disk reboot debugging nmis also used devices allow leisure users gamers manipulate running programs devices added button generate nmi romantic robot multiface popular accessory 1980s 8-bit 16-bit home computers peripherals small amount rom nmi button pressing button transferred control software peripheral rom allowing suspended program saved disk useful tape-based games disk support also saving games progress screenshots saved printed values memory manipulated—a cheating technique acquire extra lives example computers provide mechanism triggering nmis however many machines typically rackmount servers provide physical button specifically purpose machines may expose functionality via expansion card miles gordon technology disciple +d products zx spectrum featured nmi-producing magic button nintendo entertainment system nmi generated vertical blanking interval nmis often referred vblank interrupts occur frequent regular intervals code manipulates game graphics audio often executed inside nmi handler routine clearing 7th bit ppu 2000 register disables vblank interrupts setting enables 1-hop neighbor's text information: mos_technology_6509.mos technology 6509 mos technology 6509 enhanced version popular 6502 microprocessor capable addressing 1 megabyte ram via bank switching numerous 6502-based processors could bank switching via separate logic 6509 logic on-chip 6509 reputation difficult program due bank switching scheme never fared well used ill-fated commodore cbm-ii line computers Target text information: mos_technology_6507.mos technology 6507 6507 8-bit microprocessor mos technology inc version 6502 packaged 28-pin dip makes cheaper package integrate systems reduction pin count achieved reducing address bus 16 bits 13 limiting memory 64 kb 8 kb removing number pins needed certain applications a15 a13 signals interrupt lines accessible result address 8 kb memory applications time 1975 acceptable overly restrictive entire 65xx cpu family originally conceived line low-cost microprocessors small-scale embedded systems general-purpose computers certainly interactive personal computers generally exist yet 6507 6502 chips use underlying silicon layers differ final metallisation layer ties interrupt lines inactive level vulnerable generating spurious interrupts noise first three digits chip identifier part silicon layers final digit metallisation layer micro-photography 6502 6507 shows difference 6507 widely used two applications best-selling atari 2600 video game console atari 8-bit family peripherals including 850 serial parallel interface floppy disk controllers 810 1050 disk drives 2600 system limited design rom cartridge slot allowed 4 kb external memory addressed 4 kb reserved internal ram i/o chips using minimal-cost partial decoding technique causes ram peripheral device registers mirrored throughout 4 kb machines notably home computers based 650x architecture used either standard 6502 extended rather cut versions order allow memory time 6502 line becoming widely used around 1980 rom ram semiconductor memory prices fallen point 6507 longer worthwhile simplification use new designs ceased point though atari 2600 contained continued sold early 1990s discontinued january 1 1992 however late-model atari 2600 consoles redesigned highly-integrated 2600 jr units necessarily contain separate 6507 chip might integrated cpu custom asic 6507 uses 28-pin configuration 13 address pins 8 data pins seven remaining pins used power cpu timing clock reset cpu request bus wait states rdy pin read/write commands memory mmio devices cpu irq nmi pin processor rdy pin included 28-pin cut-down versions 6502 within atari 2600 rdy used synchronise cpu television video frame function essential 'racing beam method used 6502 atari television interface adaptor chip generate television video signal response specific register access tia assert rdy extend bus cycle end current video scan line I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	10,969	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_ray.sun ray sun ray oracle stateless thin client solution aimed corporate environments originally introduced sun microsystems september 1999 discontinued oracle 2014 featured smart card reader several models featured integrated flat panel display idea stateless desktop significant shift eventual successor sun earlier line diskless java-only desktops javastation concept began sun microsystems laboratories 1997 project codenamed networkterminal newt client designed small low cost low power silent based sun microelectronics microsparc iiep processors initially considered included intel strongarm philips semiconductors trimedia national semiconductors geode microsparc iiep selected high level integration good performance low cost general availability newt included 8 mb edo dram 4 mb flash graphics controller used ati rage 128 low power 2d rendering performance low cost also included ati video encoder tv-out removed sun ray 1 philips semiconductor saa7114 video decoder/scaler crystal semiconductor audio codec sun microelectronics ethernet controller pci usb host interface 4 port hub i²c smart card interface motherboard daughtercard housed off-the-shelf commercial small form-factor pc case internal +12/+5vdc auto ranging power supply newt designed much feature parity modern business pc every way possible client n't use commercial operating system instead used real-time exec originally developed sun labs part ethernet-based security camera project codenamed netcam less 60 newt ever built survived however one collection computer history museum mountain view california july 2013 reports circulated oracle ending development sun ray related products scott mcnealy long-time ceo sun tweeted official announcement made august 1 2013 last order february 2014 support hardware maintenance available 2017 contrast thick client sun ray networked display device applications running server elsewhere state user session independent display enables another feature sun ray portable sessions user go one sun ray another continue work without closing programs smart card user insert card presented session reauthentication requirement depends mode operation without smart card procedure almost identical except user must specify username well password get session either case session yet exist new one created first time user connects sun ray clients connected via ethernet network sun ray server sun ray software srs available solaris linux operating systems sun developed separate network display protocol appliance link protocol alp sun ray system vmware announced support protocol vmware view 2008 sun ray software two basic modes operation—generic session kiosk mode generic session user see solaris gnu/linux login screen operating system running srs kiosk mode log screen varies depending session type use kiosk mode used number different desktop applications oracle integrated rdp client vmware view client sun ray software used kiosk mode start full screen windows session mode window manager unix desktop started windows environment os supports rdp 2007 sun uk company thruput integrated sun ray 2fs 28 2048 × 2048 30 2560 × 1600 56 3840 × 2160 displays 2008 trialled external graphics accelerator enables sun ray used high resolution display sun ray 3 models last production—last order date february 28 2014 last ship date august 31 2014 sun oem partners produced wi-fi notebook versions sun ray sun ray 1 clients used 100mhz microsparc iiep processor initially followed custom soc version codenamed copernicus us 6993,617 b2 based microsparc iiep core added 4mb on-chip dram usb smart card interface addition memory controller pci interface already microsparc iiep sun ray 2 3 clients use mips architecture-based rmi alchemy au1550 processor pure software implementation available sun ray software 5 srs5 commercial environments sun rays commonly deployed thin client access microsoft windows desktop using srss built-in rdp client uttsc desktop terminal server session virtual machine vdi setup flexible works well many environments intermediate sun ray server layer transparent windows desktop time however transparency also become issue software location dependent location dependent information needs added possible extend functionality sun ray software additional custom scripts sun ray wiki offers follow printing setup example e.g user always gets nearest printer default printer going room-to-room location-to-location also inside windows session relatively easy administrator extend add functionality required 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_fire_15k.sun fire 15k sun fire 15k codenamed starcat enterprise-class server computer sun microsystems based sparc v9 processor architecture announced september 25 2001 new york city superseding sun enterprise 10000 general availability january 2002 last shipped may 2005 sun fire 15k supported 106 ultrasparc iii processors 1.2 ghz 72 ultrasparc ivs 1.35 ghz installed across 18 system boards uniboards containing cpu sockets ram slots ultrasparc iii sun supported 17 dual-socket maxcpu processor cards place i/o mezzanine cards configuration supported ultrasparc iv maximum physical ram per system 576 gb maximum 72 pci i/o slots available system divided maximum 18 secure independent domains separate machine filesystems root password ability run different versions solaris e15k along enterprise sun servers dynamic reconfiguration feature administrators could dynamically change assignment ram processors different domains meet changes business needs addition 15k contains two system controllers duplicated redundancy embedded sparc computers running solaris used manage 15k perform tasks booting shutting domains assigning uniboards domains 15k contains minimal storage system controller boot disks connected via san separate storage array sun fire 12k codenamed starkitty reduced configuration version 15k introduced april 2002 supported maximum 52 processors intended fill position sun server product line 15k sun fire 6800 sun fire e25k codenamed amazon 25 e denoting enterprise announced february 2004 base cabinet identical 15k difference two systems processor boards installed reached end-of-life january 2009 superseded sun sparc enterprise m9000 server e25k supports 72 dual-core ultrasparc iv+ processors 1.95 ghz ultrasparc iv-based 15k systems maxcpu option offered e25k systems overall system bandwidth claimed 172.8 gb/s aggregate 115.2 gb/s peak 43.2 gb/s sustained overall i/o bandwidth 35.8-gb/s sustained 64 gb ram per board possible maximum 1.15 tb ram single domain 72 hot swappable pci-x i/o slots 54 slots 90 mhz 18 slots 33 mhz also supports 10/100 baset ethernet gigabit ethernet ultrascsi lvd hvd atm fc-al hsi sci Target text information: sparc_enterprise.sparc enterprise sparc enterprise series range unix server computers based sparc v9 architecture co-developed sun microsystems fujitsu introduced 2007 marketed sold sun microsystems later oracle corporation acquisition sun fujitsu fujitsu siemens computers common brand sparc enterprise superseding sun sun fire fujitsu primepower server product lines since 2010 servers based new sparc cmt processors sparc t3 later branded oracle sparc t-series servers midrange high-end sparc64 vi sparc64 vii sparc64 vii+ processor based servers designated m-series indicates ras features similar mainframe class machines sparc64 vi dual-core processor core featuring two-way vertical multi-threading vmt m9000 server configured maximum number processors supports running 256 concurrent threads vmt coarse-grained multi-threading implementation core sparc64 vi handle two strands threads vmt switches execution one strand basis events execute instructions another thread pipeline must saved/flushed switched registers thread events include l2 cache misses hardware timer exception interrupts multi-threading-related control instructions also called switch event soe threading 2008 fujitsu released sparc64 vii quad-core processor core featuring two-way simultaneous multi-threading existing m-class servers able upgrade sparc64 vii processors field 2010 fujitsu released sparc64 vii+ running higher frequency larger l2 cache predecessor sparc64 vii sparc64 vii+ processor module includes four physical cores core execute two threads physical core able run threads simultaneously smt context-switch time two threads share instruction pipeline smoothly ready run alternate cycles superscalar instruction issue share functional units according need important capability m-series ability mix processor generations clock speeds system domain m-series servers sparc64 vi sparc64 vii cpus installed run native speeds clocking slowest cpu april 17 2007 sun sparc enterprise m9000 achieved 1.032 tflops linpack benchmark making fastest single system supercomputer time may 2 2008 sun sparc enterprise m9000 server achieved world performance record tpc-h data warehousing benchmark 1 terabyte scale factor using oracle database february 19 2009 sparc enterprise m8000 holds 64-thread world performance records spec omp2001 benchmark medium large ultrasparc t1-based sun fire t1000 t2000 rebranded sparc enterprise october 2007 sun added ultrasparc t2-based servers sparc enterprise line april 2008 sun added ultrasparc t2 plus-based servers sparc enterprise line october 2008 sun released 4-way smp ultrasparc t2 plus-based server sparc enterprise models licensed run solaris 10 solaris 11 m-series supports dynamic domains dynamic reconfiguration enable single machine divided multiple electrically isolated partitions ultrasparc t1 ultrasparc t2/t2+ models partition system using logical domains m-series t-series models support solaris containers supports maximum 8191 non-global zones dynamic domain logical domain I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,707	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: fortran.fortran fortran formerly fortran derived formula translation general-purpose compiled imperative programming language especially suited numeric computation scientific computing originally developed ibm 1950s scientific engineering applications fortran came dominate area programming early continuous use six decades computationally intensive areas numerical weather prediction finite element analysis computational fluid dynamics computational physics crystallography computational chemistry popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers fortran encompasses lineage versions evolved add extensions language usually retaining compatibility prior versions successive versions added support structured programming processing character-based data fortran 77 array programming modular programming generic programming fortran 90 high performance fortran fortran 95 object-oriented programming fortran 2003 concurrent programming fortran 2008 fortran design basis many programming languages among better known basic based fortran ii number syntax cleanups notably better logical structures changes work easily interactive environment names earlier versions language fortran 77 conventionally spelled all-capitals fortran 77 last version use lowercase letters keywords strictly non-standard capitalization dropped referring newer versions beginning fortran 90 official language standards refer language fortran rather all-caps fortran late 1953 john w. backus submitted proposal superiors ibm develop practical alternative assembly language programming ibm 704 mainframe computer backus historic fortran team consisted programmers richard goldberg sheldon f. best harlan herrick peter sheridan roy nutt robert nelson irving ziller harold stern lois haibt david sayre concepts included easier entry equations computer idea developed j. halcombe laning demonstrated laning zierler system 1952 programmers chess players chosen work ibm thought logical minds draft specification ibm mathematical formula translating system completed november 1954 first manual fortran appeared october 1956 first fortran compiler delivered april 1957 first optimizing compiler customers reluctant use high-level programming language unless compiler could generate code performance comparable hand-coded assembly language community skeptical new method could possibly outperform hand-coding reduced number programming statements necessary operate machine factor 20 quickly gained acceptance john backus said 1979 interview think ibm employee magazine much work come lazy n't like writing programs working ibm 701 writing programs computing missile trajectories started work programming system make easier write programs language widely adopted scientists writing numerically intensive programs encouraged compiler writers produce compilers could generate faster efficient code inclusion complex number data type language made fortran especially suited technical applications electrical engineering 1960 versions fortran available ibm 709 650 1620 7090 computers significantly increasing popularity fortran spurred competing computer manufacturers provide fortran compilers machines 1963 40 fortran compilers existed reasons fortran considered first widely used cross-platform programming language development fortran paralleled early evolution compiler technology many advances theory design compilers specifically motivated need generate efficient code fortran programs initial release fortran ibm 704 contained 32 statements including arithmetic statement reminiscent readily implementable three-way comparison instruction cas compare accumulator storage available 704 statement provided way compare numbers testing difference attendant risk overflow deficiency later overcome logical facilities introduced fortran iv statement used originally optionally give branch probabilities three branch cases arithmetic statement first fortran compiler used weighting perform compile time monte carlo simulation generated code results used optimize placement basic blocks memory sophisticated optimization time monte carlo technique documented backus et al paper original implementation fortran automatic coding system fundamental unit program basic block basic block stretch program one entry point one exit point purpose section 4 prepare section 5 table predecessors pred table enumerates basic blocks lists every basic block basic blocks immediate predecessor flow together absolute frequency basic block link table obtained running program monte-carlo fashion outcome conditional transfers arising if-type statements computed go determined random number generator suitably weighted according whatever frequency statements provided many years later statement effect code treated comment statement since compilers longer kind compile-time simulation similar fate befallen compiler hints several programming languages example c keyword first fortran compiler reported diagnostic information halting program error found outputting error code console code could looked programmer error messages table operator manual providing brief description problem later error handling subroutine handle users error division zero developed nasa incorporated giving users feedback line code error appeared development disk files text editors terminals programs often entered keypunch keyboard onto 80-column punched cards one line card resulting deck cards would fed card reader compiled punched card codes included lower-case letters many special characters special versions ibm 026 keypunch offered would correctly print re-purposed special characters used fortran reflecting punched card input practice fortran programs originally written fixed-column format first 72 columns read twelve 36-bit words letter c column 1 caused entire card treated comment ignored compiler otherwise columns card divided four fields columns 73 80 could therefore used identification information punching sequence number text could used re-order cards stack cards dropped though practice reserved stable production programs ibm 519 could used copy program deck add sequence numbers early compilers e.g. ibm 650 additional restrictions due limitations card readers keypunches could programmed tab column 7 skip column 72 later compilers relaxed fixed-format restrictions requirement eliminated fortran 90 standard within statement field whitespace characters blanks ignored outside text literal allowed omitting spaces tokens brevity including spaces within identifiers clarity example valid identifier equivalent 101010do101i=1,101 valid statement equivalent 10101 101 1 101 zero column 6 treated space 101010do101i=1.101 instead 10101 do101i 1.101 assignment 1.101 variable called do101i note slight visual difference comma period hollerith strings originally allowed format data statements prefixed character count letter h e.g. allowing blanks retained within character string miscounts problem ibm fortran ii appeared 1958 main enhancement support procedural programming allowing user-written subroutines functions returned values parameters passed reference common statement provided way subroutines access common global variables six new statements introduced next years fortran ii would also add support data types early fortran compilers supported recursion subroutines early computer architectures supported concept stack directly support subroutine calls return location often stored one fixed location adjacent subroutine code e.g ibm 1130 specific machine register ibm 360 et seq allows recursion stack maintained software return address stored stack call made restored call returns although specified fortran 77 many f77 compilers supported recursion option burroughs mainframes designed recursion built-in default became standard fortran 90 via new keyword recursive program heron formula reads data tape reel containing three 5-digit integers b c input type declarations available variables whose name starts j k l n fixed-point i.e integers otherwise floating-point since integers processed example names variables start letter name variable must start letter continue letters digits limit six characters fortran ii b c represent sides triangle plane geometry program execution end error code stop 1 otherwise output line printed showing input values b c followed computed area triangle floating-point number occupying ten spaces along line output showing 2 digits decimal point .2 f10.2 format statement label 601 c area triangle standard square root function c input tape reader unit 5 integer input c output line printer unit 6 real output c input error display error output code 1 job control listing c ia ib ic may negative zero c furthermore sum two sides triangle c must greater third side check c using heron formula calculate c area triangle ibm also developed fortran iii 1958 allowed inline assembly code among features however version never released product like 704 fortran fortran ii fortran iii included machine-dependent features made code written unportable machine machine early versions fortran provided vendors suffered disadvantage fortran provided ibm 1401 computer innovative 63-phase compiler ran entirely core memory 8000 six-bit characters compiler could run tape 2200-card deck used tape disk storage kept program memory loaded overlays gradually transformed place executable form described haines article reprinted edited editions anatomy compiler ibm manual fortran specifications operating procedures ibm 1401 executable form entirely machine language rather floating-point arithmetic sub-scripting input/output function references interpreted preceding ucsd pascal p-code two decades ibm later provided fortran iv compiler 1400 series computers starting 1961 result customer demands ibm began development fortran iv removed machine-dependent features fortran ii adding new features data type logical boolean expressions logical statement alternative arithmetic statement fortran iv eventually released 1962 first ibm 7030 stretch computer followed versions ibm 7090 ibm 7094 later ibm 1401 1966 1965 fortran iv supposed compliant standard developed american standards association x3.4.3 fortran working group 1966 1968 ibm offered several fortran iv compilers system/360 named letters indicated minimum amount memory complier needed run letters f g h matched codes used system/360 model numbers indicate memory size letter increment factor two larger time fortran iv started become important educational tool implementations university waterloo watfor watfiv created simplify complex compile link processes earlier compilers perhaps significant development early history fortran decision american standards association american national standards institute ansi form committee sponsored bema business equipment manufacturers association develop american standard fortran resulting two standards approved march 1966 defined two languages fortran based fortran iv served de facto standard basic fortran based fortran ii stripped machine-dependent features fortran defined first standard officially denoted x3.9-1966 became known fortran 66 although many continued term fortran iv language standard largely based fortran 66 effectively became first industry-standard version fortran fortran 66 included release fortran 66 standard compiler vendors introduced several extensions standard fortran prompting ansi committee x3j3 1969 begin work revising 1966 standard sponsorship cbema computer business equipment manufacturers association formerly bema final drafts revised standard circulated 1977 leading formal approval new fortran standard april 1978 new standard called fortran 77 officially denoted x3.9-1978 added number significant features address many shortcomings fortran 66 revision standard number features removed altered manner might invalidate formerly standard-conforming programs removal allowable alternative x3j3 time since concept deprecation yet available ansi standards 24 items conflict list see appendix a2 x3.9-1978 addressed loopholes pathological cases permitted prior standard rarely used small number specific capabilities deliberately removed dimension 10,5 control data corporation computers another version fortran 77 called minnesota fortran mnf designed especially student use variations output constructs special uses commons data statements optimizations code levels compiling detailed error listings extensive warning messages debugs development revised standard succeed fortran 77 would repeatedly delayed standardization process struggled keep rapid changes computing programming practice meantime standard fortran nearly fifteen years fortran 77 would become historically important dialect important practical extension fortran 77 release mil-std-1753 1978 specification developed u.s. department defense standardized number features implemented fortran 77 compilers included ansi fortran 77 standard features would eventually incorporated fortran 90 standard ieee 1003.9 posix standard released 1991 provided simple means fortran 77 programmers issue posix system calls 100 calls defined document allowing access posix-compatible process control signal handling file system control device control procedure pointing stream i/o portable manner much-delayed successor fortran 77 informally known fortran 90 prior fortran 8x finally released iso/iec standard 1539:1991 1991 ansi standard 1992 addition changing official spelling fortran fortran major revision added many new features reflect significant changes programming practice evolved since 1978 standard unlike prior revision fortran 90 removed features appendix b.1 says list deleted features standard empty standard-conforming fortran 77 program also standard-conforming fortran 90 either standard usable define behavior small set features identified obsolescent expected removed future standard functionalities early version features performed new fortran 95 features kept simplify porting old programs may eventually deleted fortran 95 published officially iso/iec 1539-1:1997 minor revision mostly resolve outstanding issues fortran 90 standard nevertheless fortran 95 also added number extensions notably high performance fortran specification number intrinsic functions extended example argument added intrinsic several features noted fortran 90 obsolescent removed fortran 95 important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15581 enhanced data type facilities informally known allocatable tr specification defined enhanced use arrays prior availability fully fortran 2003-compliant fortran compilers uses include arrays derived type components procedure dummy argument lists function return values arrays preferable -based arrays arrays guaranteed fortran 95 deallocated automatically go scope eliminating possibility memory leakage addition elements allocatable arrays contiguous aliasing issue optimization array references allowing compilers generate faster code case pointers another important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15580 floating-point exception handling informally known ieee tr specification defined support ieee floating-point arithmetic floating point exception handling addition mandatory base language defined iso/iec 1539-1 1997 fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules together compose multi-part international standard iso/iec 1539 according standards developers optional parts describe self-contained features requested substantial body users and/or implementors deemed sufficient generality required standard-conforming fortran compilers nevertheless standard-conforming fortran provide options must provided accordance description facilities appropriate part standard fortran 2003 officially published iso/iec 1539-1:2004 major revision introducing many new features comprehensive summary new features fortran 2003 available fortran working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg5 official web site article major enhancements revision include important supplement fortran 2003 iso technical report tr-19767 enhanced module facilities fortran report provided sub-modules make fortran modules similar modula-2 modules similar ada private child sub-units allows specification implementation module expressed separate program units improves packaging large libraries allows preservation trade secrets publishing definitive interfaces prevents compilation cascades iso/iec 1539-1:2010 informally known fortran 2008 approved september 2010 fortran 95 minor upgrade incorporating clarifications corrections fortran 2003 well introducing select new capabilities new capabilities include final draft international standard fdis available document n1830 important supplement fortran 2008 iso technical specification ts 29113 interoperability fortran c submitted iso may 2012 approval specification adds support accessing array descriptor c allows ignoring type rank arguments latest revision language fortran 2018 earlier referred fortran 2015 significant revision released november 28 2018 fortran 2018 incorporates two previously published technical specifications additional changes new features include support iso/iec/ieee 60559:2011 latest version ieee floating point standard 2019 hexadecimal input/output implicit none enhancements changes although 1968 journal article authors basic already described fortran old-fashioned fortran use several decades vast body fortran software daily use throughout scientific engineering communities jay pasachoff wrote 1984 physics astronomy students simply learn fortran much exists fortran seems unlikely scientists change pascal modula-2 whatever 1993 cecil e. leith called fortran mother tongue scientific computing adding replacement possible language may remain forlorn hope primary language intensive super-computing tasks astronomy climate modeling computational chemistry computational economics computational fluid dynamics computational physics data analysis hydrological modeling numerical linear algebra numerical libraries lapack imsl nag optimization satellite simulation structural engineering weather prediction many floating-point benchmarks gauge performance new computer processors cfp2006 floating-point component spec cpu2006 benchmarks written fortran apart modern codes computational science generally use large program libraries metis graph partitioning petsc trilinos linear algebra capabilities dune fenics mesh finite element support generic libraries since early 2000s many widely used support libraries also implemented c recently c++ hand high-level languages matlab python r become popular particular areas computational science consequently growing fraction scientific programs also written higher-level languages reason facilities inter-operation c added fortran 2003 enhanced iso/iec technical specification 29113 incorporated fortran 2018 shift popularity programming languages also evident selection applications spec cpu 2000 spec cpu 2006 floating point benchmarks software nasa probes voyager 1 voyager 2 originally written fortran 5 later ported fortran 77. software still written fortran ported c. precise characteristics syntax fortran 95 discussed fortran 95 language features portability problem early days agreed upon standard even ibm reference manual computer companies vied differentiate offerings others providing incompatible features standards improved portability 1966 standard provided reference syntax semantics vendors continued provide incompatible extensions although careful programmers coming realize use incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems therefore using programs pfort verifier 1977 standard national bureau standards nist published fips pub 69 processors purchased u.s. government required diagnose extensions standard rather offer two processors essentially every compiler eventually least option diagnose extensions incompatible extensions portability problem numerical calculations important take account characteristics arithmetic addressed fox et al context 1966 standard port library ideas therein became widely used eventually incorporated 1990 standard way intrinsic inquiry functions widespread almost universal adoption ieee 754 standard binary floating-point arithmetic essentially removed problem access computing environment e.g. program command line environment variables textual explanation error conditions remained problem addressed 2003 standard large collections library software could described loosely related engineering scientific calculations graphics libraries written c therefore access presented portability problem addressed incorporation c interoperability 2003 standard possible relatively easy write entirely portable program fortran even without recourse preprocessor fortran 5 marketed data general corp late 1970s early 1980s nova eclipse mv line computers optimizing compiler quite good minicomputers time language closely resembles fortran 66 name pun earlier fortran iv fortran v distributed control data corporation 1968 cdc 6600 series language based upon fortran iv univac also offered compiler 1100 series known fortran v. spinoff univac fortran v athena fortran fortran 6 visual fortran 2001 licensed compaq microsoft licensed compaq visual fortran provided visual studio 5 environment interface compaq v6 v6.1 vendors high-performance scientific computers e.g. burroughs control data corporation cdc cray honeywell ibm texas instruments univac added extensions fortran take advantage special hardware features instruction cache cpu pipelines vector arrays example one ibm fortran compilers h extended iup level optimization reordered machine code instructions keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously another example cfd special variant fortran designed specifically illiac iv supercomputer running nasa ames research center ibm research labs also developed extended fortran-based language called vectran processing vectors matrices object-oriented fortran object-oriented extension fortran data items grouped objects instantiated executed parallel available sun iris ipsc ncube longer supported machine-specific extensions either disappeared time elements incorporated main standards major remaining extension openmp cross-platform extension shared memory programming one new extension coarray fortran intended support parallel programming transit name reduced version ibm 704 fortran language implemented ibm 650 using translator program developed carnegie late 1950s following comment appears ibm reference manual transit automatic coding system c28-4038 copyright 1957 1959 ibm fortran system designed complex machine 650 consequently 32 statements found fortran programmer reference manual acceptable transit system addition certain restrictions fortran language added however none restrictions make source program written transit incompatible fortran system 704 permissible statements ten subroutines could used one program transit statements limited columns 7 56 punched cards used input output ibm 650 three passes required translate source code language compile statements soap assembly language finally produce object program could loaded machine run program using punched cards data input outputting results onto punched cards two versions existed 650s 2000 word memory drum transit transit ii latter machines equipped indexing registers automatic floating point decimal bi-quinary arithmetic appendix manual included wiring diagrams ibm 533 card reader/punch control panel prior fortran 77 number preprocessors commonly used provide friendlier language advantage preprocessed code could compiled machine standard fortran compiler preprocessors would typically support structured programming variable names longer six characters additional data types conditional compilation even macro capabilities popular preprocessors included flecs iftran mortran sftran s-fortran ratfor ratfiv ratfor ratfiv example implemented c-like language outputting preprocessed code standard fortran 66 despite advances fortran language preprocessors continue used conditional compilation macro substitution one earliest versions fortran introduced '60s popularly used colleges universities developed supported distributed university waterloo watfor based largely fortran iv student using watfor could submit batch fortran job syntax errors program would move straight execution simplification allowed students concentrate program syntax semantics execution logic flow rather dealing submission job control language jcl compile/link-edit/execution successive process es complexities mainframe/minicomputer environment side simplified environment watfor good choice programmers needing expanded abilities host processor e.g. watfor typically limited access i/o devices watfor succeeded watfiv later versions lrltran developed lawrence radiation laboratory provide support vector arithmetic dynamic storage among extensions support systems programming distribution included ltss operating system fortran-95 standard includes optional part 3 defines optional conditional compilation capability capability often referred coco many fortran compilers integrated subsets c preprocessor systems simscript application specific fortran preprocessor modeling simulating large discrete systems f programming language designed clean subset fortran 95 attempted remove redundant unstructured deprecated features fortran statement f retains array features added fortran 90 removes control statements made obsolete structured programming constructs added fortran 77 fortran 90 f described creators compiled structured array programming language especially well suited education scientific computing lahey fujitsu teamed create fortran microsoft .net framework silverfrost ftn95 also capable creating .net code following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation array-based operations two features introduced fortran 90 particularly noteworthy absence loops statements manipulating array mathematical operations applied array whole also apparent use descriptive variable names general code formatting conform contemporary programming style example computes average data entered interactively program average end program average fortran standards committee meeting name fortran 77 chosen satirical technical proposal incorporated official distribution bearing title letter considered harmful proposal purported address confusion sometimes arises letter numeral zero eliminating letter allowable variable names however method proposed eliminate letter character set entirely thereby retaining 48 number lexical characters colon increased 49 considered beneficial would promote structured programming making impossible use notorious statement troublesome statements would also eliminated noted might invalidate existing programs probably non-conforming anyway assumed-length arrays added dispute appropriate character separate upper lower bounds comment examining arguments dr. walt brainerd penned article entitled astronomy vs. gastroenterology proponents suggested using star asterisk others favored colon fortran 77 earlier versions variable names beginning letters i–n default type integer variables starting letters defaulted real although programmers could override defaults explicit declaration led joke fortran god real unless declared integer 1-hop neighbor's text information: cell_(microprocessor).cell microprocessor cell multi-core microprocessor microarchitecture combines general-purpose powerpc core modest performance streamlined coprocessing elements greatly accelerate multimedia vector processing applications well many forms dedicated computation developed sony toshiba ibm alliance known sti architectural design first implementation carried sti design center austin texas four-year period beginning march 2001 budget reported sony approaching us 400 million cell shorthand cell broadband engine architecture commonly abbreviated cbea full cell part first major commercial application cell sony playstation 3 game console mercury computer systems dual cell server dual cell blade configuration rugged computer pci express accelerator board available different stages production toshiba announced plans incorporate cell high definition television sets seems abandoned idea exotic features xdr memory subsystem coherent element interconnect bus eib interconnect appear position cell future applications supercomputing space exploit cell processor prowess floating point kernels cell architecture includes memory coherence architecture emphasizes power efficiency prioritizes bandwidth low latency favors peak computational throughput simplicity program code reasons cell widely regarded challenging environment software development ibm provides linux-based development platform help developers program cell chips architecture widely used unless adopted software development community however cell strengths may make useful scientific computing regardless mainstream success mid-2000 sony computer entertainment toshiba corporation ibm formed alliance known sti design manufacture processor sti design center opened march 2001 cell designed period four years using enhanced versions design tools power4 processor 400 engineers three companies worked together austin critical support eleven ibm design centers period ibm filed many patents pertaining cell architecture manufacturing process software environment early patent version broadband engine shown chip package comprising four processing elements patent description known power processing element ppe processing element contained 8 apus referred spes current broadband engine chip chip package widely regarded run clock speed 4 ghz 32 apus providing 32 gigaflops fp8 quarter precision broadband engine shown 1 teraflops raw computing power design fabricated using 90 nm soi process march 2007 ibm announced 65 nm version cell production plant time globalfoundries east fishkill new york bandai namco entertainment used cell processor 357 arcade board well subsequent 369 february 2008 ibm announced begin fabricate cell processors 45 nm process may 2008 ibm introduced high-performance double-precision floating-point version cell processor powerxcell 8i 65 nm feature size may 2008 opteron- powerxcell 8i-based supercomputer ibm roadrunner system became world first system achieve one petaflops fastest computer world third quarter 2009 world three energy efficient supercomputers represented green500 list similarly based powerxcell 8i 45 nm cell processor introduced concert sony playstation 3 slim august 2009 november 2009 ibm discontinued development cell processor 32 apus still developing cell products may 17 2005 sony computer entertainment confirmed specifications cell processor would shipping then-forthcoming playstation 3 console cell configuration one ppe core eight physical spes silicon playstation 3 one spe locked-out test process practice helps improve manufacturing yields another one reserved os leaving 6 free spes used games code target clock-frequency introduction 3.2 ghz introductory design fabricated using 90 nm soi process initial volume production slated ibm facility east fishkill new york relationship cores threads common source confusion ppe core dual threaded manifests software two independent threads execution active spe manifests single thread playstation 3 configuration described sony cell processor provides nine independent threads execution june 28 2005 ibm mercury computer systems announced partnership agreement build cell-based computer systems embedded applications medical imaging industrial inspection aerospace defense seismic processing telecommunications mercury since released blades conventional rack servers pci express accelerator boards cell processors fall 2006 ibm released qs20 blade module using double cell processors tremendous performance certain applications reaching peak 410 gigaflops fp8 quarter precision per module qs22 based powerxcell 8i processor used ibm roadrunner supercomputer mercury ibm uses fully utilized cell processor eight active spes april 8 2008 fixstars corporation released pci express accelerator board based powerxcell 8i processor sony high performance media computing server zego uses 3.2 ghz cell/b.e processor cell broadband engine cell commonly known microprocessor intended hybrid conventional desktop processors athlon 64 core 2 families specialized high-performance processors nvidia ati graphics-processors gpus longer name indicates intended use namely component current future online distribution systems may utilized high-definition displays recording equipment well hdtv systems additionally processor may suited digital imaging systems medical scientific etc physical simulation e.g scientific structural engineering modeling simple analysis cell processor split four components external input output structures main processor called power processing element ppe two-way simultaneous-multithreaded powerpc 2.02 core eight fully functional co-processors called synergistic processing elements spes specialized high-bandwidth circular data bus connecting ppe input/output elements spes called element interconnect bus eib achieve high performance needed mathematically intensive tasks decoding/encoding mpeg streams generating transforming three-dimensional data undertaking fourier analysis data cell processor marries spes ppe via eib give access via fully cache coherent dma direct memory access main memory external data storage make best eib overlap computation data transfer nine processing elements ppe spes equipped dma engine since spe load/store instructions access local scratchpad memory spe entirely depends dmas transfer data main memory spes local memories dma operation transfer either single block area size 16kb list 2 2048 blocks one major design decisions architecture cell use dmas central means intra-chip data transfer view enabling maximal asynchrony concurrency data processing inside chip ppe capable running conventional operating system control spes start stop interrupt schedule processes running spes end ppe additional instructions relating control spes unlike spes ppe read write main memory local memories spes standard load/store instructions despite turing complete architectures spes fully autonomous require ppe prime useful work horsepower system comes synergistic processing elements use dma method data transfer limited local memory footprint spe pose major challenge software developers wish make horsepower demanding careful hand-tuning programs extract maximal performance cpu ppe bus architecture includes various modes operation giving different levels memory protection allowing areas memory protected access specific processes running spes ppe ppe spe risc architectures fixed-width 32-bit instruction format ppe contains 64-bit general purpose register set gpr 64-bit floating point register set fpr 128-bit altivec register set spe contains 128-bit registers used scalar data types ranging 8-bits 64-bits size simd computations variety integer floating point formats system memory addresses ppe spe expressed 64-bit values theoretic address range 2 bytes 16 exabytes 16,777,216 terabytes practice bits implemented hardware local store addresses internal spu synergistic processor unit processor expressed 32-bit word documentation relating cell word always taken mean 32 bits doubleword means 64 bits quadword means 128 bits 2008 ibm announced revised variant cell called powerxcell 8i available qs22 blade servers ibm powerxcell manufactured 65 nm process adds support 32 gb slotted ddr2 memory well dramatically improving double-precision floating-point performance spes peak 12.8 gflops 102.4 gflops total eight spes coincidentally peak performance nec sx-9 vector processor released around time ibm roadrunner supercomputer world fastest 2008-2009 consisted 12,240 powerxcell 8i processors along 6,562 amd opteron processors powerxcell 8i powered super computers also dominated top 6 greenest systems green500 list highest mflops/watt ratio supercomputers world beside qs22 supercomputers powerxcell processor also available accelerator pci express card used core processor qpace project since powerxcell 8i removed rambus memory interface added significantly larger ddr2 interfaces enhanced spes chip layout reworked resulted larger chip die packaging cell chip number different configurations basic configuration multi-core chip composed one power processor element ppe sometimes called processing element pe multiple synergistic processing elements spe ppe spes linked together internal high speed bus dubbed element interconnect bus eib ppe powerpc based dual-issue in-order two-way simultaneous-multithreaded core 23-stage pipeline acting controller eight spes handle computational workload ppe limited order execution capabilities perform loads order delayed execution pipelines ppe work conventional operating systems due similarity 64-bit powerpc processors spes designed vectorized floating point code execution ppe contains 64 kib level 1 cache 32 kib instruction 32 kib data 512 kib level 2 cache size cache line 128 bytes additionally ibm included altivec vmx unit fully pipelined single precision floating point altivec 1 support double precision floating-point vectors 32-bit fixed point unit fxu 64-bit register file per thread load store unit lsu 64-bit floating-point unit fpu branch unit bru branch execution unit bxu ppe consists three main units instruction unit iu execution unit xu vector/scalar execution unit vsu iu contains l1 instruction cache branch prediction hardware instruction buffers dependency checking login xu contains integer execution units fxu load-store unit lsu vsu contains execution resources fpu vmx ppe complete two double precision operations per clock cycle using scalar fused-multiply-add instruction translates 6.4 gflops 3.2 ghz eight single precision operations per clock cycle vector fused-multiply-add instruction translates 25.6 gflops 3.2 ghz ppe designed specifically cell processor development microsoft approached ibm wanting high performance processor core xbox 360 ibm complied made tri-core xenon processor based slightly modified version ppe added vmx128 extensions spe dual issue order processor composed synergistic processing unit spu memory flow controller mfc dma mmu bus interface spes n't branch prediction hardware hence heavy burden compiler spe 6 execution units divided among odd even pipelines spe spu runs specially developed instruction set isa 128-bit simd organization single double precision instructions current generation cell spe contains 256 kib embedded sram instruction data called local storage mistaken local memory sony documents refer vram visible ppe addressed directly software spe support 4 gib local store memory local store operate like conventional cpu cache since neither transparent software contain hardware structures predict data load spes contain 128-bit 128-entry register file measures 14.5 mm 90 nm process spe operate sixteen 8-bit integers eight 16-bit integers four 32-bit integers four single-precision floating-point numbers single clock cycle well memory operation note spu directly access system memory 64-bit virtual memory addresses formed spu must passed spu spe memory flow controller mfc set dma operation within system address space one typical usage scenario system load spes small programs similar threads chaining spes together handle step complex operation instance set-top box might load programs reading dvd video audio decoding display data would passed spe spe finally ending tv another possibility partition input data set several spes performing kind operation parallel 3.2 ghz spe gives theoretical 25.6 gflops single precision performance compared personal computer contemporaries relatively high overall floating point performance cell processor seemingly dwarfs abilities simd unit cpus like pentium 4 athlon 64 however comparing floating point abilities system one-dimensional application-specific metric unlike cell processor desktop cpus suited general purpose software usually run personal computers addition executing multiple instructions per clock processors intel amd feature branch predictors cell designed compensate compiler assistance prepare-to-branch instructions created double-precision floating point operations sometimes used personal computers often used scientific computing cell performance drops order magnitude still reaches 20.8 gflops 1.8 gflops per spe 6.4 gflops per ppe powerxcell 8i variant specifically designed double-precision reaches 102.4 gflops double-precision calculations tests ibm show spes reach 98 theoretical peak performance running optimized parallel matrix multiplication toshiba developed co-processor powered four spes ppe called spursengine designed accelerate 3d movie effects consumer electronics spe local memory 256 kb total spes 2 mb local memory eib communication bus internal cell processor connects various on-chip system elements ppe processor memory controller mic eight spe coprocessors two off-chip i/o interfaces total 12 participants ps3 number spu vary industrial applications eib also includes arbitration unit functions set traffic lights documents ibm refers eib participants 'units eib presently implemented circular ring consisting four 16 bytes wide unidirectional channels counter-rotate pairs traffic patterns permit channel convey three transactions concurrently eib runs half system clock rate effective channel rate 16 bytes every two system clocks maximum concurrency three active transactions four rings peak instantaneous eib bandwidth 96 bytes per clock 12 concurrent transactions 16 bytes wide 2 system clocks per transfer figure often quoted ibm literature unrealistic simply scale number processor clock speed arbitration unit imposes additional constraints discussed bandwidth assessment section ibm senior engineer david krolak eib lead designer explains concurrency model participant eib one 16 byte read port one 16 byte write port limit single participant read write rate 16 byte per eib clock simplicity often regarded 8 byte per system clock note spu processor contains dedicated dma management queue capable scheduling long sequences transactions various endpoints without interfering spu ongoing computations dma queues managed locally remotely well providing additional flexibility control model data flows eib channel stepwise around ring since twelve participants total number steps around channel back point origin twelve six steps longest distance pair participants eib channel permitted convey data requiring six steps data must take shorter route around circle direction number steps involved sending packet little impact transfer latency clock speed driving steps fast relative considerations however longer communication distances detrimental overall performance eib reduce available concurrency despite ibm original desire implement eib powerful cross-bar circular configuration adopted spare resources rarely represents limiting factor performance cell chip whole worst case programmer must take extra care schedule communication patterns eib able function high concurrency levels david krolak explained 3.2 ghz channel flows rate 25.6 gb/s viewing eib isolation system elements connects achieving twelve concurrent transactions flow rate works abstract eib bandwidth 307.2 gb/s based view many ibm publications depict available eib bandwidth greater 300 gb/s number reflects peak instantaneous eib bandwidth scaled processor frequency however technical restrictions involved arbitration mechanism packets accepted onto bus ibm systems performance group explained quote apparently represents full extent ibm public disclosure mechanism impact eib arbitration unit snooping mechanism interrupt generation segment page translation faults well described documentation set yet made public ibm practice effective eib bandwidth also limited ring participants involved nine processing cores sustain 25.6 gb/s read write concurrently memory interface controller mic tied pair xdr memory channels permitting maximum flow 25.6 gb/s reads writes combined two io controllers documented supporting peak combined input speed 25.6 gb/s peak combined output speed 35 gb/s add confusion older publications cite eib bandwidth assuming 4 ghz system clock reference frame results instantaneous eib bandwidth figure 384 gb/s arbitration-limited bandwidth figure 256 gb/s things considered theoretic 204.8 gb/s number often cited best one bear mind ibm systems performance group demonstrated spu-centric data flows achieving 197 gb/s cell processor running 3.2 ghz number fair reflection practice well cell contains dual channel rambus xio macro interfaces rambus xdr memory memory interface controller mic separate xio macro designed ibm xio-xdr link runs 3.2 gbit/s per pin two 32-bit channels provide theoretical maximum 25.6 gb/s i/o interface also rambus design known flexio flexio interface organized 12 lanes lane unidirectional 8-bit wide point-to-point path five 8-bit wide point-to-point paths inbound lanes cell remaining seven outbound provides theoretical peak bandwidth 62.4 gb/s 36.4 gb/s outbound 26 gb/s inbound 2.6 ghz flexio interface clocked independently typ 3.2 ghz 4 inbound 4 outbound lanes supporting memory coherency companies leadtek released pci-e cards based upon cell allow faster real time transcoding h.264 mpeg-2 mpeg-4 video august 29 2007 ibm announced bladecenter qs21 generating measured 1.05 giga–floating point operations per second gigaflops per watt peak performance approximately 460 gflops one power efficient computing platforms date single bladecenter chassis achieve 6.4 tera–floating point operations per second teraflops 25.8 teraflops standard 42u rack may 13 2008 ibm announced bladecenter qs22 qs22 introduces powerxcell 8i processor five times double-precision floating point performance qs21 capacity 32 gb ddr2 memory on-blade ibm discontinued blade server line based cell processors january 12 2012 several companies provide pci-e boards utilising ibm powerxcell 8i performance reported 179.2 gflops sp 89.6 gflops dp 2.8 ghz sony playstation 3 video game console first production application cell processor clocked 3.2 ghz containing seven eight operational spes allow sony increase yield processor manufacture six seven spes accessible developers one reserved os toshiba produced hdtvs using cell presented system decode 48 standard definition mpeg-2 streams simultaneously 1920×1080 screen enable viewer choose channel based dozens thumbnail videos displayed simultaneously screen ibm supercomputer ibm roadrunner hybrid general purpose x86-64 opteron well cell processors system assumed 1 spot june 2008 top 500 list first supercomputer run petaflops speeds gained sustained 1.026 petaflops speed using standard linpack benchmark ibm roadrunner used powerxcell 8i version cell processor manufactured using 65 nm technology enhanced spus handle double precision calculations 128-bit registers reaching double precision 102 gflops per chip clusters playstation 3 consoles attractive alternative high-end systems based cell blades innovative computing laboratory group led jack dongarra computer science department university tennessee investigated application depth terrasoft solutions selling 8-node 32-node ps3 clusters yellow dog linux pre-installed implementation dongarra research first reported wired october 17 2007 interesting application using playstation 3 cluster configuration implemented astrophysicist gaurav khanna physics department university massachusetts dartmouth replaced time used supercomputers cluster eight playstation 3s subsequently next generation machine called playstation 3 gravity grid uses network 16 machines exploits cell processor intended application binary black hole coalescence using perturbation theory particular cluster performs astrophysical simulations large supermassive black holes capturing smaller compact objects generated numerical data published multiple times relevant scientific research literature cell processor version used playstation 3 main cpu 6 spes available user giving gravity grid machine net 16 general-purpose processors 96 vector processors machine one-time cost 9,000 build adequate black-hole simulations would otherwise cost 6,000 per run conventional supercomputer black hole calculations memory-intensive highly localizable well-suited architecture khanna claims cluster performance exceeds 100+ intel xeon core based traditional linux cluster simulations ps3 gravity grid gathered significant media attention 2007 2008 2009 2010 computational biochemistry biophysics lab universitat pompeu fabra barcelona deployed 2007 boinc system called ps3grid collaborative computing based cellmd software first one designed specifically cell processor united states air force research laboratory deployed playstation 3 cluster 1700 units nicknamed condor cluster analyzing high-resolution satellite imagery air force claims condor cluster would 33rd largest supercomputer world terms capacity lab opened supercomputer use universities research help computing power half million playstation 3 consoles distributed computing project folding home recognized guinness world records powerful distributed network world first record achieved september 16 2007 project surpassed one petaflops never previously attained distributed computing network additionally collective efforts enabled ps3 alone reach petaflops mark september 23 2007 comparison world second-most powerful supercomputer time ibm bluegene/l performed around 478.2 teraflops means folding home computing power approximately twice bluegene/l although cpu interconnect bluegene/l one million times faster mean network speed folding home may 7 2011 folding home runs 9.3 x86 petaflops 1.6 petaflops generated 26,000 active ps3s alone late 2008 cluster 200 playstation 3 consoles used generate rogue ssl certificate effectively cracking encryption ibm announced april 25 2007 would begin integrating cell broadband engine architecture microprocessors company line mainframes led gameframe architecture processor makes better suited hardware-assisted cryptographic brute force attack applications conventional processors due flexible nature cell several possibilities utilization resources limited different computing paradigms ppe maintains job queue schedules jobs spes monitors progress spe runs mini kernel whose role fetch job execute synchronize ppe kernel scheduling distributed across spes tasks synchronized using mutexes semaphores conventional operating system ready-to-run tasks wait queue spe execute spes use shared memory tasks configuration spe runs distinct program data comes input stream sent spes spe terminated processing output data sent output stream provides flexible powerful architecture stream processing allows explicit scheduling spe separately processors also able perform streaming tasks limited kernel loaded 2005 patches enabling cell support linux kernel submitted inclusion ibm developers arnd bergmann one developers aforementioned patches also described linux-based cell architecture linuxtag 2005 release 2.6.16 march 20 2006 linux kernel officially supports cell processor ppe spes programmable c/c++ using common api provided libraries fixstars solutions provides yellow dog linux ibm mercury cell-based systems well playstation 3 terra soft strategically partnered mercury provide linux board support package cell support development software applications various cell platforms including ibm bladecenter js21 cell qs20 mercury cell-based solutions terra soft also maintains y-hpc high performance computing cluster construction management suite y-bio gene sequencing tools y-bio built upon rpm linux standard package management offers tools help bioinformatics researchers conduct work greater efficiency ibm developed pseudo-filesystem linux coined spufs simplifies access use spe resources ibm currently maintaining linux kernel gdb ports sony maintains gnu toolchain gcc binutils november 2005 ibm released cell broadband engine cbe software development kit version 1.0 consisting simulator assorted tools web site development versions latest kernel tools fedora core 4 maintained barcelona supercomputing center website august 2007 mercury computer systems released software development kit playstation r 3 high-performance computing november 2007 fixstars corporation released new cvcell module aiming accelerate several important opencv apis cell series software calculation tests recorded execution times 3.2 ghz cell processor 6x 27x faster compared software 2.4 ghz intel core 2 duo illustrations different generations cell/b.e processors powerxcell 8i images scale cell/b.e packages measures 42.5×42.5 mm powerxcell 8i measures 47.5×47.5 mm 1-hop neighbor's text information: man-in-the-browser.man-in-the-browser man-in-the-browser mitb mitb mib mib form internet threat related man-in-the-middle mitm proxy trojan horse infects web browser taking advantage vulnerabilities browser security modify web pages modify transaction content insert additional transactions completely covert fashion invisible user host web application mitb attack successful irrespective whether security mechanisms ssl/pki and/or two three-factor authentication solutions place mitb attack may countered using out-of-band transaction verification although sms verification defeated man-in-the-mobile mitmo malware infection mobile phone trojans may detected removed antivirus software 23 success rate zeus 2009 still low rates 2011 2011 report concluded additional measures top antivirus needed related simpler attack boy-in-the-browser bitb bitb majority financial service professionals survey considered mitb greatest threat online banking mitb threat demonstrated augusto paes de barros 2005 presentation backdoor trends future backdoors worst worlds name man-in-the-browser coined philipp gühring 27 january 2007 mitb trojan works using common facilities provided enhance browser capabilities browser helper objects feature limited internet explorer browser extensions user scripts example javascript etc antivirus software detect methods nutshell example exchange user host internet banking funds transfer customer always shown via confirmation screens exact payment information keyed browser bank however receive transaction materially altered instructions i.e different destination account number possibly amount use strong authentication tools simply creates increased level misplaced confidence part customer bank transaction secure authentication definition concerned validation identity credentials confused transaction verification examples mitb threats different operating systems web browsers known trojans may detected blocked removed antivirus software 2009 study effectiveness antivirus zeus 23 low success rates reported separate test 2011 2011 report concluded additional measures top antivirus needed theoretically effective method combating mitb attack out-of-band oob transaction verification process overcomes mitb trojan verifying transaction details received host bank user customer channel browser example automated telephone call sms dedicated mobile app graphical cryptogram oob transaction verification ideal mass market use since leverages devices already public domain e.g landline mobile phone etc requires additional hardware devices yet enables three-factor authentication using voice biometrics transaction signing non-repudiation level transaction verification downside oob transaction verification adds level end-user frustration slower steps mobile phone mobile trojan spyware man-in-the-mobile mitmo defeat oob sms transaction verification web fraud detection implemented bank automatically check anomalous behaviour patterns transactions keyloggers primitive form proxy trojans followed browser-session recorders capture data lastly mitbs sophisticated type ssl/pki etc may offer protection man-in-the-middle attack offers protection man-in-the-browser attack related attack simpler quicker malware authors set termed boy-in-the-browser bitb bitb malware used change client computer network routing perform classic man-in-the-middle attack routing changed malware may completely remove making detection difficult clickjacking tricks web browser user clicking something different user perceives means malicious code webpage phones tablets current use known vulnerability ddos wifi documented certain android phones vulnerability attacker detects someone using sharing possible target phone tablet directly using packet collision similar one found lan networks requiring guessing device sharing password using rainbow table cloning ssid thus forcing reboot enough data built ram causing buffer overflow narrow window malicious software used install rootkit malware diagnostics ota channel antivirus chance load similar way sideloading usb works appears defense present using sharing changing password short random interval eg wpa2-tkip devices support wpa3-otp may solution sufficiently large memory ends used eg 400gb Target text information: trusteer.trusteer trusteer portfolio digital identity trust software products belonging ibm security founded mickey boodaei rakesh k. loonkar israel 2006 trusteer acquired september 2013 ibm 1 billion highest valuation multiple ibm ever paid business ibm trusteer helps organizations seamlessly establish digital identity trust across web customer journey cloud-based intelligence backed ai patented machine learning trusteer provides holistic approach identifying new existing customers without negatively impacting user experience 500 leading organizations rely trusteer help enable secure customers ’ digital journey support business growth trusteer presence north america south america europe africa japan ibm trusteer helps brands accelerate digital growth establishing digital identity trust across channels helping recognize customers deter bad actors trusteer rapport adaptive endpoint solution helps protect financial institutions end-users transparently detecting protecting financial malware infections phishing attacks account takeover provides comprehensive security layer anti-virus software typically designed address financial malicious activity software service offering uses 24/7 threat intelligence including geographic customize detection matrix address new threats real-time including attacking specific financial institution used leading financial institutions worldwide trusteer rapport combines global footprint millions endpoints years threat data analysis experience innovative technology achieve high rates detection low false positives increasingly sophisticated financial threat environment specifically trusteer rapport detects alerts organization pharming phishing screenshots overlays financial malware advises end-user account risk compromised moment installed end-user ’ computer trusteer rapport immediately checks removes existing financial malware malicious patches starts performing continuous transparent monitoring kernel operating system browser application levels protect new threats trusteer rapport supports browser extensions google chrome microsoft edge apple safari mozilla firefox supports microsoft internet explorer use trusteer rapport end-users simply install rapport browser extension web browser choice trusteer rapport compatible microsoft windows 7 higher multiple mac os x versions supported browsers platforms end-users download trusteer rapport free charge financial institutions offer software free charge offer safer online banking customers organizations also acquire trusteer mobile sdk extend protection native mobile applications trusteer pinpoint platform digital identity trust lifecycle platform designed provide b2c access management dynamically managing digital identity trust web mobile applications platform made three products trusteer pinpoint platform allows organizations improve digital customer journey single platform dynamically manage risk-based seamless authentication user-friendly step-up authentication establish trust identity proofing new guest users happens need validate new anonymous customer user true customer intent initiating payment fraud abusing loyalty program guests new customers let unimpeded ones complete step-up authentication using advanced intelligence global visibility ibm trusteer pinpoint™ assure solution designed help detect predict risk fraudulent intent new guest customers also enables companies conduct early account monitoring new accounts ’ type insight ’ critical reducing abandonment caused friction security measures increasing loyalty program registrations growing digital channel sustain trust continuous authentication trusted users better protect customer accounts payment journeys compromised detecting account takeovers unauthorized logins activity requires comprehensive view account access device session user perspective ibm trusteer pinpoint detect delivers kind visibility using behavioral biometric capabilities behavioral analytics transparently build user profiles continually authenticate online identities using machine learning patented analytics platform analyzes patterns mouse movements astonishing speeds volumes differentiate account user ’ “ normal ” digital behavior abnormal behavior insight combined device activity evidence transactional data geolocation data either abnormal user behavior known fraudster behavior detected trusteer pinpoint detect provides recommended action real-time along detailed reasoning session details organization take steps confirm trust necessary confirm trust combine risk assessment strong adaptive authentication confirm trust abnormal user behavior suspicious activity identified ibm trusteer pinpoint verify cloud-based authentication service seamlessly integrates pinpoint assure pinpoint detect help companies apply strong step-up authentication necessary application developers simply use exposed interfaces service challenge users perform second factor authentication via digital application users choose enroll various forms two-factor authentication one-time passcodes via email sms mobile push notification biometric authentication trusteer pinpoint products use context- based intelligence combining device id proxy emulator detection malware remote access trojan rat infection detection bot detection email phone number intelligence account history patterns behavioral biometrics navigation session analysis determine trust risk level associated user trusteer mobile sdk helps organizations build digital identity trust mobile confidence customers differentiating trusted mobile devices users suspicious ones exposes real-time mobile risk allow account compromise mitigation proactively detects mobile device risk native mobile applications available standalone assessing risk indicators mobile device integrates ibm trusteer pinpoint digital identity trust platform use threat intelligence correlate mobile device user behavior account risk factors across digital channels specifically ibm trusteer mobile sdk generates strong persistent global device id uses robust set capabilities detect mobile device risks real-time applies machine learning analytics offer actionable insights suspicious mobile user behavior threat detection capabilities include real-time overlay attacks emulators sms stealers remote access tools rats insecure wi-fi networks active pharming rooting jailbreaking uses server-side trusteer pinpoint capabilities correlated aggregated awareness device anomalies user behavior account risk indicators—such account takeover phishing attacks malware infections compromised credentials advanced evasion methods—across digital channels also works seamlessly trusteer pinpoint platform detect protect mobile device fraudulent activity early digital account creation process guest user new mobile device introduced trusteer apex automated solution tries prevent exploits malware compromising endpoints extracting information apex three layers security exploit prevention data exfiltration prevention credentials protection apex protects employee credentials phishing attacks validating employees submitting credentials authorized enterprise web-application login urls apex also prevents corporate employees re-using corporate credentials access non-corporate public applications like paypal e-bay facebook twitter apex requires users provide different credentials applications lower risk credentials exposure trusteer apex targeted behaviors small group applications hypothesis responsible overwhelming majority exploits namely java adobe ’ reader flash microsoft ’ office technology behind trusteer apex rely threat signatures so-called whitelists good applications instead watches applications run spots suspicious malicious behavior based knowledge normal application behavior refined large user base trusteer claims apex block web-based attacks used implant malware exploiting vulnerable applications data loss due malware infections spotting attempts untrusted applications processes send data outside organization connect internet-based command control c c networks end users reported problems rapport slow pcs due high cpu ram utilization incompatibility various security/antivirus products difficulty removing software presentation given 44con september 2011 bypassing trusteer rapport keylogger protection shown relatively trivial shortly thereafter trusteer confirmed flaw corrected said even hacker able use flaw disable anti-keylogging functions rapport secondary security protection technologies would still play rapport software incompatible windows tool driver verifier may cause blue screen system crash since driver verifier intended end users production environment workstations trusteer support recommends end users run driver verifier trusteer endpoint protection installed march 2011 blue gem rival company filed lawsuit trusteer california court blue gem accused trusteer plagiarizing code order maintain compatibility anti-keystroke logging software types intel chipset first introduced back 2007 trusteer described accusations baseless I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,172	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: backscatter_(email).backscatter email backscatter also known outscatter misdirected bounces blowback collateral spam incorrectly automated bounce messages sent mail servers typically side effect incoming spam recipients messages see form unsolicited bulk email spam solicited recipients substantially similar delivered bulk quantities systems generate email backscatter may listed various email blacklists may violation internet service providers terms service backscatter occurs worms spam messages often forge sender addresses instead simply rejecting spam message misconfigured mail server sends bounce message forged address normally happens mail server configured relay message after-queue processing step example antivirus scan spam check fails time antivirus scan spam check done client already disconnected cases normally possible reject smtp transaction since client would time waiting antivirus scan spam check finish best thing case silently drop message rather risk creating backscatter measures reduce problem include avoiding need bounce message rejections initial smtp connection stage cases sending bounce messages addresses reliably judged forged cases sender verified thus ignoring message i.e. dropping authors spam viruses wish make messages appear originate legitimate source fool recipients opening message often use web-crawling software scan usenet postings message boards web pages legitimate email addresses due design smtp mail recipient mail servers receiving forged messages simple standard way determine authenticity sender accept email connection phases checking refuse e.g. software determines message likely spam use potentially forged sender address attempt good-faith effort report problem apparent sender mail servers handle undeliverable messages four fundamentally different ways backscatter occurs bounce method used sender information incoming email unrelated third party every step control worms spam messages helps reduce backscatter common approaches section also reduce problem initial smtp connection mailservers range checks often reject email 5xx error code sending server still connected rejecting message connection-stage way usually cause sending mta generate local bounce message non-delivery notification ndn local authenticated user reasons rejection include mail transfer agents mtas forward mail avoid generating backscatter using transparent smtp proxy mail servers sending email bounce messages use range measures judge whether return address forged preventing backscatter desirable also possible reduce impact filtering many spam filtering systems include option attempt detect reject backscatter email spam addition systems using schemes bounce address tag validation tag outgoing email way allows reliably detect incoming bogus bounce messages 1-hop neighbor's text information: file_archiver.file archiver file archiver computer program combines number files together one archive file series archive files easier transportation storage file archivers may employ lossless data compression archive formats reduce size archive basic archivers take list files concatenate contents sequentially archives archive files need store metadata least names lengths original files proper reconstruction possible advanced archivers store additional metadata original timestamps file attributes access control lists process making archive file called archiving packing reconstructing original files archive termed unarchiving unpacking extracting early archiver multics command archive descended ctss command name basic archiver performed compression multics also tape_archiver command abbreviated ta perhaps forerunner unix tar unix tools ar tar cpio act archivers compressors users unix tools use additional compression tools gzip bzip2 xz compress archive file packing remove compression unpacking archive file filename extensions successively added step process example archiving collection files tar compressing resulting archive file gzip results file codice_1 extension approach two goals approach however disadvantages built-in archiver microsoft windows well third-party archiving software winrar 7-zip often use graphical user interface also offer optional command-line interface windows windows archivers perform archiving compression solid compression may may offered depending product windows support winrar 7-zip offer option turned Target text information: amavis.amavis amavis open-source content filter electronic mail implementing mail message transfer decoding processing checking interfacing external content filters provide protection spam viruses malware considered interface mailer mta mail transfer agent one content filters amavis used notable features common mail filtering installation amavis consists postfix mta spamassassin spam classifier clamav anti-virus protection running unix-like operating system many virus scanners 30 spam scanners crm114 dspam bogofilter supported well mtas three topologies interfacing mta supported amavisd process sandwiched two instances mta yielding classical after-queue mail filtering setup amavisd used smtp proxy filter before-queue filtering setup amavisd process consulted provide mail classification forward mail message case consulting client remains charge mail forwarding last approach used milter setup limitations historical client program amavisd-submit since version 2.7.0 before-queue setup preferred allows mail message transfer rejected smtp session sending client after-queue setup filtering takes place mail message already received enqueued mta case mail filter longer reject message deliver possibly tagged discard generate non-delivery notification cause unwanted backscatter case bouncing message fake sender address disadvantage before-queue setup requires resources cpu memory proportional current peak mail transfer rate unlike after-queue setup delay acceptable resource usage corresponds average mail transfer rate introduction option smtpd_proxy_options=speed_adjust postfix 2.7.0 resource requirements before-queue content filter much reduced countries legislation permit mail filtering discard mail message accepted mta rules after-queue filtering setup discarding quarantining messages leaves possibility delivering possibly tagged messages rejecting before-queue setup smtp proxy milter amavis receive mail messages mta one sockets protocol families pf_inet ipv4 pf_inet6 ipv6 pf_local unix domain socket using protocols esmtp lmtp simple private protocol am.pdp used helper program like amavisd-milter interface milters output side protocols esmtp lmtp used pass message back-end mta instance lda message passed spawned process unix pipe esmtp lmtp used session optionally encrypted using tls starttls rfc 3207 extension protocol smtp command pipelining rfc 2920 supported client server code spam scanning enabled daemon process amavisd conceptually similar spamd process spamassassin project cases forked child processes call spamassassin perl modules directly hence performance similar main difference protocols used amavis typically speaks standard esmtp protocol mta spamc/spamd case mta typically spawns spamc program passing message unix pipe spamc process transfers message spamd daemon using private protocol spamd calls spamassassin perl modules design priorities amavisd-new called amavis reliability security adherence standards performance functionality intention mail message could lost due unexpected events like i/o failures resources depletion unexpected program terminations amavisd program meticulously checks completion status every system call i/o operation unexpected events logged possible handled several layers event handling amavis never takes responsibility mail message delivery away mta final success status reported mta message passed back-end mta instance reception confirmed case fatal failures processing transferring message message processed stays queue front-end mta instance re-tried later approach also covers potential unexpected host failures crashes amavisd process one components use program resources like memory size file descriptors disk usage creation subprocesses controlled large mail messages kept memory available memory size impose limit size mail messages processed memory resources wasted unnecessarily great deal attention given security aspects required handling potentially malicious nonstandard garbled data mail messages coming untrusted sources process handling mail messages runs reduced privileges dedicated user id optionally run chroot-ed risks buffer overflows memory allocation bugs largely avoided implementing protocol handling mail processing perl handles dynamic memory management transparently care taken content processed messages inadvertently propagate system perl provides additional security safety net marking tainted data originating wild amavis careful put perl feature good use avoiding automatic untainting data use taint untainting explicitly strategic points late data flow amavis use several external programs enhance functionality de-archivers de-compressors virus scanners spam scanners programs often implemented languages like c c++ potential risk mail message passed one programs cause failure even open security hole risk limited running programs unprivileged user id possibly chroot-ed nevertheless external programs like unmaintained de-archivers avoided use external programs configurable disabled selectively group like decoders virus scanners despite implemented interpreted programming language perl amavis slow good performance functionality implemented amavis speaking external components achieved dealing data large chunks e.g line-by-line avoiding unnecessary data copying optimizing frequently traversed code paths using suitable data structures algorithms well low-level optimizations bottlenecks detected development profiling code benchmarking detailed timing report log help recognize bottlenecks particular installation certain external modules programs like spamassassin command-line virus scanners slow using would constitute vast majority elapsed time processing resources making resources used amavis proportionally quite small components like external mail decoders virus scanners spam scanners selectively disabled needed remains functionality implemented amavis like transferring mail message mta using smtp lmtp protocol checking mail header section validity checking banned mail content types verifying generating dkim signatures consequence mail processing tasks like dkim signing verification mail checking disabled exceptionally fast rival implementations compiled languages even full checks using fast virus scanner spam scanning disabled surprisingly fast implementation protocols message structures closely follows set applicable standards rfc 5322 rfc 5321 rfc 2033 rfc 3207 rfc 2045 rfc 2046 rfc 2047 rfc 3461 rfc 3462 rfc 3463 rfc 3464 rfc 4155 rfc 5965 rfc 6376 rfc 5451 rfc 6008 rfc 4291 several cases functionality re-implemented amavis code even though public cpan perl module exists lacks attention detail following standard lacks sufficient checking handling errors amavis licensed gplv2 license applies current code well historical branches exception supporting programs like monitoring statistics reporting covered new bsd license project started 1997 unix shell script detect block e-mail messages containing virus intended block viruses mta mail transfer agent lda local delivery stage running unix-like platform complementing virus protection mechanisms running end-user personal computers next tool re-implemented perl program later evolved daemonized process dozen developers took turns first five years project developing several variants keeping common goal project name development infrastructure since december 2008 2018-10-09 active branch officially amavisd-new developed maintained mark martinec since march 2002 agreed developers time private correspondence christian bricart lars hecking hilko bengen rainer link mark martinec project name amavis largely interchangeable name amavisd-new branch lots functionality added years like adding protection spam unwanted content besides original virus protection focus kept reliability security adherence standards performance domain amavis.org use project registered 1998 christian bricart one early developers still maintaining domain name registration domain entirely dedicated active branch project mailing list moved sourceforge amavis.org march 2011 hosted ralf hildebrandt patrick ben koetter project web page main distribution site located jožef stefan institute ljubljana slovenia handover 2018 development taking place years 2002 2018 october 9 2018 mark martinec announced general support discussion mailing list retirement project also patrick ben koetter continue new project leader patrick notified migration source code public gitlab repository plan next steps regarding project development history project name project branches varied somewhat initially spelling project name amavis mail virus scanner introduced christian bricart rewrite perl name program amavis-perl daemonized versions initially distributed name amavisd-snapshot amavisd modular rewrite hilko bengen called amavis-ng march 2002 amavisd-new branch introduced mark martinec initially patch amavisd-snapshot-20020300 later evolved self-contained project surviving actively maintained branch nowadays project name preferably spelled amavis name program amavisd name amavis mostly interchangeable amavisd-new hilko bengen I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,249	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: gecko_(software).gecko software gecko browser engine developed mozilla used firefox browser thunderbird email client many projects gecko designed support open internet standards used different applications display web pages cases application user interface rendering xul gecko offers rich programming api makes suitable wide variety roles internet-enabled applications web browsers content presentation client/server gecko written c++ javascript since 2016 additionally rust free open-source software subject terms mozilla public license version 2 mozilla officially supports use android linux macos windows development layout engine known gecko began netscape 1997 following company purchase digitalstyle existing netscape rendering engine originally written netscape navigator 1.0 upgraded years slow comply well w3c standards limited support dynamic html lacked features incremental reflow layout engine rearranges elements screen new data downloaded added page new layout engine developed parallel old intention integrate netscape communicator mature stable least one major revision netscape expected released old layout engine switch launch mozilla project early 1998 new layout engine code released open-source license originally unveiled raptor name changed nglayout next generation layout due trademark problems netscape later rebranded nglayout gecko mozilla organization forerunner mozilla foundation initially continued use nglayout name gecko netscape trademark eventually gecko branding october 1998 netscape announced next browser would use gecko still called nglayout time rather old layout engine requiring large parts application rewritten decision popular web standards advocates largely unpopular netscape developers unhappy six months given rewrite also meant work done netscape communicator 5.0 including development mariner improvements old layout engine abandoned netscape 6 first netscape release incorporate gecko released november 2000 name netscape 5 never used gecko development continued applications embedders began make use america online time netscape parent company eventually adopted use compuserve 7.0 aol mac os x products previously embedded internet explorer however exception betas gecko never used main microsoft windows aol client july 15 2003 aol laid remaining gecko developers mozilla foundation formed day became main steward gecko development today gecko developed employees mozilla corporation employees companies contribute mozilla project volunteers outset gecko designed support open internet standards standards gecko supports include gecko also partially supports svg 1.1 svg font color profile animation view cursor modules yet implemented filter text modules partially implemented extensibility module also implemented currently disabled order support web pages designed legacy versions netscape internet explorer gecko supports doctype switching documents modern doctype rendered standards compliance mode follows w3c standards strictly documents doctype older doctype rendered quirks mode emulates non-standard oddities netscape communicator 4.x however 4.x features layers supported gecko also limited support non-standard internet explorer features marquee element codice_1 property though pages explicitly testing codice_1 told supported gecko primarily used web browsers earliest netscape 6 mozilla suite later renamed seamonkey also used mozilla web browser derivatives firefox firefox mobile implementation internet explorer-clone part wine mozilla also uses thunderbird email-client web browsers using gecko include gnu icecat waterfox k-meleon lunascape portable firefox conkeror classilla tenfourfox products using gecko include nightingale instantbird google picture-organization software picasa linux gecko also used sugar olpc xo-1 computer gecko used complete implementation xul xml user interface language gecko currently defines xul specification products historically used gecko include pale moon currently using goanna songbird epiphany known gnome web gnome devhelp replaced gecko webkitgtk sunbird calendar web browsers including swiftfox flock galeon camino minimo beonex communicator kazehakase microb windows platforms gecko depends proprietary compilers thus foss distributions linux include gecko package used windows compatibility layer wine gecko 2.0 version number bumped 5.0 match firefox 5 kept sync major version number firefox thunderbird reflect fact longer separate component netscape era combination poor technical management decisions resulted gecko software bloat thus 2001 apple chose fork khtml gecko create webkit engine safari browser however 2008 mozilla addressed bloat problems resulting big performance improvements gecko october 2016 mozilla announced quantum ongoing project encompassing several software development efforts build next-generation web engine firefox users includes numerous improvements gecko taken experimental servo project firefox 57 also known firefox quantum first shipping november 2017 initial version major components quantum/servo projects enabled include increased performance css gpu rendering components additional components merged servo gecko incrementally future versions quantum mozilla project encompassing several software development efforts build next-generation web engine firefox users includes numerous improvements gecko largely incorporated experimental servo project quantum also includes refinements user interface interactions firefox 57 released november 2017 initial version servo component enabled mozilla dubs several planned future releases firefox quantum 2013 mozilla began experimental servo project engine designed scratch goals improving concurrency parallelism also reducing memory safety vulnerabilities important factor writing servo rust programming language also created mozilla designed generate compiled code better memory safety concurrency parallelism compiled c++ code april 2016 servo needed least several years development become full-featured browser engine thus decision start quantum project bring stable portions servo firefox quantum project composed several sub-projects 1-hop neighbor's text information: puffin_browser.puffin browser puffin browser web browser developed cloudmosa american-based mobile technology company founded shioupyn shen puffin browser initially released 2010 utilizes encrypted cloud servers content processing puffin renders webpages cloud could according benchmark tests make page loading content rendering javascript execution faster local device processing however result web pages processed cloud servers user ip address browsing world wide web puffin web browser reflects cloud server ip address causes websites detect puffin browser proxy server puffin browser comes adobe flash player play adobe flash content including mobile devices flash discontinued due security issues features also include virtual trackpad gamepad on-screen keyboard functions cloudmosa comprehensive product family puffin products run many different platforms puffin browser android puffin secure browser windows macos puffin internet terminal linux puffin tv browser smart tv puffin os main stream smart phones also known run resource-limited hardware like raspberry pi set-top box tv stick etc may 2019 cloudmosa announced discontinuing puffin web browser app ios devices due apple app store policies puffin browser released paid version puffin web browser pro google play december 2010 apple app store november 2010 2013 cloudmosa introduced puffin academy free mobile browser built-in adobe flash k-12 students teachers parents however ios version puffin academy discontinued ios platform july 1 2019 2015 cloudmosa released new product puffin facebook 2017 puffin browser top utility application app store across 58 countries including france united kingdom japan italy south korea besides puffin web browser pro puffin browser also ad-supported lite version ad blocking features added pro version exist lite version puffin tv special edition puffin browser optimized android google play tv users ranked best browser android tv makeuseof thailand largest gsm mobile phone operator advanced info service ais ships customized puffin tv browser set-top box—ais playbox 2018 puffin browser product family available mobile devices starting 2018 puffin browser released desktop version puffin secure browser windows may 2019 puffin secure browser mac os released october 24 2018 puffin browser reached 50 million users android november 2018 puffin browser reached 100 million accumulated users worldwide ios+android right opening ces 2019 cloudmosa announced new puffin browser product family member—puffin internet terminal desktop virtualization app running raspbian internet surfing designed raspberry pi puffin internet terminal selected ces 2019 innovation awards honoree computer hardware components product category may 2019 puffin browser introduced new family member—puffin os additionally cloudmosa announced discontinuing puffin web browser apps july 1 2019 ios devices cloudmosa reason discontinuing app app updated past two years met apple app store policies puffin web browser standard puffin browser application android puffin web browser includes support adobe flash content features mouse cursor emulation virtual gamepad users able choose save downloaded file either users devices directly storage drive web browser also allows users reduce amount data used sources flash games often consume lot data 1-hop neighbor's text information: omniweb.omniweb omniweb proprietary internet web browser developed marketed omni group exclusively apple macos operating system though longer maintained still available free download omniweb originally developed omni group nextstep platform released lighthouse design march 17 1995 one month development time nextstep evolved openstep mac os x omniweb updated run platforms omniweb also able run microsoft windows yellow box openstep frameworks lighthouse design bought sun microsystems omni group released product version 2.5 onwards version 4.0 onwards omniweb developed solely os x platform omniweb developed using cocoa api allowed take full advantage os x features used quartz render images smooth text use multiple processors available featured interface made use aqua ui features drawers sheets customizable toolbars omniweb originally employed proprietary html layout engine used standard api nstext components however engine slow particularly scrolling fully compatible recent web standards cascading style sheets omniweb version 4.5 omni group adopted apple khtml-based webcore rendering engine created apple safari browser august 11 2004 omni group released version 5.0 omniweb included number new features notable feature unusual implementation tabbed browsing tabs displayed vertically drawer side window including optional thumbnail pictures pages despite certain amount controversy merits tab drawer tab toolbar feature persisted final version september 7 2006 version 5.5 released major new features included use custom version webkit instead webcore universal binary support saving web archive support user-defined style sheets select next link feature ftp folder display ad-blocking improvements updated localizations many small changes bug fixes omniweb omni group flagship app os x web browsers improved—apple eventually bundled safari os x— omni successfully introduced products omnigraffle omnioutliner omniweb importance diminished omniweb price successively lowered first 39.95 february 24 2009 omni group announced omniweb would made available free change previous price 14.95 omni group official website states browser longer active development omniweb popular early 2000s omnigroup experience developing openstep became foundation mac os x gave edge developers apple safari omniweb best support mac os x technologies among competition chiefly mozilla firefox internet explorer mac john siracusa technology journalist critic writing ars technica said finding level functionality proper mac os x application respected developer proven track record like finding perfect 1/10,000th scale replica eiffel tower box crackerjacks tower transforms tiny robot makes lunch Target text information: links_(web_browser).links web browser links open source text graphic web browser pull-down menu system renders complex pages partial html 4.0 support including tables frames support multiple character sets utf-8 supports color monochrome terminals allows horizontal scrolling intended users want retain many typical elements graphical user interfaces pop-up windows menus etc text-only environment original version links developed mikuláš patočka czech republic group twibright labs later developed version 2 links browser displays graphics renders fonts different sizes spatial anti-aliasing support javascript used version 2.1pre28 resulting browser fast display many pages intended graphical mode works even unix systems without x window system window environment using either svgalib framebuffer system graphics card graphics stack several peculiarities unusual web browser fonts displayed links derived system compiled binary grayscale bitmaps portable network graphics png format allows browser one executable file independent system libraries however increases size executable 5 mb fonts anti-aliased without hinting small line pitch artificial sharpening employed increase legibility subpixel sampling increases legibility lcd displays allowed links anti-aliased fonts time anti-aliased font libraries uncommon graphic elements images text first converted given gamma space according known assumed gamma information png jpeg etc known user gamma setting 48 bits per pixel photometrically linear space resampled bilinear resampling target size possibly taking aspect ratio correction account data passed high-performance restartable dithering engine used regardless monitor bit depth i.e. also 24 bits per pixel colour floyd-steinberg dithering engine takes account gamma characteristics monitor uses 768 kib dithering tables avoid time expensive calculations technique similar self-modifying code function templates used maximize speed dithering engine without using assembly language optimization non-portable images scaled also use subpixel sampling lcd increase level detail reason high quality processing provide proper realistic sampling images photorealistic display regardless monitor gamma without colour fringing caused 8-bit gamma correction built x server also increases perceived colour depth 24 bits per pixel links graphics drivers x server linux framebuffer svgalib os/2 pmshell atheos gui allows run graphics mode even platforms n't x server experimental/enhanced links elinks fork links led petr baudis based links 0.9 open development incorporates patches links versions additional extension scripting lua internet users hacked links another version links browser merged elinks features links 2 andrey mirtchovski ported plan 9 bell labs considered good browser operating system though users complained inability cut paste plan 9 snarf buffer last release hacked links july 9 2003 changes unreleased links also ported run sony psp platform pspradio rafael cabezas last version 2.1pre23_psp_r1261 released february 6 2007 beos port updated françois revol also added gui support also runs haiku I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	6,528	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_msx_games.list msx games following incomplete list video games msx msx2 msx2+ msx turbo r home computers games released system 1-hop neighbor's text information: stormbringer_(video_game).stormbringer video game stormbringer computer game written david jones released 1987 mastertronic mastertronic added dimension label originally released zx spectrum commodore 64 amstrad cpc msx version atari st published 1988 fourth final game magic knight series in-game music david whittaker magic knight finally returns home obtained second-hand time-machine tyme guardians end knight tyme however accident whilst travelling back two magic knights off-white knight dreaded stormbringer called storm cloud plans use destroy magic knight magic knight kill off-white knight without destroying process option find off-white knight merge gameplay takes form graphic adventure commands inputted via windimation menu-driven interface style previous two games spellbound knight tyme 1986 magic knight limited amount strength consumed performing actions moving screen screen well sapped various enemies stormbringer storm cloud spinning axes balls bounce around rooms avoided need player monitor magic knight strength avoid enemies means stormbringer gameplay closer arcade adventure feel spellbound rather much pure graphic adventure feel knight tyme previous two magic knight games characters magic knight interact help magic knight spellcasting abilities also important solving game puzzles including merge spell used finds off-white knight 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan Target text information: finders_keepers_(1985_video_game).finders keepers 1985 video game finders keepers computer game written david jones first game magic knight series published mastertronic label zx spectrum amstrad cpc msx commodore 64 commodore 16 1985 published united kingdom budget price £1.99 zx spectrum sold 117,000 copies across 8-bit formats 330,000 copies making mastertronic second best-selling original game bmx racers magic knight sent castle spriteland king ibsisima order find special present princess germintrude magic knight successful quest may proved worthy joining famous polygon table reference mythical round table legends king arthur gameplay finders keepers markedly different magic knight games essentially graphic adventures platform elements finders keepers basically platform game maze sections hero starts king throne room transported via teleporter castle castle made two types playing area flick-screen rooms manner platform game two large scrolling mazes zx spectrum amstrad cpc msx cold upper maze slimey lower maze commodore 64 consist castle gardens castle dungeons additional part gameplay ability collect objects found rooms mazes scattered around castle sell money objects combine react create object higher value example 'bar lead 'philosophers stone react create 'bar gold amount money magic knight carrying market value inventory displayed on-screen buying selling objects done various traders live castle castle spriteland full dangerous creatures inhabit many rooms well mazes collision saps magic knight strength loses strength loses one four lives zzap 64 impressed game described little masterpiece another quality product mastertronic given 90 overall rating finders keepers followed-up three magic knight games spellbound published 1985 knight tyme published 1986 stormbringer published 1987 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	11,518	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_microsystems.sun microsystems sun microsystems inc. american company sold computers computer components software information technology services created java programming language solaris operating system zfs network file system nfs sparc sun contributed significantly evolution several key computing technologies among unix risc processors thin client computing virtualized computing sun founded february 24 1982 height sun headquarters santa clara california part silicon valley former west campus agnews developmental center april 20 2009 announced oracle corporation would acquire sun 7.4 billion deal completed january 27 2010 sun products included computer servers workstations built risc-based sparc processor architecture well x86-based amd opteron intel xeon processors sun also developed storage systems suite software products including solaris operating system developer tools web infrastructure software identity management applications technologies included java platform nfs general sun proponent open systems particularly unix also major contributor open-source software evidenced 1 billion purchase 2008 mysql open-source relational database management system various times sun manufacturing facilities several locations worldwide including newark california hillsboro oregon linlithgow scotland however time company acquired oracle outsourced manufacturing responsibilities initial design became sun first unix workstation sun-1 conceived andy bechtolsheim graduate student stanford university palo alto california bechtolsheim originally designed sun workstation stanford university network communications project personal cad workstation designed around motorola 68000 processor advanced memory management unit mmu support unix operating system virtual memory support built first ones spare parts obtained stanford department computer science silicon valley supply houses february 24 1982 scott mcnealy andy bechtolsheim vinod khosla stanford graduate students founded sun microsystems bill joy berkeley primary developer berkeley software distribution bsd joined soon counted one original founders sun name derived initials stanford university network sun profitable first quarter july 1982 1983 sun known producing 68k-based systems high-quality graphics computers dec vax run 4.2bsd licensed computer design manufacturers typically used build multibus-based systems running unix unisoft sun initial public offering 1986 stock symbol sunw sun workstations later sun worldwide symbol changed 2007 java sun stated brand awareness associated java platform better represented company current strategy sun logo features four interleaved copies word sun form rotationally symmetric ambigram designed professor vaughan pratt also stanford initial version logo orange sides oriented horizontally vertically subsequently rotated stand one corner re-colored purple later blue dot-com bubble sun began making much money shares rose dramatically also began spending much hiring workers building genuine demand much web start-up companies anticipating business would never happen 2000 bubble burst sales sun important hardware division went free-fall customers closed shop auctioned high-end servers several quarters steep losses led executive departures rounds layoffs cost cutting december 2001 stock fell 1998 pre-bubble level 100 kept falling faster many tech companies year later dipped 10 tenth even 1990 bounced back 20 mid-2004 sun closed newark california factory consolidated manufacturing hillsboro oregon 2006 rest newark campus put market 2004 sun canceled two major processor projects emphasized high instruction-level parallelism operating frequency instead company chose concentrate processors optimized multi-threading multiprocessing ultrasparc t1 processor codenamed niagara company also announced collaboration fujitsu use japanese company processor chips mid-range high-end sun servers servers announced april 17 2007 m-series part sparc enterprise series february 2005 sun announced sun grid grid computing deployment offered utility computing services priced us 1 per cpu/hour processing per gb/month storage offering built upon existing 3,000-cpu server farm used internal r 10 years sun marketed able achieve 97 utilization august 2005 first commercial use grid announced financial risk simulations later launched first software service product january 2005 sun reported net profit 19 million fiscal 2005 second quarter first time three years followed net loss 9 million gaap basis third quarter 2005 reported april 14 2005 january 2007 sun reported net gaap profit 126 million revenue 3.337 billion fiscal second quarter shortly following news announced kohlberg kravis roberts kkr would invest 700 million company sun engineering groups bangalore beijing dublin grenoble hamburg prague st. petersburg tel aviv tokyo trondheim 2007–2008 sun posted revenue 13.8 billion 2 billion cash first-quarter 2008 losses 1.68 billion revenue fell 7 12.99 billion sun stock lost 80 value november 2007 november 2008 reducing company market value 3 billion falling sales large corporate clients sun announced plans lay 5,000 6,000 workers 15–18 work force expected save 700 million 800 million year result moves also taking 600 million charges may 11 2009 following shareholders held 100,000 common shares sun 9.50 per share offered oracle received amounts indicated acquisition closed first decade sun history company positioned products technical workstations competing successfully low-cost vendor workstation wars 1980s shifted hardware product line emphasize servers storage high-level telecom control systems operational support systems service predominantly used sun equipment sun originally used motorola 68000 family central processing units sun-1 sun-3 computer series sun-1 employed 68000 cpu sun-2 series 68010 sun-3 series based 68020 later sun-3x using 68030 1987 company began using sparc risc processor architecture design computer systems starting sun-4 line sparc initially 32-bit architecture sparc v7 introduction sparc v9 architecture 1995 added 64-bit extensions sun developed several generations sparc-based computer systems including sparcstation ultra sun blade series workstations sparcserver netra enterprise sun fire line servers early 1990s company began extend product line include large-scale symmetric multiprocessing servers starting four-processor sparcserver 600mp followed 8-processor sparcserver 1000 20-processor sparccenter 2000 based work done conjunction xerox parc 1995 company introduced sun ultra series machines equipped first 64-bit implementation sparc processors ultrasparc late 1990s transformation product line favor large 64-bit smp systems accelerated acquisition cray business systems division silicon graphics 32-bit 64-processor cray superserver 6400 related sparccenter led 64-bit sun enterprise 10000 high-end server otherwise known starfire september 2004 sun made available systems ultrasparc iv first multi-core sparc processor followed ultrasparc iv+ september 2005 revisions higher clock speeds 2007 cpus used powerful enterprise class high-end cc-numa servers developed sun sun fire e25k november 2005 sun launched ultrasparc t1 notable ability concurrently run 32 threads execution 8 processor cores intent drive efficient use cpu resources particular importance data centers increasing need reduce power air conditioning demands much comes heat generated cpus t1 followed 2007 ultrasparc t2 extended number threads per core 4 8 sun open sourced design specifications t1 t2 processors via opensparc project 2006 sun ventured blade server high density rack-mounted systems market sun blade distinct sun blade workstation april 2007 sun released sparc enterprise server products jointly designed sun fujitsu based fujitsu sparc64 vi later processors m-class sparc enterprise systems include high-end reliability availability features later t-series servers also badged sparc enterprise rather sun fire april 2008 sun released servers ultrasparc t2 plus smp capable version ultrasparc t2 available 2 4 processor configurations first coolthreads cpu multi-processor capability made possible build standard rack-mounted servers could simultaneously process massive 256 cpu threads hardware sun sparc enterprise t5440 considered record industry since 2010 development sun machines based sparc architecture including new sparc t-series servers sparc t3 t4 chips done part oracle corporation hardware division late 1980s sun also marketed intel 80386-based machine sun386i designed hybrid system running sunos time supporting dos applications remained market brief time follow-up 486i upgrade announced prototype units ever manufactured sun brief first foray x86 systems ended early 1990s decided concentrate sparc retire last motorola systems 386i products move dubbed mcnealy wood behind one arrowhead even sun kept hand x86 world release solaris pc compatibles began shipping 1993 1997 sun acquired diba inc. followed later acquisition cobalt networks 2000 aim building network appliances single function computers meant consumers sun also marketed network computer term popularized eventually trademarked oracle javastation diskless system designed run java applications although none business initiatives particularly successful cobalt purchase gave sun toehold return x86 hardware market 2002 sun introduced first general purpose x86 system lx50 based part previous cobalt system expertise also sun first system announced support linux well solaris 2003 sun announced strategic alliance amd produce x86/x64 servers based amd opteron processor followed shortly sun acquisition kealia startup founded original sun founder andy bechtolsheim focusing high-performance amd-based servers following year sun launched opteron-based sun fire v20z v40z servers java workstation w1100z w2100z workstations september 12 2005 sun unveiled new range opteron-based servers sun fire x2100 x4100 x4200 servers designed scratch team led bechtolsheim address heat power consumption issues commonly faced data centers july 2006 sun fire x4500 x4600 systems introduced extending line x64 systems support solaris also linux microsoft windows january 22 2007 sun announced broad strategic alliance intel intel endorsed solaris mainstream operating system mission critical unix xeon processor-based systems contributed engineering resources opensolaris sun began using intel xeon processor x64 server line starting sun blade x6250 server module introduced june 2007 may 5 2008 amd announced operating system research center osrc expanded focus include optimization sun opensolaris xvm virtualization products amd based processors although sun initially known hardware company software history began founding 1982 co-founder bill joy one leading unix developers time contributed vi editor c shell significant work developing tcp/ip bsd unix os sun later developed software java programming language acquired software staroffice virtualbox mysql sun used community-based open-source licensing major technologies support products open source technologies gnome-based desktop software called java desktop system originally code-named madhatter distributed solaris operating system one point linux sun supported java enterprise system middleware stack linux released source code solaris open-source common development distribution license via opensolaris community sun positioning includes commitment indemnify users software intellectual property disputes concerning software offers support services variety pricing bases including per-employee per-socket 2006 report prepared eu unu-merit stated sun largest corporate contributor open source movements world according report sun open source contributions exceed combined total next five largest commercial contributors sun best known unix systems reputation system stability consistent design philosophy sun first workstation shipped unisoft v7 unix later 1982 sun began providing sunos customized 4.1bsd unix operating system workstations late 1980s tapped sun help develop next release branded unix 1988 announced would purchase 20 stake sun unix system v release 4 svr4 jointly developed sun sun used svr4 foundation solaris 2.x became successor sunos 4.1.x later retrospectively named solaris 1.x mid-1990s ensuing unix wars largely subsided sold unix interests relationship two companies significantly reduced 1992 sun also sold interactive unix operating system acquired bought interactive systems corporation eastman kodak company popular unix variant pc platform major competitor market leader sco unix sun focus interactive unix diminished favor solaris sparc x86 systems dropped product 2001 sun dropped solaris 2.x version numbering scheme solaris 2.6 release 1997 following version branded solaris 7 first 64-bit release intended new ultrasparc cpus based sparc v9 architecture within next four years successors solaris 8 solaris 9 released 2000 2002 respectively following several years difficult competition loss server market share competitors linux-based systems sun began include linux part strategy 2002 sun supported red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server x64 systems companies canonical ltd. wind river systems montavista also supported versions linux sun sparc-based systems 2004 cultivated reputation one microsoft vocal antagonists sun entered joint relationship resolving various legal entanglements two companies receiving us 1.95 billion settlement payments sun supported microsoft windows x64 systems announced collaborative agreements microsoft including plans support virtualization environments 2005 company released solaris 10 new version included large number enhancements operating system well novel features previously unseen industry solaris 10 update releases continued next 8 years last release sun microsystems solaris 10 10/09 following updates released oracle new license agreement final release solaris 10 1/13 previously sun offered separate variant solaris called trusted solaris included augmented security features multilevel security least privilege access model solaris 10 included many capabilities trusted solaris time initial release solaris 10 11/06 included solaris trusted extensions give remaining capabilities needed make functional successor trusted solaris releasing solaris 10 source code opened cddl free software license developed open contributing opensolaris community sxce used svr4 .pkg packaging supported opensolaris releases used ips following acquisition sun oracle opensolaris continued develop open illumos illumos distributions oracle corporation continued develop opensolaris next solaris release changing back license proprietary released oracle solaris 11 november 2011 java platform developed sun james gosling early 1990s objective allowing programs function regardless device used sparking slogan write run anywhere wora objective entirely achieved prompting riposte write debug everywhere java regarded largely hardware- operating system-independent java initially promoted platform client-side applets running inside web browsers early examples java applications hotjava web browser hotjava views suite however since java successful server side internet platform consists three major parts java programming language java virtual machine jvm several java application programming interfaces apis design java platform controlled vendor user community java community process jcp java object-oriented programming language since introduction late 1995 became one world popular programming languages java programs compiled byte code executed jvm regardless environment java apis provide extensive set library routines apis evolved standard edition java se provides basic infrastructure gui functionality enterprise edition java ee aimed large software companies implementing enterprise-class application servers micro edition java used build software devices limited resources mobile devices november 13 2006 sun announced would licensing java implementation gnu general public license released java compiler jvm time february 2009 sun entered battle microsoft adobe systems promoted rival platforms build software applications internet javafx development platform music video applications builds java programming language 1999 sun acquired german software company star division office suite staroffice sun later released openoffice.org gnu lgpl sissl sun industry standards source license openoffice.org supported microsoft office file formats though perfectly available many platforms primarily linux microsoft windows mac os x solaris used open source community principal differences staroffice openoffice.org staroffice supported sun available either single-user retail box kit per-user blocks licensing enterprise included wider range fonts document templates commercial quality spellchecker staroffice also contained commercially licensed functions add-ons openoffice.org either replaced open-source free variants present packages native support opendocument format 2007 sun announced sun xvm virtualization datacenter automation product suite commodity hardware sun also acquired virtualbox 2008 earlier virtualization technologies sun like dynamic system domains dynamic reconfiguration specifically designed high-end sparc servers logical domains supports ultrasparc t1/t2/t2 plus server platforms sun marketed sun ops center provisioning software datacenter automation client side sun offered virtual desktop solutions desktop environments applications could hosted datacenter users accessing environments wide range client devices including microsoft windows pcs sun ray virtual display clients apple macintoshes pdas combination supported devices variety networks supported lan wan public internet virtual desktop products included sun ray server software sun secure global desktop sun virtual desktop infrastructure sun acquired mysql ab developer mysql database 2008 us 1 billion ceo jonathan schwartz mentioned blog optimizing performance mysql one priorities acquisition february 2008 sun began publish results mysql performance optimization work sun contributed postgresql project java platform sun contributed supported java db sun offered software products software development infrastructure services many developed house others came acquisitions including tarantella waveset technologies seebeyond vaau sun acquired many netscape non-browser software products part deal involving netscape merger aol software products initially offered iplanet brand sun-netscape alliance ended re-branded sun one sun open network environment sun java system sun middleware product branded java enterprise system jes marketed web application serving communication calendaring directory identity management service-oriented architecture sun open esb software suites available free charge systems running solaris red hat enterprise linux hp-ux windows support available optionally sun developed data center management software products included solaris cluster high availability software grid management package called sun grid engine firewall software sunscreen network equipment providers telecommunications customers sun developed sun netra high-availability suite sun produced compilers development tools sun studio brand building developing solaris linux applications sun entered software service saas market zembly social cloud-based computing platform project kenai open-source project hosting service sun sold storage systems complement system offerings also made several storage-related acquisitions june 2 2005 sun announced would purchase storage technology corporation storagetek us 4.1 billion cash 37.00 per share deal completed august 2005 2006 sun introduced sun storagetek 5800 system first application-aware programmable storage solution 2008 sun contributed source code storagetek 5800 system bsd license sun announced sun open storage platform 2008 built open source technologies late 2008 sun announced sun storage 7000 unified storage systems codenamed amber road transparent placement data systems solid-state drives ssd conventional hard drives managed zfs take advantage speed ssds economy conventional hard disks storage products included sun fire x4500 storage server sam-qfs filesystem storage management software sun marketed sun constellation system high-performance computing hpc even introduction sun constellation system 2007 sun products use many top500 systems supercomputing centers sun hpc clustertools product set message passing interface mpi libraries tools running parallel jobs solaris hpc clusters beginning version 7.0 sun switched implementation mpi open mpi donated engineering resources open mpi project sun participant openmp language committee sun studio compilers tools implemented openmp specification shared memory parallelization 2006 sun built tsubame supercomputer june 2008 fastest supercomputer asia sun built ranger texas advanced computing center tacc 2007 ranger peak performance 500 tflops 6th powerful supercomputer top500 list november 2008 sun announced opensolaris distribution integrated sun hpc products others notable sun employees included john gilmore whitfield diffie radia perlman marc tremblay sun early advocate unix-based networked computing promoting tcp/ip especially nfs reflected company motto network computer coined john gage james gosling led team developed java programming language jon bosak led creation xml specification w3c sun staff published articles company blog site staff encouraged use site blog aspect work personal life restrictions placed staff commercially confidential material jonathan i. schwartz one first ceos large companies regularly blog postings frequently quoted analyzed press 2005 sun microsystems one first fortune 500 companies instituted formal social media program sun sold oracle corporation 2009 5.6b sun staff asked share anecdotes experiences sun web site containing videos stories photographs 27 years sun made available september 2 2009 october sun announced second round thousands employees laid blamed partially delays approval merger transaction completed early 2010 january 2011 oracle agreed pay 46 million settle charges submitted false claims us federal government agencies paid kickbacks systems integrators february 2011 sun former menlo park california campus sold announced would become headquarters facebook sprawling facility built around enclosed courtyard nicknamed sun quentin september 1 2011 sun india legally became part oracle delayed due legal issues indian court 1-hop neighbor's text information: language_technologies_institute.language technologies institute language technologies institute lti research institute carnegie mellon university pittsburgh pennsylvania united states focuses area language technologies main scholarly research institute machine translation speech recognition speech synthesis information retrieval parsing information extraction 1996 institute existed center machine translation established 1986 subsequently 1996 onwards started awarding degrees name changed language technologies institute current director institute professor jaime carbonell 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm Target text information: andrew_project.andrew project andrew project distributed computing environment developed carnegie mellon university cmu beginning 1982 ambitious project time resulted unprecedentedly vast accessible university computing infrastructure information technology center partnership carnegie mellon ibm began work andrew project 1982 initial phase project involved software hardware including wiring campus data developing workstations distributed students faculty cmu elsewhere proposed 3m computer workstations included million pixel display megabyte memory running million instructions per second unfortunately cost order us 10,000 made computers beyond reach students budgets initial hardware deployment 1985 established number university-owned clusters public workstations various academic buildings dormitories campus fully wired ready eventual availability inexpensive personal computers early development within information technology center originally called vice vast integrated computing environment virtue virtue reached unix emacs focused centralized tools file server workstation tools including window manager editor email file system client code initially system prototyped sun microsystems machines ibm rt pc series computers running special ibm academic operating system people involved project included james h. morris nathaniel borenstein james gosling david s. h. rosenthal project extended several times 1985 order complete software renamed andrew andrew carnegie andrew mellon founders institutions eventually became carnegie mellon university mostly rewritten result experience early deployments andrew four major software components afs moved information technology center transarc 1988 ams fully decommissioned replaced cyrus imap server 2002 ibm funding ended andrew continued open source project named andrew user interface system auis set tools allows users create distribute documents containing variety formatted embedded objects open-source project run department computer science cmu andrew consortium governs maintains development distribution andrew user interface system andrew user interface system encompasses three primary components andrew user environment aue contains main editor help system user interface tools rendering multimedia embedded objects andrew toolkit atk contains formattable embeddable objects allows method developers design objects atk allows multi-level object embedding objects embedded one another example raster image object embedded spreadsheet object andrew message system ams provides mail bulletin board access allows user send receive organize mail well post read message boards version 6.3 following components auis wireless andrew first campus-wide wireless internet network built 1993 predating wi-fi branding wireless andrew 2-megabit-per-second wireless local area network connected access points wired andrew network high-speed ethernet backbone linking buildings across cmu campus wireless andrew consists 100 access points covering six buildings campus university tested current setup 40 mobile units allowing general use researchers students february 1997 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	5,855	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: open_architecture.open architecture open architecture type computer architecture software architecture intended make adding upgrading swapping components easy example ibm pc amiga 500 apple iie open architecture supporting plug-in cards whereas apple iic computer closed architecture open architecture systems may use standardized system bus s-100 pci isa may incorporate proprietary bus standard used apple ii dozen slots allow multiple hardware manufacturers produce add-ons user freely install contrast closed architectures expandable one two expansion ports using proprietary connector design may require license fee manufacturer enhancements may installable technicians specialized tools training computer platforms may include systems open closed architectures mac mini compact macintosh closed macintosh ii power macintosh g5 open desktop pcs open architecture nettops typically closed similarly open software architecture one additional software modules added basic framework provided architecture open apis application programming interfaces major software products way basic functionality products modified extended google apis examples second type open software architecture consists messages flow computer systems messages standard structure modified extended per agreements computer systems example ibm distributed data management architecture open architecture allows potential users see inside parts architecture without proprietary constraints typically open architecture publishes parts architecture developer integrator wants share open business processes involved open architecture may require license agreements entities sharing architecture information open architectures successfully implemented many diverse fields including us navy 1-hop neighbor's text information: github.github github american company provides hosting software development version control using git subsidiary microsoft acquired company 2018 7.5 billion offers distributed version control source code management scm functionality git well adding features provides access control several collaboration features bug tracking feature requests task management wikis every project github offers plans free professional enterprise accounts free github accounts commonly used host open source projects january 2019 github offers unlimited private repositories plans including free accounts may 2019 github reports 37 million users 100 million repositories including least 28 million public repositories making largest host source code world github developed chris wanstrath p. j. hyett tom preston-werner scott chacon using ruby rails started february 2008 company github inc. existed since 2007 located san francisco february 24 2009 github team members announced talk yahoo headquarters within first year online github accumulated 46,000 public repositories 17,000 formed previous month alone time 6,200 repositories forked least 4,600 merged july 5 2009 github announced site harnessed 100,000 users july 27 2009 another talk delivered yahoo preston-werner announced github grown host 90,000 unique public repositories 12,000 forked least total 135,000 repositories july 25 2010 github announced hosting 1 million repositories april 20 2011 github announced hosting 2 million repositories june 2 2011 readwriteweb reported github surpassed sourceforge google code total number commits period january may 2011 july 9 2012 peter levine general partner github investor andreessen horowitz stated github growing revenue 300 annually since 2008 profitably nearly entire way january 16 2013 github announced passed 3 million users mark hosting 5 million repositories december 23 2013 github announced reached 10 million repositories june 2015 github opened office japan first office outside u.s. july 29 2015 github announced raised 250 million funding round led sequoia capital round valued company approximately 2 billion 2016 github ranked 14 forbes cloud 100 list february 28 2018 github fell victim second largest distributed denial-of-service ddos attack history incoming traffic reaching peak 1.35 terabits per second june 4 2018 microsoft announced reached agreement acquire github 7.5 billion purchase closed october 26 2018 june 19 2018 github expanded github education offering free education bundles schools june 4 2018 microsoft announced intent acquire github us 7.5 billion deal closed oct. 26 2018 github continue operate independently community platform business microsoft service led xamarin nat friedman reporting scott guthrie executive vice president microsoft cloud ai current ceo chris wanstrath retained technical fellow also reporting guthrie microsoft become significant user github using host open source projects development tools chakra core powershell visual studio code backed open source projects linux developed virtual file system git vfs git formerly git virtual file system gvfs —a git extension managing large-scale repositories adopted github concerns developers kyle simpson javascript trainer author rafael laguna ceo open-xchange microsoft purchase citing uneasiness microsoft handling previous acquisitions nokia mobile business skype saw culmination microsoft recent changes business strategy ceo satya nadella seen larger focus sale cloud computing services main line business alongside development contributions open source software linux opposed microsoft windows operating system harvard business review argued microsoft intending acquire github get access userbase used loss leader encourage use development products services concerns sale bolstered interest competitors bitbucket owned atlassian gitlab commercial open source product also runs hosted service version sourceforge owned bizx llc reported seen spikes new users intending migrate projects github respective services github inc. originally flat organization middle managers words everyone manager self-management employees could choose work projects interested open allocation salaries set chief executive 2014 github inc. introduced layer middle management github.com start-up business first years provided enough revenue funded solely three founders start taking employees july 2012 four years company founded andreessen horowitz invested 100 million venture capital july 2015 github raised another 250 million venture capital series b round investors sequoia capital andreessen horowitz thrive capital venture capital funds august 2016 github making 140 million annual recurring revenue github mascot anthropomorphized octocat five octopus-like arms character created graphic designer simon oxley clip art sell istock website enables designers market royalty-free digital images github became interested oxley work twitter selected bird designed logo illustration github chose character oxley named octopuss since github wanted octopuss logo use istock license disallows negotiated oxley buy exclusive rights image github renamed octopuss octocat trademarked character along new name later github hired illustrator cameron mcefee adapt octocat different purposes website promotional materials mcefee various github users since created hundreds variations character available octodex march 2014 github programmer julie ann horvath alleged founder ceo tom preston-werner wife theresa engaged pattern harassment led leaving company april 2014 github released statement denying horvath allegations however following internal investigation github confirmed claims github ceo chris wanstrath wrote company blog investigation found tom preston-werner capacity github ceo acted inappropriately including confrontational conduct disregard workplace complaints insensitivity impact spouse presence workplace failure enforce agreement spouse work office preston-werner resigned company 2017 allegations made discriminatory unsupportive behavior github developer recruited following commitment github improve diversity inclusivity development github platform began october 19 2007 site launched april 2008 tom preston-werner chris wanstrath p. j. hyett scott chacon made available months prior beta release projects github accessed manipulated using standard git command-line interface standard git commands work github also allows registered non-registered users browse public repositories site multiple desktop clients git plugins also created github third parties integrate platform site provides social networking-like functions feeds followers wikis using wiki software called gollum social network graph display developers work versions forks repository fork branch within fork newest user must create account order contribute content site public repositories browsed downloaded anyone registered user account users able discussions manage repositories submit contributions others repositories review changes code github began offering unlimited private repositories cost january 2019 limited three contributors per project previously public repositories free fundamental software underpins github git written linus torvalds creator linux additional software provides github user interface written using ruby rails erlang github inc. developers wanstrath hyett preston-werner github mostly used code addition source code github supports following formats features github terms service require public software projects hosted github meet open source definition reason essential users developers intending use piece software found github read software license repository usually found top-level file called license license.txt similar determine meets needs terms service state setting repositories viewed publicly agree allow others view fork repositories github enterprise similar github public service designed use large-scale enterprise software development teams enterprise wishes host repositories behind corporate firewall cloud enterprises privately run github cloud premises two environments linked work together github pages static web hosting service offered github since 2008 github users hosting user blogs project documentation even whole books created page github pages content stored git repository either files served visitors verbatim markdown format github seamlessly integrated jekyll static web site blog generator github continuous integration pipelines time content source updated jekyll regenerates website automatically serves via github pages infrastructure rest github includes free paid tiers service instead supported web advertising web sites generated service hosted either subdomains github.io domain custom domains bought third-party domain name registrar github also operates services pastebin-style site called gist hosting code snippets github proper hosting larger projects tom preston-werner presented then-new gist feature punk rock ruby conference 2008 gist builds traditional simple concept pastebin adding version control code snippets easy forking ssl encryption private pastes gist git repository multiple code snippets contained single paste pushed pulled using git forked code pushed back original author form patch gists pastes become like mini-projects github launched new program called github student developer pack give students free access popular development tools services github partnered bitnami crowdflower digitalocean dnsimple hackhands namecheap orchestrate screenhero sendgrid stripe travis ci unreal engine launch program 2016 github announced launch github campus experts program train encourage students grow technology communities universities campus experts program open university students 18 years older across world github campus experts one primary ways github funds student oriented events communities campus experts given access training funding additional resources run events grow communities become campus expert applicants must complete online training course consisting multiple modules designed grow community leadership skills github also provides software service integrations adding extra features projects services include site https //github.community/ github maintains community forum users ask questions publicly answer questions users site https //github.com/sponsors github sponsors allows users make monthly money donations projects hosted github public beta announced may 23 2019 currently project accepts wait list registrations verge said github sponsors works exactly like patreon developers offer various funding tiers come different perks ’ receive recurring payments supporters want access encourage work except zero fees use program furthermore github offer incentives early adopters first year pledges cover payment processing costs match sponsorship payments 5,000 per developer furthermore users still use similar services like patreon open collective link websites july 25th 2019 developer based iran wrote medium github blocked private repositories prohibited access github pages soon github confirmed blocking developers iran crimea cuba north korea syria accessing private repositories however github reopened access github pages days later public repositories regardless location also revealed using github visiting sanctioned countries could result similar action occurring user account github responded complaints media spokesperson saying github subject us trade control laws committed full compliance applicable law time github vision global platform developer collaboration matter developers reside result take seriously responsibility examine government mandates thoroughly certain users customers impacted beyond required law includes keeping public repositories services including open source projects available accessible support personal communications involving developers sanctioned regions developers feel restrictions appeal removal said restrictions including travel reside countries github forbidden use vpns ip proxies access site sanctioned countries purchase history ip addresses flag users among sources december 3 2014 github blacklisted russia github initially refused take user-posted suicide manuals day russia withdrew block december 31 2014 github blocked india along 31 websites pro-isis content posted users january 10 2015 github unblocked march 26 2015 github fell victim massive ddos attack lasted 118 hours attack appeared originate china primarily targeted github-hosted user content describing methods circumventing internet censorship october 8 2016 github access blocked turkish government prevent email leakage hacked account belonging country energy minister july 25 2019 github started blocking developers countries facing us trading sanctions prominent open source organizations projects use github primary place collaboration including 1-hop neighbor's text information: ipad.ipad ipad line tablet computers designed developed marketed apple inc. run ios ipados mobile operating systems first ipad released april 3 2010 recent ipad models sixth-generation ipad released march 27 2018 fifth-generation ipad mini released march 18 2019 third-generation ipad air released march 18 2019 third-generation ipad pro released november 7 2018. apple sold 360 million ipads though sales peaked 2013 popular tablet computer sales second quarter 2018 user interface built around device multi-touch screen including virtual keyboard ipads connect via wi-fi models also cellular connectivity ipads shoot video take photos play music perform internet functions web-browsing emailing functions games reference gps navigation social networking etc enabled downloading installing apps app store million apps ipad apple third parties nine versions ipad first generation established design precedents persisted models 2nd-generation ipad ipad 2 introduced new thinner design dual-core apple a5 processor vga front-facing 720p rear-facing cameras designed facetime video calling third generation added retina display new apple a5x processor quad-core graphics processor 5-megapixel camera hd 1080p video recording voice dictation 4g lte fourth generation added apple a6x processor replaced 30-pin connector all-digital lightning connector ipad air added apple a7 processor apple m7 motion coprocessor reduced thickness first time since ipad 2 ipad air 2 added apple a8x processor apple m8 motion coprocessor 8-megapixel camera touch id fingerprint sensor reduced thickness ipad introduced 2017 added apple a9 processor sacrificing improvements ipad air 2 introduced exchange lower launch price 2018 apple released 2018 model ipad apple a10 fusion processor apple pencil support year later 2019 ipad air released 10.5-inch display apple a12 chip five versions ipad mini screen size first generation similar internal specifications ipad 2 uses lightning connector instead ipad mini 2 added retina display apple a7 processor apple m7 motion coprocessor closely matching internal specifications ipad air ipad mini 3 added touch id fingerprint sensor ipad mini 4 features apple a8 apple m8 motion coprocessor 5th generation features apple a12 soc three generations ipad pro first generation came 9.7 12.9 screen sizes second came 10.5 12.9 sizes third 11 12.9 sizes ipad pros unique features smart connector exclusive series ipads apple co-founder steve jobs said 1983 speech company strategy simple want want put incredibly great computer book carry around learn use 20 minutes ... really want radio link n't hook anything 're communication larger databases computers apple first tablet computer newton messagepad 100 introduced 1993 powered arm6 processor core developed arm 1990 spinout acorn computers apple invested apple also developed prototype powerbook duo based tablet penlite decided sell order avoid hurting messagepad sales apple released several newton-based pdas final one messagepad 2100 discontinued 1998 apple re-entered mobile-computing markets 2007 iphone smaller ipad featuring camera mobile phone pioneered multi-touch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface apple ios mobile operating system late 2009 ipad release rumored several years speculation mostly talked apple tablet specific names included itablet islate ipad announced january 27 2010 steve jobs apple press conference yerba buena center arts san francisco jobs later said apple begun developing ipad iphone jonathan ive 1991 created industrial design stylus-based tablet macintosh folio first project apple 2004 studio company participating development large tablet prototype later described crude involving projectors ive stated seeking produce tablet first came agree jobs phone important tablet innovations would work well ipad internal codename k48 revealed court case surrounding leaking ipad information launch apple began taking pre-orders first-generation ipad march 12 2010 major change device announcement available pre-order change behavior side switch perform either sound muting screen rotation locking user selectable wi-fi version ipad went sale united states april 3 2010 wi-fi 3g version released april 30 3g service united states provided initially sold two prepaid contract-free data plan options one unlimited data 250 mb per month half price june 2 2010 announced effective june 7 unlimited plan would replaced new customers 2 gb plan slightly lower cost existing customers would option keep unlimited plan plans activated ipad cancelled time initially ipad available order apple store since become available purchase retailers including amazon walmart network operators ipad launched countries including australia canada france germany japan united kingdom may 28 online pre-orders countries began may 10 apple released ipad hong kong ireland mexico new zealand singapore july 23 2010 israel briefly prohibited importation ipad concerns wi-fi might interfere devices september 17 2010 ipad officially launched china jobs unveiled ipad 2 press conference march 2 2011 33 thinner predecessor 15 lighter ipad 2 better processor dual core apple a5 apple says twice fast predecessor cpu operations nine times fast gpu operations ipad 2 includes front back cameras support facetime videophone application well three-axis gyroscope retained original 10‑hour battery life similar pricing scheme successor ipad 2 unveiled march 7 2012 apple ceo tim cook yerba buena center arts new ipad contained new dual core a5x processor quad-core graphics retina display resolution 2,048 1,536 pixels 50 percent pixels standard high definition tv screen brief controversy erupted revealed lte advertised work countries october 23 2012 apple announced fourth generation ipad began shipping november 2 2012 new hardware includes a6x processor hd facetime camera improved lte compatibility all-digital lightning connector available storage increments pricing structure third generation following announcement fourth-generation ipad previous generation discontinued alongside launch fourth generation hardware apple announced ipad mini screen measuring 7.9 inches aimed emerging sector smaller tablets kindle fire nexus 7 hardware new ipad mini similar ipad 2 1,024 768 pixel resolution screen dual core a5 processor 53 lighter 7.2 mm thick released november 2 2012 16 gb 32 gb 64 gb capacities wi-fi wi‑fi cellular versions october 22 2013 apple introduced fifth generation ipad called ipad air second generation ipad mini called ipad mini 2 comes retina display ipad air went sale november 1 2013 starting 499 ipad mini 2 released november 12 2013 starting 399 first quarter 2014 apple reported sold 25 million ipads all-time quarterly record compared 22.9 million year-ago quarter october 2014 apple released ipad air 2 ipad mini 3 ipad air 2 first ios device feature triple core cpu 2gb ram well thinner faster predecessor ipad air features touch id available gold color option ipad mini 3 similar ipad mini 2 design hardware also includes touch id available gold color september 2015 ipad pro announced included 12.9-inch screen 9.7-inch version announced march 2016 addition 256 gb option ipad pro models march 21 2017 new ipad announced hardware includes a9 processor designed budget version ipad june 2017 ipad pro second generation hardware announced 12.9 10.5-inch screens march 28 2018 new ipad 9.7-inch 2018 model 6th generation announced new model uses a10 fusion processor fully supports apple pencil replaces 2017 model october 30 2018 third-generation ipad pro announced first generation support 1tb storage march 18 2019 apple announced ipad air 2019 ipad mini 2019 a12 bionic processors ipad first two generations touchscreen display 1,024 768 pixel liquid-crystal display diagonal fingerprint- scratch-resistant glass steve jobs said 7-inch screen would small express software 10 inches minimum tablet screen like iphone ipad designed controlled bare fingers normal non-conductive gloves styli work although special gloves capacitive styli designed use display responds sensors ambient light sensor adjust screen brightness 3-axis accelerometer sense ipad orientation switch portrait landscape modes unlike iphone ipod touch built-in applications work three orientations portrait landscape-left landscape-right ipad built-in applications support screen rotation four orientations including upside-down consequently device intrinsic native orientation relative position home button changes four physical switches ipad including home button near display returns user main menu three plastic physical switches sides wake/sleep volume up/down plus software-controlled switch whose function changed software updates originally switch locked screen current orientation ios 4.2 changed mute switch rotation lock available onscreen menu ios 4.3 update released ipad 2 setting added allow user specify whether side switch used rotation lock mute first generation ipad camera ipad 2 front vga camera rear-facing 720p camera capable still images taken low quality 0.3 megapixels 30fps video rear-facing camera 5× digital zoom still images shoot photo video fullscreen aspect ratio unlike iphone 4 shoots widescreen aspect ratio unlike iphone ipad support tap focus allow tap set auto exposure cameras allow facetime video messaging iphone 4 fourth generation ipod touch snow leopard lion mountain lion macs ipad two internal speakers reproducing left right channel audio located bottom-right unit original ipad speakers push sound two small sealed channels leading three audio ports carved device ipad 2 speakers behind single grill volume switch right side unit 3.5-mm trrs connector audio-out jack top-left corner device provides stereo sound headphones without microphones and/or volume controls ipad also contains microphone used voice recording built-in bluetooth 2.1 edr interface allows wireless headphones keyboards used ipad however ios currently support file transfer via bluetooth ipad also features 1,024×768 vga video output limited applications screen capture connecting external display television accessory adapter ipad uses internal rechargeable lithium-ion polymer lipo battery batteries made taiwan simplo technology 60 dynapack international technology ipad designed charged high current 2 amperes using included 10 w usb power adapter usb cord usb connector one end 30-pin dock connector end charged standard usb port computer limited 500 milliamperes 0.5 amps result ipad running powered normal usb computer port may charge slowly high-power usb ports found newer apple computers accessories provide full charging capabilities apple claims battery generations ipad provide 10 hours video 140 hours audio playback one month standby like rechargeable battery technology ipad battery loses capacity time designed user-replaceable program similar battery-replacement program ipod original iphone apple replace ipad hold electrical charge refurbished ipad fee us 99 plus 6.95 shipping different unit supplied user data preserved refurbished unit new case warranty refurbished unit may vary jurisdictions independent companies also provide battery replacement service returning original unit new battery original case alternatively possible technically competent user buy install new battery task require soldering technically challenging ipad released three capacity options storage 16 32 64 gb internal flash memory january 29 2013 apple announced 128 gb model fourth generation ipad released february 5 data stored internal flash memory option expand storage apple sells camera connection kit sd card reader used transfer photos videos march 21 2016 apple announced 256 gb model ipad pro released march 31 2017 apple released 10.5-inch ipad pro revised 12.9-inch ipad pro 512 gb option first kind ios device 2018 apple released 11-inch 12.9-inch ipad pro 1tb option apple ios combination specific hardware uses crypto-shredding activating erase content settings obliterating keys 'effaceable storage renders user data device cryptographically inaccessible ipad models come two basic variants wi-fi wi-fi cellular support cellular variants however support circuit-switched voice calls texts data connectivity side wi-fi 3g ipad micro-sim slot mini-sim 3g ipad used compatible gsm carrier unlike iphone usually sold 'locked specific carriers first generations ipad u.s. data network access via t-mobile network limited slower edge cellular speeds t-mobile 3g network time used different frequencies second generation ipad introduced third tier models cdma support verizon wireless united states available separately capable version ipad 4th generation uses micro-sim first generation ipad mini uses nano-sim introduced iphone 5 ipad mini available two different frequency bands worldwide devices support quad-band gsm quad-band umts frequencies one variant also supports lte bands 4 17 principally intended use u.s. network adds support lte bands 1 3 5 13 25 cdma ev-do rev rev b 5th generation ipad 2nd generation ipad mini introduced support many additional lte bands worldwide ipad air mini retina display cellular models come two variants support nano-sims quad-band gsm penta-band umts dual-band cdma ev-do rev b. additionally one variant ipad also supports lte bands 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 13 17 18 19 20 25 26 variant supports lte bands 1 2 3 5 7 8 18 19 20 td-lte bands 38 39 40 apple ability handle many different bands one device allowed offer first time single ipad variant supports cellular bands technologies deployed major north american wireless providers time device introduction moreover t-mobile usa selling ipad air mini retina display models became first ipads made available purchase directly four nationwide u.s. wireless carriers previously indicated u.s. carriers selling hardware variant device apple offers several ipad accessories adapters proprietary 30-pin dock connector ipad port besides headphone jack dock holds ipad upright angle dock connector audio line port generation ipad requires corresponding dock dock included physical keyboard supported original ipad generations compatible bluetooth keyboards also work macs pcs ipad charged standalone power adapter wall charger also used ipods iphones 10 w charger included ipad apple sells camera connection kit consists two separate adapters dock connector one usb type sd card reader adapter used transfer photos videos plug usb audio card midi keyboard third party sells adapter includes usb sd microsd single unit adapter vga connectors allows ipad work external monitors projectors another adapter mirrors screen onto hdmi compatible devices 1080p works apps rotations unlike adapters allows ipad charge another dock connector hdmi adapter released advertised second generation ipad also works first-generation ipad iphone 4 fourth generation ipod touch smart covers screen protectors magnetically attach align face ipad 2 3 4 cover three folds allow convert stand also held together magnets original ipad owners could purchase black case included similarly folding cover smart cover meant minimal easily detachable protects screen smart covers microfiber bottom cleans front ipad wakes cover removed five different colors polyurethane leather leather expensive smart covers compatible original ipad june 2012 apple started selling smart case case combined function smart cover back protection case compatible ipad 2 ipad 3rd 4th generation devices like iphone shares development environment ipad runs software software downloaded apple app store software written developers paid developer license registered devices ipad runs almost third-party iphone applications displaying iphone size enlarging fill ipad screen developers may also create modify apps take advantage ipad features onemillion apps optimized ipad application developers use ios sdk developing applications ipad ipad originally shipped customized ipad-only version iphone os dubbed v3.2 september 1 announced ipad would get ios 4.2 november 2010 fulfill apple released ios 4.2.1 public november 22 interface centred around home screen graphical list available applications home screen accessed time hardware button screen closing open application process users also add delete icons dock every home screen home screen holds twenty icons dock holds six icons users delete web clips third-party applications time may select certain applications transfer itunes apple default programs however may removed almost input given touch screen understands complex gestures using multi-touch ipad interaction techniques enable user move content touch-drag motion finger example zooming web pages photos done placing two fingers screen spreading farther apart bringing closer together gesture known pinching scrolling long list menu achieved sliding finger display bottom top vice versa go back either case list moves pasted outer surface wheel slowly decelerating affected friction way interface simulates physics real object user-centered interactive effects include horizontally sliding sub-selection vertically sliding keyboard bookmarks menu widgets turn around allow settings configured side menu bars found top bottom screen necessary options vary program always follow consistent style motif menu hierarchies back button top-left corner screen displays name parent folder layout music library similar ipod current symbian s60 phones ipad sort media library songs artists albums videos playlists genres composers podcasts audiobooks compilations options always presented alphabetically except playlists retain order itunes iphone uses large font allows users plenty room touch selection users rotate device horizontally landscape mode access cover flow likewise feature may disabled purposely wishing view screen another angle like itunes feature shows different album covers scroll-through photo library scrolling achieved swiping finger across screen alternatively headset controls used pause play skip repeat tracks ipad supports gapless playback like fifth-generation ipods introduced 2005 ipad play digital video allowing users watch tv shows movies widescreen double-tapping switches widescreen video playback ipad allows users purchase download songs itunes store directly ipad includes software allows user upload view email photos taken camera user zooms photos sliding two fingers apart closer together much like safari camera application also lets users view camera roll pictures taken ipad camera pictures also available photos application along transferred iphoto aperture mac photoshop windows pc ipad use wi-fi network trilateration skyhook wireless provide location information applications google maps 3g model supports a-gps allow position calculated gps relative nearby cellphone towers also black strip back aid 3g reception ipad headphone jack proprietary apple dock connector ethernet usb port however apple camera connection kit accessory provides two dock connector adapters importing photos videos via usb sd memory cards ipad comes several applications including safari mail photos video ipod itunes app store ibooks maps notes calendar contacts several improved versions applications developed iphone mac apps currently missing weather calculator health apps ipad syncs itunes mac windows pc apple ported iwork suite mac ipad sells pared versions pages numbers keynote apps app store although ipad designed replace mobile phone user use wired headset built-in speaker microphone place telephone calls wi-fi 3g using voip application ipad specific apps app store december 2010 reuters reported iphone ipad users lodged lawsuit apple alleging applications passing information third party advertisers without consent ipad optional ibooks application downloaded app store displays books epub-format content downloaded ibookstore ipad launch april 3 2010 ibookstore available united states several major book publishers including penguin books harpercollins simon schuster macmillan committed publishing books ipad despite direct competitor amazon kindle barnes noble nook amazon.com barnes noble made kindle nook apps available ipad february 2010 condé nast said would sell ipad subscriptions several magazines june april 2010 new york times announced would begin publishing daily ipad top news section available free charge remainder payment subscription major news organizations including wall street journal bbc reuters released ipad applications newscorp created ipad-only publication daily february 2011 ceased operations december 2012 ipad assembled foxconn also manufactures apple ipod iphone mac mini largest plant shenzhen china pegatron shanghai china april 2011 foxconn announced would moving production ipad apple products brazil could begin production end 2011. isuppli estimated first-generation ipad 16 gb wi-fi version costs us 259.60 manufacture total excludes research development licensing royalty patent costs apple disclose makers ipad components teardown reports analysis industry insiders indicate various parts suppliers include ipad employ digital rights management drm os prevents users copying transferring certain content outside apple platform without authorization tv shows movies apps also ipad development model requires anyone creating app ipad sign non-disclosure agreement pay developer subscription critics argue apple centralized app approval process control platform could stifle software innovation particular concern digital rights advocates apple ability remotely disable delete apps ipad time digital rights advocates including free software foundation electronic frontier foundation computer engineer activist brewster kahle criticized ipad digital rights restrictions april 2010 paul sweeting analyst gigaom quoted national public radio saying ipad anti-internet hands ... offers major media companies opportunity essentially re-create old business model wherein pushing content terms rather going finding content search engine discovering content sweeting also thought limitations imposed apple impart feeling safe neighborhood saying apple offering gated community guard gate probably maid service laura sydell article author concludes consumers fears security internet viruses malware may happy opt apple gated community russian government switched ipads android devices security concerns like certain ios devices ipad jailbroken depending version ios running thus allowing applications programs authorized apple run device jailbroken users able download many applications previously unavailable app store via unofficial installers cydia well illegally pirated applications apple claims jailbreaking void factory warranty device united states even though jailbreaking legal ipad released april 2010 first jailbroken may 2010 spirit jailbreak ios version 3.1.2 ipad jailbroken ios versions 4.3 4.3.3 web-based tool jailbreakme 3.0 released july 2011 ios versions including 5.0 5.0.1 using redsn0w absinthe 2.0 released may 25 2012 first jailbreak method ios 5.1.1 devices except 32 nm version ipad 2 apple app store provides iphone ipad applications imposes censorship content become issue book publishers magazines seeking use platform guardian newspaper described role apple analogous british magazine distributor wh smith many years imposed content restrictions due exclusion pornography app store youporn others changed video format flash h.264 html5 specifically ipad e-mail exchange ryan tate valleywag steve jobs claimed ipad offers freedom porn leading many upset replies including adbustings berlin artist johannes p. osterhoff san francisco wwdc10 may 28 2010 ipad released australia canada japan well several larger european countries media reaction launch mixed media noted positive response fans device thousands people queued first day sale number countries media reaction ipad announcement mixed walter mossberg wrote software stupid meaning hardware features build less important ipad success software user interface first impressions largely positive mossberg also called price modest device capabilities praised ten-hour battery life others including pc advisor sydney morning herald wrote ipad would also compete proliferating netbooks use microsoft windows base model 499 price lower pre-release estimates tech press wall street analysts apple competitors expecting much higher entry price point cnet also criticized ipad apparent lack wireless sync portable devices microsoft zune number years built-in itunes app able download internet well reviews ipad generally favorable walt mossberg wall street journal called pretty close laptop killer david pogue new york times wrote dual review one part technology-minded people part non-technology-minded people former section notes laptop offers features cheaper price ipad review latter audience however claims readers like concept device understand intended uses enjoy using device pc magazine tim gideon wrote winner undoubtedly driving force shaping emerging tablet landscape michael arrington techcrunch said ipad beats even optimistic expectations new category device also replace laptops many people pc world criticized ipad file sharing printing abilities ars technica said sharing files computer one least favorite parts ipad experience media also praised quantity applications well bookstore media applications contrast criticized ipad closed system mentioned ipad faces competition android-based tablets outsold ipads 2013 surpassing ipads second quarter 2013 overtaken ipad installed base lost majority web browsing android statcounter estimates south america africa asia many large countries eastern europe independent criticized ipad readable bright light paper praised able store large quantities books uk release daily telegraph said ipad lack adobe flash support annoying ipad selected time magazine one 50 best inventions year 2010 popular science chose top gadget behind overall best new 2010 winner groasis waterboxx ipad tablets still wide margin globally second used android tablets market share however differs widely regions ipad lost market share globally every year since 2012 statcounter started tracking tablets separately according statcounter statistics tracks web use gives operating system/platform share based ipad lost majority use south america android also lose majority gaining back asia africa lost wide margin android 70 ipad mostly used consumers also taken business users within 90 days release ipad managed penetrate 50 fortune 100 companies companies adopting ipads business offices distributing making available ipads employees examples uses workplace include attorneys responding clients medical professionals accessing health records patient exams managers approving employee requests survey frost sullivan shows ipad usage office workplaces linked goals increased employee productivity reduced paperwork increased revenue research firm estimates mobile-office application market north america may reach 6.85 billion 2015 estimated 1.76 billion 2010 since march 2011 us federal aviation administration faa approved ipad in-cockpit use cut paper consumption several airlines 2011 alaska airlines became first airline replace pilots paper manuals ipads weighing compared printed flight manuals hopes fewer back muscle injuries dozen airlines followed suit including united distributed ipads cockpits also many airlines offer inflight magazine downloadable application ipad ipad several uses classroom praised valuable tool homeschooling soon ipad released reported 81 top book apps children ipad also called revolutionary tool help children autism learn communicate socialize easily healthcare field ipads iphones used help hospitals manage supply chain example novation healthcare contracting services company developed vha pricelynx based mobile application platform business intelligence software vendor microstrategy business intelligence app help health care organizations manage purchasing procedures efficiently save money hospitals guillermo ramas novation states doctors wo n't walk around hospital laptop ipad perfect walk around hospital long information need 2013 gianna chien aged 14 presented 8,000 doctors heart rhythm society meeting apple ipad 2 cases interfere life-saving heart devices pacemakers magnets inside ipad user guide advised pacemaker users keep ipads least away pacemaker study 2014 found ipad 2 could cause electromagnetic interference emi implantable cardioverter defibrillators united states fans attending super bowl xlv first super bowl since ipad released could use official national football league nfl app navigate cowboys stadium 2011 tampa bay buccaneers became first nfl club discontinue use paper copies playbooks instead distributed players playbook videos electronic format via ipad 2 ipad able support many music creation applications addition itunes music playback software include sound samplers guitar voice effects processors sequencers synthesized sounds sampled loops virtual synthesizers drum machines theremin-style touch responsive instruments drum pads many gorillaz 2010 album fall created almost exclusively using ipad damon albarn tour band music video luna sea 2012 single rouge filmed entirely ipad ipad greatly increased social television use viewers use ipad convenient second networked computer second screen communicating viewers television provider viewers use web browser specialized applications discuss program viewers broadcast content providers may use second screen interact viewers real time example latter facility allows content providers conduct real-time polls collect comments program displayed text main television screen viewer interaction via second screen becoming increasingly popular Target text information: distributed_common_ground_system.distributed common ground system distributed common ground system dcgs system produces military intelligence multiple military branches u.s. air force use system produces intelligence collected u-2 dragonlady rq-4 global hawk mq-9 reaper mq-1 predator previous system similar use deployable ground station dgs first deployed july 1994 subsequent version dgs developed 1995 2009 although officially designated weapons system consists computer hardware software connected together computer network devoted processing dissemination information images 480th intelligence surveillance reconnaissance wing air combat command operates maintains usaf system plan envisioned 1998 develop interoperable systems army navy addition air force 2006 version 10.6 deployed air force version known dcgs-a developed army 2010 report general michael t. flynn program intended use cloud computing easy use ipad soldiers years commonly using april 2011 project manager colonel charles wells announced version 3 army system code named griffin deployed us war afghanistan january 2012 united states army communications-electronics research development engineering center hosted meeting based dcgs-a early experience brought together technology providers hope developing integrated systems using cloud computing open architectures compared previously specialized custom-built systems major contractor lockheed martin computers supplied silicon graphics international chippewa falls wisconsin office software known analyst notebook originally developed i2 limited included dcgs-a ibm acquired i2 2011 us army personnel reported using palantir technologies product improve ability predict locations improvised explosive devices april 2012 report recommending study initial success palantir software rated easy use flexibility wide number data sources dcgs-a july 2012 congressman duncan d. hunter california state palantir based complained us dod obstacles wider use although limited test august 2011 test evaluation command recommended deployment operation problems dcgs-a included baseline system operationally effective reboots average every 8 hours set improvements identified november 2012 press reported shortcomings uncovered general genaro dellarocco tests ambitious goal integrating 473 data sources 75 million reports proved challenging spending estimated 2.3 billion army system alone may 2013 politico reported palantir lobbyists anonymous returning veterans continued advocate use software despite interoperability limits particular members special forces us marines required use official army system similar stories appeared publications army representatives major general mary a. legere citing limitations various systems congressman hunter member house armed services committee required review program two members congress sent open letter secretary defense leon panetta senate defense appropriations subcommittee included testimony army chief staff general ray odierno 130th engineer brigade united states found system unstable slow friendly major hindrance operations equivalent system united states navy planned initial deployment 2015 within shipboard network called consolidated afloat networks enterprise services canes 2016 early testing announced 2009 aboard aircraft carrier portion software distributed data framework dcgs integration backbone dib version 4 submitted open-source software repository codice foundation github framework new dib version 4 replacing legacy dib portal ozone widget framework interface written java programming language distributed common ground system-army dcgs-a united states army primary system post data process information disseminate intelligence surveillance reconnaissance isr information threat weather terrain echelons dcgs-a provides commanders ability task battle-space sensors receive intelligence information multiple sources august 17 2011 upi article quoted i2 chief executive officer robert griffin commented dcgs-a best-of-breed approach development article detailed army contracting i2 analyst notebook software open architecture analyst notebook supports army strategy employ integrate best-of-breed solutions across industry meet dynamic needs users face field daily basis february 1 2012 article army web page quoted mark kitz dcgs-a technical director dcgs-a uses latest cloud technology rapidly gather collaborate share intelligence data multiple sources deliver common operating picture dcgs-a able rapidly adapt changing operational environments leveraging iterative development model open architecture allowing collaboration multiple government industry academic partners july 2012 article signal magazine monthly publication armed forces communications electronics association promoted dcgs-a taking advantage technological environments young soldiers familiar article quoted dcgs-a program manager col. charles wells systems benefits article also included lockheed martin dcgs-a program manager milwaukee journal sentinel published article may 4 2012 wisconsin-located companies helping dcgs-a cloud computing technology article promoted speed cloud computing processes intelligence cost savings analyzing data field u.s. army released 2011 army posture statement march 2 included statement dcgs-a dcgs-a connects tactical operational theater-level commanders hundreds intelligence intelligence-related data sources classification levels allows focus efforts entire isr community information requirements ground commanders describe dcgs-a unwieldy unreliable hard learn difficult use supporting alternative software palantir technologies palantir software supports small unit situational awareness sufficiently funded support broader role dcgs-a fulfills I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	8,164	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n97.nokia n97 nokia n97 high-end smartphone part nseries line nokia announced 2 december 2008 released june 2009 successor nokia n96 n97 nokia second s60-based touchscreen phone nokia 5800 xpressmusic features slide-out qwerty keyboard n97 runs symbian v9.4 symbian^1/s60 5th edition design mostly based nokia n79 smaller 'mini variant later released nokia flagship time touchscreen devices becoming increasingly prevalent n97 highly anticipated despite good sales considered disaster hardware software sides thought contributed nokia decline nokia executive admitted 2010 n97 regrettable failure nokia n97 released us flagship stores 9 june 2009 26 june 2009 released worldwide september 2009 two million n97 handsets reportedly sold three months following release n97 shipped trial versions quick office adobe reader boingo joikuspot ovi maps ovi store initial software mixed reception prompting release new firmware october 2009 nokia released new firmware kinetic scrolling n97 address major issues present firmware device launched october 2009 n97 mini downsized version original n97 made available n97 mini generally seen improvement original n97 informal tests shown battery last nearly two days regular use phone various features original n97 nokia quoted following claimed operating times optional dvb-h nokia mobile tv receiver su-33w possible watch television phone compatible nokia n-gage platform touchscreen common criticisms original n97 relative lack ram free disk space c drive around 50 mb free ram available boot phone become sluggish close programs order conserve memory many first party applications also install c around 50 mb free space used quickly also temporary os files placed issue resolved n97 mini user often 250 mb free space c drive memory mapping alteration firmware version 20 allowed applications use less ram free better helping ease strain lower amount free ram end-user anssi vanjoki evp markets nokia admitted quality control software issue device saying tremendous disappointment terms experience quality consumers though according vanjoki later repaired firmware updates steve litchfield symbian 2011 blog post wrote n97 really device ruled world almost literally everything yet became one device nokia literally apologise publicly one device became millstone around neck nokia acknowledged many devices cover lens mounted close causing scratches dust debris later units nokia reportedly fixed issue others original n97 speed problems built gps lock phones easily lose track current location making free turn turn navigation software provided nokia unusable users lens cover gps issues fixed warranty official nokia service centre despite nokia phones great signal reception nokia n97 follow tradition poor overall signal strength even comparison phones placed side side n97 connected network user interface s60 5th edition software platform built top symbian os 9.4 criticized site techradar inconsistent menu items require two taps activated 2010 nokia officially apologized number customers experienced issues n97 buggy software led large number potential customers choosing brands nokia time period despite generally lukewarm reviews phone sold well however marketing iphone killer tarnished nokia smartphone reputation time n97 mini downsized version n97 available since october 2009 n97 mini downsized features original n97 8 gb storage memory touchscreen shorter battery life uses 2.0 nokia n97 software default also redesign keypad first big d-pad left side replaced four arrow keys right side also space keys keys little bit higher giving much better feel typing major differences listed following table limited edition called n97 mini raoul limited edition released relation fashion house fj benjamin raoul brand also features new fashion asia widget went sale late october 2009 malaysia singapore user interface s60 5th edition software platform built top symbian os 9.4 criticized site techradar inconsistent menu items require two taps activated compared original n97 cheaper n97 mini reviewed improvement especially keyboard three phones considered successors n97 firstly n8 became new multimedia flagship 2010 also c6 similar sliding-out qwerty keyboard however since c6 uses specifications maemo-powered n900 also featuring keyboard yet considerably better specifications considered successor 1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n78.nokia n78 nokia n78 3g smartphone made nokia first introduced mobile world congress 11 february 2008 launched 26 may 2008 €350 taxes subsidies runs symbian 9.3 s60 3rd edition fp2 marketed cheaper nseries device inside compact light body phone compatible n-gage 2.0 mobile gaming service successor n73 design shares similarities n81 n82 n96 despite relatively low price nokia n78 still pack numerous standard nseries features a-gps hsdpa wi-fi touch-sensitive navi wheel like n81 first nokia among first overall along sony ericsson w980 feature fm transmitter keypad hidden idle mode lights key pressed however become popular like n73 later 2008 nokia n79 introduced nokia n78 also first nokia phone new extended guitar-based version nokia tune firmware version 20.149 dated 8 december 2008 became available generic non-branded n78 via over-the-air update facility january 2009 latest firmware version 21.002 released 18 february 2009 lightest update 214 kb downloaded file using fota many improvements made overall performance device upgrade also firmware version 30.011 available nokia software updater update released 8 may 2009 available fota 1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n92.nokia n92 nokia n92 smartphone part multimedia nseries announced november 2 2005 world first mobile phone integrated dvb-h tuner excluding experimental 7710 result nokia marketed phone watching tv go featured swivel design n90 runs symbian os v9.1 s60 3rd edition interface interesting features handset dvb-h receiver include program guide recording facility phone constant 30 second rolling record function instant replay record broadcasts memory card providers may charge features elsewhere n92 also advanced featuring large 2.8 display largest time excluding communicators dedicated multimedia keys 3g wi-fi upnp 2 megapixel camera flash cpu runs clock speed 268 mhz however considerably heavy 191 g despite size upon release q2 2006 retailed 600 euros n92 one rarest devices nokia go high prices second hand market keypad unusual numbers viewable portrait landscape modes accommodate screen opened two different positions unusual keypad users refer confusing Target text information: nokia_e66.nokia e66 nokia e66 slider smartphone nokia eseries range s60 platform third edition device slide action targeting business users successor nokia e65 shares many features e66 similar features nokia e71 handset lacks sufficient battery capacity day use full qwerty however e66 smaller size weighs less e66 also includes accelerometer new animations transition effects lacking e71 2.5 mm 3/32 audio port suitable traditional 3.5 mm 1/8 headphones plugs microusb port used charge mobile dial 0000 check firmware version I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	854	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: jailbreakme.jailbreakme jailbreakme series jailbreaks apple ios mobile operating system take advantage flaws safari browser device providing immediate one-step jailbreak unlike common jailbreaks blackra1n redsn0w require plugging device computer running jailbreaking software desktop jailbreaking allows users install software approved apple ipod touch iphone ipad jailbreakme automatically includes cydia package management interface serves alternative app store cydia allows installation packages jailbreakme first version 2007 worked iphone ipod touch firmware 1.1.1 second version released august 2010 firmware 4.0.1 earlier third version released july 2011 ios versions 4.3 4.3.3 first jailbreak ipad 2 jailbreakme 3.0 used jailbreak least two million devices jailbreakme started 2007 originally used jailbreak iphone ipod touch running 1.1.1 version ios named iphone os using tiff exploit safari installed installer.app vulnerability used exploit patched apple 1.1.2 firmware tool also called appsnapp created group nine developers jailbreakme 2.0 star released comex august 1 2010 exploits vulnerability freetype library used rendering pdf files first publicly available jailbreak iphone 4 able jailbreak ios 3.1.2 4.0.1 iphone ipod touch ipad models current jailbreak activated visiting jailbreakme.com web page device safari web browser vulnerability used jailbreakme 2.0 patched apple ios 4.0.2 jailbreakme 3.0 saffron released july 6 2011 jailbreak ios devices ios 4.3-4.3.3 ipad 2 4.3.3 first publicly available jailbreak ipad 2 jailbreakme 3.0 exploits freetype parser security flaw similar jailbreakme 2.0 using form pdf file rendered mobile safari uses kernel vulnerability complete untethered jailbreak comex also released patch freetype flaw called pdf patcher 2 available free package installable via cydia days initial release beta tester leaked jailbreakme 3.0 public comex said twitter put time limit release final version quickly jailbreakme website looks similar downloading app store app includes blue button saying free turns green button word install pressed much like application app store tapping install safari closes cydia loads new app device fully jailbroken reboot necessary july 15 2011 apple released ios 4.3.4 gsm 4.2.9 cdma patch flaws used jailbreakme comex received pwnie award black hat conference 2011 best client-side bug work comex hired apple intern august 2011 jailbreakme 4.0 released tihmstar december 12 2017 exploits three serious vulnerabilities cve-2016-4655 cve-2016-4656 cve-2016-4657 already exploited spyware named pegasus mainly based homedepot semi untethered jailbreak released jk9357 homedepot targets 32 bit devices ios 9.1 ios 9.3.4 vulnerabilities used homedepot jailbreakme 4.0 patched apple ios 7.12 jailbreak hosted chris wade creator corellium jailbreak.me whilst technically semi-untethered jailbreak made fully untethered use tihmstar untetherhomedepot package totallynotspyware team jakeblair420 released 7 september 2018 jailbreakme-style exploit works 64-bit device running ios 10 jailbreakme 4.0 web browser induced sideload cydia using payload either meridian doubleh3lix hosted spyware.lol semi-untethered october 7 2011 conceited apps allowing comex use domain name hosting sold domain name jailbreakme.com allegedly unknown party saurikit acquired domain next day jailbreakme.com redirects cydia.saurik.com incompatible device 1-hop neighbor's text information: icy_(application).icy application icy discontinued package manager jailbroken iphone ipod touch originally created maintained ripdev allows users browse download mobile apps range sources apps available download free requiring purchase downloading including software created ripdev kate apps downloaded directly iphone ipod touch generally located codice_1 directory place apple native apps located icy project closed october 24 2009 source code released mit license icy installer taken two development teams weamdev infini-dev icy intended alternative cydia source unofficial apps since development installer.app created nullriver discontinued purpose developing icy create package manager used apt method used cydia therefore making icy compatible cydia sources faster lightweight cydia icy project closed october 24 2009 source code released mit license icy project picked weamdev latest version beta 2.3 support ios 7 group called infini dev also taken project reviving icy created version ripdev source code called icy version 1.5.1 icy 1.4.7 added support ipad development member sammy guichelaar icy development halted early 2014 support ios 9 infini-dev dropped icy support order support installer x package manager legacy devices 1-hop neighbor's text information: x86-64.x86-64 x86-64 also known x64 x86_64 amd64 intel 64 64-bit version x86 instruction set introduces two new modes operation 64-bit mode compatibility mode along new 4-level paging mode 64-bit mode new paging mode supports vastly larger amounts virtual memory physical memory possible 32-bit predecessors allowing programs store larger amounts data memory x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers 64-bit well extends number 8 limited fixed functionality e.g stack management 16 fully general provides numerous enhancements floating point operations supported via mandatory sse2-like instructions x87/mmx style registers generally used still available even 64-bit mode instead set 32 vector registers 128 bits used store one two double-precision numbers one four single precision numbers various integer formats 64-bit mode instructions modified support 64-bit operands 64-bit addressing mode compatibility mode allows 16- 32-bit user applications run unmodified coexisting 64-bit applications 64-bit operating system supports full x86 16-bit 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented hardware without intervening emulation older executables run little performance penalty newer modified applications take advantage new features processor design achieve performance improvements also processor supporting x86-64 still powers real mode full backward compatibility x86 processors done since 80286 original specification created amd released 2000 implemented amd intel via amd k8 microarchitecture opteron athlon64 processors first implement first significant addition x86 architecture designed company intel intel forced follow suit introduced modified netburst family software-compatible amd specification via technologies introduced x86-64 via isaiah architecture via nano x86-64 architecture distinct intel itanium architecture formerly ia-64 compatible native instruction set level x86 architecture operating systems applications written one run amd64 created alternative radically different ia-64 architecture designed intel hewlett packard originally announced 1999 full specification became available august 2000 amd64 architecture positioned amd beginning evolutionary way add 64-bit computing capabilities existing x86 architecture opposed intel approach creating entirely new 64-bit architecture ia-64 first amd64-based processor opteron released april 2003 amd processors implementing amd64 architecture include opteron athlon 64 athlon 64 x2 athlon 64 fx athlon ii followed x2 x3 x4 indicate number cores xlt models turion 64 turion 64 x2 sempron palermo e6 stepping manila models phenom followed x3 x4 indicate number cores phenom ii followed x2 x3 x4 x6 indicate number cores fx fusion/apu ryzen/epyc primary defining characteristic amd64 availability 64-bit general-purpose processor registers example rax rbx 64-bit integer arithmetic logical operations 64-bit virtual addresses designers took opportunity make improvements well significant changes described although virtual addresses 64 bits wide 64-bit mode current implementations chips known planning stages allow entire virtual address space 2 bytes 16 eb used would approximately four billion times size virtual address space 32-bit machines operating systems applications need large address space foreseeable future implementing wide virtual addresses would simply increase complexity cost address translation real benefit amd therefore decided first implementations architecture least significant 48 bits virtual address would actually used address translation page table lookup addition amd specification requires significant 16 bits virtual address bits 48 63 must copies bit 47 manner akin sign extension requirement met processor raise exception addresses complying rule referred canonical form canonical form addresses run 0 00007fff'ffffffff ffff8000'00000000 ffffffff'ffffffff total 256 tb usable virtual address space still 65,536 times larger virtual 4 gb address space 32-bit machines feature eases later scalability true 64-bit addressing many operating systems including limited windows nt family take higher-addressed half address space named kernel space leave lower-addressed half user space application code user mode stacks heaps data regions canonical address design ensures every amd64 compliant implementation effect two memory halves lower half starts 00000000'00000000 grows upwards virtual address bits become available higher half docked top address space grows downwards also enforcing canonical form addresses checking unused address bits prevents use operating system tagged pointers flags privilege markers etc. use could become problematic architecture extended implement virtual address bits first versions windows x64 even use full 256 tb restricted 8 tb user space 8 tb kernel space windows support entire 48-bit address space windows 8.1 released october 2013 64-bit addressing mode long mode superset physical address extensions pae page sizes may 4 kb 2 bytes 2 mb 2 bytes long mode also supports page sizes 1 gb 2 bytes rather three-level page table system used systems pae mode systems running long mode use four levels page table pae page-directory pointer table extended four entries 512 additional page-map level 4 pml4 table added containing 512 entries 48-bit implementations full mapping hierarchy 4 kb pages whole 48-bit space would take bit 512 gb memory 0.195 256 tb virtual space intel proposed scheme five-level page table implemented would allow intel 64 processors support 57-bit virtual address space operating system also limit virtual address space details applicable given operating system compatibility characteristics section current amd64 processors support physical address space 2 bytes ram 256 tb however known x86-64 motherboards support 256 tb ram operating system may place additional limits amount ram usable supported details point given operating system compatibility characteristics section article architecture two primary modes operation long mode legacy mode long mode architecture intended primary mode operation combination processor native 64-bit mode combined 32-bit 16-bit compatibility mode used 64-bit operating systems 64-bit operating system 64-bit programs run 64-bit mode 32-bit 16-bit protected mode applications need use either real mode virtual 8086 mode order execute time run compatibility mode real-mode programs programs use virtual 8086 mode time run long mode unless modes emulated software however programs may started operating system running long mode processors supporting vt-x amd-v creating virtual processor running desired mode since basic instruction set almost performance penalty executing protected mode x86 code unlike intel ia-64 differences underlying instruction set mean running 32-bit code must done either emulation x86 making process slower dedicated x86 coprocessor however x86-64 platform many x86 applications could benefit 64-bit recompile due additional registers 64-bit code guaranteed sse2-based fpu support compiler use optimization however applications regularly handle integers wider 32 bits cryptographic algorithms need rewrite code handling huge integers order take advantage 64-bit registers legacy mode mode used 32-bit 16-bit protected mode operating systems mode processor acts like older x86 processor 16-bit 32-bit code executed legacy mode allows maximum 32 bit virtual addressing limits virtual address space 4 gb 64-bit programs run legacy mode intel 64 intel implementation x86-64 used implemented various processors made intel historically amd developed produced processors instruction sets patterned intel original designs x86-64 roles reversed intel found position adopting isa amd created extension intel x86 processor line intel project originally codenamed yamhill yamhill river oregon willamette valley several years denying existence intel announced february 2004 idf project indeed underway intel chairman time craig barrett admitted one worst-kept secrets intel name instruction set changed several times name used idf ct presumably clackamas technology another codename oregon river within weeks began referring ia-32e ia-32 extensions march 2004 unveiled official name em64t extended memory 64 technology late 2006 intel began instead using name intel 64 implementation paralleling amd use name amd64 first processor implement intel 64 multi-socket processor xeon code-named nocona june 2004 contrast initial prescott chips february 2004 enable feature intel subsequently began selling intel 64-enabled pentium 4s using e0 revision prescott core sold oem market pentium 4 model f. e0 revision also adds execute disable xd intel name nx bit intel 64 included current xeon code-named irwindale intel official launch intel 64 name em64t time mainstream desktop processors n0 stepping prescott-2m first intel mobile processor implementing intel 64 merom version core 2 processor released july 27 2006 none intel earlier notebook cpus core duo pentium celeron mobile pentium 4 implement intel 64 intel processors implementing intel64 architecture include pentium 4 f-series/5x1 series 506 516 celeron models 3x1 3x6 355 347 352 360 365 later celerons models xeon since nocona models pentium dual-core processors since merom-2m atom 230 330 d410 d425 d510 d525 n450 n455 n470 n475 n550 n570 n2600 n2800 versions pentium pentium extreme edition core 2 core i9 core i7 core i5 core i3 processors xeon phi 7200 series processors via technologies introduced first implementation x86-64 architecture 2008 five years development cpu division centaur technology codenamed isaiah 64-bit architecture unveiled january 24 2008 launched may 29 via nano brand name processor supports number via-specific x86 extensions designed boost efficiency low-power appliances expected isaiah architecture twice fast integer performance four times fast floating-point performance previous-generation via esther equivalent clock speed power consumption also expected par previous-generation via cpus thermal design power ranging 5 w 25 w. completely new design isaiah architecture built support features like x86-64 instruction set x86 virtualization unavailable predecessors via c7 line retaining encryption extensions although nearly identical differences two instruction sets semantics seldom used machine instructions situations mainly used system programming compilers generally produce executables i.e machine code avoid differences least ordinary application programs therefore interest mainly developers compilers operating systems similar must deal individual special system instructions supercomputers tracked top500 appearance 64-bit extensions x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86 processors amd intel light olive circles red circles diagram provided section respectively replace risc processor architectures previously used systems including pa-risc sparc alpha others well 32-bit x86 green dots purple dots diagram even though intel initially tried unsuccessfully replace x86 new incompatible 64-bit architecture itanium processor main non-x86 cpu architecture still used supercomputing power isa used ibm power microprocessors blue diamond pattern diagram sparc far behind numbers top500 2011 fujitsu sparc64 viiifx based supercomputer without co-processors reached number one since dropped top-10 first arm-based supercomputer appeared list 2018 recent years non-cpu architecture co-processors gpgpu also played big role performance intel xeon phi knights corner coprocessors implement subset x86-64 vector extensions also used along x86-64 processors tianhe-2 supercomputer following operating systems releases support x86-64 architecture long mode preliminary infrastructure work started february 2004 x86-64 port development later stalled development started july 2007 continued google summer code 2008 soc 2009 first official release contain x86-64 support version 2.4 freebsd first added x86-64 support name amd64 experimental architecture 5.1-release june 2003 included standard distribution architecture 5.2-release january 2004 since freebsd designated tier 1 platform 6.0-release version cleaned quirks running x86 executables amd64 drivers work x86 architecture work currently done integrate fully x86 application binary interface abi manner linux 32-bit abi compatibility currently works x86-64 architecture support first committed netbsd source tree june 19 2001 netbsd 2.0 released december 9 2004 netbsd/amd64 fully integrated supported port 32-bit code still supported 64-bit mode netbsd-32 kernel compatibility layer 32-bit syscalls nx bit used provide non-executable stack heap per-page granularity segment granularity used 32-bit x86 openbsd supported amd64 since openbsd 3.5 released may 1 2004 complete in-tree implementation amd64 support achieved prior hardware initial release amd loaned several machines project hackathon year openbsd developers taken platform support nx bit allowed easy implementation w^x feature code amd64 port openbsd also runs intel 64 processors contains cloned use amd64 extensions since intel left page table nx bit early intel 64 processors w^x capability intel cpus later intel 64 processors added nx bit name xd bit symmetric multiprocessing smp works openbsd amd64 port starting release 3.6 november 1 2004 possible enter long mode dos without dos extender user must return real mode order call bios dos interrupts may also possible enter long mode dos extender similar dos/4gw complex since x86-64 lacks virtual 8086 mode dos aware benefits expected unless running dos emulation adequate virtualization driver backend example mass storage interface linux first operating system kernel run x86-64 architecture long mode starting 2.4 version 2001 preceding hardware availability linux also provides backward compatibility running 32-bit executables permits programs recompiled long mode retaining use 32-bit programs several linux distributions currently ship x86-64-native kernels userlands arch linux suse mandriva debian allow users install set 32-bit components libraries installing 64-bit dvd thus allowing existing 32-bit applications run alongside 64-bit os distributions fedora slackware ubuntu available one version compiled 32-bit architecture another compiled 64-bit architecture fedora red hat enterprise linux allow concurrent installation userland components 32 64-bit versions 64-bit system x32 abi application binary interface introduced linux 3.4 allows programs compiled x32 abi run 64-bit mode x86-64 using 32-bit pointers data fields though limits program virtual address space 4 gb also decreases memory footprint program cases allow run faster 64-bit linux allows 128 tb virtual address space individual processes address approximately 64 tb physical memory subject processor system limitations mac os x 10.4.7 higher versions mac os x 10.4 run 64-bit command-line tools using posix math libraries 64-bit intel-based machines versions mac os x 10.4 10.5 run 64-bit powerpc machines libraries frameworks work 64-bit applications mac os x 10.4 kernel kernel extensions 32-bit mac os x 10.5 supports 64-bit gui applications using cocoa quartz opengl x11 64-bit intel-based machines well 64-bit powerpc machines non-gui libraries frameworks also support 64-bit applications platforms kernel kernel extensions 32-bit mac os x 10.6 first version macos supports 64-bit kernel however 64-bit computers run 64-bit kernel 64-bit computers run 64-bit kernel default 64-bit kernel like 32-bit kernel supports 32-bit applications kernels also support 64-bit applications 32-bit applications virtual address space limit 4 gb either kernel os x 10.8 includes 64-bit kernel continues support 32-bit applications 64-bit kernel support 32-bit kernel extensions 32-bit kernel support 64-bit kernel extensions macos uses universal binary format package 32- 64-bit versions application library code single file appropriate version automatically selected load time mac os x 10.6 universal binary format also used kernel kernel extensions support 32-bit 64-bit kernels solaris 10 later releases support x86-64 architecture solaris 10 sparc architecture one operating system image contains 32-bit kernel 64-bit kernel labeled x64/x86 dvd-rom image default behavior boot 64-bit kernel allowing 64-bit existing new 32-bit executables run 32-bit kernel also manually selected case 32-bit executables run codice_24 command used determine system running 64-bit kernel solaris 11 64-bit kernel provided however 64-bit kernel supports 32- 64-bit executables libraries system calls x64 editions microsoft windows client server—windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 edition—were released march 2005 internally actually build 5.2.3790.1830 sp1 share source base operating system binaries even system updates released unified packages much manner windows 2000 professional server editions x86 windows vista also many different editions released january 2007 windows 7 released july 2009 windows server 2008 r2 sold x64 itanium editions later versions windows server offer x64 edition versions windows x64 prior windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 offer following windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 user mode kernel mode virtual address spaces extended 128 tb versions windows install processors lack codice_17 instruction following additional characteristics apply x64 versions windows playstation 4 xbox one successors incorporate amd x86-64 processors based jaguar microarchitecture firmware games written x86-64 code legacy x86 code involved since amd64 intel 64 substantially similar many software hardware products use one vendor-neutral term indicate compatibility implementations amd original designation processor architecture x86-64 still sometimes used purpose variant x86_64 companies microsoft sun microsystems/oracle corporation use contraction x64 marketing material term ia-64 refers itanium processor confused x86-64 completely different instruction set many operating systems products especially introduced x86-64 support prior intel entry market use term amd64 amd64 refer amd64 intel 64. x86-64/amd64 solely developed amd amd holds patents techniques used amd64 patents must licensed amd order implement amd64 intel entered cross-licensing agreement amd licensing amd patents existing x86 techniques licensing amd patents techniques used x86-64 2009 amd intel settled several lawsuits cross-licensing disagreements extending cross-licensing agreements Target text information: installer.app.installer.app installer.app freeware software installer iphone created nullriver later maintained ripdev first released summer 2007 maintained summer 2009 installer allowed users install third-party applications iphone applications directory native applications kept users could install applications variety sources wi-fi umts provided software developers directly onto iphone without requiring computer users could browse lists applications inside installer find ones wanted install june 2009 ripdev dropped support installer favor developing different package manager installer named icy 2.0 firmware released framework changes present applications compiled iphone os 1.2 longer able run 2.0 therefore installer 3 n't available 2.0 vast majority users switched cydia time ripdev russian iphone development took installer project started developing installer 4.0 installer 4.0 finished added quickpwn software payload installer 4.0 gain much popularity installer 3.0 jailbreak users become accustomed using cydia may 2011 team developers called infini-dev recreated installer 4 could run ios 4 although main current repositories compatible cydia longer compatible installer ripdev put old installer repo back online since infini-dev released installer also repos like greek-iphone offer date packages installer slava karpenko announced project work installer 5 slava karpenko revealed infini dev project dropped infini-dev took moved project apptapp team name currently working installer 5 developers working project release date tbd although public beta released july 3 2019 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,737	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: pdf.pdf portable document format pdf redundantly pdf format file format developed adobe 1990s present documents including text formatting images manner independent application software hardware operating systems based postscript language pdf file encapsulates complete description fixed-layout flat document including text fonts vector graphics raster images information needed display pdf standardized iso 32000 2008 longer requires royalties implementation today pdf files may contain variety content besides flat text graphics including logical structuring elements interactive elements annotations form-fields layers rich media including video content three dimensional objects using u3d prc various data formats pdf specification also provides encryption digital signatures file attachments metadata enable workflows requiring features adobe systems made pdf specification available free charge 1993 early years pdf popular mainly desktop publishing workflows competed variety formats djvu envoy common ground digital paper farallon replica even adobe postscript format pdf proprietary format controlled adobe released open standard july 1 2008 published international organization standardization iso 32000-1:2008 time control specification passed iso committee volunteer industry experts 2008 adobe published public patent license iso 32000-1 granting royalty-free rights patents owned adobe necessary make use sell distribute pdf compliant implementations pdf 1.7 sixth edition pdf specification became iso 32000-1 includes proprietary technologies defined adobe adobe xml forms architecture xfa javascript extension acrobat referenced iso 32000-1 normative indispensable full implementation iso 32000-1 specification proprietary technologies standardized specification published adobe ’ website many also supported popular third-party implementations pdf july 28 2017 iso 32000-2:2017 pdf 2.0 published iso 32000-2 include proprietary technologies normative references pdf combines three technologies postscript page description language run interpreter generate image process requiring many resources handle graphics standard features programming languages codice_1 codice_2 commands pdf largely based postscript simplified remove flow control features like graphics commands codice_3 remain often postscript-like pdf code generated source postscript file graphics commands output postscript code collected tokenized files graphics fonts document refers also collected everything compressed single file therefore entire postscript world fonts layout measurements remains intact document format pdf several advantages postscript pdf file 7-bit ascii file except certain elements may binary content pdf file starts header containing magic number version format codice_4 format subset cos carousel object structure format cos tree file consists primarily objects eight types furthermore may comments introduced percent sign codice_9 comments may contain 8-bit characters objects may either direct embedded another object indirect indirect objects numbered object number generation number defined codice_10 codice_11 keywords index table also called cross-reference table marked codice_12 keyword follows main body gives byte offset indirect object start file design allows efficient random access objects file also allows small changes made without rewriting entire file incremental update beginning pdf version 1.5 indirect objects may also located special streams known object streams technique reduces size files large numbers small indirect objects especially useful tagged pdf end pdf file trailer introduced codice_13 keyword contains dictionary contains two layouts pdf files non-linear optimized linear optimized non-linear pdf files consume less disk space linear counterparts though slower access portions data required assemble pages document scattered throughout pdf file linear pdf files also called optimized web optimized pdf files constructed manner enables read web browser plugin without waiting entire file download since written disk linear page order fashion pdf files may optimized using adobe acrobat software qpdf basic design graphics represented pdf similar postscript except use transparency added pdf 1.4 pdf graphics use device-independent cartesian coordinate system describe surface page pdf page description use matrix scale rotate skew graphical elements key concept pdf graphics state collection graphical parameters may changed saved restored page description pdf version 1.6 24 graphics state properties important postscript vector graphics pdf constructed paths paths usually composed lines cubic bézier curves also constructed outlines text unlike postscript pdf allow single path mix text outlines lines curves paths stroked filled clipping strokes fills use color set graphics state including patterns pdf supports several types patterns simplest tiling pattern piece artwork specified drawn repeatedly may colored tiling pattern colors specified pattern object uncolored tiling pattern defers color specification time pattern drawn beginning pdf 1.3 also shading pattern draws continuously varying colors seven types shading pattern simplest axial shade type 2 radial shade type 3 raster images pdf called image xobjects represented dictionaries associated stream dictionary describes properties image stream contains image data less commonly raster image may embedded directly page description inline image images typically filtered compression purposes image filters supported pdf include general purpose filters normally image content pdf embedded file pdf allows image data stored external files use external streams alternate images standardized subsets pdf including pdf/a pdf/x prohibit features text pdf represented text elements page content streams text element specifies characters drawn certain positions characters specified using encoding selected font resource font object pdf description digital typeface may either describe characteristics typeface may include embedded font file latter case called embedded font former called unembedded font font files may embedded based widely used standard digital font formats type 1 compressed variant cff truetype beginning pdf 1.6 opentype additionally pdf supports type 3 variant components font described pdf graphic operators fourteen typefaces known standard 14 fonts special significance pdf documents fonts sometimes called base fourteen fonts fonts suitable substitute fonts metrics available pdf readers guaranteed available reader may display correctly system installed fonts may substituted embedded pdf within text strings characters shown using character codes integers map glyphs current font using encoding number predefined encodings including winansi macroman large number encodings east asian languages font built-in encoding although winansi macroman encodings derived historical properties windows macintosh operating systems fonts using encodings work equally well platform pdf specify predefined encoding use font built-in encoding provide lookup table differences predefined built-in encoding recommended truetype fonts encoding mechanisms pdf designed type 1 fonts rules applying truetype fonts complex large fonts fonts non-standard glyphs special encodings identity-h horizontal writing identity-v vertical used fonts necessary provide tounicode table semantic information characters preserved original imaging model pdf like postscript opaque object drawn page completely replaced anything previously marked location pdf 1.4 imaging model extended allow transparency transparency used new objects interact previously marked objects produce blending effects addition transparency pdf done means new extensions designed ignored products written pdf 1.3 earlier specifications result files use small amount transparency might view acceptably older viewers files making extensive use transparency could viewed incorrectly older viewer without warning transparency extensions based key concepts transparency groups blending modes shape alpha model closely aligned features adobe illustrator version 9 blend modes based used adobe photoshop time pdf 1.4 specification published formulas calculating blend modes kept secret adobe since published concept transparency group pdf specification independent existing notions group layer applications adobe illustrator groupings reflect logical relationships among objects meaningful editing objects part imaging model pdf files may contain interactive elements annotations form fields video 3d rich media rich media pdf pdf file including interactive content embedded linked within file interactive forms mechanism add forms pdf file format pdf currently supports two different methods integrating data pdf forms formats today coexist pdf specification acroforms introduced pdf 1.2 format acroforms permit using objects e.g text boxes radio buttons etc code e.g javascript alongside standard pdf action types interactive forms acroforms support submitting resetting importing data submit action transmits names values selected interactive form fields specified uniform resource locator url interactive form field names values may submitted following formats depending settings action ’ exportformat submitpdf xfdf flags acroforms keep form field values external stand-alone files containing key value pairs external files may use forms data format fdf xml forms data format xfdf files usage rights ur signatures define rights import form data files fdf xfdf text csv/tsv formats export form data files fdf xfdf formats forms data format fdf based pdf uses syntax essentially file structure much simpler pdf since body fdf document consists one required object forms data format defined pdf specification since pdf 1.2 forms data format used submitting form data server receiving response incorporating interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form xml forms data format xfdf xml version forms data format xfdf implements subset fdf containing forms annotations xfdf equivalents entries fdf dictionary – status encoding javascript pages keys embeddedfdfs differences target addition xfdf allow spawning addition new pages based given data done using fdf file xfdf specification referenced included pdf 1.5 specification later versions described separately xml forms data format specification pdf 1.4 specification allowed form submissions xml format replaced submissions xfdf format pdf 1.5 specification xfdf conforms xml standard december 2016 xfdf 3.0 iso/iec standard formal name iso 19444-1:2016 – document management – xml forms data format – part 1 use iso 32000-2 xfdf 3.0 standard normative reference iso 32000-2 xfdf used way fdf e.g. form data submitted server modifications made sent back new form data imported interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form pdf 1.5 adobe systems introduced proprietary format forms adobe xml forms architecture xfa adobe xfa forms compatible iso 32000 acroforms feature pdf processors handle xfa content xfa specification referenced iso 32000-1 pdf 1.7 external proprietary specification entirely deprecated pdf iso 32000-2 pdf 2.0 tagged pdf see clause 14.8 iso 32000 includes document structure semantics information enable reliable text extraction accessibility technically speaking tagged pdf stylized use format builds logical structure framework introduced pdf 1.3 tagged pdf defines set standard structure types attributes allow page content text graphics images extracted reused purposes tagged pdf required situations pdf file intended print since feature optional since rules tagged pdf relatively vague iso 32000-1 support tagged pdf amongst consuming devices including assistive technology uneven time iso 32000-2 however includes improved discussion tagged pdf anticipated facilitate iso-standardized subset pdf specifically targeted accessibility pdf/ua first published 2012 introduction pdf version 1.5 2003 came concept layers layers formally known optional content groups ocgs refer sections content pdf document selectively viewed hidden document authors consumers capability useful cad drawings layered artwork maps multi-language documents etc basically consists optional content properties dictionary added document root dictionary contains array optional content groups ocgs describing set information may individually displayed suppressed plus set optional content configuration dictionaries give status displayed suppressed given ocgs pdf file may encrypted security digitally signed authentication however since sha-1 collision discovered making use pdf format digital signatures using sha-1 shown insecure standard security provided acrobat pdf consists two different methods two different passwords user password encrypts file prevents opening owner password specifies operations restricted even document decrypted include modifying printing copying text graphics document adding modifying text notes acroform fields user password encrypts file owner password instead relying client software respect restrictions owner password easily removed software including free online services thus use restrictions document author places pdf document secure assured file distributed warning displayed applying restrictions using adobe acrobat software create edit pdf files even without removing password freeware open source pdf readers ignore permission protections allow user print make copy excerpts text document limited password protection number commercial solutions offer robust means information rights management restrict document access also reliably enforce permissions ways standard security handler beginning pdf 1.5 usage rights ur signatures used enable additional interactive features available default particular pdf viewer application signature used validate permissions granted bona fide granting authority example used allow user example adobe systems grants permissions enable additional features adobe reader using public-key cryptography adobe reader verifies signature uses certificate adobe-authorized certificate authority pdf application use mechanism purposes pdf files file attachments processors may access open save local filesystem pdf files contain two types metadata first document information dictionary set key/value fields author title subject creation update dates stored optional info trailer file small set fields defined extended additional text values required method deprecated pdf 2.0 pdf 1.4 support added metadata streams using extensible metadata platform xmp add xml standards-based extensible metadata used file formats allows metadata attached stream document information embedded illustrations well whole document attaching document catalog using extensible schema pdfs may encrypted password needed view edit contents pdf 2.0 defines 256-bit aes encryption standard pdf 2.0 files pdf reference also defines ways third parties define encryption systems pdf pdf files may digitally signed complete details implementing digital signatures pdf provided iso 32000-2 pdf files may also contain embedded drm restrictions provide controls limit copying editing printing restrictions depend reader software obey security provide limited pdf documents contain display settings including page display layout zoom level adobe reader uses settings override user default settings opening document free adobe reader remove settings anyone may create applications read write pdf files without pay royalties adobe systems adobe holds patents pdf licenses royalty-free use developing software complying pdf specification pdf files created specifically accessible disabled people pdf file formats use include tags text equivalents captions audio descriptions software automatically produce tagged pdfs feature always enabled default leading screen readers including jaws window-eyes hal kurzweil 1000 3000 read tagged pdf moreover tagged pdfs re-flowed magnified readers visual impairments adding tags older pdfs generated scanned documents present challenges one significant challenges pdf accessibility pdf documents three distinct views depending document creation inconsistent three views physical view ii tags view iii content view physical view displayed printed people consider pdf document tags view screen readers assistive technologies use deliver high-quality navigation reading experience users disabilities content view based physical order objects within pdf content stream may displayed software fully support tags view reflow feature adobe reader pdf/ua international standard accessible pdf based iso 32000-1 first published iso 14289-1 2012 establishes normative language accessible pdf technology pdf attachments carrying viruses first discovered 2001 virus named outlook.pdfworm peachy uses microsoft outlook send attachment adobe pdf file activated adobe acrobat acrobat reader time time new vulnerabilities discovered various versions adobe reader prompting company issue security fixes pdf readers also susceptible one aggravating factor pdf reader configured start automatically web page embedded pdf file providing vector attack malicious web page contains infected pdf file takes advantage vulnerability pdf reader system may compromised even browser secure vulnerabilities result pdf standard allowing pdf documents scripted javascript disabling javascript execution pdf reader help mitigate future exploits although protect exploits parts pdf viewing software security experts say javascript essential pdf reader security benefit comes disabling javascript outweighs compatibility issues caused one way avoiding pdf file exploits local web service convert files another format viewing march 30 2010 security researcher didier stevens reported adobe reader foxit reader exploit runs malicious executable user allows launch asked pdf file often combination vector graphics text bitmap graphics basic types content pdf later pdf revisions pdf document also support links inside document web page forms javascript initially available plugin acrobat 3.0 types embedded contents handled using plug-ins pdf 1.6 supports interactive 3d documents embedded pdf – 3d drawings embedded using u3d prc various data formats two pdf files look similar computer screen may different sizes example high resolution raster image takes space low resolution one typically higher resolution needed printing documents displaying screen things may increase size file embedding full fonts especially asiatic scripts storing text graphics pdf viewers generally provided free charge many versions available variety sources many software options creating pdfs including pdf printing capabilities built macos ios linux distributions libreoffice microsoft office 2007 updated sp2 later wordperfect 9 scribus numerous pdf print drivers microsoft windows pdftex typesetting system docbook pdf tools applications developed around ghostscript adobe acrobat well adobe indesign adobe framemaker adobe illustrator adobe photoshop google online office suite google docs also allows uploading saving pdf raster image processors rips used convert pdf files raster format suitable imaging onto paper media printers digital production presses prepress process known rasterisation rips capable processing pdf directly include adobe pdf print engine adobe systems jaws harlequin rip global graphics documents saved pdf portable document format portable document format archiving forms data format printable document could converted back forth many formats etc companies adobe acrobat provide sdk libraries developers add create pdf features software besides adobe pdf library companies pdftron systems apache pdfbox foxit software provide similar sdks adobe acrobat one example proprietary software allows user annotate highlight add notes already created pdf files one unix application available free software gnu general public license pdfedit freeware foxit reader available microsoft windows macos linux allows annotating documents tracker software pdf-xchange viewer allows annotations markups without restrictions freeware alternative apple macos integrated pdf viewer preview also enable annotations open source software skim latter supporting interaction latex synctex pdfsync integration bibdesk reference management software freeware qiqqa create annotation report summarizes annotations notes one made across library pdfs also web annotation systems support annotation pdf documents formats cases pdfs expected functionality paper documents ink annotation required examples pdf software online services including scribd viewing storing pdfvue online editing thinkfree zamzar conversion 1993 jaws raster image processor global graphics became first shipping prepress rip interpreted pdf natively without conversion another format company released upgrade harlequin rip capability 1997 agfa-gevaert introduced shipped apogee first prepress workflow system based pdf 1997 many commercial offset printers accepted submission press-ready pdf files print source specifically pdf/x-1a subset variations submission press-ready pdf files replacement problematic need receiving collected native working files pdf selected native metafile format mac os x replacing pict format earlier classic mac os imaging model quartz graphics layer based model common display postscript pdf leading nickname display pdf preview application display pdf files version 2.0 later safari web browser system-level support pdf allows mac os x applications create pdf documents automatically provided support os-standard printing architecture files exported pdf 1.3 format according file header taking screenshot mac os x versions 10.0 10.3 image also captured pdf later versions save screen captures png file though behaviour set back pdf desired 2006 pdf widely accepted standard print job format open source development labs printing summit supported print job format common unix printing system desktop application projects gnome kde firefox thunderbird libreoffice openoffice switched emit print jobs pdf desktop printers also support direct pdf printing interpret pdf data without external help currently pdf capable printers also support postscript postscript printers support direct pdf printing free software foundation thought one high priority projects developing free high-quality fully functional set libraries programs implement pdf file format associated technologies iso 32000 standard 2011 however gnu pdf project removed list high priority projects due maturation poppler library enjoyed wider use applications evince gnome desktop environment poppler based xpdf code base also commercial development libraries available listed list pdf software apache pdfbox project apache software foundation open source java library working pdf documents pdfbox licensed apache license 1-hop neighbor's text information: pstoedit.pstoedit pstoedit free computer program converts postscript pdf files vector formats supports many output formats including wmf/emf pdf dxf cgm html means free/shareware plugins svg mif rtf author maintainer wolfgang glunz pstoedit uses ghostscript perform first part conversion process ghostscript converts postscript pdf file basic postscript format translating complex functions basic functions line draw commands second part conversion process consists translating basic functions basic functions output format pstoedit multi platform ms windows setup program available 32bit 64bit complete job including instance making connection ghostscript ms office three interfaces installed command line interface interface means gsview import filter ms office however make actual use ms office interface 50 registration required registration also adds functionality two interfaces licensed gnu general public license pstoedit free software 1-hop neighbor's text information: interpreter_(computing).interpreter computing computer science interpreter computer program directly executes instructions written programming scripting language without requiring previously compiled machine language program interpreter generally uses one following strategies program execution early versions lisp programming language dartmouth basic would examples first type perl python matlab ruby examples second ucsd pascal example third type source programs compiled ahead time stored machine independent code linked run-time executed interpreter and/or compiler jit systems systems smalltalk contemporary versions basic java may also combine two three interpreters various types also constructed many languages traditionally associated compilation algol fortran cobol c/c++ interpretation compilation two main means programming languages implemented mutually exclusive interpreting systems also perform translation work like compilers terms interpreted language compiled language signify canonical implementation language interpreter compiler respectively high level language ideally abstraction independent particular implementations interpreters used early 1952 ease programming within limitations computers time e.g shortage program storage space native support floating point numbers interpreters also used translate low-level machine languages allowing code written machines still construction tested computers already existed first interpreted high-level language lisp lisp first implemented 1958 steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read john mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions programs written high level language either directly executed kind interpreter converted machine code compiler assembler linker cpu execute compilers assemblers generally produce machine code directly executable computer hardware often optionally produce intermediate form called object code basically machine specific code augmented symbol table names tags make executable blocks modules identifiable relocatable compiled programs typically use building blocks functions kept library object code modules linker used combine pre-made library files object file application form single executable file object files used generate executable file thus often produced different times sometimes even different languages capable generating object format simple interpreter written low level language e.g assembly may similar machine code blocks implementing functions high level language stored executed function entry look table points code however interpreter written high level language typically uses another approach generating walking parse tree generating executing intermediate software-defined instructions thus compilers interpreters generally turn source code text files tokens may may generate parse tree may generate immediate instructions stack machine quadruple code means basic difference compiler system including built separate linker generates stand-alone machine code program interpreter system instead performs actions described high level program compiler thus make almost conversions source code semantics machine level i.e program changed interpreter conversion work every time statement function executed however efficient interpreter much translation work including analysis types similar factored done first time program module function even statement run thus quite akin compiler works however compiled program still runs much faster circumstances part compilers designed optimize code may given ample time especially true simpler high level languages without many dynamic data structures checks type-checks traditional compilation executable output linkers .exe files .dll files library see picture typically relocatable run general operating system much like object code modules difference relocation done dynamically run time i.e program loaded execution hand compiled linked programs small embedded systems typically statically allocated often hard coded flash memory often secondary storage operating system sense historically interpreter-systems self-contained editor built becoming common also compilers often called ide although programmers prefer use editor choice run compiler linker tools manually historically compilers predate interpreters hardware time could support interpreter interpreted code typical batch environment time limited advantages interpretation software development cycle programmers make frequent changes source code using compiler time change made source code must wait compiler translate altered source files link binary code files together program executed larger program longer wait contrast programmer using interpreter lot less waiting interpreter usually needs translate code worked intermediate representation translate thus requiring much less time changes tested effects evident upon saving source code reloading program compiled code generally less readily debugged editing compiling linking sequential processes conducted proper sequence proper set commands reason many compilers also executive aid known make file program make file lists compiler linker command lines program source code files might take simple command line menu input e.g make 3 selects third group set instructions issues commands compiler linker feeding specified source code files compiler converts source code binary instruction specific processor architecture thus making less portable conversion made developer environment binary distributed user machines executed without translation cross compiler generate binary code user machine even different processor machine code compiled interpreted program distributed source code needs translated final machine takes time makes program distribution independent machine architecture however portability interpreted source code dependent target machine actually suitable interpreter interpreter needs supplied along source overall installation process complex delivery monolithic executable since interpreter part need installed fact interpreted code easily read copied humans concern point view copyright however various systems encryption obfuscation exist delivery intermediate code bytecode similar effect obfuscation bytecode could decoded decompiler disassembler main disadvantage interpreters interpreted program typically runs slower compiled difference speeds could tiny great often order magnitude sometimes generally takes longer run program interpreter run compiled code take less time interpret total time required compile run especially important prototyping testing code edit-interpret-debug cycle often much shorter edit-compile-run-debug cycle interpreting code slower running compiled code interpreter must analyze statement program time executed perform desired action whereas compiled code performs action within fixed context determined compilation run-time analysis known interpretive overhead access variables also slower interpreter mapping identifiers storage locations must done repeatedly run-time rather compile time various compromises development speed using interpreter execution speed using compiler systems lisps allow interpreted compiled code call share variables means routine tested debugged interpreter compiled thus benefit faster execution routines developed many interpreters execute source code stands convert compact internal form many basic interpreters replace keywords single byte tokens used find instruction jump table interpreters pbasic interpreter achieve even higher levels program compaction using bit-oriented rather byte-oriented program memory structure commands tokens occupy perhaps 5 bits nominally 16-bit constants stored variable-length code requiring 3 6 10 18 bits address operands include bit offset many basic interpreters store read back tokenized internal representation interpreter might well use lexical analyzer parser compiler interpret resulting abstract syntax tree example data type definitions latter toy interpreter syntax trees obtained c expressions shown box interpretation used sole method execution even though interpreter interpreted directly executed program needed somewhere bottom stack code interpreted definition machine code cpu execute spectrum possibilities interpreting compiling depending amount analysis performed program executed example emacs lisp compiled bytecode highly compressed optimized representation lisp source machine code therefore tied particular hardware compiled code interpreted bytecode interpreter written c compiled code case machine code virtual machine implemented hardware bytecode interpreter compiling interpreters sometimes also called compreters bytecode interpreter instruction starts byte therefore bytecode interpreters 256 instructions although may used bytecodes may take multiple bytes may arbitrarily complicated control tables necessarily ever need pass compiling phase dictate appropriate algorithmic control flow via customized interpreters similar fashion bytecode interpreters threaded code interpreters similar bytecode interpreters instead bytes use pointers instruction word points function instruction sequence possibly followed parameter threaded code interpreter either loops fetching instructions calling functions point fetches first instruction jumps every instruction sequence ends fetch jump next instruction unlike bytecode effective limit number different instructions available memory address space classic example threaded code forth code used open firmware systems source language compiled f code bytecode interpreted virtual machine spectrum interpreting compiling another approach transform source code optimized abstract syntax tree ast execute program following tree structure use generate native code just-in-time approach sentence needs parsed advantage bytecode ast keeps global program structure relations statements lost bytecode representation compressed provides compact representation thus using ast proposed better intermediate format just-in-time compilers bytecode also allows system perform better analysis runtime however interpreters ast causes overhead bytecode interpreter nodes related syntax performing useful work less sequential representation requiring traversal pointers overhead visiting tree blurring distinction interpreters bytecode interpreters compilation just-in-time compilation jit technique intermediate representation compiled native machine code runtime confers efficiency running native code cost startup time increased memory use bytecode ast first compiled adaptive optimization complementary technique interpreter profiles running program compiles frequently executed parts native code techniques decades old appearing languages smalltalk 1980s just-in-time compilation gained mainstream attention amongst language implementers recent years java .net framework modern javascript implementations matlab including jits self-interpreter programming language interpreter written programming language interpret example basic interpreter written basic self-interpreters related self-hosting compilers compiler exists language interpreted creating self-interpreter requires implementation language host language may another programming language assembler first interpreter system bootstrapped new versions interpreter developed language way donald knuth developed tangle interpreter language web industrial standard tex typesetting system defining computer language usually done relation abstract machine so-called operational semantics mathematical function denotational semantics language may also defined interpreter semantics host language given definition language self-interpreter well-founded define language self-interpreter tells reader expressiveness elegance language also enables interpreter interpret source code first step towards reflective interpreting important design dimension implementation self-interpreter whether feature interpreted language implemented feature interpreter host language example whether closure lisp-like language implemented using closures interpreter language implemented manually data structure explicitly storing environment features implemented feature host language less control programmer interpreter different behavior dealing number overflows realized arithmetic operations delegated corresponding operations host language languages elegant self-interpreter lisp prolog much research self-interpreters particularly reflective interpreters conducted scheme programming language dialect lisp general however turing-complete language allows writing interpreter lisp language lisp programs lists symbols lists xslt language xslt programs written xml sub-domain meta-programming writing domain-specific languages dsls clive gifford introduced measure quality self-interpreter eigenratio limit ratio computer time spent running stack n self-interpreters time spent run stack self-interpreters n goes infinity value depend program run book structure interpretation computer programs presents examples meta-circular interpretation scheme dialects examples languages self-interpreter forth pascal microcode commonly used technique imposes interpreter hardware architectural level computer microcode layer hardware-level instructions implement higher-level machine code instructions internal state machine sequencing many digital processing elements microcode used general-purpose central processing units well specialized processors microcontrollers digital signal processors channel controllers disk controllers network interface controllers network processors graphics processing units hardware microcode typically resides special high-speed memory translates machine instructions state machine data input sequences detailed circuit-level operations separates machine instructions underlying electronics instructions designed altered freely also facilitates building complex multi-step instructions reducing complexity computer circuits writing microcode often called microprogramming microcode particular processor implementation sometimes called microprogram extensive microcoding allows small simple microarchitectures emulate powerful architectures wider word length execution units relatively simple way achieve software compatibility different products processor family Target text information: ghostscript.ghostscript ghostscript suite software based interpreter adobe systems postscript portable document format pdf page description languages main purposes rasterization rendering page description language files display printing document pages conversion postscript pdf files ghostscript used raster image processor rip raster computer printers—for instance input filter line printer daemon—or rip engine behind postscript pdf viewers ghostscript also used file format converter postscript pdf converter codice_1 conversion program comes ghostscript distribution described documentation work-alike nearly functionality user interface adobe acrobat distiller product converter basically thin wrapper around ghostscript codice_2 output device supports pdf/a-1 pdf/a-2 well pdf/x-3 output ghostscript also serve back-end pdf raster image png tiff jpeg etc converter often combined postscript printer driver virtual printer pdf creators takes form language interpreter ghostscript also used general purpose programming environment ghostscript ported many operating systems including unix-like systems classic mac os openvms microsoft windows plan 9 ms-dos freedos os/2 atari tos amigaos ghostscript originally written l. peter deutsch gnu project released gnu general public license 1986 later deutsch formed aladdin enterprises dual-license ghostscript also proprietary license development fork aladdin ghostscript aladdin free public license despite name free software license forbids commercial distribution gnu ghostscript distributed gnu general public license version 8.54 2006 development branches merged dual-licensed releases still provided ghostscript currently owned artifex software maintained artifex software employees worldwide user community according artifex version 9.03 commercial version ghostscript longer freely distributed commercial purposes without purchasing license though gpl variant allows commercial distribution provided code using released gpl artifex point view aggregated software challenged court mupdf february 2013 ghostscript changed license gplv3 gnu agpl version 9.07 raised license compatibility questions example debian ghostscript guis view postscript pdf files screens scroll page forward page backward zoom text print page several sets free fonts supplied ghostscript intended metrically compatible common fonts attached postscript standard include ghostscript fonts developed postscript type 1 format converted truetype format usable current software popularly used within open-source community garamond font additionally improved upon urw core 35 fonts subsequently incorporated gnu freefont tex gyre I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	10,352	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: process_(computing).process computing computing process instance computer program executed one many threads contains program code activity depending operating system os process may made multiple threads execution execute instructions concurrently computer program passive collection instructions process actual execution instructions several processes may associated program example opening several instances program often results one process executed multitasking method allow multiple processes share processors cpus system resources cpu core executes single task time however multitasking allows processor switch tasks executed without wait task finish depending operating system implementation switches could performed tasks perform input/output operations task indicates switched hardware interrupts common form multitasking time-sharing time-sharing method allow high responsiveness interactive user applications time-sharing systems context switches performed rapidly makes seem like multiple processes executed simultaneously processor seeming execution multiple processes simultaneously called concurrency security reliability modern operating systems prevent direct communication independent processes providing strictly mediated controlled inter-process communication functionality general computer system process consists said following resources operating system holds information active processes data structures called process control blocks subset resources typically least processor state may associated process threads operating systems support threads child processes operating system keeps processes separate allocates resources need less likely interfere cause system failures e.g. deadlock thrashing operating system may also provide mechanisms inter-process communication enable processes interact safe predictable ways multitasking operating system may switch processes give appearance many processes executing simultaneously parallel though fact one process executing one time single cpu unless cpu multiple cores multithreading similar technologies used usual associate single process main program child processes spin-off parallel processes behave like asynchronous subroutines process said resources image program memory one resource however multiprocessing systems many processes may run share reentrant program location memory process said image program processes often called tasks embedded operating systems sense process task something takes time opposed memory something takes space description applies processes managed operating system processes defined process calculi process requests something must wait blocked process blocked state eligible swapping disk transparent virtual memory system regions process memory may really disk main memory time note even portions active processes/tasks executing programs eligible swapping disk portions used recently parts executing program data physical memory associated process active operating system kernel allows multitasking needs processes certain states names states standardised similar functionality processes communicate called inter-process communication ipc processes frequently need communicate instance shell pipeline output first process need pass second one process preferred well-structured way using interrupts even possible two processes running different machines operating system os may differ one process therefore mediator called protocols needed early 1960s computer control software evolved monitor control software example ibsys executive control software time computers got faster computer time still neither cheap fully utilized environment made multiprogramming possible necessary multiprogramming means several programs run concurrently first one program ran single processor result underlying uniprocessor computer architecture shared scarce limited hardware resources consequently concurrency serial nature later systems multiple processors multiple programs may run concurrently parallel programs consist sequences instructions processors single processor run one instruction time impossible run programs time program might need resource input device large delay program might start slow operation sending output printer would lead processor idle unused keep processor busy times execution program halted operating system switches processor run another program user appear programs run time hence term parallel shortly thereafter notion program expanded notion executing program context concept process born also became necessary invention re-entrant code threads came somewhat later however advent concepts time-sharing computer networks multiple-cpu shared memory computers old multiprogramming gave way true multitasking multiprocessing later multithreading 1-hop neighbor's text information: motherboard.motherboard motherboard sometimes alternatively known mainboard main circuit board system board baseboard planar board logic board colloquially mobo main printed circuit board pcb found general purpose computers expandable systems holds allows communication many crucial electronic components system central processing unit cpu memory provides connectors peripherals unlike backplane motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems central processor chipset input/output memory controllers interface connectors components integrated general purpose use applications motherboard specifically refers pcb expansion capability name suggests board often referred mother components attached often include peripherals interface cards daughtercards sound cards video cards network cards hard drives forms persistent storage tv tuner cards cards providing extra usb firewire slots variety custom components similarly term mainboard applied devices single board additional expansions capability controlling boards laser printers televisions washing machines mobile phones embedded systems limited expansion abilities prior invention microprocessor digital computer consisted multiple printed circuit boards card-cage case components connected backplane set interconnected sockets old designs copper wires discrete connections card connector pins printed circuit boards soon became standard practice central processing unit cpu memory peripherals housed individual printed circuit boards plugged backplane ubiquitous s-100 bus 1970s example type backplane system popular computers 1980s apple ii ibm pc published schematic diagrams documentation permitted rapid reverse-engineering third-party replacement motherboards usually intended building new computers compatible exemplars many motherboards offered additional performance features used upgrade manufacturer original equipment late 1980s early 1990s became economical move increasing number peripheral functions onto motherboard late 1980s personal computer motherboards began include single ics also called super i/o chips capable supporting set low-speed peripherals keyboard mouse floppy disk drive serial ports parallel ports late 1990s many personal computer motherboards included consumer-grade embedded audio video storage networking functions without need expansion cards higher-end systems 3d gaming computer graphics typically retained graphics card separate component business pcs workstations servers likely need expansion cards either robust functions higher speeds systems often fewer embedded components laptop notebook computers developed 1990s integrated common peripherals even included motherboards upgradeable components trend would continue smaller systems introduced turn century like tablet computer netbook memory processors network controllers power source storage would integrated systems motherboard provides electrical connections components system communicate unlike backplane also contains central processing unit hosts subsystems devices typical desktop computer microprocessor main memory essential components connected motherboard components external storage controllers video display sound peripheral devices may attached motherboard plug-in cards via cables modern microcomputers increasingly common integrate peripherals motherboard important component motherboard microprocessor supporting chipset provides supporting interfaces cpu various buses external components chipset determines extent features capabilities motherboard modern motherboards include additionally nearly motherboards include logic connectors support commonly used input devices usb mouse devices keyboards early personal computers apple ii ibm pc included minimal peripheral support motherboard occasionally video interface hardware also integrated motherboard example apple ii rarely ibm-compatible computers ibm pc jr. additional peripherals disk controllers serial ports provided expansion cards given high thermal design power high-speed computer cpus components modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks mounting points fans dissipate excess heat motherboards produced variety sizes shape called computer form factor specific individual computer manufacturers however motherboards used ibm-compatible systems designed fit various case sizes desktop computer motherboards use atx standard form factor — even found macintosh sun computers built commodity components case motherboard power supply unit psu form factor must match though smaller form factor motherboards family fit larger cases example atx case usually accommodate microatx motherboard.computers generally use highly integrated miniaturized customized motherboards one reasons laptop computers difficult upgrade expensive repair often failure one laptop component requires replacement entire motherboard usually expensive desktop motherboard cpu socket central processing unit slot electrical component attaches printed circuit board pcb designed house cpu also called microprocessor special type integrated circuit socket designed high pin counts cpu socket provides many functions including physical structure support cpu support heat sink facilitating replacement well reducing cost importantly forming electrical interface cpu pcb cpu sockets motherboard often found desktop server computers laptops typically use surface mount cpus particularly based intel x86 architecture cpu socket type motherboard chipset must support cpu series speed steadily declining costs size integrated circuits possible include support many peripherals motherboard combining many functions one pcb physical size total cost system may reduced highly integrated motherboards thus especially popular small form factor budget computers typical motherboard different number connections depending standard form factor standard modern atx motherboard typically two three pci-express 16x connection graphics card one two legacy pci slots various expansion cards one two pci-e 1x superseded pci standard eatx motherboard two four pci-e 16x connection graphics cards varying number pci pci-e 1x slots sometimes also pci-e 4x slot vary brands models motherboards two pci-e 16x slots allow 2 monitors without special hardware use special graphics technology called sli nvidia crossfire amd allow 2 4 graphics cards linked together allow better performance intensive graphical computing tasks gaming video editing etc motherboards generally air cooled heat sinks often mounted larger chips northbridge modern motherboards insufficient improper cooling cause damage internal components computer cause crash passive cooling single fan mounted power supply sufficient many desktop computer cpu late 1990s since required cpu fans mounted heat sinks due rising clock speeds power consumption motherboards connectors additional computer fans integrated temperature sensors detect motherboard cpu temperatures controllable fan connectors bios operating system use regulate fan speed alternatively computers use water cooling system instead many fans small form factor computers home theater pcs designed quiet energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs typically requires use low-power cpu well careful layout motherboard components allow heat sink placement 2003 study found spurious computer crashes general reliability issues ranging screen image distortions i/o read/write errors attributed software peripheral hardware aging capacitors pc motherboards ultimately shown result faulty electrolyte formulation issue termed capacitor plague standard motherboards use electrolytic capacitors filter dc power distributed around board capacitors age temperature-dependent rate water based electrolytes slowly evaporate lead loss capacitance subsequent motherboard malfunctions due voltage instabilities capacitors rated 2000 hours operation expected design life roughly doubles every lifetime 3 4 years expected however many manufacturers deliver substandard capacitors significantly reduce life expectancy inadequate case cooling elevated temperatures around cpu socket exacerbate problem top blowers motherboard components kept effectively doubling motherboard lifetime mid-range high-end motherboards hand use solid capacitors exclusively every 10 °c less average lifespan multiplied approximately three resulting 6-times higher lifetime expectancy capacitors may rated 5000 10000 12000 hours operation extending projected lifetime comparison standard solid capacitors motherboards contain non-volatile memory initialize system load startup software usually operating system external peripheral device microcomputers apple ii ibm pc used rom chips mounted sockets motherboard power-up central processor would load program counter address boot rom start executing instructions rom instructions initialized tested system hardware displayed system information screen performed ram checks loaded initial program peripheral device none available computer would perform tasks memory stores display error message depending model design computer rom version example apple ii original ibm pc microsoft cassette basic rom would start program could loaded disk modern motherboard designs use bios stored eeprom chip soldered socketed motherboard boot operating system non-operating system boot programs still supported modern ibm pc-descended machines nowadays assumed boot program complex operating system microsoft windows linux power first supplied motherboard bios firmware tests configures memory circuitry peripherals power-on self test post may include testing following things recent motherboards bios may also patch central processor microcode bios detects installed cpu one errata published many motherboards use update bios called uefi Target text information: processor_array.processor array processor array like storage array contains manages processing elements instead storage elements processor array following characteristics I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	698	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: wbem_services_specification.wbem services specification jsr 48 java wbem api specification java specification request developed java community process specifies java language binding dmtf common information model/web-based enterprise management standards jsr 48 expert group completed public review 2006 way create technology compatibility kit order finalize standard api regarded stable jsr 48 requires java platform standard edition java se formerly j2se 7 higher ws jsr-48 api api composed 5 packages ws provides jsr-48 implementation part ws sdk pro ws also uses jsr-48 ws j wbem server wave wbem agent validation environment sblim cim client java adopted jsr 48 api stated openpegasus project use jsr 48 jmpi provider interface although status yet available 1-hop neighbor's text information: simple_network_management_protocol.simple network management protocol simple network management protocol snmp internet standard protocol collecting organizing information managed devices ip networks modifying information change device behavior devices typically support snmp include cable modems routers switches servers workstations printers snmp widely used network management network monitoring snmp exposes management data form variables managed systems organized management information base mib describe system status configuration variables remotely queried circumstances manipulated managing applications three significant versions snmp developed deployed snmpv1 original version protocol recent versions snmpv2c snmpv3 feature improvements performance flexibility security snmp component internet protocol suite defined internet engineering task force ietf consists set standards network management including application layer protocol database schema set data objects typical uses snmp one administrative computers called managers task monitoring managing group hosts devices computer network managed system executes software component called agent reports information via snmp manager snmp-managed network consists three key components managed device network node implements snmp interface allows unidirectional read-only bidirectional read write access node-specific information managed devices exchange node-specific information nmss sometimes called network elements managed devices type device including limited routers access servers switches cable modems bridges hubs ip telephones ip video cameras computer hosts printers agent network-management software module resides managed device agent local knowledge management information translates information snmp-specific form network management station executes applications monitor control managed devices nmss provide bulk processing memory resources required network management one nmss may exist managed network snmp agents expose management data managed systems variables protocol also permits active management tasks configuration changes remote modification variables variables accessible via snmp organized hierarchies snmp define variables managed system offer rather snmp uses extensible design allows applications define hierarchies hierarchies described management information base mib mibs describe structure management data device subsystem use hierarchical namespace containing object identifiers oid oid identifies variable read set via snmp mibs use notation defined structure management information version 2.0 smiv2 subset asn.1 snmp operates application layer internet protocol suite snmp messages transported via user datagram protocol udp snmp agent receives requests udp port 161 manager may send requests available source port port 161 agent agent response sent back source port manager manager receives notifications traps informrequests port 162 agent may generate notifications available port used transport layer security datagram transport layer security requests received port 10161 notifications sent port 10162 snmpv1 specifies five core protocol data units pdus two pdus getbulkrequest informrequest added snmpv2 report pdu added snmpv3 snmp pdus constructed follows seven snmp pdu types identified pdu-type field follows snmpv1 snmpv2 use communities establish trust managers agents agents support three community names one read-only read-write trap three community strings control different types activities read-only community applies get requests read-write community string applies set requests trap community string applies receipt traps snmpv3 also uses community strings allows secure authentication communication snmp manager agent practice snmp implementations often support multiple versions typically snmpv1 snmpv2c snmpv3 snmp version 1 snmpv1 initial implementation snmp protocol design snmpv1 done 1980s group collaborators viewed officially sponsored osi/ietf/nsf national science foundation effort hems/cmis/cmip unimplementable computing platforms time well potentially unworkable snmp approved based belief interim protocol needed taking steps towards large scale deployment internet commercialization first request comments rfcs snmp known snmpv1 appeared 1988 1990 documents superseded 1991 mib-1 replaced often used snmpv1 widely used de facto network management protocol internet community snmpv1 may carried transport layer protocols user datagram protocol udp internet protocol ip osi connectionless-mode network service clns appletalk datagram delivery protocol ddp novell internetwork packet exchange ipx version 1 criticized poor security specification fact allow room custom authentication used widely used implementations support trivial authentication service identifies snmp messages authentic snmp messages. security messages therefore becomes dependent security channels messages sent example organization may consider internal network sufficiently secure encryption necessary snmp messages cases community name transmitted cleartext tends viewed de facto password spite original specification snmpv2 defined revises version 1 includes improvements areas performance security manager-to-manager communications introduced getbulkrequest alternative iterative getnextrequests retrieving large amounts management data single request new party-based security system introduced snmpv2 viewed many overly complex widely adopted version snmp reached proposed standard level maturity deemed obsolete later versions community-based simple network management protocol version 2 snmpv2c defined – snmpv2c comprises snmpv2 without controversial new snmp v2 security model using instead simple community-based security scheme snmpv1 version one relatively standards meet ietf draft standard maturity level widely considered de facto snmpv2 standard later restated part snmpv3 user-based simple network management protocol version 2 snmpv2u defined – compromise attempts offer greater security snmpv1 without incurring high complexity snmpv2 variant commercialized snmp v2* mechanism eventually adopted one two security frameworks snmp v3 snmpv2c incompatible snmpv1 two key areas message formats protocol operations snmpv2c messages use different header protocol data unit pdu formats snmpv1 messages snmpv2c also uses two protocol operations specified snmpv1 overcome incompatibility defines two snmpv1/v2c coexistence strategies proxy agents bilingual network-management systems snmpv2 agent act proxy agent behalf snmpv1 managed devices follows proxy agent maps snmpv1 trap messages snmpv2 trap messages forwards nms bilingual snmpv2 network-management systems support snmpv1 snmpv2 support dual-management environment management application bilingual nms must contact agent nms examines information stored local database determine whether agent supports snmpv1 snmpv2 based information database nms communicates agent using appropriate version snmp although snmpv3 makes changes protocol aside addition cryptographic security looks much different due new textual conventions concepts terminology visible change define secure version snmp adding security remote configuration enhancements snmp due lack security earlier versions network administrators often used means telnet ssh configuration accounting fault management snmpv3 focuses two main aspects namely security administration security aspect addressed offering strong authentication data encryption privacy administration aspect snmpv3 focuses two parts namely notification originators proxy forwarders changes also facilitated remote configuration administration snmp entities well addressing issues related large-scale deployment accounting fault management features enhancements included security one biggest weakness snmp v3 authentication snmp versions 1 2 amounts nothing password community string sent clear text manager agent snmpv3 message contains security parameters encoded octet string meaning security parameters depends security model used security approach v3 targets v3 also defines usm vacm later followed transport security model provided support snmpv3 ssh snmpv3 tls dtls snmp implementations vary across platform vendors cases snmp added feature taken seriously enough element core design major equipment vendors tend over-extend proprietary command line interface cli centric configuration control systems february 2002 carnegie mellon software engineering institute cm-sei computer emergency response team coordination center cert-cc issued advisory snmpv1 ca-2002-03 oulu university secure programming group conducted thorough analysis snmp message handling snmp implementations regardless version protocol use program code decoding protocol data units pdu thus many vendors issue patches snmp implementations among others problems found decoding snmp trap messages received snmp management station requests received snmp agent network device snmp powerful write capabilities would allow configuration network devices fully utilized many vendors partly lack security snmp versions snmpv3 partly many devices simply capable configured via individual mib object changes requirements snmp set operation easy implement correctly many vendors chose omit support set – probably lower development cost reduce code size among reasons snmp seemingly simple tree structure linear indexing may always understood well enough within internal data structures elements platform basic design consequently processing snmp queries certain data sets may result higher cpu utilization necessary one example would large routing tables bgp igp snmp values especially tabular values require specific knowledge table indexing schemes index values necessarily consistent across platforms cause correlation issues fetching information multiple devices may employ table indexing scheme example fetching disk utilization metrics specific disk identifier different across platforms modular devices may dynamically increase decrease snmp indices a.k.a instances whenever slotted hardware added removed although common hardware virtual interfaces effect index values typically assigned boot time remain fixed next reboot hardware virtual entities added device 'live may indices assigned end existing range possibly reassigned next reboot network inventory monitoring tools need device update capability properly reacting cold start trap device reboot order avoid corruption mismatch polled data index assignments snmp device instance may change poll poll mostly result changes initiated system administrator information needed particular interface imperative determine snmp index retrieving data needed generally description table like ifdescr map user friendly name like serial 0/1 blade 0 port 1 snmp index however necessarily case specific snmp value arbitrary snmp implementation snmp designed allow administrators monitor configure network devices remotely also used penetrate local area network lan snmp used network turned aside creating vulnerability consume available network bandwidth needlessly use cpu cycles significant number software tools scan entire network snmp therefore mistakes configuration read-write mode make network susceptible attacks 2001 cisco released information even read mode snmp implementation cisco ios 11.0 12.0 operating system used switches routers vulnerable certain denial service attacks security issues fixed ios upgrade configuring snmp read-only mode close attention paid configuration access control ip addresses snmp messages accepted snmp servers identified ip snmp allowed respond ips snmp messages ip addresses would denied however ip address spoofing remains security concern snmp available different versions 1 2 3 security issues snmp v1 sends passwords clear-text network therefore passwords read packet sniffing snmp v2 allows password hashing md5 configured virtually network management software support snmp v1 necessarily snmp v2 v3 snmp v2 specifically developed provide data security authentication privacy authorization snmp version 2c gained endorsement internet engineering task force ietf versions 2u 2* failed gain ietf approval due security issues snmp v3 uses md5 secure hash algorithm sha keyed algorithms offer protection unauthorised data modification masquerade attacks higher level security needed data encryption standard des optionally used cipher block chaining mode snmp v3 implemented cisco ios since release 12.0 3 t. snmpv3 may subject brute force dictionary attacks guessing authentication keys encryption keys keys generated short weak passwords passwords found dictionary snmpv3 allows providing random uniformly distributed cryptographic keys generating cryptographic keys password supplied user risk guessing authentication strings hash values transmitted network depends hash function used length hash value snmpv3 uses hmac-sha-2 authentication protocol user-based security model usm challenge-response handshake used improve security snmpv3 like snmp protocol versions stateless protocol designed minimal amount interactions agent manager thus introducing challenge-response handshake command would impose burden agent possibly network protocol designers deemed excessive unacceptable security deficiencies snmp versions mitigated ipsec authentication confidentiality mechanisms implementation snmp datagram transport layer security dtls also available snmp based network management software send passwords repeatedly normal operations across network therefore clear-text passwords significant security risk snmp v2 used network administrator enable password encryption network devices snmp servers running done command snmp-server enable traps snmp authentication md5 many snmp implementations include type automatic discovery new network component switch router discovered pooled automatically snmpv1 v2c done community string broadcast clear-text devices default configuration community strings public read-only access private read-write snmp topped list sans institute common default configuration issues number ten sans top 10 critical internet security threats year 2000 system network administrators frequently change configurations community string sent snmp network encrypted community string known outside organisation could become target attack prevent easy discovery community snmp configured pass community-name authentication failure traps snmp management device needs configured react authentication failure trap snmpv1 v2 vulnerable ip spoofing attacks whether runs tcp udp subject bypassing device access lists might implemented restrict snmp access snmpv3 security mechanisms usm tsm prevent successful attack would pointless employ snmpv3 vacm view-based access control without securing messages usm tsm 1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_infrastructure_management_interface.cloud infrastructure management interface cloud infrastructure management interface cimi open standard api specification managing cloud infrastructure cimi goal enable users manage cloud infrastructure simple way standardizing interactions cloud environments achieve interoperable cloud infrastructure management service providers consumers developers cimi 1.1 registered international standard august 2014 joint technical committee 1 jtc 1 international organization standardization iso international electrotechnical commission iec cimi standard defined published distributed management task force dmtf includes cloud infrastructure management interface cimi model restful http-based protocol specification cimi xml schema cimi primer cimi uses cases whitepaper cimi aims provide single set interfaces cloud consumer use provision manage cloud infrastructure multiple clouds client code need adapted proprietary interfaces multiple vendors cimi described de jure standard change control standards body contrasting de facto standard typically one vendor change control interface everyone else reverse engineer inner workings expecting vendors embrace dual strategy delivering two offerings – one cimi compliant offering second proprietary offering allows proprietary functionality cimi scoped core iaas functionality deploying managing machines volumes networks monitoring systems group includes feature discovery mechanism find functions cloud provider supports including metadata describing capabilities resource constraints cimi model describes detail resources accessible cloud consumer maintained cloud provider relationships main entry point cimi consumer iaas provider cloud entry point data discovered iteratively model self-describing allows querying metadata e.g. discover extensions implemented model also extensible consumer provider model also defines serializations xml json resource cimi addresses management lifecycle infrastructure provided iaas provider creation deletion viewing alteration virtual machines networks storage start stop operations also defines resource operations creating machine images snapshots machines backup restore creation additional identical virtual machines cimi allows import ovf package create system machines cimi resources well export cimi system resources ovf package actual import export ovf packages handled underlying hypervisor management cimi implementation cimi currently supports rest architectural style using http interactions consumer providers mappings soap ws-man also considered protocol binding follows rest principles describes mapping http protocol verbs operations model request sent using http verb get post put delete includes message body either json xml format response uses standard http status code whose semantics interpreted context particular request made several adapters developed expose cimi api endpoint client applications consume translate api calls proprietary api calls supported target cloud provider following list cimi implementations cimi working group announced plug-fests improved interoperability cimi implementations Target text information: web-based_enterprise_management.web-based enterprise management computing web-based enterprise management wbem comprises set systems-management technologies developed unify management distributed computing environments wbem initiative initially sponsored 1996 bmc software cisco systems compaq computer intel microsoft widely adopted wbem based internet standards distributed management task force dmtf open standards although name labels wbem web-based necessarily dependent particular user interface see systems-management approaches include remote shells proprietary solutions ietf standardized network-management architectures like snmp netconf wbem allows management element standard inter-operable manner wbem provides technology underlying different management initiatives information technology understand wbem architecture consider components lie operator trying manage device configure turn collect alarms etc actual hardware software device pieces device manufacturer service provider write I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	11,344	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_security_assessment_tools.list security assessment tools list available software hardware tools designed particularly suited various kinds security assessment security testing several operating systems tool suites provide bundles tools useful various types security assessment 1-hop neighbor's text information: mysql.mysql mysql s-q-l open-source relational database management system rdbms name combination name co-founder michael widenius daughter sql abbreviation structured query language mysql free open-source software terms gnu general public license also available variety proprietary licenses mysql owned sponsored swedish company mysql ab bought sun microsystems oracle corporation 2010 oracle acquired sun widenius forked open-source mysql project create mariadb mysql component lamp web application software stack others acronym linux apache mysql perl/php/python mysql used many database-driven web applications including drupal joomla phpbb wordpress mysql also used many popular websites including facebook flickr mediawiki twitter youtube mysql written c c++ sql parser written yacc uses home-brewed lexical analyzer mysql works many system platforms including aix bsdi freebsd hp-ux ecomstation i5/os irix linux macos microsoft windows netbsd novell netware openbsd opensolaris os/2 warp qnx oracle solaris symbian sunos sco openserver sco unixware sanos tru64 port mysql openvms also exists mysql server software client libraries use dual-licensing distribution offered gpl version 2 proprietary license support obtained official manual free support additionally available different irc channels forums oracle offers paid support via mysql enterprise products differ scope services price additionally number third party organisations exist provide support services including mariadb percona mysql received positive reviews reviewers noticed performs extremely well average case developer interfaces documentation mention feedback real world via web sites like good also tested fast stable true multi-user multi-threaded sql database server mysql created swedish company mysql ab founded david axmark allan larsson michael monty widenius original development mysql widenius axmark began 1994 first version mysql appeared 23 may 1995 initially created personal usage msql based low-level language isam creators considered slow inflexible created new sql interface keeping api msql keeping api consistent msql system many developers able use mysql instead proprietarily licensed msql antecedent additional milestones mysql development included work version 6 stopped sun microsystems acquisition mysql cluster product uses version 7 decision made jump version 8 next major version number 15 june 2001 nusphere sued mysql ab tcx datakonsult ab original authors michael monty widenius david axmark u.s district court boston breach contract tortious interference third party contracts relationships unfair competition 2002 mysql ab sued progress nusphere copyright trademark infringement united states district court nusphere allegedly violated mysql ab copyright linking mysql gpl'ed code nusphere gemini table without compliance license preliminary hearing judge patti saris 27 february 2002 parties entered settlement talks eventually settled hearing fsf commented judge saris made clear sees gnu gpl enforceable binding license october 2005 oracle corporation acquired innobase oy finnish company developed third-party innodb storage engine allows mysql provide functionality transactions foreign keys acquisition oracle press release mentioned contracts make company software available mysql ab would due renewal presumably renegotiation time 2006 mysql users conference april 2006 mysql ab issued press release confirmed mysql ab innobase oy agreed multi-year extension licensing agreement february 2006 oracle corporation acquired sleepycat software makers berkeley db database engine providing basis another mysql storage engine little effect berkeley db widely used dropped due lack use mysql 5.1.12 pre-ga release mysql 5.1 released october 2006 january 2008 sun microsystems bought mysql ab 1 billion april 2009 oracle corporation entered agreement purchase sun microsystems owners mysql copyright trademark sun board directors unanimously approved deal also approved sun shareholders u.s. government 20 august 2009 14 december 2009 oracle pledged continue enhance mysql done previous four years movement oracle acquisition mysql ab save mysql oracle started one mysql ab founders monty widenius petition 50,000+ developers users called upon european commission block approval acquisition time free software opinion leaders including pamela jones groklaw jan wildeboer carlo piana also acted co-counsel merger regulation procedure advocated unconditional approval merger part negotiations european commission oracle committed mysql server continue least 2015 use dual-licensing strategy long used mysql ab proprietary gpl versions available antitrust eu pressuring divest mysql condition approval merger revealed wikileaks us department justice request oracle pressured eu approve merger unconditionally european commission eventually unconditionally approved oracle acquisition mysql ab 21 january 2010 january 2010 oracle acquisition mysql ab monty widenius started gpl-only fork mariadb mariadb based code base mysql server 5.5 aims maintain compatibility oracle-provided versions mysql offered two different editions open source mysql community server proprietary enterprise server mysql enterprise server differentiated series proprietary extensions install server plugins otherwise shares version numbering system built code base major features available mysql 5.6 developers release minor updates mysql server approximately every two months sources obtained mysql website mysql github repository gpl license using storage engines default innodb mysql comply full sql standard implemented functionality including foreign key references check constraints parsed ignored storage engines mysql version 8.0.15 mysql 5.7 triggers limited one per action timing meaning one trigger defined executed insert operation one insert table triggers defined views mysql database inbuilt functions like unix_timestamp return 0 03:14:07 utc 19 january 2038 recently attempt solve problem assigned internal queue mysql built installed manually source code commonly installed binary package unless special customizations required linux distributions package management system download install mysql minimal effort though configuration often required adjust security optimization settings though mysql began low-end alternative powerful proprietary databases gradually evolved support higher-scale needs well still commonly used small medium scale single-server deployments either component lamp-based web application standalone database server much mysql appeal originates relative simplicity ease use enabled ecosystem open source tools phpmyadmin medium range mysql scaled deploying powerful hardware multi-processor server gigabytes memory however limits far performance scale single server 'scaling larger scales multi-server mysql 'scaling deployments required provide improved performance reliability typical high-end configuration include powerful master database handles data write operations replicated multiple slaves handle read operations master server continually pushes binlog events connected slaves event failure slave promoted become new master minimizing downtime improvements performance achieved caching results database queries memory using memcached breaking database smaller chunks called shards spread across number distributed server clusters logical backup tool included community enterprise editions mysql supports backing storage engines mysql enterprise backup hot backup utility included part mysql enterprise subscription oracle offering native innodb hot backup well backup storage engines oracle mysql offers high availability solution mix tools including mysql router mysql shell based group replication open source tools mariadb offers similar offer terms products mysql also run cloud computing platforms microsoft azure amazon ec2 oracle cloud infrastructure common deployment models mysql cloud graphical user interface gui type interface allows users interact electronic devices programs graphical icons visual indicators secondary notation opposed text-based interfaces typed command labels text navigation guis easier learn command-line interfaces clis require commands typed keyboard third-party proprietary free graphical administration applications front ends available integrate mysql enable users work database structure data visually well-known front ends command-line interface means interacting computer program user issues commands program typing successive lines text command lines mysql ships many command line tools main interface client mysql utilities set utilities designed perform common maintenance administrative tasks originally included part mysql workbench utilities stand-alone download available oracle percona toolkit cross-platform toolkit mysql developed perl percona toolkit used prove replication working correctly fix corrupted data automate repetitive tasks speed servers percona toolkit included several linux distributions centos debian packages available fedora ubuntu well percona toolkit originally developed maatkit late 2011 maatkit longer developed mysql shell tool interactive use administration mysql database supports javascript python sql modes used administration access purposes many programming languages language-specific apis include libraries accessing mysql databases include mysql connector/net integration microsoft visual studio languages c vb commonly used jdbc driver java addition odbc interface called mysql connector/odbc allows additional programming languages support odbc interface communicate mysql database asp coldfusion htsql url-based query method also ships mysql adapter allowing direct interaction mysql database web client via structured urls drivers exists languages like python node.js variety mysql forks exist including following 1-hop neighbor's text information: positive_hack_days.positive hack days positive hack days phdays computer security conference held every year moscow first conference held 2011 conference addresses topics zero-day attacks digital investigations cryptography cyberwarfare security person state cyberworld attendance fee required free tickets available winners special hacking contests students participated positive education program phdays aimed wide range audience hackers technical experts businessmen politicians presentations given russian english first conference held may 19 2011 reports workshops covered topics government control information security russia internet banking system safety secure connection voip protection data cloud virtualization system security keynote speaker event dmitry sklyarov conference capture flag ctf competition held among information security specialists different countries u.s. team ppp winner hacking contests one participant detected zero-day vulnerability safari windows among speakers experts kaspersky lab russian agricultural bank vimpelcom rostelecom cisco systems leta it-company positive technologies pwc 500 people attended one-day event second conference conducted may 30 31 2012 digital october center new technologies along six parallel streams presentations workshops ctf competition security-related contests held topics divided two areas technical exploiting radio noise password protection telecom security usage sqlmap business internet banking security data leakage government seeking specialists information security conference featured bruce schneier american cryptographer author applied cryptography datuk mohd noor amin impact un alexander peslyak known solar designer creator password cracking tool john ripper significant events include demonstration zero-day vulnerabilities windows xp freebsd 8.3 cracking iphone 4s contests taking control ar.drone analyzing internet banking system security young school competition young scientists research papers took place first time among conference participants representatives kaspersky lab national agency computer security tunisia cisco systems eset openwall project highload lab companies phdays 2012 gathered 2,000 people third conference held may 23 24 world trade center among main topics ics protection web application mobile application security preventing attacks banking systems cooperation government researchers information society marc van hauser heuse creator thc-hydra amap susefirewall founder hacker choice became leading speaker significant events include report scada strangelove security siemens simatic software workshop hacking atm workshop open organisation lockpickers experts nondestructive lock opening model railroad controlled real industrial systems labyrinth rooms laser field motion detectors george hotz geohot participated ctf contest member ppp first unlock iphone allowed using providers besides george hotz also 2drunk2hack contest participants hack web applications strong drink fail specialists kaspersky lab cisco systems nokia rsa iponweb qualys visited conference phdays iii saw 2,500 attendees movie preparation conference released 2013 conference took place may 21 22 2014 digital october among main topics protection ics critical infrastructure components internet banking system security internet things regulation information security industry cyberwarfare alisa shevchenko detected several zero-day vulnerabilities indusoft web studio 7.1 contest analyzing ics security significant events include contest identifying threats smart home discussion security telecommunications companies lack really smart grids power industry security-related competition participants managed withdraw money banking system developed especially competition filled vulnerabilities commonly occur real internet banking systems specialists kaspersky lab cisco systems revuln toool parameter security took part conference phdays iv drew 2,500 attendees conference held 26 27 may 2015 world trade center moscow russia conference held 17 18 may 2016 world trade center moscow russia conference held 23 24 may 2017 world trade center moscow russia conference held 15 16 may 2018 12 krasnopresnenskaya embankment moscow russia conference held 21 22 may 2019 crocus expo international exhibition center moscow russia technical reports workshops competitions discussions regulation industry business development commonly held phdays however feature conference providing special activities aimed creating open cyberpunk atmosphere conference always ends live performances popular russian rock bands 2014 cyberpunk movies played night two days conference Target text information: sqlmap.sqlmap sqlmap open source software used detect exploit database vulnerabilities provides options injecting malicious codes penetration testing tool automates process detecting exploiting sql injection flaws providing user interface terminal software run command line available download different operating systems linux distributions windows mac os operating systems addition mapping detecting vulnerabilities software enables access database editing deleting data viewing data tables users passwords backups phone numbers e-mail addresses credit cards confidential sensitive information sqlmap full support multiple dbmss including mysql oracle postgresql microsoft sql server microsoft access ibm db2 sqlite firebird sap maxdb full support injection techniques boolean error stack time union standard use software unix environment follows sqlmap -u http //172.16.0.0/files/file.php id=1 additional values combined help file prompted command sqlmap -h I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	11,191	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: amazon_elastic_file_system.amazon elastic file system amazon elastic file system amazon efs cloud storage service provided amazon web services aws designed provide scalable elastic concurrent restrictions encrypted file storage use aws cloud services on-premises resources amazon efs built able grow shrink automatically files added removed amazon efs supports network file system nfs versions 4.0 4.1 nfsv4 protocol control access files portable operating system interface posix permissions according amazon use cases file system service typically include content repositories development environments web server farms home directories big data applications amazon efs provides open-after-close consistency semantics applications expect nfs amazon efs available aws regions asia pacific seoul became available may 2018 1-hop neighbor's text information: red_hat.red hat red hat inc. american multinational software company providing open-source software products enterprise community founded 1993 red hat corporate headquarters raleigh north carolina offices worldwide became subsidiary ibm july 9 2019 red hat become associated large extent enterprise operating system red hat enterprise linux acquisition open-source enterprise middleware vendor jboss red hat also offers red hat virtualization rhv enterprise virtualization product red hat provides storage operating system platforms middleware applications management products support training consulting services red hat creates maintains contributes many free software projects acquired several proprietary software product codebases corporate mergers acquisitions released software open-source licenses red hat second largest corporate contributor linux kernel version 4.14 intel october 28 2018 ibm announced intent acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition closed july 9 2019 1993 bob young incorporated acc corporation catalog business sold linux unix software accessories 1994 marc ewing created linux distribution named red hat linux ewing worn red cornell university lacrosse hat given grandfather attending carnegie mellon university ewing released software october became known halloween release young bought ewing business 1995 two merged become red hat software young serving chief executive officer ceo red hat went public august 11 1999 achieving eighth-biggest first-day gain history wall street matthew szulik succeeded bob young ceo december year bob young went found online print demand self-publishing company lulu 2002 november 15 1999 red hat acquired cygnus solutions cygnus provided commercial support free software housed maintainers gnu software products gnu debugger gnu binutils one founders cygnus michael tiemann became chief technical officer red hat vice president open-source affairs later red hat acquired wirespeed c2net hell kitchen systems february 2000 infoworld awarded red hat fourth consecutive operating system product year award red hat linux 6.1 red hat acquired planning technologies inc 2001 aol iplanet directory certificate-server software 2004 red hat moved headquarters durham north carolina state university centennial campus raleigh north carolina february 2002 following month red hat introduced red hat linux advanced server later renamed red hat enterprise linux rhel dell ibm hp oracle corporation announced support platform december 2005 cio insight magazine conducted annual vendor value survey red hat ranked 1 value second year row red hat stock became part nasdaq-100 december 19 2005 red hat acquired open-source middleware provider jboss june 5 2006 jboss became division red hat september 18 2006 red hat released red hat application stack integrated jboss technology certified well-known software vendors december 12 2006 red hat stock moved trading nasdaq rhat new york stock exchange rht 2007 red hat acquired metamatrix made agreement exadel distribute software march 15 2007 red hat released red hat enterprise linux 5 june acquired mobicents march 13 2008 red hat acquired amentra provider systems integration services service-oriented architecture business process management systems development enterprise data services july 27 2009 red hat replaced cit group standard poor 500 stock index diversified index 500 leading companies u.s. economy reported major milestone linux december 15 2009 reported red hat pay settle class action lawsuit related restatement financial results july 2004 suit pending u.s. district court eastern district north carolina red hat reached proposed settlement agreement recorded one-time charge quarter ended nov. 30 january 10 2011 red hat announced would expand headquarters two phases adding 540 employees raleigh operation investing state north carolina offering incentives second phase involves expansion new technologies software virtualization technology cloud offerings august 25 2011 red hat announced would move 600 employees n.c. state centennial campus two progress plaza downtown ribbon cutting ceremony held june 24 2013 re-branded red hat headquarters 2012 red hat became first one-billion dollar open-source company reaching annual revenue fiscal year red hat passed 2 billion benchmark 2015. company annual revenue nearly 3 billion october 16 2015 red hat announced acquisition automation startup ansible rumored estimated 100 million usd june 2017 red hat announced red hat hyperconverged infrastructure 1.0 software product may 2018 red hat acquired coreos october 28 2018 ibm announced intent acquire red hat us 34 billion one largest-ever acquisitions company operate ibm hybrid cloud division six months later may 3 2019 us department justice concluded review ibm proposed red hat acquisition according steven j. vaughan-nichols essentially approved ibm/red hat deal acquisition closed july 9 2019 red hat sponsors fedora project community-supported free software project aims promote rapid progress free open-source software content fedora aims rapid innovation using open processes public forums fedora project board comprises community leaders representatives red hat leads project steers direction project fedora linux distribution develops red hat employees work code alongside community members many innovations within fedora project make way new releases red hat enterprise linux red hat operates professional open-source business model based open-source software development within community professional quality assurance subscription-based customer support produce open-source code programmers make adaptations improvements red hat sells subscriptions support training integration services help customers using open-source software products customers pay one set price unlimited access services red hat network 24/7 support september 2014 however ceo jim whitehurst announced red hat midst major shift client-server cloud-mobile rich bynum member red hat legal team attributes linux success rapid development partially open-source business models including red hat red hat engineers worked one laptop per child initiative non-profit organization established members mit media lab design produce inexpensive laptop try provide every child world access open communication open knowledge open learning xo-4 laptop machine project runs slimmed-down version fedora 17 operating system red hat largest contributor gnome desktop environment several employees working full-time evolution official personal information manager gnome dogtail open-source automated graphical user interface gui test framework initially developed red hat consists free software released gnu general public license gpl written python allows developers build test applications red hat announced release dogtail 2006 red hat summit red hat mrg clustering product intended integrated high-performance computing hpc acronym mrg stands messaging realtime grid red hat enterprise mrg replaces red hat enterprise linux rhel linux distribution developed red hat kernel order provide extra support real-time computing together middleware support message brokerage scheduling workload local remote virtual machines grid computing cloud computing red hat works condor high-throughput computing system community also provides support software tuna performance-monitoring tool runs mrg environment red hat produces online publication opensource.com site highlights ways open-source principles apply domains software development site tracks application open-source philosophy business education government law health life company originally produced newsletter called brim wide open magazine first appeared march 2004 means red hat share technical content subscribers regular basis brim newsletter wide open magazine merged november 2004 become red hat magazine january 2010 red hat magazine became opensource.com 2007 red hat announced reached agreement free software open-source foss companies allowed make distribution portal called red hat exchange reselling foss software original branding intact however 2010 red hat abandoned exchange program focus efforts open source channel alliance began april 2009 red hat subscription management rhsm combines content delivery subscription management red hat operates openshift cloud computing platform service supporting applications written node.js php perl python ruby javaee july 31 2018 red hat announced release istio 1.0 microservices management program used tandem kubernetes platform software purports provide traffic management service identity security policy enforcement telemetry services order streamline kubernetes use various fedora-based operating systems red hat brian redbeard harring described istio aiming control plane similar kubernetes control plane configuring series proxy servers get injected application components red hat markets version openstack helps manage data center manner cloud computing red hat cloudforms provides management virtual machines instances containers based vmware vsphere red hat virtualization microsoft hyper-v openstack amazon ec2 google cloud platform microsoft azure red hat openshift cloudforms based manageiq project red hat open sourced code manageiq acquisition manageiq 2012 red hat contributes several software developers work libreoffice free open-source office suite red hat employees working full-time free open-source software projects red hat products two full-time employees working free software radeon david airlie jerome glisse one full-time employee working free software nouveau graphic drivers another project aerogear open-source project brings security development expertise cross-platform enterprise mobile development red hat also organises open source day events multiple partners show open-source technologies subscribers access red hat major products acquisitions red hat programmers produced software programming-tools utilities supplement standard unix linux software red hat products found way specifically red hat operating environments via open-source channels wider community utilities include red hat website lists organization major involvements free open-source software projects community projects aegis red hat include 2000 red hat created subsidiary red hat india deliver red hat software support services indian customers colin tenwick vice president general manager red hat emea said red hat india opened response rapid adoption red hat linux subcontinent demand open-source solutions indian markets rising red hat wants play major role region red hat india worked local companies enable adoption open-source technology government education 2006 red hat india distribution network 70 channel partners spanning 27 cities across india red hat india channel partners included markcraft solutions ashtech infotech pvt ltd efensys technologies embee software allied digital services softcell technologies distributors include integra micro systems ingram micro red hat first major acquisition involved delix computer gmbh-linux div linux-based operating-system division delix computer german computer company july 30 1999 red hat acquired cygnus solutions company provided commercial support free software january 11 2000 – company largest acquisition michael tiemann co-founder cygnus served chief technical officer red hat acquisition red hat made acquisitions 2000 five cygnus solutions bluecurve wirespeed communications hell kitchen systems c2net june 5 2006 red hat acquired open-source middleware provider jboss integrated division red hat december 14 1998 red hat made first divestment intel netscape acquired undisclosed minority stakes company next year march 9 1999 compaq ibm dell novell acquired undisclosed minority stakes red hat 1-hop neighbor's text information: scalability.scalability scalability property system handle growing amount work adding resources system economic context scalable business model implies company increase sales given increased resources example package delivery system scalable packages delivered adding delivery vehicles however packages first pass single warehouse sorting system would scalable one warehouse handle limited number packages computing scalability characteristic computers networks algorithms networking protocols programs applications example search engine must support increasing numbers users number topics indexes incident command system ics emergency management system used across emergency response agencies united states ics scale resource coordination single-engine roadside brushfire interstate wildfire first resource scene establishes command authority order resources delegate responsibility managing five seven officers delegate seven incident grows incident expands senior officers assume command scalability measured multiple dimensions resources fall two broad categories horizontal vertical scaling horizontally out/in means adding nodes removing nodes system adding new computer distributed software application example might involve scaling one web server three high-performance computing applications seismic analysis biotechnology workloads scaled horizontally support tasks would required expensive supercomputers workloads large social networks exceed capacity largest supercomputer handled scalable systems exploiting scalability requires software efficient resource management maintenance scaling vertically up/down means adding resources removing resources single node typically involving addition cpus memory storage single computer larger numbers elements increases management complexity sophisticated programming allocate tasks among resources handle issues throughput latency across nodes applications scale horizontally note network function virtualization defines terms differently scaling out/in ability scale add/remove resource instances e.g virtual machine whereas scaling up/down ability scale changing allocated resources e.g memory/cpu/storage capacity scalability databases requires database system able perform additional work given greater hardware resources additional servers processors memory storage workloads continued grow demands databases followed suit algorithmic innovations include row-level locking table index partitioning architectural innovations include shared nothing shared everything architectures managing multi-server configurations context scale-out data storage scalability defined maximum storage cluster size guarantees full data consistency meaning ever one valid version stored data whole cluster independently number redundant physical data copies clusters provide lazy redundancy updating copies asynchronous fashion called 'eventually consistent type scale-out design suitable availability responsiveness rated higher consistency true many web file hosting services web caches want latest version wait seconds propagate classical transaction-oriented applications design avoided many open source even commercial scale-out storage clusters especially built top standard pc hardware networks provide eventual consistency idem nosql databases like couchdb others mentioned write operations invalidate copies often n't wait acknowledgements read operations typically n't check every redundant copy prior answering potentially missing preceding write operation large amount metadata signal traffic would require specialized hardware short distances handled acceptable performance i.e act like non-clustered storage device database whenever strong data consistency expected look indicators indicators eventually consistent designs suitable transactional applications often advised focus system design hardware scalability rather capacity typically cheaper add new node system order achieve improved performance partake performance tuning improve capacity node handle approach diminishing returns discussed performance engineering example suppose 70 program sped parallelized run multiple cpus instead one formula_1 fraction calculation sequential formula_2 fraction parallelized maximum speedup achieved using p processors given according amdahl law substituting value example using 4 processors get double compute power 8 processors get doubling processing power improved speedup roughly one-fifth whole problem parallelizable speed would also double therefore throwing hardware necessarily optimal approach context high performance computing two common notions scalability Target text information: red_hat_storage_server.red hat storage server red hat gluster storage formerly red hat storage server computer storage product red hat based open source technologies glusterfs red hat enterprise linux latest release rhgs 3.1 combines red hat enterprise linux rhel 6 also rhel 7 latest glusterfs community release ovirt xfs file system april 2014 red hat re-branded glusterfs-based red hat storage server red hat gluster storage red hat gluster storage scale-out nas product uses basis glusterfs distributed file-system red hat gluster storage also exemplifies software-defined storage sds june 2012 red hat gluster storage announced commercially supported integration glusterfs red hat enterprise linux I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	3,696	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_relational_database_management_systems.list relational database management systems list relational database management systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_in-memory_databases.list in-memory databases article list in-memory database system software 1-hop neighbor's text information: clustrix.clustrix clustrix inc. san francisco-based private company founded 2006 develops database management system marketed newsql clustrix founded november 2006 sometimes called sprout-clustrix formed help combinator founders include paul mikesell formerly emc isilon sergei tsarev technology tested customers since 2008 initially called sierra official announcement 2010 product called clustered database system cds company received 10 million funding sequoia capital u.s. venture partners usvp ata ventures december 2010 robin purohit became chief executive october 2011 another round 6.75 million raised july 2012 another round funding original backers 16.5 million announced may 2013 round 10 million new funding august 2013 led highbar ventures purohit replaced mike azevedo 2014 round 23 million debt financing disclosed february 2016.. september 20 2018 announced clustrix acquired mariadb corporation clustrix supports workloads involve scaling transactions real-time analytics system drop-in replacement mysql designed overcome mysql scalability issues minimum disruption also built fault-tolerance features high availability within cluster parallel backup parallel replication among clusters disaster recovery clustrix scale-out sql database management system part often called newsql database systems modern relational database management systems closely following nosql movement product marketed hardware appliance using infiniband 2014 clustrix database made available downloadable software amazon web services marketplace 2013 primary competitors like microsoft sql server mysql supported online transaction processing online analytical processing distributed clustrix provides distributed relational acid database scales transactions support real-time analytics distributed relational databases columnar n't support primary transaction workload focus offline analytics includes emc greenplum hp vertica infobright amazon redshift notable players primary sql database space in-memory includes voltdb memsql excel low-latency transactions target real-time analytics nosql competitors like mongodb good handling unstructured data read heavy workloads compete space write heavy workloads transactions coarse grained db-level locking sql features like joins newsql nosql databases complementary clustrix database operates distributed cluster shared-nothing nodes using query data approach nodes typically subset data sql queries split query fragments sent nodes data enables clustrix scale horizontally scale additional nodes added clustrix database automatically splits distributes data evenly across nodes slice copies nodes uniform data distribution maintained nodes added removed data inserted unevenly automatic data distribution approach removes need shard enables clustrix maintain database availability face node loss performance test completed percona 2011 three-node cluster saw 73 increase speed similarly equipped single mysql server running tests 1024 simultaneous threads additional nodes added clustrix cluster provided roughly linear increases speed Target text information: voltdb.voltdb voltdb in-memory database designed michael stonebraker earlier designed ingres postgresql sam madden daniel abadi acid-compliant rdbms uses shared nothing architecture includes enterprise community editions community edition licensed gnu affero general public license voltdb newsql relational database supports sql access within pre-compiled java stored procedures unit transaction stored procedure written java interspersed sql voltdb relies horizontal partitioning individual hardware thread scale k-safety synchronous replication provide high availability combination continuous snapshots command logging durability crash recovery voltdb based h-store uses shared-nothing architecture scale data processing associated distributed across cpu cores within servers composing single voltdb cluster extending shared-nothing foundation per-core level voltdb scales increasing core-per-cpu counts multi-core servers making stored procedures unit transaction executing partition containing necessary data possible eliminate round trip messaging sql statements stored procedures executed serially completion single thread without locking latching similar lmax architecture data memory local partition stored procedure execute microseconds voltdb stored procedure initiation scheme allows nodes initiate stored procedures avoiding single serializable global order voltdb acid compliant data written durable storage durability ensured continuous snapshots asynchronous command logging creates snapshots log transactions snapshots synchronous command logging logs transactions transaction completes committed database ensures transactions committed logged transactions lost applications must designed data altered single stored procedure stored partition voltdb v5.0 introduced database monitoring management tool voltdb management center vmc short vmc provides browser-based one-stop monitoring configuration management voltdb database including graphs cluster throughput latency well cpu memory usage current server voltdb version 5.1 released march 2015 introduce database replication functionality removing single point failure dr provides simultaneous parallel replication multiple partitions binary logs transaction results saving replica replay transaction I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	1,636	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: rackspace.rackspace rackspace inc. american managed cloud computing company based windcrest texas suburb san antonio company also offices australia united kingdom switzerland netherlands germany singapore mexico hong kong rackspace data centers operating texas chicago kansas city virginia united kingdom germany australia hong kong company rackspace email division operates blacksburg va offices located austin texas 2016 rackspace closed san francisco office rackspace became public 2008 2016 purchased taken private apollo global management llc 1996 richard yoo started small internet service provider called cymitar network systems garage apartment san antonio texas company began application development work addition offering basic internet access web hosting 1997 yoo brought dirk elmendorf company began develop internet applications primary business company re-formed cymitar technology group cymitar technology group grew patrick condon recruited california joined team 1998 coincidentally three company founders students one time trinity university san antonio although founders began application developers end users found companies either know want host applications founders wanted focus application development–not hosting–but unable find opportunity outsource hosting work eventually founders realized would better create product serve hosting need launch company rackspace launched october 1998 richard yoo ceo although hosting companies focused technology end hosting rackspace created fanatical support offering focus service support march 28 2000 rackspace received funding lead investor norwest venture partners sequoia capital george j still jr. managing partner norwest subsequently joined board directors 2008 rackspace moved headquarters building occupied datapoint corporation then-unoccupied windsor park mall windcrest texas rackspace chairman graham weston owned montgomery ward building mall 2006 sold developer city windcrest purchased south mall create residential retail complex facility located next roosevelt high school many roosevelt students intern rackspace fortune top 100 best companies work 2008 placed rackspace first year rackspace applied consideration company praised transparency regular open book meetings held top level leaders share in-depth financial information employees 2011 2013 company named one top 100 places work fortune august 8 2008 rackspace opened trading new york stock exchange ticker symbol rax initial public offering ipo raised 187.5 million initial public offering included 15,000,000 shares common stock price 12.50 per share ipo well public market lost 20 initial price almost immediately around 3:45pm cst december 18 2009 rackspace experienced outage customers using dallas–fort worth data center – including rackspace cloud september 8 2010 rackspace received national attention decided discontinue providing web hosting service one customers dove world outreach center reaction dove world pastor terry jones plan burn several copies qur'an anniversary september 11th attacks rackspace claims violated company policy move came criticism notably terry jones described indirect attack freedom speech others questioned appropriateness rackspace action stating absolutely reason web hosts editorial policy gives jones attention makes look persecuted june 3 2011 rackspace intervened application queensland host rack servers trademark business name australia may 26 2013 author bill schley book 'the unstoppables inspired culture rackspace became new york times bestseller may 15 2014 rackspace hired morgan stanley evaluate strategic options including selling merging technology companies october 2014 rackspace announced would sell support google work apps business customers august 2016 confirmed apollo global management reached agreement buy company 4.3 billion sale completed november 2016 rackspace officially ended trading new york stock exchange november 3 2016 may 2017 ceo taylor rhodes announced leaving company may 16 work smaller private company different city may 2017 rackspace named joe eazor new ceo april 2019 company named kevin jones new ceo october 22 2008 rackspace announced purchasing cloud storage provider jungle disk vps provider slicehost february 16 2012 rackspace acquired sharepoint911 microsoft sharepoint consulting company based cincinnati ohio may 25 2017 rackspace announced agreement acquire tricore solutions september 11 2017 rackspace announced plans acquire datapipe september 17 2018 rackspace announced acquired relationedge acquisitions include cloudkick anso labs mailgun objectrocket exceptional cloud services zerovm rackspace launched serverbeach san antonio january 2003 lower-cost alternative dedicated servers designed technology hobbyists want flexibility reliability richard yoo catalyst startup serverbeach bandwidth colocation provider peer 1 hosting known cogeco peer 1 purchased serverbeach october 2004 7.5 million peer 1 hosting entered uk managed hosting market january 2009 serverbeach brand competes directly uk arm rackspace run dominic monkhouse former managing director rackspace limited october 2006 mosso inc. launched experimented white-labeling hosting services eventually division became foundation rackspace cloud computing offering october 1 2007 rackspace acquired webmail.us private e-mail hosting firm located blacksburg va originally branded mailtrust may 20 2009 became part newly formed cloud office division rackspace october 22 2008 rackspace acquired slicehost provider virtual servers jungle disk provider online backup software services rackspace announced march 8 2017 plans expansion portfolio include managed service google cloud platform program began beta testing july 18 2017 planned full offering late 2017 rackspace partnered google customer reliability engineering group google site reliability engineers ensure cloud applications run speed reliability google widely-used products 2010 rackspace contributed source code cloud files product openstack project apache license become openstack object storage component april 2012 rackspace announced would implement openstack compute underlying technology cloud servers product change introduced new control panel well add-on cloud services offering databases server monitoring block storage virtual networking 2015 two rackspace executives elected board openstack foundation february 2016 interview cto john engates stated rackspace use openstack power public private cloud Target text information: qct_(quanta_cloud_technology).qct quanta cloud technology qct provider data center hardware cloud solutions used hyperscale data center operators facebook rackspace conjunction parent company quanta computer qct sells approximately one every seven server manufactured world qct early contributor open compute project non-profit organization launched facebook engineers open source designs data center products qct manufactured facebook servers among first designs project addition headquarters taoyuan taiwan qct offices san jose seattle beijing hangzhou tokyo qct us subsidiary quanta computer established may 2012 manufacture servers end users course 2012 qct also added storage hardware networking switches portfolio became hardware provider cloud market 2013 qct added rack systems product portfolio 2015 qct partnered software vendors offer software-defined hyper-converged infrastructure solutions variety cloud environments public private hybrid 2004 2012 qct became early contributor open compute project ocp ocp solution provider qct designs builds delivers ocp servers data centers 2015 qct opened two cloud solutions centers demonstrate hyper-converged software hyperscale hardware april 2015 qct cloud solution center taiwan october 2015 opened one fremont california mike yang serves general manager qct qct received editors ’ choice award top 5 vendors watch 2014 hpcwire readers ’ editors ’ choice awards I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	7,280	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: macintosh_file_system.macintosh file system macintosh file system mfs volume format disk file system created apple computer storing files 400k floppy disks mfs introduced original apple macintosh computer january 1984 mfs notable introducing resource forks allow storage structured data storing metadata needed support graphical user interface mac os mfs allows file names 255 characters length although finder allow users create names longer 63 characters 31 characters later versions mfs called flat file system support hierarchy directories folders exist concept original mfs-based macintosh work completely differently way modern systems visible finder windows open save dialog boxes always one empty folder volume altered way adding renaming files new empty folder appears thus providing way create new folders mfs stores file directory listing information single file finder creates illusion folders storing files pairs directory handles file handles display contents particular folder mfs scans directory files handle need find separate file containing directory listing macintosh file system support volumes 20 mb size 1,400 files small today standards time seemed expansive compared macintosh 400 kb floppy drive apple introduced hierarchical file system replacement mfs september 1985 mac os 7.6.1 apple removed support writing mfs volumes mac os 8.0 support mfs volumes removed altogether although macos built-in support mfs example vfs plug-in apple called mfslives provides read-only access mfs volumes 1-hop neighbor's text information: ceph_(software).ceph software computing ceph pronounced free-software storage platform implements object storage single distributed computer cluster provides interfaces object- block- file-level storage ceph aims primarily completely distributed operation without single point failure scalable exabyte level freely available ceph replicates data makes fault-tolerant using commodity hardware requiring specific hardware support result design system self-healing self-managing aiming minimize administration time costs ceph employs five distinct kinds daemons fully distributed may run set servers clients different use cases directly interact different subsets ceph striping individual files across multiple nodes achieve higher throughput similar raid0 stripes partitions across multiple hard drives adaptive load balancing supported whereby frequently accessed objects replicated nodes bluestore default recommended storage type production environments ceph storage implementation providing better latency configurability filestore backend avoiding shortcomings filesystem based storage involving additional processing caching layers filestore backend still considered useful stable xfs recommended underlying filesystem type production environments btrfs recommended non-production environments ext4 filesystems recommended resulting limitations maximum rados objects length ceph implements distributed object storage ceph software libraries provide client applications direct access reliable autonomic distributed object store rados object-based storage system also provide foundation ceph features including rados block device rbd rados gateway ceph file system librados software libraries provide access c c++ java php python rados gateway also exposes object store restful interface present native amazon s3 openstack swift apis ceph object storage system allows users mount ceph thin-provisioned block device application writes data ceph using block device ceph automatically stripes replicates data across cluster ceph rados block device rbd also integrates kernel-based virtual machines kvms ceph rbd interfaces ceph object storage system provides librados interface cephfs file system stores block device images objects since rbd built librados rbd inherits librados abilities including read-only snapshots revert snapshot striping images across cluster ceph improves read access performance large block device images block device virtualized providing block storage virtual machines virtualization platforms apache cloudstack openstack opennebula ganeti proxmox virtual environment ceph file system cephfs runs top object storage system provides object storage block device interfaces ceph metadata server cluster provides service maps directories file names file system objects stored within rados clusters metadata server cluster expand contract rebalance file system dynamically distribute data evenly among cluster hosts ensures high performance prevents heavy loads specific hosts within cluster clients mount posix-compatible file system using linux kernel client older fuse-based client also available servers run regular unix daemons ceph initially created sage weil doctoral dissertation advised professor scott a. brandt jack baskin school engineering university california santa cruz ucsc sponsored advanced simulation computing program asc including los alamos national laboratory lanl sandia national laboratories snl lawrence livermore national laboratory llnl first line code ended part ceph written sage weil 2004 summer internship llnl working scalable filesystem metadata management known today ceph mds 2005 part summer project initiated scott a. brandt led carlos maltzahn sage weil created fully functional file system prototype adopted name ceph ceph made debut sage weil giving two presentations november 2006 one usenix osdi 2006 another sc'06 graduation fall 2007 weil continued work ceph full-time core development team expanded include yehuda sadeh weinraub gregory farnum march 19 2010 linus torvalds merged ceph client linux kernel version 2.6.34 released may 16 2010 2012 weil created inktank storage professional services support ceph april 2014 red hat purchased inktank bringing majority ceph development in-house october 2015 ceph community advisory board formed assist community driving direction open source software-defined storage technology charter advisory board includes ceph community members global organizations committed ceph project including individuals canonical cern cisco fujitsu intel red hat sandisk suse name ceph abbreviation cephalopod class molluscs includes octopus name emphasized logo suggests highly parallel behavior octopus chosen associate file system sammy banana slug mascot ucsc cephalopods banana slugs molluscs 1-hop neighbor's text information: unix_filesystem.unix filesystem unix operating systems inspired file system considered central component operating system also one first parts system designed implemented ken thompson first experimental version unix dated 1969 operating systems filesystem provides information storage retrieval one several forms interprocess communication many small programs traditionally form unix system store information files programs read although pipes complemented role starting third edition also filesystem provides access resources so-called device files entry points terminals printers mice rest article uses unix generic name refer original unix operating system many workalikes filesystem appears one rooted tree directories instead addressing separate volumes disk partitions removable media network shares separate trees done dos windows drive drive letter denotes root file system tree volumes mounted directory causing volume file system tree appear directory larger tree root entire tree denoted codice_1 original bell labs unix two-disk setup customary first disk contained startup programs second contained users files programs second disk mounted empty directory named codice_2 first disk causing two disks appear one filesystem second disks contents viewable codice_3 unix directories contain files instead contain names files paired references so-called inodes turn contain file metadata owner permissions time last access etc. name multiple names file system may refer file feature termed hard link mathematical traits hard links make file system limited type directed acyclic graph although directories still form tree typically may hard-linked originally envisioned 1969 unix file system would fact used general graph hard links directories providing navigation instead path names original unix file system supported three types files ordinary files directories special files also termed device files berkeley software distribution bsd system v added file type used interprocess communication bsd added sockets system v added fifo files bsd also added symbolic links often termed symlinks range file types files refer files complement hard links symlinks modeled similar feature multics differ hard links may span filesystems existence independent target object unix systems may support additional types files certain conventions exist locating kinds files programs system configuration files users home directories first documented codice_4 man page since version 7 unix subsequent versions derivatives clones typically similar man page details directory layout varied time although file system layout part single unix specification several attempts exist standardize parts system v application binary interface intel binary compatibility standard common operating system environment linux foundation filesystem hierarchy standard fhs generalized overview common locations files unix operating system Target text information: netware_core_protocol.netware core protocol netware core protocol ncp network protocol used products novell inc usually associated client-server operating system novell netware originally supported primarily ms-dos client stations later support platforms microsoft windows classic mac os linux windows nt mac os x various flavors unix added ncp used access file print directory clock synchronization messaging remote command execution network service functions originally took advantage easy network configuration little memory footprint ipx/spx protocol stack since mid-1990s tcp/ip implementation available novell edirectory uses ncp synchronizing data changes servers directory service tree original ipx/spx implementation provided novell netware platform obsolete tcp/ip implementation uses tcp/udp port 524 relies slp name resolution ncp operation ipx/spx networks bare ipx protocol used packet type field set 17 workstation client station side ipx socket number 0x4003 used server side socket number 0x0451 ncp pdu following structure ncp type field determines type operation individual requests identified sequence number modulo 256 connection number identifies individual client station connection server novell netware servers version 2.x supported 255 connections connection number occupied 1 octet later extended 2 octets task number value 3 requests 1 replies data field starts ncp function number octet distinguishes individual services contents length rest data field depends ncp function I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	7,554	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: transmission_control_protocol.transmission control protocol transmission control protocol tcp one main protocols internet protocol suite originated initial network implementation complemented internet protocol ip therefore entire suite commonly referred tcp/ip tcp provides reliable ordered error-checked delivery stream octets bytes applications running hosts communicating via ip network major internet applications world wide web email remote administration file transfer rely tcp applications require reliable data stream service may use user datagram protocol udp provides connectionless datagram service emphasizes reduced latency reliability may 1974 vint cerf bob kahn described internetworking protocol sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes authors working gérard le lann incorporate concepts french cyclades project new network central control component model transmission control program incorporated connection-oriented links datagram services hosts monolithic transmission control program later divided modular architecture consisting transmission control protocol internet protocol resulted networking model became known informally tcp/ip although formally variously referred department defense dod model arpanet model eventually also internet protocol suite 2004 vint cerf bob kahn received turing award foundational work tcp/ip transmission control protocol provides communication service intermediate level application program internet protocol provides host-to-host connectivity transport layer internet model application need know particular mechanisms sending data via link another host required ip fragmentation accommodate maximum transmission unit transmission medium transport layer tcp handles handshaking transmission details presents abstraction network connection application typically network socket interface lower levels protocol stack due network congestion traffic load balancing unpredictable network behaviour ip packets may lost duplicated delivered order tcp detects problems requests re-transmission lost data rearranges out-of-order data even helps minimize network congestion reduce occurrence problems data still remains undelivered source notified failure tcp receiver reassembled sequence octets originally transmitted passes receiving application thus tcp abstracts application communication underlying networking details tcp used extensively many internet applications including world wide web www email file transfer protocol secure shell peer-to-peer file sharing streaming media tcp optimized accurate delivery rather timely delivery incur relatively long delays order seconds waiting out-of-order messages re-transmissions lost messages therefore particularly suitable real-time applications voice ip applications protocols like real-time transport protocol rtp operating user datagram protocol udp usually recommended instead tcp reliable stream delivery service guarantees bytes received identical order sent since packet transfer many networks reliable tcp achieves using technique known positive acknowledgement re-transmission requires receiver respond acknowledgement message receives data sender keeps record packet sends maintains timer packet sent sender re-transmits packet timer expires receiving acknowledgement timer needed case packet gets lost corrupted ip handles actual delivery data tcp keeps track segments individual units data transmission message divided efficient routing network example html file sent web server tcp software layer server divides file segments forwards individually internet layer network stack internet layer software encapsulates tcp segment ip packet adding header includes among data destination ip address client program destination computer receives tcp software transport layer re-assembles segments ensures correctly ordered error-free streams file contents receiving application transmission control protocol accepts data data stream divides chunks adds tcp header creating tcp segment tcp segment encapsulated internet protocol ip datagram exchanged peers term tcp packet appears informal formal usage whereas precise terminology segment refers tcp protocol data unit pdu datagram ip pdu frame data link layer pdu processes transmit data calling tcp passing buffers data arguments tcp packages data buffers segments calls internet module e.g ip transmit segment destination tcp tcp segment consists segment header data section tcp header contains 10 mandatory fields optional extension field options pink background table data section follows header contents payload data carried application length data section specified tcp segment header calculated subtracting combined length tcp header encapsulating ip header total ip datagram length specified ip header tcp protocol operations may divided three phases connections must properly established multi-step handshake process connection establishment entering data transfer phase data transmission completed connection termination closes established virtual circuits releases allocated resources tcp connection managed operating system resource represents local end-point communications internet socket lifetime tcp connection local end-point undergoes series state changes establish connection tcp uses three-way handshake client attempts connect server server must first bind listen port open connections called passive open passive open established client may initiate active open establish connection three-way 3-step handshake occurs point client server received acknowledgment connection steps 1 2 establish connection parameter sequence number one direction acknowledged steps 2 3 establish connection parameter sequence number direction acknowledged full-duplex communication established connection termination phase uses four-way handshake side connection terminating independently endpoint wishes stop half connection transmits fin packet end acknowledges ack therefore typical tear-down requires pair fin ack segments tcp endpoint side sent first fin responded final ack waits timeout finally closing connection time local port unavailable new connections prevents confusion due delayed packets delivered subsequent connections connection half-open case one side terminated end side terminated longer send data connection side terminating side continue reading data side terminates well also possible terminate connection 3-way handshake host sends fin host b replies fin ack merely combines 2 steps one host replies ack host tcp stacks may implement half-duplex close sequence linux hp-ux host actively closes connection still read incoming data stack already received link host sends rst instead fin section 4.2.2.13 rfc 1122 allows tcp application sure remote application read data former sent—waiting fin remote side actively closes connection remote tcp stack distinguish connection aborting rst data loss rst cause remote stack lose data received application protocols using tcp open/close handshaking application protocol open/close handshaking may find rst problem active close example program flow like tcp/ip stack like described guarantee data arrives application unread data arrived end implementations allocate entry table maps session running operating system process tcp packets include session identifier endpoints identify session using client address port whenever packet received tcp implementation must perform lookup table find destination process entry table known transmission control block tcb contains information endpoints ip port status connection running data packets exchanged buffers sending receiving data number sessions server side limited memory grow new connections arrive client must allocate random port sending first syn server port remains allocated whole conversation effectively limits number outgoing connections client ip addresses application fails properly close unrequired connections client run resources become unable establish new tcp connections even applications endpoints must also allocate space unacknowledged packets received unread data key features set tcp apart user datagram protocol tcp uses sequence number identify byte data sequence number identifies order bytes sent computer data reconstructed order regardless packet reordering packet loss may occur transmission sequence number first byte chosen transmitter first packet flagged syn number arbitrary fact unpredictable defend tcp sequence prediction attacks acknowledgements acks sent sequence number receiver data tell sender data received specified byte acks imply data delivered application merely signify receiver responsibility deliver data reliability achieved sender detecting lost data retransmitting tcp uses two primary techniques identify loss retransmission timeout abbreviated rto duplicate cumulative acknowledgements dupacks single packet say packet 100 stream lost receiver acknowledge packets 100 uses cumulative acks hence receiver acknowledges packet 99 receipt another data packet duplicate acknowledgement used signal packet loss sender receives three duplicate acknowledgements retransmits last unacknowledged packet threshold three used network may reorder packets causing duplicate acknowledgements threshold demonstrated avoid spurious retransmissions due reordering sometimes selective acknowledgements sacks used give explicit feedback packets received greatly improves tcp ability retransmit right packets whenever packet sent sender sets timer conservative estimate packet acked sender receive ack transmits packet timer reset every time sender receives acknowledgement means retransmit timer fires sender received acknowledgement long time typically timer value set formula_1 formula_2 clock granularity case retransmit timer fired still acknowledgement received next timer set twice previous value certain threshold among things helps defend man-in-the-middle denial service attack tries fool sender making many retransmissions receiver overwhelmed sender infers data lost network using one two techniques described retransmits data sequence numbers allow receivers discard duplicate packets properly sequence reordered packets acknowledgments allow senders determine retransmit lost packets assure correctness checksum field included see checksum computation section details checksumming tcp checksum weak check modern standards data link layers high bit error rates may require additional link error correction/detection capabilities weak checksum partially compensated common use crc better integrity check layer 2 tcp ip used ppp ethernet frame however mean 16-bit tcp checksum redundant remarkably introduction errors packets crc-protected hops common end-to-end 16-bit tcp checksum catches simple errors end-to-end principle work tcp uses end-to-end flow control protocol avoid sender send data fast tcp receiver receive process reliably mechanism flow control essential environment machines diverse network speeds communicate example pc sends data smartphone slowly processing received data smartphone must regulate data flow overwhelmed tcp uses sliding window flow control protocol tcp segment receiver specifies receive window field amount additionally received data bytes willing buffer connection sending host send amount data must wait acknowledgement window update receiving host receiver advertises window size 0 sender stops sending data starts persist timer persist timer used protect tcp deadlock situation could arise subsequent window size update receiver lost sender send data receiving new window size update receiver persist timer expires tcp sender attempts recovery sending small packet receiver responds sending another acknowledgement containing new window size receiver processing incoming data small increments may repeatedly advertise small receive window referred silly window syndrome since inefficient send bytes data tcp segment given relatively large overhead tcp header final main aspect tcp congestion control tcp uses number mechanisms achieve high performance avoid congestion collapse network performance fall several orders magnitude mechanisms control rate data entering network keeping data flow rate would trigger collapse also yield approximately max-min fair allocation flows acknowledgments data sent lack acknowledgments used senders infer network conditions tcp sender receiver coupled timers tcp senders receivers alter behavior flow data generally referred congestion control and/or network congestion avoidance modern implementations tcp contain four intertwined algorithms slow-start congestion avoidance fast retransmit fast recovery rfc 5681 addition senders employ retransmission timeout rto based estimated round-trip time rtt sender receiver well variance round trip time behavior timer specified rfc 6298 subtleties estimation rtt example senders must careful calculating rtt samples retransmitted packets typically use karn algorithm tcp timestamps see rfc 1323 individual rtt samples averaged time create smoothed round trip time srtt using jacobson algorithm srtt value finally used round-trip time estimate enhancing tcp reliably handle loss minimize errors manage congestion go fast high-speed environments ongoing areas research standards development result number tcp congestion avoidance algorithm variations maximum segment size mss largest amount data specified bytes tcp willing receive single segment best performance mss set small enough avoid ip fragmentation lead packet loss excessive retransmissions try accomplish typically mss announced side using mss option tcp connection established case derived maximum transmission unit mtu size data link layer networks sender receiver directly attached furthermore tcp senders use path mtu discovery infer minimum mtu along network path sender receiver use dynamically adjust mss avoid ip fragmentation within network mss announcement also often called mss negotiation strictly speaking mss negotiated originator receiver would imply originator receiver negotiate agree upon single unified mss applies communication directions connection fact two completely independent values mss permitted two directions data flow tcp connection situation may arise example one devices participating connection extremely limited amount memory reserved perhaps even smaller overall discovered path mtu processing incoming tcp segments relying purely cumulative acknowledgment scheme employed original tcp protocol lead inefficiencies packets lost example suppose bytes sequence number 1,000 10,999 sent 10 different tcp segments equal size second segment sequence numbers 2,000 2,999 lost transmission pure cumulative acknowledgment protocol receiver send cumulative ack value 2,000 sequence number immediately following last sequence number received data say received bytes 3,000 10,999 successfully thus sender may resend data starting sequence number 2,000 alleviate issue tcp employs selective acknowledgment sack option defined 1996 rfc 2018 allows receiver acknowledge discontinuous blocks packets received correctly addition sequence number immediately following last sequence number last contiguous byte received successively basic tcp acknowledgment acknowledgement specify number sack blocks sack block conveyed left edge block first sequence number block right edge block sequence number immediately following last sequence number block block contiguous range receiver correctly received example receiver would send ack segment cumulative ack value 2,000 sack option header sequence numbers 3,000 11,000 sender would accordingly retransmit second segment sequence numbers 2,000 2,999 tcp sender interpret out-of-order segment delivery lost segment tcp sender retransmit segment previous out-of-order packet slow data delivery rate connection duplicate-sack option extension sack option defined may 2000 rfc 2883 solves problem tcp receiver sends d-ack indicate segments lost tcp sender reinstate higher transmission-rate sack option mandatory comes operation parties support negotiated connection established sack uses tcp header option see tcp segment structure details use sack become widespread—all popular tcp stacks support selective acknowledgment also used stream control transmission protocol sctp efficient use high-bandwidth networks larger tcp window size may used tcp window size field controls flow data value limited 2 65,535 bytes since size field expanded scaling factor used tcp window scale option defined rfc 1323 option used increase maximum window size 65,535 bytes 1 gigabyte scaling larger window sizes part necessary tcp tuning window scale option used tcp 3-way handshake window scale value represents number bits left-shift 16-bit window size field window scale value set 0 shift 14 direction independently sides must send option syn segments enable window scaling either direction routers packet firewalls rewrite window scaling factor transmission causes sending receiving sides assume different tcp window sizes result non-stable traffic may slow problem visible sites behind defective router tcp timestamps defined rfc 1323 1992 help tcp determine order packets sent tcp timestamps normally aligned system clock start random value many operating systems increment timestamp every elapsed millisecond however rfc states ticks proportional two timestamp fields tcp timestamps used algorithm known protection wrapped sequence numbers paws see rfc 1323 details paws used receive window crosses sequence number wraparound boundary case packet potentially retransmitted answers question sequence number first 4 gb second timestamp used break tie also eifel detection algorithm rfc 3522 uses tcp timestamps determine retransmissions occurring packets lost simply order recent statistics show level timestamp adoption stagnated ~40 owing windows server dropping support since windows server 2008 tcp timestamps enabled default linux kernel. disabled default windows server 2008 2012 2016 possible interrupt abort queued stream instead waiting stream finish done specifying data urgent tells receiving program process immediately along rest urgent data finished tcp informs application resumes back stream queue example tcp used remote login session user send keyboard sequence interrupts aborts program end signals often needed program remote machine fails operate correctly signals must sent without waiting program finish current transfer tcp out-of-band data designed modern internet urgent pointer alters processing remote host n't expedite processing network gets remote host two slightly different interpretations protocol means single bytes oob data reliable assuming reliable one least commonly used protocol elements tends poorly implemented normally tcp waits 200 ms full packet data send nagle algorithm tries group small messages single packet wait creates small potentially serious delays repeated constantly file transfer example typical send block would 4 kb typical mss 1460 2 packets go 10 mbit/s ethernet taking ~1.2 ms followed third carrying remaining 1176 197 ms pause tcp waiting full buffer case telnet user keystroke echoed back server user see screen delay would become annoying setting socket option codice_1 overrides default 200 ms send delay application programs use socket option force output sent writing character line characters rfc defines codice_2 push bit message receiving tcp stack send data immediately receiving application way indicate control user space using berkeley sockets controlled protocol stack tcp may attacked variety ways results thorough security assessment tcp along possible mitigations identified issues published 2009 currently pursued within ietf using spoofed ip address repeatedly sending purposely assembled syn packets followed many ack packets attackers cause server consume large amounts resources keeping track bogus connections known syn flood attack proposed solutions problem include syn cookies cryptographic puzzles though syn cookies come set vulnerabilities sockstress similar attack might mitigated system resource management advanced dos attack involving exploitation tcp persist timer analyzed phrack 66 push ack floods variants attacker able eavesdrop tcp session redirect packets hijack tcp connection attacker learns sequence number ongoing communication forges false segment looks like next segment stream simple hijack result one packet erroneously accepted one end receiving host acknowledges extra segment side connection synchronization lost hijacking might combined address resolution protocol arp routing attacks allow taking control packet flow get permanent control hijacked tcp connection impersonating different ip address difficult prior rfc 1948 initial sequence number easily guessable allowed attacker blindly send sequence packets receiver would believe come different ip address without need deploy arp routing attacks enough ensure legitimate host impersonated ip address bring condition using denial-of-service attacks initial sequence number chosen random attacker eavesdrop predict size next packet sent cause receiver accept malicious payload without disrupting existing connection attacker injects malicious packet sequence number payload size next expected packet legitimate packet ultimately received found sequence number length packet already received silently dropped normal duplicate packet—the legitimate packet vetoed malicious packet unlike connection hijacking connection never desynchronized communication continues normal malicious payload accepted tcp veto gives attacker less control communication makes attack particularly resistant detection large increase network traffic ack storm avoided evidence receiver something amiss single duplicate packet normal occurrence ip network sender vetoed packet never sees evidence attack another vulnerability tcp reset attack tcp udp use port numbers identify sending receiving application end-points host often called internet sockets side tcp connection associated 16-bit unsigned port number 0-65535 reserved sending receiving application arriving tcp packets identified belonging specific tcp connection sockets combination source host address source port destination host address destination port means server computer provide several clients several services simultaneously long client takes care initiating simultaneous connections one destination port different source ports port numbers categorized three basic categories well-known registered dynamic/private well-known ports assigned internet assigned numbers authority iana typically used system-level root processes well-known applications running servers passively listening connections typically use ports examples include ftp 20 21 ssh 22 telnet 23 smtp 25 http ssl/tls 443 http 80 registered ports typically used end user applications ephemeral source ports contacting servers also identify named services registered third party dynamic/private ports also used end user applications less commonly dynamic/private ports contain meaning outside particular tcp connection network address translation nat typically uses dynamic port numbers internet-facing public side disambiguate flow traffic passing public network private subnetwork thereby allowing many ip addresses ports subnet serviced single public-facing address tcp complex protocol however significant enhancements made proposed years basic operation changed significantly since first specification rfc 675 1974 v4 specification rfc 793 published september 1981 rfc 1122 host requirements internet hosts clarified number tcp protocol implementation requirements list 8 required specifications 20 strongly encouraged enhancements available rfc 7414 among list rfc 2581 tcp congestion control one important tcp-related rfcs recent years describes updated algorithms avoid undue congestion 2001 rfc 3168 written describe explicit congestion notification ecn congestion avoidance signaling mechanism original tcp congestion avoidance algorithm known tcp tahoe many alternative algorithms since proposed including tcp reno tcp vegas fast tcp tcp new reno tcp hybla tcp interactive itcp research effort tcp extensions allows applications subscribe tcp events register handler components launch applications various purposes including application-assisted congestion control multipath tcp mptcp ongoing effort within ietf aims allowing tcp connection use multiple paths maximize resource usage increase redundancy redundancy offered multipath tcp context wireless networks enables simultaneous utilization different networks brings higher throughput better handover capabilities multipath tcp also brings performance benefits datacenter environments reference implementation multipath tcp developed linux kernel multipath tcp used support siri voice recognition application iphones ipads macs tcp cookie transactions tcpct extension proposed december 2009 secure servers denial-of-service attacks unlike syn cookies tcpct conflict tcp extensions window scaling tcpct designed due necessities dnssec servers handle large numbers short-lived tcp connections tcpcrypt extension proposed july 2010 provide transport-level encryption directly tcp designed work transparently require configuration unlike tls ssl tcpcrypt provide authentication provides simple primitives application first tcpcrypt ietf draft published implementations exist several major platforms tcp fast open extension speed opening successive tcp connections two endpoints works skipping three-way handshake using cryptographic cookie similar earlier proposal called t/tcp widely adopted due security issues tcp fast open published rfc 7413 2014 proposed may 2013 proportional rate reduction prr tcp extension developed google engineers prr ensures tcp window size recovery close slow-start threshold possible algorithm designed improve speed recovery default congestion control algorithm linux 3.2+ kernels tcp originally designed wired networks packet loss considered result network congestion congestion window size reduced dramatically precaution however wireless links known experience sporadic usually temporary losses due fading shadowing hand interference radio effects strictly congestion erroneous back-off congestion window size due wireless packet loss may congestion avoidance phase conservative decrease window size causes radio link underutilized extensive research combating harmful effects conducted suggested solutions categorized end-to-end solutions require modifications client server link layer solutions radio link protocol rlp cellular networks proxy-based solutions require changes network without modifying end nodes number alternative congestion control algorithms vegas westwood veno santa cruz proposed help solve wireless problem one way overcome processing power requirements tcp build hardware implementations widely known tcp offload engines toe main problem toes hard integrate computing systems requiring extensive changes operating system computer device one company develop device alacritech packet sniffer intercepts tcp traffic network link useful debugging networks network stacks applications use tcp showing user packets passing link networking stacks support so_debug socket option enabled socket using setsockopt option dumps packets tcp states events socket helpful debugging netstat another utility used debugging many applications tcp appropriate one problem least normal implementations application access packets coming lost packet retransmitted copy lost packet received causes problems real-time applications streaming media real-time multiplayer games voice ip voip generally useful get data timely fashion get data order historical performance reasons storage area networks sans use fibre channel protocol fcp fibre channel connections also embedded systems network booting servers serve simple requests huge numbers clients e.g dns servers complexity tcp problem finally tricks transmitting data two hosts behind nat using stun similar systems far simpler without relatively complex protocol like tcp way generally tcp unsuitable user datagram protocol udp used provides application multiplexing checksums tcp handle streams retransmission giving application developer ability code way suitable situation replace methods like forward error correction interpolation stream control transmission protocol sctp another protocol provides reliable stream oriented services similar tcp newer considerably complex tcp yet seen widespread deployment however especially designed used situations reliability near-real-time considerations important venturi transport protocol vtp patented proprietary protocol designed replace tcp transparently overcome perceived inefficiencies related wireless data transport tcp also issues high-bandwidth environments tcp congestion avoidance algorithm works well ad-hoc environments data sender known advance environment predictable timing based protocol asynchronous transfer mode atm avoid tcp retransmits overhead udp-based data transfer protocol udt better efficiency fairness tcp networks high bandwidth-delay product multipurpose transaction protocol mtp/ip patented proprietary software designed adaptively achieve high throughput transaction performance wide variety network conditions particularly tcp perceived inefficient tcp runs ipv4 method used compute checksum defined rfc 793 checksum field 16 bit one complement one complement sum 16-bit words header text segment contains odd number header text octets checksummed last octet padded right zeros form 16-bit word checksum purposes pad transmitted part segment computing checksum checksum field replaced zeros words appropriate padding 16-bit words added using one complement arithmetic sum bitwise complemented inserted checksum field pseudo-header mimics ipv4 packet header used checksum computation shown table source destination addresses ipv4 header protocol value 6 tcp cf list ip protocol numbers tcp length field length tcp header data measured octets tcp runs ipv6 method used compute checksum changed per rfc 2460 pseudo-header mimics ipv6 header computation checksum shown many tcp/ip software stack implementations provide options use hardware assistance automatically compute checksum network adapter prior transmission onto network upon reception network validation may relieve os using precious cpu cycles calculating checksum hence overall network performance increased feature may cause packet analyzers unaware uncertain use checksum offload report invalid checksums outbound packets yet reached network adapter occur packets intercepted transmitted network adapter packets transmitted network adaptor wire valid checksums issue also occur monitoring packets transmitted virtual machines host virtual device driver may omit checksum calculation optimization knowing checksum calculated later vm host kernel physical hardware 1-hop neighbor's text information: arbor_networks.arbor networks arbor networks software company founded 2000 based burlington massachusetts united states sells network security network monitoring software used – according company claims – 90 internet service providers company products used protect networks denial-of-service attacks botnets computer worms efforts disable network routers company founded 2000 co-founders farnam jahanian rob malan spun research university michigan sponsored darpa cisco intel joined students jonathan arnold matthew smart jonathan poland entrepreneurs ted julian dug song make founding team company raised 11 million round venture capital later august 2002 company raised another 22 million second round venture capital led thomas weisel venture partners participants included battery ventures cisco systems among others january 2008 arbor acquired ellacoya networks company provides broadband traffic shaping products acquisition expected increase total addressable market tam arbor 750 million 2008 1.5 billion end 2009 march 2009 arbor worked 100 isps create new network monitoring system called atlas 2.0 october 2009 company estimated google paid almost nothing youtube bandwidth noting google probably used dark fibre instead run website august 31 2010 tektronix communications announced completed acquisition arbor networks upon completion acquisition arbor networks joins danaher corporation portfolio communications enterprise companies includes tektronix communications september 3 2013 arbor networks announced acquired privately held packetloop leader security analytics based sydney australia arbor strategic partnerships cisco ibm juniper networks addition headquarters burlington massachusetts company also offices ann arbor michigan london singapore wired stated due popularity arbor software among isps company likely knows internet ebbs flows anyone outside national security agency arbor part netscout systems part acquisition fluke tektronix communications tekcomms vss 2015 danaher 1-hop neighbor's text information: user_datagram_protocol.user datagram protocol computer networking user datagram protocol udp one core members internet protocol suite protocol designed david p. reed 1980 formally defined udp computer applications send messages case referred datagrams hosts internet protocol ip network prior communications required order set communication channels data paths udp uses simple connectionless communication model minimum protocol mechanisms udp provides checksums data integrity port numbers addressing different functions source destination datagram handshaking dialogues thus exposes user program unreliability underlying network guarantee delivery ordering duplicate protection error-correction facilities needed network interface level application may use transmission control protocol tcp stream control transmission protocol sctp designed purpose udp suitable purposes error checking correction either necessary performed application udp avoids overhead processing protocol stack time-sensitive applications often use udp dropping packets preferable waiting packets delayed due retransmission may option real-time system udp simple message-oriented transport layer protocol documented although udp provides integrity verification via checksum header payload provides guarantees upper layer protocol message delivery udp layer retains state udp messages sent reason udp sometimes referred unreliable datagram protocol transmission reliability desired must implemented user application number udp attributes make especially suited certain applications applications use datagram sockets establish host-to-host communications application binds socket endpoint data transmission combination ip address port way udp provides application multiplexing port software structure identified port number 16 bit integer value allowing port numbers 0 65535 port 0 reserved permissible source port value sending process expect messages response internet assigned numbers authority iana divided port numbers three ranges port numbers 0 1023 used common well-known services unix-like operating systems using one ports requires superuser operating permission port numbers 1024 49151 registered ports used iana-registered services ports 49152 65535 dynamic ports officially designated specific service may used purpose may also used ephemeral ports software running host may use dynamically create communications endpoints needed udp header consists 4 fields 2 bytes 16 bits use checksum source port fields optional ipv4 pink background table ipv6 source port field optional method used compute checksum defined words 16-bit words summed using one complement arithmetic add 16-bit values addition carry-out 17th bit produced swing 17th carry bit around add least significant bit running total finally sum one complemented yield value udp checksum field checksum calculation results value zero 16 bits 0 sent one complement 1s zero-value checksum indicates checksum calculated difference ipv4 ipv6 pseudo header used compute checksum checksum optional ipv6 udp runs ipv4 checksum computed using pseudo header contains information real ipv4 header pseudo header real ipv4 header used send ip packet used checksum calculation source destination addresses ipv4 header protocol udp see list ip protocol numbers 17 0x11 udp length field length udp header data field data stands transmitted data udp checksum computation optional ipv4 checksum used set value zero udp runs ipv6 checksum mandatory method used compute changed documented computing checksum pseudo header used mimics real ipv6 header source address one ipv6 header destination address final destination ipv6 packet contain routing header destination address ipv6 header otherwise originating node address last element routing header receiving node destination address ipv6 header value next header field protocol value udp 17 udp length field length udp header data lacking reliability udp applications must generally willing accept loss errors duplication applications tftp may add rudimentary reliability mechanisms application layer needed often udp applications employ reliability mechanisms may even hindered streaming media real-time multiplayer games voice ip voip examples applications often use udp particular applications loss packets usually fatal problem application requires high degree reliability protocol transmission control protocol may used instead voip example latency jitter primary concerns use tcp would cause jitter packets lost tcp provide subsequent data application requesting re-sending missing data using udp end user applications must provide necessary handshaking real time confirmation message received numerous key internet applications use udp including domain name system dns queries must fast consist single request followed single reply packet simple network management protocol snmp routing information protocol rip dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp voice video traffic generally transmitted using udp real-time video audio streaming protocols designed handle occasional lost packets slight degradation quality occurs rather large delays lost packets retransmitted tcp udp run network many businesses finding recent increase udp traffic real-time applications hindering performance applications using tcp point sale accounting database systems tcp detects packet loss throttle back data rate usage since real-time business applications important businesses developing quality service solutions seen crucial vpn systems openvpn may use udp implementing reliable connections error checking application level transmission control protocol connection-oriented protocol means requires handshaking set end-to-end communications connection set user data may sent bi-directionally connection user datagram protocol simpler message-based connectionless protocol connectionless protocols set dedicated end-to-end connection communication achieved transmitting information one direction source destination without verifying readiness state receiver Target text information: bashlite.bashlite bashlite also known gafgyt lizkebab qbot torlus lizardstresser malware infects linux systems order launch distributed denial-of-service attacks ddos originally also known name bashdoor term refers exploit method used malware used launch attacks 400 gbps original version 2014 exploited flaw bash shell shellshock software bug exploit devices running busybox months later variant detected could also infect vulnerable devices local network 2015 source code leaked causing proliferation different variants 2016 reported one million devices infected identifiable devices participating botnets august 2016 almost 96 percent iot devices 95 percent cameras dvrs roughly 4 percent home routers less 1 percent compromised linux servers bashlite written c designed easily cross-compile various computer architectures exact capabilities differ variants common features generate several different types ddos attacks hold open tcp connections send random string junk characters tcp udp port repeatedly send tcp packets specified flags may also mechanism run arbitrary shell commands infected machine facilities reflected amplification attacks bashlite uses client–server model command control protocol used communication essentially lightweight version internet relay chat irc even though supports multiple command control servers variants single command control ip-address hardcoded propagates via brute forcing using built-in dictionary common usernames passwords malware connects random ip addresses attempts login successful logins reported back command control server I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,581	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: read-copy-update.read-copy-update computer science read-copy-update rcu synchronization mechanism based mutual exclusion used performance reads crucial example space–time tradeoff enabling fast operations cost space read-copy-update allows multiple threads efficiently read shared memory deferring updates pre-existing reads later time simultaneously marking data ensuring new readers read updated data makes readers proceed synchronization involved hence fast also making updates difficult key property rcu readers access data structure even process updated rcu updaters block readers force retry accesses overview starts showing data safely inserted deleted linked structures despite concurrent readers first diagram right depicts four-state insertion procedure time advancing left right first state shows global pointer named initially colored red indicate might accessed reader time thus requiring updaters take care allocating memory new structure transitions second state structure indeterminate state indicated question marks inaccessible readers indicated green color structure inaccessible readers updater may carry desired operation without fear disrupting concurrent readers initializing new structure transitions third state shows initialized values structure fields assigning reference new structure transitions fourth final state state structure accessible readers therefore colored red primitive used carry assignment ensures assignment atomic sense concurrent readers either see pointer valid pointer new structure mash-up two values additional properties described later article procedure demonstrates new data may inserted linked data structure even though readers concurrently traversing data structure insertion second diagram right depicts four-state deletion procedure time advancing left right first state shows linked list containing elements three elements colored red indicate rcu reader might reference time using remove element list transitions second state note link element b c left intact order allow readers currently referencing element traverse remainder list readers accessing link element either obtain reference element element either way reader see valid correctly formatted linked list element colored yellow indicate pre-existing readers might still reference element new readers way obtain reference wait-for-readers operation transitions third state note wait-for-readers operation need wait pre-existing readers new readers element colored green indicate readers longer referencing therefore safe updater free element thus transitioning fourth final state important reiterate second state different readers see two different versions list either without element words rcu provides coordination space different versions list well time different states deletion procedures stark contrast traditional synchronization primitives locking transactions coordinate time space procedure demonstrates old data may removed linked data structure even though readers concurrently traversing data structure deletion given insertion deletion wide variety data structures implemented using rcu rcu readers execute within read-side critical sections normally delimited statement within rcu read-side critical section said quiescent state statements permitted hold references rcu-protected data structures wait-for-readers operation required wait threads quiescent states time period thread resides least quiescent state called grace period definition rcu read-side critical section existence beginning given grace period must complete end grace period constitutes fundamental guarantee provided rcu addition wait-for-readers operation must wait least one grace period elapse turns guarantee provided extremely small read-side overheads fact limiting case actually realized server-class linux-kernel builds read-side overhead exactly zero rcu fundamental guarantee may used splitting updates removal reclamation phases removal phase removes references data items within data structure possibly replacing references new versions data items run concurrently rcu read-side critical sections reason safe run removal phase concurrently rcu readers semantics modern cpus guarantee readers see either old new version data structure rather partially updated reference grace period elapsed longer readers referencing old version safe reclamation phase free reclaim data items made old version splitting update removal reclamation phases allows updater perform removal phase immediately defer reclamation phase readers active removal phase completed words grace period elapsed typical rcu update sequence goes something like following procedure matches earlier diagram updater performing removal reclamation step often helpful entirely different thread reclamation reference counting used let reader perform removal even thread performs update step step 2 reclamation step step 4 often helpful think separately early 2008 almost 2,000 uses rcu api within linux kernel including networking protocol stacks memory-management system 9,000 uses since 2006 researchers applied rcu similar techniques number problems including management metadata used dynamic analysis managing lifetime clustered objects managing object lifetime k42 research operating system optimizing software transactional memory implementations dragonfly bsd uses technique similar rcu closely resembles linux sleepable rcu srcu implementation ability wait readers done allows rcu readers use much lighter-weight synchronization—in cases absolutely synchronization contrast conventional lock-based schemes readers must use heavy-weight synchronization order prevent updater deleting data structure reason lock-based updaters typically update data place must therefore exclude readers contrast rcu-based updaters typically take advantage fact writes single aligned pointers atomic modern cpus allowing atomic insertion removal replacement data linked structure without disrupting readers concurrent rcu readers continue accessing old versions dispense atomic read-modify-write instructions memory barriers cache misses expensive modern smp computer systems even absence lock contention lightweight nature rcu read-side primitives provides additional advantages beyond excellent performance scalability real-time response example provide immunity deadlock livelock conditions course rcu also disadvantages example rcu specialized technique works best situations mostly reads updates often less applicable update-only workloads another example although fact rcu readers updaters may execute concurrently enables lightweight nature rcu read-side primitives algorithms may amenable read/update concurrency despite well decade experience rcu exact extent applicability still research topic technique covered u.s. software patent 5,442,758 issued august 15 1995 assigned sequent computer systems well 5,608,893 expired 2009-03-30 5,727,209 expired 2010-04-05 6,219,690 expired 2009-05-18 6,886,162 expired 2009-05-25 now-expired us patent 4,809,168 covers closely related technique rcu also topic one claim sco v. ibm lawsuit rcu available number operating systems added linux kernel october 2002 user-level implementations liburcu also available implementation rcu version 2.6 linux kernel among better-known rcu implementations used inspiration rcu api remainder article core api application programming interface quite small diagram right shows api communicates among reader updater reclaimer rcu infrastructure observes time sequence codice_9 codice_10 codice_1 codice_4 invocations order determine 1 codice_1 invocations may return callers 2 codice_4 callbacks may invoked efficient implementations rcu infrastructure make heavy use batching order amortize overhead many uses corresponding apis rcu extremely simple toy implementations aid understanding rcu section presents one toy implementation works non-preemptive environment void call_rcu void callback void void arg void synchronize_rcu void code sample codice_7 codice_5 ignored without missing much however needed order suppress harmful compiler optimization prevent cpus reordering accesses smp_wmb /* order previous writes */ typeof p _value access_once p note codice_9 codice_10 nothing great strength classic rcu non-preemptive kernel read-side overhead precisely zero codice_19 empty macro dec alpha cpus memory barriers needed modern cpus codice_20 macro volatile cast generates additional code cases way codice_9 participate deadlock cycle cause realtime process miss scheduling deadline precipitate priority inversion result high lock contention however toy rcu implementation blocking within rcu read-side critical section illegal blocking holding pure spinlock implementation codice_1 moves caller synchronize_cpu cpu thus blocking cpus able perform context switch recall non-preemptive environment blocking within rcu read-side critical section illegal imply preemption points within rcu read-side critical section therefore given cpu executes context switch schedule another process know cpu must completed preceding rcu read-side critical sections cpus executed context switch preceding rcu read-side critical sections completed although rcu used many different ways common use rcu analogous reader-writer locking following side-by-side code display shows closely related reader-writer locking rcu differences two approaches quite small read-side locking moves codice_9 codice_10 update-side locking moves reader-writer lock simple spinlock codice_1 precedes codice_26 however one potential catch read-side update-side critical sections run concurrently many cases problem necessary check carefully regardless example multiple independent list updates must seen single atomic update converting rcu require special care also presence codice_1 means rcu version codice_28 block problem codice_4 could used like codice_30 place codice_1 especially useful combination reference counting name comes way rcu used update linked structure place thread wishing uses following steps thread made copy awakened kernel safely deallocate old structure structure read concurrently thread copying order update hence name read-copy update abbreviation rcu one many contributions linux community names similar techniques include passive serialization mp defer vm/xa programmers generations k42 tornado programmers techniques mechanisms resembling rcu independently invented multiple times bauer r.t. june 2009 operational verification relativistic program psu tech report tr-09-04 http //www.pdx.edu/sites/www.pdx.edu.computer-science/files/tr0904.pdf 1-hop neighbor's text information: slurm_workload_manager.slurm workload manager slurm workload manager formerly known simple linux utility resource management slurm slurm free open-source job scheduler linux unix-like kernels used many world supercomputers computer clusters provides three key functions slurm workload manager 60 top500 supercomputers slurm uses best fit algorithm based hilbert curve scheduling fat tree network topology order optimize locality task assignments parallel computers slurm began development collaborative effort primarily lawrence livermore national laboratory schedmd linux networx hewlett-packard groupe bull free software resource manager inspired closed source quadrics rms shares similar syntax name reference soda futurama 100 people around world contributed project since evolved sophisticated batch scheduler capable satisfying requirements many large computer centers top500 list powerful computers world indicates slurm workload manager six top ten systems including sunway taihulight 10,649,600 computing cores slurm design modular 100 optional plugins simplest configuration installed configured couple minutes sophisticated configurations provide database integration accounting management resource limits workload prioritization notable slurm features include following following features announced version 14.11 slurm released november 2014 slurm primarily developed work alongside linux distributions although also support posix-based operating systems including bsds freebsd netbsd openbsd slurm also supports several unique computer architectures including slurm available gnu general public license v2 2010 developers slurm founded schedmd maintains canonical source provides development level 3 commercial support training services commercial support also available bright computing bull cray science computing following list useful commands available slurm built ccr allow easier reporting users usage information commands use example use linux command information commands example italicized font commands indicates user supplied information brackets indicate optional flags Target text information: enterprise_volume_management_system.enterprise volume management system enterprise volume management system evms flexible integrated volume management software used manage storage systems linux features include evms licensed gnu general public license version 2 later evms supported linux distributions among others 2008 suse debian gentoo lvm evms competing inclusion mainline kernel evms features better userland tools internals lvm attractive kernel developers end lvm battle inclusion response evms team decided concentrate porting evms userland tools work lvm kernelspace sometime release version 2.5.5 february 26 2006 ibm discontinued development project releases 2008 novell announced company would moving evms lvm future editions suse products continuing fully support customers using evms I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	1,291	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: xml.xml extensible markup language xml markup language defines set rules encoding documents format human-readable machine-readable w3c xml 1.0 specification several related specifications—all free open standards—define xml design goals xml emphasize simplicity generality usability across internet textual data format strong support via unicode different human languages although design xml focuses documents language widely used representation arbitrary data structures used web services several schema systems exist aid definition xml-based languages programmers developed many application programming interfaces apis aid processing xml data essence extensible markup languages necessary explained markup language example see markup language § xml standard generalized markup language hundreds document formats using xml syntax developed including rss atom soap svg xhtml xml-based formats become default many office-productivity tools including microsoft office office open xml openoffice.org libreoffice opendocument apple iwork xml also provided base language communication protocols xmpp applications microsoft .net framework use xml files configuration property lists implementation configuration storage built xml many industry data standards e.g hl7 ota fpml mismo niem etc based xml rich features xml schema specification many standards quite complex uncommon specification comprise several thousand pages publishing dita xml industry data standard xml used extensively underpin various publishing formats xml widely used services oriented architecture soa disparate systems communicate exchanging xml messages message exchange format standardised xml schema xsd also referred canonical schema xml come common use interchange data internet ietf superseded gave rules construction internet media types use sending xml also defines media types codice_1 codice_2 say data xml nothing semantics rfc 7303 also recommends xml-based languages given media types ending codice_3 example codice_4 svg guidelines use xml networked context appear rfc 3470 also known ietf bcp 70 document covering many aspects designing deploying xml-based language material section based xml specification exhaustive list constructs appear xml provides introduction key constructs often encountered day-to-day use xml documents consist entirely characters unicode repertoire except small number specifically excluded control characters character defined unicode may appear within content xml document xml includes facilities identifying encoding unicode characters make document expressing characters one reason another used directly unicode code points following ranges valid xml 1.0 documents xml 1.1 extends set allowed characters include plus remaining characters range u+0001–u+001f time however restricts use c0 c1 control characters u+0009 horizontal tab u+000a line feed u+000d carriage return u+0085 next line requiring written escaped form example u+0001 must written codice_22 equivalent case c1 characters restriction backwards incompatibility introduced allow common encoding errors detected code point u+0000 null character permitted xml 1.0 1.1 document unicode character set encoded bytes storage transmission variety different ways called encodings unicode defines encodings cover entire repertoire well-known ones include utf-8 utf-16 many text encodings predate unicode ascii iso/iec 8859 character repertoires almost every case subsets unicode character set xml allows use unicode-defined encodings encodings whose characters also appear unicode xml also provides mechanism whereby xml processor reliably without prior knowledge determine encoding used encodings utf-8 utf-16 necessarily recognized every xml parser xml provides escape facilities including characters problematic include directly example five predefined entities permitted unicode characters may represented numeric character reference consider chinese character 中 whose numeric code unicode hexadecimal 4e2d decimal 20,013 user whose keyboard offers method entering character could still insert xml document encoded either codice_32 codice_33 similarly string 3 jörg could encoded inclusion xml document codice_34 codice_35 permitted however null character one control characters excluded xml even using numeric character reference alternative encoding mechanism base64 needed represent characters comments may appear anywhere document outside markup comments appear xml declaration comments begin codice_36 end codice_37 compatibility sgml string -- double-hyphen allowed inside comments means comments nested ampersand special significance within comments entity character references recognized way represent characters outside character set document encoding example valid comment codice_38 xml 1.0 fifth edition xml 1.1 support direct use almost unicode character element names attributes comments character data processing instructions ones special symbolic meaning xml less-than sign following well-formed xml document including chinese armenian cyrillic characters xml specification defines xml document well-formed text meaning satisfies list syntax rules provided specification key points fairly lengthy list include definition xml document excludes texts contain violations well-formedness rules simply xml xml processor encounters violation required report errors cease normal processing policy occasionally referred draconian error handling stands notable contrast behavior programs process html designed produce reasonable result even presence severe markup errors xml policy area criticized violation postel law conservative send liberal accept xml specification defines valid xml document well-formed xml document also conforms rules document type definition dtd addition well-formed xml document may valid means contains reference document type definition dtd elements attributes declared dtd follow grammatical rules dtd specifies xml processors classified validating non-validating depending whether check xml documents validity processor discovers validity error must able report may continue normal processing dtd example schema grammar since initial publication xml 1.0 substantial work area schema languages xml schema languages typically constrain set elements may used document attributes may applied order may appear allowable parent/child relationships oldest schema language xml document type definition dtd inherited sgml dtds following benefits dtds following limitations two peculiar features distinguish dtds schema types syntactic support embedding dtd within xml documents defining entities arbitrary fragments text and/or markup xml processor inserts dtd xml document wherever referenced like character escapes dtd technology still used many applications ubiquity newer schema language described w3c successor dtds xml schema often referred initialism xml schema instances xsd xml schema definition xsds far powerful dtds describing xml languages use rich datatyping system allow detailed constraints xml document logical structure xsds also use xml-based format makes possible use ordinary xml tools help process xs schema element defines schema relax ng regular language xml next generation initially specified oasis standard part 2 regular-grammar-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl relax ng schemas may written either xml based syntax compact non-xml syntax two syntaxes isomorphic james clark conversion tool—trang—can convert without loss information relax ng simpler definition validation framework xml schema making easier use implement also ability use datatype framework plug-ins relax ng schema author example require values xml document conform definitions xml schema datatypes schematron language making assertions presence absence patterns xml document typically uses xpath expressions schematron standard part 3 rule-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl dsdl document schema definition languages multi-part iso/iec standard iso/iec 19757 brings together comprehensive set small schema languages targeted specific problems dsdl includes relax ng full compact syntax schematron assertion language languages defining datatypes character repertoire constraints renaming entity expansion namespace-based routing document fragments different validators dsdl schema languages vendor support xml schemas yet extent grassroots reaction industrial publishers lack utility xml schemas publishing schema languages describe structure particular xml format also offer limited facilities influence processing individual xml files conform format dtds xsds ability instance provide infoset augmentation facility attribute defaults relax ng schematron intentionally provide cluster specifications closely related xml developed starting soon initial publication xml 1.0 frequently case term xml used refer xml together one technologies come seen part xml core specifications conceived part xml core failed find wide adoption including xinclude xlink xpointer design goals xml include shall easy write programs process xml documents despite xml specification contains almost information programmers might go processing xml infoset specification provides vocabulary refer constructs within xml document provide guidance access information variety apis accessing xml developed used standardized existing apis xml processing tend fall categories stream-oriented facilities require less memory certain tasks based linear traversal xml document faster simpler alternatives tree-traversal data-binding apis typically require use much memory often found convenient use programmers include declarative retrieval document components via use xpath expressions xslt designed declarative description xml document transformations widely implemented server-side packages web browsers xquery overlaps xslt functionality designed searching large xml databases simple api xml sax lexical event-driven api document read serially contents reported callbacks various methods handler object user design sax fast efficient implement difficult use extracting information random xml since tends burden application author keeping track part document processed better suited situations certain types information always handled way matter occur document pull parsing treats document series items read sequence using iterator design pattern allows writing recursive descent parsers structure code performing parsing mirrors structure xml parsed intermediate parsed results used accessed local variables within functions performing parsing passed function parameters lower-level functions returned function return values higher-level functions examples pull parsers include data :edit :xml perl stax java programming language xmlpullparser smalltalk xmlreader php elementtree.iterparse python system.xml.xmlreader .net framework dom traversal api nodeiterator treewalker pull parser creates iterator sequentially visits various elements attributes data xml document code uses iterator test current item tell example whether start-tag end-tag text inspect attributes local name namespace values xml attributes value text etc also move iterator next item code thus extract information document traverses recursive-descent approach tends lend keeping data typed local variables code parsing sax instance typically requires parser manually maintain intermediate data within stack elements parent elements element parsed pull-parsing code straightforward understand maintain sax parsing code document object model dom api allows navigation entire document tree node objects representing document contents dom document created parser generated manually users limitations data types dom nodes abstract implementations provide programming language-specific bindings dom implementations tend memory intensive generally require entire document loaded memory constructed tree objects access allowed xml data binding binding xml documents hierarchy custom strongly typed objects contrast generic objects created dom parser approach simplifies code development many cases allows problems identified compile time rather run-time suitable applications document structure known fixed time application written example data binding systems include java architecture xml binding jaxb xml serialization .net framework xml serialization gsoap xml appeared first-class data type languages ecmascript xml e4x extension ecmascript/javascript language explicitly defines two specific objects xml xmllist javascript support xml document nodes xml node lists distinct objects use dot-notation specifying parent-child relationships e4x supported mozilla 2.5+ browsers though deprecated adobe actionscript adopted universally similar notations used microsoft linq implementation microsoft .net 3.5 scala uses java vm open-source xmlsh application provides linux-like shell special features xml manipulation similarly treats xml data type using notation resource description framework defines data type codice_42 hold wrapped canonical xml facebook produced extensions php javascript languages add xml core syntax similar fashion e4x namely xhp jsx respectively xml application profile sgml iso 8879 versatility sgml dynamic information display understood early digital media publishers late 1980s prior rise internet mid-1990s practitioners sgml gained experience then-new world wide web believed sgml offered solutions problems web likely face grew dan connolly added sgml list w3c activities joined staff 1995 work began mid-1996 sun microsystems engineer jon bosak developed charter recruited collaborators bosak well connected small community people experience sgml web xml compiled working group eleven members supported roughly 150-member interest group technical debate took place interest group mailing list issues resolved consensus failed majority vote working group record design decisions rationales compiled michael sperberg-mcqueen december 4 1997 james clark served technical lead working group notably contributing empty-element codice_43 syntax name xml names put forward consideration included magma minimal architecture generalized markup applications slim structured language internet markup mgml minimal generalized markup language co-editors specification originally tim bray michael sperberg-mcqueen halfway project bray accepted consulting engagement netscape provoking vociferous protests microsoft bray temporarily asked resign editorship led intense dispute working group eventually solved appointment microsoft jean paoli third co-editor xml working group never met face-to-face design accomplished using combination email weekly teleconferences major design decisions reached short burst intense work august november 1996 first working draft xml specification published design work continued 1997 xml 1.0 became w3c recommendation february 10 1998 xml profile iso standard sgml xml comes sgml unchanged sgml comes separation logical physical structures elements entities availability grammar-based validation dtds separation data metadata elements attributes mixed content separation processing representation processing instructions default angle-bracket syntax removed sgml declaration xml fixed delimiter set adopts unicode document character set sources technology xml tei text encoding initiative defined profile sgml use transfer syntax html elements synchronous resource document character sets separate resource encoding codice_44 attribute invented like http metadata accompanied resource rather needed declaration link ercs extended reference concrete syntax project spread standardization project regarding east asian documents project iso-related china/japan/korea document processing expert group basis xml 1.0 naming rules spread also introduced hexadecimal numeric character references concept references make available unicode characters support ercs xml html better sgml standard 8879 revised 1996 1998 websgml adaptations xml header followed iso hytime ideas developed discussion novel xml included algorithm encoding detection encoding header processing instruction target xml space attribute new close delimiter empty-element tags notion well-formedness opposed validity enables parsing without schema first formalized xml although implemented successfully electronic book technology dynatext software software university waterloo new oxford english dictionary project risp lisp sgml text processor uniscope tokyo us army missile command iads hypertext system mentor graphics context interleaf xerox publishing system two current versions xml first xml 1.0 initially defined 1998 undergone minor revisions since without given new version number currently fifth edition published november 26 2008 widely implemented still recommended general use second xml 1.1 initially published february 4 2004 day xml 1.0 third edition currently second edition published august 16 2006 contains features contentious intended make xml easier use certain cases main changes enable use line-ending characters used ebcdic platforms use scripts characters absent unicode 3.2 xml 1.1 widely implemented recommended use need particular features prior fifth edition release xml 1.0 differed xml 1.1 stricter requirements characters available use element attribute names unique identifiers first four editions xml 1.0 characters exclusively enumerated using specific version unicode standard unicode 2.0 unicode 3.2 fifth edition substitutes mechanism xml 1.1 future-proof reduces redundancy approach taken fifth edition xml 1.0 editions xml 1.1 certain characters forbidden names everything else allowed accommodate suitable name characters future unicode versions fifth edition xml names may contain characters balinese cham phoenician scripts among many others added unicode since unicode 3.2 almost unicode code point used character data attribute values xml 1.0 1.1 document even character corresponding code point defined current version unicode character data attribute values xml 1.1 allows use control characters xml 1.0 robustness control characters introduced xml 1.1 must expressed numeric character references x7f x9f allowed xml 1.0 xml 1.1 even required expressed numeric character references among supported control characters xml 1.1 two line break codes must treated whitespace whitespace characters control codes written directly discussion xml 2.0 although organization announced plans work project xml-sw sw skunkworks written one original developers xml contains proposals xml 2.0 might look like elimination dtds syntax integration namespaces xml base xml information set base standard world wide web consortium also xml binary characterization working group preliminary research use cases properties binary encoding xml information set working group chartered produce official standards since xml definition text-based itu-t iso using name fast infoset binary infoset avoid confusion see itu-t rec x.891 iso/iec 24824-1 xml extensions regularly criticized verbosity complexity redundancy mapping basic tree model xml type systems programming languages databases difficult especially xml used exchanging highly structured data applications primary design goal however xml data binding systems allow applications access xml data directly objects representing data structure data programming language used ensures type safety rather using dom sax retrieve data direct representation xml accomplished automatically creating mapping elements xml schema xsd document members class represented memory criticisms attempt refute claim xml self-describing language though xml specification makes claim json yaml s-expressions frequently proposed simpler alternatives see comparison data serialization formats focus representing highly structured data rather documents may contain highly structured relatively unstructured content however w3c standardized xml schema specifications offer broader range structured xsd data types compared simpler serialization formats offer modularity reuse xml namespace 1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett-packard.hewlett-packard hewlett-packard company commonly referred hp stylized hp hewlett-packard american multinational information technology company headquartered palo alto california developed provided wide variety hardware components well software related services consumers small- medium-sized businesses smbs large enterprises including customers government health education sectors company founded one-car garage palo alto bill hewlett david packard initially produced line electronic test equipment hp world leading pc manufacturer 2007 q2 2013 time lenovo ranked ahead hp hp specialized developing manufacturing computing data storage networking hardware designing software delivering services major product lines included personal computing devices enterprise industry standard servers related storage devices networking products software diverse range printers imaging products hp directly marketed products households small- medium-sized businesses enterprises well via online distribution consumer-electronics office-supply retailers software partners major technology vendors hp also services consulting business around products partner products hewlett-packard company events included spin-off electronic bio-analytical measurement instruments part business agilent technologies 1999 merger compaq 2002 acquisition eds 2008 led combined revenues 118.4 billion 2008 fortune 500 ranking 9 2009 november 2009 hp announced acquisition 3com deal closing april 12 2010 april 28 2010 hp announced buyout palm inc. 1.2 billion september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hewlett-packard spun enterprise products services business hewlett packard enterprise november 1 2015 hewlett-packard held onto pc printer businesses renamed hp inc. bill hewlett david packard graduated degrees electrical engineering stanford university 1935 company originated garage nearby palo alto fellowship past professor frederick terman stanford great depression considered terman mentor forming hewlett-packard 1938 packard hewlett began part-time work rented garage initial capital investment us 538 1939 hewlett packard decided formalize partnership tossed coin decide whether company founded would called hewlett-packard hp packard-hewlett hp incorporated august 18 1947 went public november 6 1957 many projects worked first financially successful product precision audio oscillator model hp200a innovation use small incandescent light bulb known pilot light temperature dependent resistor critical portion circuit negative feedback loop stabilized amplitude output sinusoidal waveform allowed sell model 200a 89.40 competitors selling less stable oscillators 200 model 200 series generators continued production least 1972 200ab still tube-based improved design years one company earliest customers walt disney productions bought eight model 200b oscillators 71.50 use certifying fantasound surround sound systems installed theaters movie fantasia worked counter-radar technology artillery shell fuses world war ii allowed packard hewlett exempt draft hp recognized symbolic founder silicon valley although actively investigate semiconductor devices years traitorous eight abandoned william shockley create fairchild semiconductor 1957 hewlett-packard hp associates division established around 1960 developed semiconductor devices primarily internal use hp associates co-founded another former bell labs researcher mosfet mos transistor inventor mohamed atalla served director semiconductor research instruments calculators products using semiconductor devices hp associates 1960s hp partnered sony yokogawa electric companies japan develop several high-quality products products huge success high costs building hp-looking products japan hp yokogawa formed joint venture yokogawa-hewlett-packard 1963 market hp products japan hp bought yokogawa electric share hewlett-packard japan 1999 hp spun small company dynac specialize digital equipment name picked hp logo hp could turned upside reverse reflect image logo dy new company eventually dynac changed dymec folded back hp 1959 hp experimented using digital equipment corporation dec minicomputers instruments deciding would easier build another small design team deal dec hp entered computer market 1966 hp 2100 hp 1000 series minicomputers simple accumulator-based design two accumulator registers hp 1000 models two index registers series produced 20 years spite several attempts replace forerunner hp 9800 hp 250 series desktop business computers hp 3000 advanced stack-based design business computing server later redesigned risc technology hp 2640 series smart intelligent terminals introduced forms-based interfaces ascii terminals also introduced screen labeled function keys commonly used gas pumps bank atms hp 2640 series included one first bit mapped graphics displays combined hp 2100 21mx f-series microcoded scientific instruction set enabled first commercial wysiwyg presentation program bruno later became program hp-draw hp 3000 although scoffed formative days computing hp would eventually surpass even ibm world largest technology vendor terms sales although programma 101 first commercial desktop computer hp identified wired magazine producer world first device called personal computer hewlett-packard 9100a introduced 1968 programma 101 called computer personale italian fiera di milano 1966 hp called desktop calculator bill hewlett said called computer would rejected customers computer gurus n't look like ibm therefore decided call calculator nonsense disappeared engineering triumph time logic circuit produced without integrated circuits assembly cpu entirely executed discrete components crt display magnetic-card storage printer price around 5,000 machine keyboard cross scientific calculator adding machine alphabetic keyboard steve wozniak co-founder apple originally designed apple computer working hp offered right first refusal work take company wanted stay scientific business industrial markets wozniak said hp turned 5 times loyalty hp made hesitant start apple steve jobs company earned global respect variety products introduced world first handheld scientific electronic calculator 1972 hp-35 first handheld programmable 1974 hp-65 first alphanumeric programmable expandable 1979 hp-41c first symbolic graphing calculator hp-28c like scientific business calculators oscilloscopes logic analyzers measurement instruments reputation sturdiness usability latter products part spin-off agilent product line later spun agilent keysight technologies company design philosophy period summarized design guy next bench 98x5 series technical desktop computers started 1975 9815 cheaper 80 series technical computers started 1979 85 machines used version basic programming language available immediately switched used proprietary magnetic tape storage hp computers similar capabilities much later ibm personal computer although limitations available technology forced prices high 1984 hp introduced inkjet laser printers desktop along scanner product line later developed successful multifunction products significant single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines print mechanisms hp tremendously popular laserjet line laser printers depend almost entirely canon inc. components print engines turn use technology developed xerox hp develops hardware firmware software convert data dots printing march 3 1986 hp registered hp.com domain name making ninth internet .com domain ever registered 1987 palo alto garage hewlett packard started business designated california state historical landmark 1990s hp expanded computer product line initially targeted university research business users reach consumers hp also grew acquisitions bought apollo computer 1989 convex computer 1995 later decade hp opened hpshopping.com independent subsidiary sell online direct consumers 2005 store renamed hp home home office store 1995 1998 hewlett-packard sponsors english football team tottenham hotspur 1999 businesses related computers storage imaging spun hp form agilent technologies agilent spin-off largest initial public offering history silicon valley spin-off created 8 billion company 30,000 employees manufacturing scientific instruments semiconductors optical networking devices electronic test equipment telecom wireless r production july 1999 hp appointed carly fiorina formerly lucent first female ceo fortune-20 company dow jones industrial average fiorina received larger signing offer predecessors fiorina served ceo technology downturn early 2000s led merger compaq disastrous according cnn led firing 30,000 u.s. employees leadership company doubled size tenure ceo beset damaging leaks hp board directors asked fiorina step 2005 following boardroom disagreement resigned february 9 2005 1997 hp sold 120 million worth printers computer products iran european subsidiary dubai-based east distributor despite u.s. export sanctions prohibiting deals imposed bill clinton executive orders issued 1995 story initially reported boston globe triggered inquiry sec hp responded products worth 120 million sold fiscal year 2008 distribution way redington gulf company based netherlands sales took place foreign subsidiary hp violated sanctions hp named redington gulf wholesaler year 2003 turn published press release stating seeds redington-hewlett-packard relationship sowed six years ago one market — iran time redington gulf three employees whose sole purpose sell hp products iran market according former officials worked sanctions hp using loophole routing sales foreign subsidiary hp ended relationship redington gulf sec inquiry september 3 2001 hp announced agreement reached compaq merge two companies may 2002 passing shareholder vote hp officially merged compaq prior plans place consolidate companies product teams product lines compaq already taken digital equipment corporation 1998 hp therefore still offers support former digital equipment products pdp-11 vax alphaserver merger occurred proxy fight bill hewlett son walter objected merger compaq bought tandem computers 1997 started ex-hp employees digital equipment corporation 1998 following strategy hp became major player desktops laptops servers many different markets merger compaq new ticker symbol became hpq combination two previous symbols hwp cpq show significance alliance also key letters two companies hewlett-packard compaq latter company famous q logo products 2004 hp released dv 1000 series including hp pavilion dv 1658 1040 two years later may 2006 hp began campaign computer personal campaign designed bring back fact pc personal product campaign utilized viral marketing sophisticated visuals website www.hp.com/personal ads featured pharrell petra nemcova mark burnett mark cuban alicia keys jay-z gwen stefani shaun white january 2005 following years performance included hp compaq merger fell short disappointing earning reports board asked fiorina resign chair chief executive officer company following news fiorina departure hp stock jumped 6.9 percent robert wayman chief financial officer hp served interim ceo board undertook formal search replacement mark hurd ncr corporation hired take ceo president effective 1 april 2005 hurd board top choice given revival ncr took place leadership 2006 hp unveiled several new products including desktops enhanced notebooks workstation software manage openview client configuration manager 2.0 year hp share price skyrocketed due consistent results last couple quarters year hurd plan cutback hp workforce lower costs july 2007 hp signed definitive agreement acquire opsware cash tender deal values company 14.25 per share combined opsware software oracle enterprise management software first years hurd new role hp stock price doubled end fiscal 2007 hp hit 100 billion mark first time company annual revenue reached 104 billion allowing hp overtake competitor ibm may 13 2008 hp electronic data systems eds announced signed definitive agreement hp would purchase eds june 30 hp announced waiting period hart-scott-rodino antitrust improvements act 1976 expired transaction still requires eds stockholder approval regulatory clearance european commission non-u.s. jurisdictions subject satisfaction waiver closing conditions specified merger agreement agreement finalized august 26 2008 13 billion publicly announced eds would re-branded eds hp company first targeted layoff 24,600 former eds workers announced september 15 2008 company 2008 annual report gave number 24,700 completed end 2009 round factored purchase price 19.5 billion liability goodwill september 23 2009 eds known hp enterprise services november 11 2009 3com hewlett-packard announced hewlett-packard would acquiring 3com 2.7 billion cash acquisition one biggest size among series takeovers acquisitions technology giants push way become one-stop shops since beginning financial crisis 2007 tech giants constantly felt pressure expand beyond current market niches dell purchased perot systems recently invade technology consulting business area previously dominated ibm hewlett-packard latest move marked incursion enterprise networking gear market dominated cisco april 28 2010 palm inc. hewlett-packard announced hp would buy palm 1.2 billion cash debt announcement rumored either htc dell research motion hp would buy palm adding palm handsets hp product line created overlap ipaq series mobile devices thought significantly improve hp mobile presence ipaqdevices selling well buying palm gave hp library valuable patents well mobile operating platform known webos july 1 2010 acquisition palm final purchase palm webos began big gamble – build hp ecosystem july 1 2011 hp launched first tablet named hp touchpad bringing webos tablet devices september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hp acquisition palm phased compaq brand august 6 2010 ceo mark hurd resigned amid controversy cfo cathie lesjak assumed role interim ceo hurd turned hp around widely regarded one silicon valley star ceos leadership hp became largest computer company world measured total revenue accused sexual harassment colleague allegations deemed baseless investigation led questions concerning 1000 20000 private expenses lack disclosure related friendship observers argued hurd innocent board asked resignation avoid negative pr public analysis divided saw commendable tough action hp handling expenses irregularities saw ill-advised hasty expensive reaction ousting remarkably capable leader turned business around hp hurd oversaw series acquisitions worth 20 billion allowed company expand services networking equipment smartphones shares hp dropped 8.4 after-hours trading hitting 52-week low 9 billion market capitalization shaved larry ellison publicly attacked hp board ousting stating hp board made worst personnel decision since idiots apple board fired steve jobs many years ago september 30 2010 léo apotheker named hp new ceo president apotheker appointment sparked strong reaction oracle chief executive larry ellison complained apotheker charge sap one subsidiaries systematically stealing software oracle sap accepted subsidiary closed illegally accessed oracle intellectual property following hurd departure hp seen market problematic margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy broadly aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector august 18 2011 hp announced would strategically exit smartphone tablet computer business focusing higher-margin strategic priorities cloud solutions software emphasis enterprise commercial government markets also contemplated selling personal computer division spinning separate company quitting 'pc business continuing sell servers equipment business customers strategy already undertaken ibm 2005 hp stock continued drop 40 including 25 one day august 19 2011 company abruptly announced number decisions discontinue webos device business mobile phones tablet computers intent sell personal computer division time hp largest personal computer manufacturer world acquire british big data software firm autonomy 79 premium seen externally absurdly high price business known concerns accounts media analysts described hp actions botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings ultimately cost apotheker job autonomy acquisition objected even hp cfo september 22 2011 hp board directors fired apotheker chief executive effective immediately replaced fellow board member former ebay chief meg whitman raymond j lane executive chairman though apotheker served barely ten months received 13 million compensation hp lost 30 billion market capitalization tenure weeks later hp announced review concluded pc division integrated critical business operations company reaffirmed commitment personal systems group year later november 2012 wrote-down almost 9 billion related autonomy acquisition see takeover autonomy became subject intense litigation hp accused autonomy previous management fraudulently exaggerating autonomy financial position called law enforcement regulators countries autonomy previous management accused hp textbook obfuscation finger pointing protect hp executives criticism conceal hp culpability prior knowledge autonomy financial position gross mismanagement autonomy acquisition march 21 2012 hp said printing pc divisions would become one unit headed todd bradley pc division printing chief vyomesh joshi leaving company may 23 2012 hp announced plans lay approximately 27,000 employees posting profit decline 31 second quarter 2012 profit decline account growing popularity smart phones tablets mobile devices slowed sale personal computers may 30 2012 hp unveiled first net zero energy data center hp data center plans use solar energy renewable sources instead traditional power grids july 10 2012 hp server monitoring software discovered previously unknown security vulnerability security warning given customers two vulnerabilities patch released one month later hp official site training center hacked defaced pakistani hacker known 'hitcher demonstrate web vulnerability september 10 2012 hp revised restructuring figures cutting 29,000 jobs hp already cut 3,800 jobs – around 7 percent revised 29,000 figure – july 2012 december 31 2013 hp revised number jobs cut 29,000 34,000 october 2014 current number jobs cut end 2013 24,600 end 2013 company 317,500 employees may 22 2014 hp announced would cut 11,000 16,000 jobs addition 34,000 announced 2013 gradually shaping hp nimble lower-cost customer partner-centric company successfully compete across rapidly changing landscape ceo meg whitman said time june 2014 hp discover customer event las vegas meg whitman martin fink announced project radically new computer architecture called machine based memristors silicon photonics machine supposed come commercialization end decade meanwhile representing 75 research activity hp labs october 6 2014 hewlett-packard announced planning split two separate companies separating personal computer printer businesses technology services split first reported wall street journal confirmed media would result two publicly traded companies hewlett packard enterprise hp inc. meg whitman would serve chairman hp inc. ceo hewlett packard enterprise patricia russo would chairman enterprise business dion weisler would ceo hp inc. october 29 2014 hewlett-packard announced new sprout personal computer may 2015 company announced would selling controlling 51 percent stake chinese data-networking business tsinghua unigroup fee least 2.4 billion november 1 2015 previously announced hewlett-packard changed name hp inc. spun hewlett packard enterprise new publicly traded company hp inc. retains hewlett-packard stock price history stock ticker symbol hewlett packard enterprise trades symbol hp global operations directed headquarters palo alto california usa u.s. operations directed facility unincorporated harris county texas near houston latin america offices unincorporated miami-dade county florida u.s. near miami europe offices meyrin switzerland near geneva also research center paris-saclay cluster 20 km south paris france asia-pacific offices singapore also large operations leixlip ireland austin texas boise idaho corvallis oregon fort collins colorado roseville california saint petersburg florida san diego california tulsa oklahoma vancouver washington conway arkansas plano texas former headquarters eds hp acquired uk hp based large site bracknell berkshire offices various uk locations including landmark office tower london 88 wood street recent acquisition 3com expand employee base marlborough massachusetts company also large workforce numerous offices bucharest romania bangalore india address back end operations mphasis headquartered bangalore also enabled hp increase footprint city subsidiary eds company acquired hp produces lines printers scanners digital cameras calculators pdas servers workstation computers computers home small-business use many computers came 2002 merger compaq hp promotes supplying hardware software also full range services design implement support infrastructure hp imaging printing group ipg described company 2005 leading imaging printing systems provider world printer hardware printing supplies scanning devices providing solutions across customer segments individual consumers small medium businesses large enterprises products technology associated ipg include december 23 2008 hp released iprint photo iphone free downloadable software application allows printing 4 x 6 photos hp personal systems group psg claims one leading vendors personal computers pcs world based unit volume shipped annual revenue psg deals hp resold apple ipod november 2005 hp enterprise business eb incorporates hp technology services enterprise services amalgamation former eds known hp services hp enterprise security services oversees professional services network security information security information assurance/ compliancy hp software division enterprise servers storage networking group essn enterprise servers storage networking group essn oversees back end products like storage servers hp networking former procurve responsible nw family products business unit essn hp software division company enterprise software unit years hp produced marketed brand enterprise-management software hp openview september 2005 hp purchased several software companies part publicized deliberate strategy augment software offerings large business customers hp software sells several categories software including hp software also provides software service saas cloud computing solutions software services including consulting education professional services support hp office strategy technology four main functions office strategy technology comes hp labs research arm hp founded 1966 hp labs aims deliver new technologies create business opportunities go beyond hp current strategies examples recent hp labs technology includes memory spot chip 2006 hp idealab provides web forum early-state innovations encourage open feedback consumers development community hp also offers managed services provide complete it-support solutions companies organizations examples include founders developed management style came known hp way hewlett words hp way core ideology ... includes deep respect individual dedication affordable quality reliability commitment community responsibility view company exists make technical contributions advancement welfare humanity following tenets hp way july 2007 company announced met target set 2004 recycle one billion pounds electronics toner ink cartridges set new goal recycling two billion pounds hardware end 2010 2006 company recovered 187 million pounds electronics 73 percent closest competitor 2008 hp released supply chain emissions data — industry first september 2009 newsweek ranked hp 1 2009 green rankings america 500 largest corporations according environmentalleader.com hewlett-packard earned number one position due greenhouse gas ghg emission reduction programs first major company report ghg emissions associated supply chain according ranking addition hp made effort remove toxic substances products though greenpeace targeted company better hp took top spot corporate responsibility magazine 100 best corporate citizens list 2010 list cited pr week one america important business rankings hp beat russell 1000 index companies leadership seven categories including environment climate changes corporate philanthropy 2009 hp ranked fifth fortune magazine named hp one world admired companies 2010 placing 2 computer industry 32 overall list top 50 year computer industry hp ranked 1 social responsibility long-term investment global competitiveness use corporate assets may 2011 hp released global responsibility report covering accomplishments 2010 report company tenth provides comprehensive view hp global citizenship programs performance goals describes hp uses technology influence expertise make positive impact world company 2009 report best corporate responsibility report year 2009 reports claims hp decreased total energy use 9 percent compared 2008 hp recovered total 118,000 tonnes electronic products supplies recycling 2009 including 61 million print cartridges april 2010 san francisco chronicle article hp one 12 companies commended designing products safe start following principles green chemistry commendations came environment california environmental advocacy group praised select companies golden state bay area efforts keep planet clean green may 2010 hp named one world ethical companies ethisphere institute second year row hp made list ethisphere reviewed researched analyzed thousands nominations 100 countries 35 industries create 2010 list hp one 100 companies earn distinction top winner computer hardware vendor recognized ethisphere honors firms promote ethical business standards practices going beyond legal minimums introducing innovative ideas benefit public hp listed greenpeace guide greener electronics ranks electronics manufacturers according policies sustainability energy climate green products november 2011 hp secured 1st place 15 ranking climbing 3 places increased score 5.9 5.5 scored points new sustainable operations criteria best program measuring reducing emissions greenhouse gases suppliers scoring maximum points thorough paper procurement policy november 2012 report hp ranked second score 5.7 hp especially well disclosure externally verified greenhouse gas emissions setting targets reducing however greenpeace reports hp risks penalty point future editions due fact member trade associations commented energy efficiency standards hp earned recognition work area data privacy security 2010 company ranked 4 ponemon institute annual study trusted companies privacy since 2006 hp worked directly u.s. congress federal trade commission ftc department commerce establish new strategy federal legislation hp played key role work toward december 2010 ftc report protecting consumer privacy era rapid change winning nine straight annual respected company china awards economic observer peking university hp china added 10 year contribution award list accolades award aims identify companies business china outstanding sustained performance business operations development corporate social responsibility 2012 rankings consumer electronics companies progress relating conflict minerals enough project rated hp second 24 companies calling pioneer progress according businessweek study hp world 11th valuable brand 2009 hp many sponsorships one well known sponsorship epcot walt disney world resort 1995 1999 2013 hp shirt sponsor premier league club tottenham hotspur f.c 1997 1999 sponsors australian football league club north melbourne football club also sponsored bmw williams formula 1 team 2005 sponsorship formerly held compaq 2010 sponsor renault f1 hewlett-packard also naming rights arrangement hp pavilion san jose home san jose sharks nhl hockey team 2013 arena naming rights acquired sap ag renaming arena sap center san jose company also maintains number corporate sponsorships business sector including sponsorships trade organisations including fespa print trade exhibitions o'reilly media velocity web development conference acquisition compaq 2002 hp maintained compaq presario brand low-end home desktops laptops hp compaq brand business desktops laptops hp proliant brand intel-architecture servers hp pavilion brand used home entertainment laptops home desktops tandem nonstop servers branded hp integrity nonstop march 2003 hp restated first-quarter cash flow operations reducing 18 percent accounting error actual cash flow operations 647 million 791 million reported earlier hp shifted 144 million net cash used investing activities september 5 2006 shawn cabalfin david o'neil newsweek wrote hp general counsel behest chairwoman patricia dunn contracted team independent security experts investigate board members several journalists order identify source information leak turn security experts recruited private investigators used spying technique known pretexting pretexting involved investigators impersonating hp board members nine journalists including reporters cnet new york times wall street journal order obtain phone records information leaked related hp long-term strategy published part cnet article january 2006 hp employees accused criminal acts since acquitted november 2007 hewlett-packard released bios update covering wide range laptops intent speed computer fan well run constantly whether computer reason prevent overheating defective nvidia graphics processing units gpus shipped many original equipment manufacturers including hewlett-packard dell apple defect concerned new packaging material used nvidia 2007 onwards joining graphics chip onto motherboard perform well thermal cycling prone develop stress cracks – effectively severing connection gpu motherboard leading blank screen july 2008 hp issued extension initial one-year warranty replace motherboards selected models however option extended models defective nvidia chipsets despite research showing computers also affected fault furthermore replacement motherboard temporary fix since fault inherent units affected models point manufacture including replacement motherboards offered hp free 'repair since point several websites documenting issue notably www.hplies.com forum dedicated refer hewlett-packard multi-million dollar cover issue www.nvidiadefect.com details specifics fault offers advice owners affected computers several small-claims lawsuits filed several states well suits filed countries hewlett-packard also faced class-action lawsuit 2009 i7 processor computers complainants stated systems locked within 30 minutes powering consistently even replaced newer i7 systems lockups continued june 15 2011 hp filed lawsuit california superior court santa clara claiming oracle corporation breached agreement support itanium microprocessor used hp high-end enterprise servers june 15 2011 hp sent formal legal demand letter oracle attempt force world 3 software maker reverse decision discontinue software development intel itanium microprocessor build servers hp lawsuit 2012 requiring oracle continue produce software compatible itanium processor hp awarded 3 billion damages oracle june 30 2016 hp argued oracle canceling support damaged hp itanium server brand oracle announced appeal decision damages november 2012 hp recorded writedown around 8.8 billion related acquisition year earlier uk based autonomy corporation plc hp accused autonomy deliberately inflating value company prior takeover former management team autonomy flatly rejected charge autonomy specialized analysis large scale unstructured big data 2010 uk largest successful software business maintained aggressively entrepreneurial marketing approach controls described rod iron said include zero tolerance firing weakest 5 sales force quarter compensating best sales staff like rock stars time hp fired previous ceo expenses irregularities year appointed léo apotheker ceo president hp seen problematic market margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector part strategy autonomy acquired hp october 2011 hp paid 10.3 billion 87.3 shares valuing autonomy around 11.7 billion £7.4 billion overall premium around 79 market price deal widely criticized absurdly high botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings objected even hp cfo within year apotheker fired major culture clashes became apparent hp written 8.8 billion autonomy value hp claim resulted accounting improprieties misrepresentations disclosure failures previous management turn accuse hp textbook example defensive stalling conceal evidence prior knowledge gross mismanagement undermining company noting public awareness since 2009 financial reporting issues even hp cfo disagreed price paid external observers generally state small part write-off appears due accounting mis-statements hp overpaid businesses previously serious fraud office united kingdom u.s. securities exchange commission joined fbi investigating potential anomalies hp incurred much damage stock falling decades low three lawsuits brought shareholders hp fall value hp shares august 2014 united states district court judge threw proposed settlement autonomy previous management argued would collusive intended divert scrutiny hp responsibility knowledge essentially engaging plaintiff attorneys existing cases redirecting previous autonomy vendors management fee 48 million plaintiffs agreeing end claims hp management similarly redirect claims previous autonomy vendors management january 2015 sfo closed investigation likelihood successful prosecution low dispute still litigated us investigated uk ireland financial reporting council june 9 2015 hp agreed pay 100 million investors bought hp shares august 19 2011 november 20 2012 settle suite autonomy purchase october 25 2012 richard falk human rights council special rapporteur situation human rights palestinian territories occupied since 1967 called boycotting hp together businesses profiting israeli settlements occupied palestinian lands brought operations line international human rights humanitarian law 2014 presbyterian church voted move forward divestment hp protest israeli policies toward palestinians 2015 city portland human rights commission requested place caterpillar g4s hewlett-packard motorola solutions city buy list april 9 2014 administrative proceeding securities exchange commission settled hp consenting order acknowledging hp violated foreign corrupt practices act fcpa hp subsidiaries russia poland mexico made improper payments government officials obtain retain lucrative public contracts sec order finds hp subsidiary russia paid 2 million agents various shell companies russian government official retain multimillion-dollar contract federal prosecutor office poland hp subsidiary provided gifts cash bribes worth 600,000 polish government official obtain contracts national police agency part bid win software sale mexico state-owned petroleum company hp subsidiary mexico paid 1 million inflated commissions consultant close ties company officials money funneled one officials hp agreed pay 108 million settle sec charges parallel criminal case 1-hop neighbor's text information: domain-specific_language.domain-specific language domain-specific language dsl computer language specialized particular application domain contrast general-purpose language gpl broadly applicable across domains wide variety dsls ranging widely used languages common domains html web pages languages used one pieces software mush soft code dsls subdivided kind language include domain-specific markup languages domain-specific modeling languages generally specification languages domain-specific programming languages special-purpose computer languages always existed computer age term domain-specific language become popular due rise domain-specific modeling simpler dsls particularly ones used single application sometimes informally called mini-languages line general-purpose languages domain-specific languages always sharp language may specialized features particular domain applicable broadly conversely may principle capable broad application practice used primarily specific domain example perl originally developed text-processing glue language domain awk shell scripts mostly used general-purpose programming language later contrast postscript turing complete language principle used task practice narrowly used page description language design use appropriate dsls key part domain engineering using language suitable domain hand – may consist using existing dsl gpl developing new dsl language-oriented programming considers creation special-purpose languages expressing problems standard part problem-solving process creating domain-specific language software support rather reusing existing language worthwhile language allows particular type problem solution expressed clearly existing language would allow type problem question reappears sufficiently often pragmatically dsl may specialized particular problem domain particular problem representation technique particular solution technique aspects domain domain-specific language created specifically solve problems particular domain intended able solve problems outside although may technically possible contrast general-purpose languages created solve problems many domains domain also business area examples business areas include domain-specific language somewhere tiny programming language scripting language often used way analogous programming library boundaries concepts quite blurry much like boundary scripting languages general-purpose languages domain-specific languages languages often declared syntaxes grammars specific goals design implementation domain-specific language one visual diagramming language created generic eclipse modeling system programmatic abstractions eclipse modeling framework textual languages instance command line utility grep regular expression syntax matches patterns lines text sed utility defines syntax matching replacing regular expressions often tiny languages used together inside shell perform complex programming tasks line domain-specific languages scripting languages somewhat blurred domain-specific languages often lack low-level functions filesystem access interprocess control functions characterize full-featured programming languages scripting otherwise many domain-specific languages compile byte-code executable code various kinds media objects graphviz exports postscript gif jpeg etc. csound compiles audio files ray-tracing domain-specific language like pov compiles graphics files computer language like sql presents interesting case deemed domain-specific language specific specific domain sql case accessing managing relational databases often called another application sql keywords functions many scripting languages often thought language right perhaps prevalence database manipulation programming amount mastery required expert language blurring line many domain-specific languages exposed apis accessed programming languages without breaking flow execution calling separate process thus operate programming libraries domain-specific languages expand time include full-featured programming tools complicates question whether language domain-specific good example functional language xslt specifically designed transforming one xml graph another extended since inception allow particularly 2.0 version various forms filesystem interaction string date manipulation data typing model-driven engineering many examples domain-specific languages may found like ocl language decorating models assertions qvt domain-specific transformation language however languages like uml typically general-purpose modeling languages summarize analogy might useful little language like knife used thousands different ways cutting food cutting trees domain-specific language like electric drill powerful tool wide variety uses specific context namely putting holes things general purpose language complete workbench variety tools intended performing variety tasks domain-specific languages used programmers looking current workbench realize need better drill find particular domain-specific language provides exactly dsls implemented via independent interpreter compiler known external domain specific languages well known examples include latex awk separate category known embedded internal domain specific languages typically implemented within host language library tend limited syntax host language though depends host language capabilities several usage patterns domain-specific languages many domain-specific languages used one way dsl code embedded host language may special syntax support regexes sed awk perl javascript may passed strings adopting domain-specific language approach software engineering involves risks opportunities well-designed domain-specific language manages find proper balance domain-specific languages important design goals contrast general-purpose languages programming idioms methods imposed programmers handle common development tasks e.g general purpose programming languages rarely support idioms domain-specific languages describe e.g examples domain-specific languages include html logo pencil-like drawing verilog vhdl hardware description languages matlab gnu octave matrix programming mathematica maple maxima symbolic mathematics specification description language reactive distributed systems spreadsheet formulas macros sql relational database queries yacc grammars creating parsers regular expressions specifying lexers generic eclipse modeling system creating diagramming languages csound sound music synthesis input languages graphviz grgen software packages used graph layout graph rewriting gml scripting language used gamemaker studio domain-specific language targeted novice programmers easily able learn programming language serves blend multiple languages including delphi c++ basic lack structures data types features full-fledged programming language many built-in functions sandboxed purpose easy portability language primarily serves make easy anyone pick language develop game unix shell scripts give good example domain-specific language data organization manipulate data files user input many different ways domain abstractions notations include streams stdin stdout operations streams redirection pipe abstractions combine make robust language describe flow organization data language consists simple interface script running controlling processes perform small tasks tasks represent idioms organizing data desired format tables graphs charts etc tasks consist simple control-flow string manipulation mechanisms cover lot common usages like searching replacing string files counting occurrences strings frequency counting even though unix scripting languages turing complete differ general purpose languages practice scripting languages used weave together small unix tools grep ls sort wc coldfusion associated scripting language another example domain-specific language data-driven websites scripting language used weave together languages services java .net c++ sms email email servers http ftp exchange directory services file systems use websites coldfusion markup language cfml includes set tags used coldfusion pages interact data sources manipulate data display output cfml tag syntax similar html element syntax erlang open telecom platform originally designed use inside ericsson domain-specific language language offers platform libraries create finite state machines generic servers event managers quickly allow engineer deploy applications support libraries shown industry benchmarks outperform languages intended mixed set domains c c++ language officially open source downloaded website filtermeister programming environment programming language based c specific purpose creating photoshop-compatible image processing filter plug-ins filtermeister runs photoshop plug-in load execute scripts compile export independent plug-ins although filtermeister language reproduces significant portion c language function library contains features used within context photoshop plug-ins adds number specific features useful specific domain template feature mediawiki embedded domain-specific language whose fundamental purpose support creation inclusion reference mediawiki pages mediawiki pages much interest domain-specific languages improve productivity quality software engineering domain-specific language could possibly provide robust set tools efficient software engineering tools beginning make way development critical software systems software cost reduction toolkit example toolkit suite utilities including specification editor create requirements specification dependency graph browser display variable dependencies consistency checker catch missing cases well-formed formulas specification model checker theorem prover check program properties specification invariant generator automatically constructs invariants based requirements newer development language-oriented programming integrated software engineering methodology based mainly creating optimizing using domain-specific languages complementing language-oriented programming well forms domain-specific languages class compiler writing tools called metacompilers metacompiler useful generating parsers code generators domain-specific languages metacompiler compiles domain-specific metalanguage specifically designed domain metaprogramming besides parsing domain-specific languages metacompilers useful generating wide range software engineering analysis tools meta-compiler methodology often found program transformation systems metacompilers played significant role computer science computer industry include meta-ii descendant treemeta unreal unreal tournament unveiled language called unrealscript allowed rapid development modifications compared competitor quake using id tech 2 engine id tech engine used standard c code meaning c learned properly applied unrealscript optimized ease use efficiency similarly development recent games introduced specific languages one common example lua scripting various business rules engines developed automating policy business rules used government private industry ilog oracle policy automation dtrules drools others provide support dsls aimed support various problem domains dtrules goes far define interface use multiple dsls within rule set purpose business rules engines define representation business logic human-readable fashion possible allows subject matter experts developers work understand representation business logic rules engines provide approach simplifying control structures business logic example using declarative rules decision tables coupled alternatives programming syntax favor dsls statistical modelers developed domain-specific languages bugs jags stan languages provide syntax describing bayesian model generate method solving using simulation generate object handling services based interface description language domain-specific language javascript web applications html documentation c++ high-performance code etc done cross-language frameworks apache thrift google protocol buffers gherkin language designed define test cases check behavior software without specifying behavior implemented meant read used non-technical users using natural language syntax line-oriented design tests defined gherkin must implemented general programming language steps gherkin program acts syntax method invocation accessible non-developers prominent examples domain-specific languages include advantages disadvantages Target text information: open_mashup_alliance.open mashup alliance open mashup alliance oma non-profit consortium promotes adoption mashup solutions enterprise evolution enterprise mashup standards like emml enterprise mashup usage expected grow tenfold next five years initial members oma include large technology companies adobe systems hewlett-packard intel major technology users bank america capgemini according information technology industry analyst dion hinchcliffe ultimately oma creates standardized approach enterprise mashups creates open vibrant market competing runtimes mashups array important aftermarket services development/testing tools management administration appliances governance frameworks education professional services initial focus oma developing emml declarative mashup domain-specific language dsl aimed creating enterprise mashups emml language provides comprehensive set high-level mashup-domain vocabulary consume mash variety web data-sources diverse ways emml provides uniform syntax invoke heterogeneous service styles rest wsdl rss/atom rdbms pojo emml also provides ability mix match diverse data-formats xml json jdbc javaobjects primitive types oma web site provides emml specification emml schema reference runtime implementation capable running emml scripts sample emml mashup scripts technical documentation oma developing emml creative commons attribution derivatives license license means emml users allowed copy distribute emml however emml altered users ownership emml oma must made clear redistribution eventual objective oma submit emml specification oma specifications recognized industry standards body I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	6,585	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: ms-dos.ms-dos ms-dos acronym microsoft disk operating system operating system x86-based personal computers mostly developed microsoft collectively ms-dos rebranding ibm pc dos operating systems attempting compatible ms-dos sometimes referred dos also generic acronym disk operating system ms-dos main operating system ibm pc compatible personal computers 1980s early 1990s gradually superseded operating systems offering graphical user interface gui various generations graphical microsoft windows operating system ibm licensed re-released august 12 1981 pc dos 1.0 use pcs although ms-dos pc dos initially developed parallel microsoft ibm two products diverged twelve years 1993 recognizable differences compatibility syntax capabilities lifetime several competing products released x86 platform ms-dos went eight versions development ceased 2000 initially ms-dos targeted intel 8086 processors running computer hardware using floppy disks store access operating system application software user data well progressive version releases delivered support mass storage media ever greater sizes formats along added feature support newer processors rapidly evolving computer architectures ultimately key product microsoft growth programming language company diverse software development firm providing company essential revenue marketing resources also underlying basic operating system early versions windows ran gui flexible operating system consumes negligible installation space ms-dos renamed form 86-dos owned seattle computer products written tim paterson development 86-dos took six weeks basically clone digital research cp/m 8080/z80 processors ported run 8086 processors two notable differences compared cp/m improved disk sector buffering logic introduction fat12 instead cp/m filesystem first version shipped august 1980 microsoft needed operating system ibm personal computer hired tim paterson may 1981 bought 86-dos 1.10 75,000 july year microsoft kept version number renamed ms-dos also licensed ms-dos 1.10/1.14 ibm august 1981 offered pc dos 1.0 one three operating systems ibm 5150 ibm pc within year microsoft licensed ms-dos 70 companies designed os could run 8086-family computer computer would distinct hardware version ms-dos similar situation existed cp/m ms-dos emulating solution cp/m adapt different hardware platforms end ms-dos designed modular structure internal device drivers minimally primary disk drives console integrated kernel loaded boot loader installable device drivers devices loaded integrated boot time oem would use development kit provided microsoft build version ms-dos basic i/o drivers standard microsoft kernel would typically supply disk end users along hardware thus many different versions ms-dos different hardware major distinction ibm-compatible isa machine ms-dos compatible machine machines like tandy 2000 ms-dos compatible ibm-compatible could run software written exclusively ms-dos without dependence peripheral hardware ibm pc architecture design would worked well compatibility application programs used ms-dos services perform device i/o indeed design philosophy embodied windows nt see hardware abstraction layer however ms-dos early days greater speed attainable programs direct control hardware particular importance especially games often pushed limits contemporary hardware soon ibm-compatible architecture became goal long 8086-family computers closely emulated ibm hardware single version ms-dos fixed hardware platform needed market version version ms-dos discussed dozens oem versions ms-dos relevant systems designed case similar function capability standard version ibm pc—often same-numbered version always since oems used proprietary version numbering schemes e.g labeling later releases ms-dos 1.x 2.0 vice versa —with notable exceptions microsoft omitted multi-user support ms-dos microsoft unix-based operating system xenix fully multi-user company planned time improve ms-dos would almost indistinguishable single-user xenix xedos would also run motorola 68000 zilog z8000 lsi-11 would upwardly compatible xenix byte 1983 described multi-user ms-dos future microsoft advertised ms-dos xenix together listing shared features single-user os multi-user multi-tasking unix-derived operating system promising easy porting breakup bell system however computer systems started selling unix system v. believing could compete unix market microsoft abandoned xenix 1987 transferred ownership xenix santa cruz operation sco march 25 2014 microsoft made code scp ms-dos 1.25 mixture altos ms-dos 2.11 televideo pc dos 2.11 available public microsoft research license agreement makes code source-available open source defined open source initiative free software foundation standards microsoft would later re-license code mit license september 28 2018 making versions free software april fool day joke 2015 microsoft mobile launched windows phone application called ms-dos mobile presented new mobile operating system worked similar ms-dos microsoft licensed released versions ms-dos different names like lifeboat associates software bus 86 a.k.a sb-dos compaq-dos ncr-dos z-dos eventually enforced ms-dos name versions ibm one originally called ibm personal computer dos later shortened ibm pc dos competitors released compatible dos systems dr dos pts-dos could also run dos applications former eastern bloc ms-dos derivatives named dcp 3.20 3.30 existed late 1980s produced east german electronics manufacturer veb robotron following versions ms-dos released public microsoft dos released oem channel digital research released dr dos 5.0 retail upgrade pc dos 5.00.1 ibm-microsoft agreement started end ibm entered retail dos market ibm dos 5.00.1 5.02 6.00 pc dos 6.1 6.3 7 2000 7.1 localized versions ms-dos existed different markets western issues ms-dos evolved around set tools drivers localized message languages differing sets supported codepages keyboard layouts language versions considerably different western issues adapted run localized pc hardware additional bios services available western pcs support multiple hardware codepages displays printers support dbcs alternative input methods graphics output affected issues include japanese dos/v korean arabic ados 3.3/5.0 hebrew hdos 3.3/5.0 russian rdos 4.01/5.0 well eastern european versions dos microcomputers based intel 8086 8088 processors including ibm pc clones initial competition pc dos/ms-dos line came digital research whose cp/m operating system inspired ms-dos fact remains controversy whether qdos less plagiarised early versions cp/m code digital research released cp/m-86 months ms-dos offered alternative ms-dos microsoft licensing requirements higher price executable programs cp/m-86 ms-dos interchangeable many applications sold ms-dos cp/m-86 versions ms-dos became preponderant later digital research operating systems could run ms-dos cp/m-86 software ms-dos originally supported simple .com modelled similar binary incompatible format known cp/m-80 cp/m-86 instead supported relocatable format using file extension .cmd avoid name conflicts cp/m-80 ms-dos .com files ms-dos version 1.0 added advanced relocatable .exe executable file format machines early days ms-dos differing system architectures certain degree incompatibility subsequently vendor lock-in users began using ms-dos machines compelled continue using version customized hardware face trying get proprietary hardware software work new system business world 808x-based machines ms-dos tied faced competition unix operating system ran many different hardware architectures microsoft sold version unix pc called xenix emerging world home users variety computers based various processors serious competition ibm pc apple ii early apple macintosh commodore 64 others use 808x processor many 808x machines different architectures used custom versions ms-dos first machines competition time ibm pc hardware configuration became dominant 808x market software written communicate directly pc hardware without using standard operating system calls ran much faster true pc-compatibles non-pc-compatible 808x machines small market fast software written alone market remained open ibm pcs machines closely imitated architecture running either single version ms-dos compatible pcs equivalent ibm pc dos clones cost much less ibm-branded machines similar performance became widely used home users ibm pcs large share business computer market microsoft ibm together began intended follow-on ms-dos/pc dos called os/2 os/2 released 1987 microsoft began advertising campaign announcing dos dead stating version 4 last full release os/2 designed efficient multi-tasking standard operating systems since 1963 offered number advanced features designed together similar look feel seen legitimate heir kludgy dos platform ms-dos grown spurts many significant features taken duplicated microsoft products operating systems ms-dos also grew incorporating direct licensing feature duplicating functionality tools utilities developed independent companies norton utilities pc tools microsoft anti-virus qemm expanded memory manager stacker disk compression others period digital research competing operating system market computers like amstrad pc1512 sold floppy disks two operating systems one could used time ms-dos cp/m-86 derivative digital research produced dos plus compatible ms-dos 2.11 supported cp/m-86 programs additional features including multi-tasking could read write disks cp/m ms-dos format os/2 protracted development digital research released ms-dos compatible dr dos 5.0 included features available third-party add-ons ms-dos unwilling lose portion market microsoft responded announcing pending release ms-dos 5.0 may 1990 effectively killed dr dos sales actual release ms-dos 5.0 june 1991 digital research brought dr dos 6.0 sold well pre-announcement ms-dos 6.0 stifled sales dr dos microsoft accused carefully orchestrating leaks future versions ms-dos attempt create industry called fud fear uncertainty doubt regarding dr dos example october 1990 shortly release dr dos 5.0 long eventual june 1991 release ms-dos 5.0 stories feature enhancements ms-dos started appear infoworld pc week brad silverberg vice president systems software microsoft general manager windows ms-dos business unit wrote forceful letter pc week november 5 1990 denying microsoft engaged fud tactics serve customers better decided forthcoming version 5.0 denying microsoft copied features dr dos feature enhancements ms-dos version 5.0 decided development begun long heard dr dos 5.0 similar features 50 million ms-dos users n't surprising dri heard requests customers – schulman et al 1994 pact microsoft ibm promote os/2 began fall apart 1990 windows 3.0 became marketplace success much microsoft contributions os/2 also went creating third gui replacement dos windows nt ibm already developing next version os/2 carried development platform without microsoft sold alternative dos windows response digital research dr dos 6.0 bundled superstor disk compression microsoft opened negotiations stac electronics vendor popular dos disk compression tool stacker due diligence process stac engineers shown microsoft part stacker source code stac unwilling meet microsoft terms licensing stacker withdrew negotiations microsoft chose license vertisoft doubledisk using core doublespace disk compression ms-dos 6.0 6.20 released 1993 including microsoft doublespace disk compression utility program stac successfully sued microsoft patent infringement regarding compression algorithm used doublespace resulted 1994 release ms-dos 6.21 disk compression removed shortly afterwards came version 6.22 new version disk compression system drivespace different compression algorithm avoid infringing code prior 1995 microsoft licensed ms-dos windows computer manufacturers three types agreement per-processor fee system company sold per-system fee system particular model per-copy fee copy ms-dos installed largest manufacturers used per-processor arrangement lowest fee arrangement made expensive large manufacturers migrate operating system dr dos 1991 u.s. government federal trade commission began investigating microsoft licensing procedures resulting 1994 settlement agreement limiting microsoft per-copy licensing digital research gain settlement years later successor interest caldera sued microsoft damages caldera v. microsoft lawsuit believed settlement ran order 150 million revealed november 2009 release settlement agreement 280 million microsoft also used variety tactics ms-dos several applications development tools operating perfectly running genuine ms-dos pc dos would break run another vendor implementation dos notable examples practice included introduction windows 3.0 1990 easy usability graphical user interface severely diminished usage ms-dos based command line release windows 95 continuing windows 9x product line windows integrated version ms-dos used bootstrapping troubleshooting backwards-compatibility old dos software particularly games longer released standalone product windows 95 dos called ms-dos 7 booted separately without windows gui capability retained windows 98 second edition windows removed capability boot underlying ms-dos 8.0 alone hard disk retained ability make dos boot floppy disk called emergency boot disk hacked restore full access underlying dos contrast windows 9x series windows nt-derived 32-bit operating systems developed alongside 9x series windows nt 2000 xp newer contain ms-dos part operating system nt built subsystem running dos entirely different independent operating system provide subset dos emulation run dos applications provide dos-like command prompt windows 64-bit versions windows nt line provide dos emulation run dos applications natively windows xp contains copy windows boot disk stripped bootstrap accessible formatting floppy ms-dos startup disk files like driver cd-rom support deleted windows bootdisk startup files autoexec.bat config.sys longer content modified disk base creating ms-dos image windows xp deleted files recovered undelete tool booting ms-dos startup disk made windows xp format tool version reports windows millenium ms-dos 8.0 used base windows 98 never released stand alone product windows vista files startup disk dated april 18 2005 otherwise unchanged including string ms-dos version 8 copyright 1981–1999 microsoft corp inside codice_1 starting windows 10 ability create dos startup disk removed either virtual machine running ms-dos older version virtual machine dual boot must used format floppy disk image must obtained external source solutions include using dos compatible alternatives freedos even copying required files boot sector ms-dos 6.22 last standalone version produced microsoft intel 8088 intel 8086 intel 80286 processors remain available download via msdn volume license oem license partner websites customers valid login credentials ms-dos still used embedded x86 systems due simple architecture minimal memory processor requirements though current products switched still-maintained open-source alternative freedos 2018 microsoft released source code ms-dos 1.25 2.0 github purpose according microsoft mainly education experimentation historic operating systems new programmers gain understanding low-level software works historic current due historical nature software microsoft accept pull requests code pull requests modified translated documentation accepted users however allowed fully encouraged fork repository containing ms-dos source code make modifications whatever like versions ms-dos obtained operation modification abandonware sites winworldpc versions microsoft windows ms-dos-like command-line interface cli called command prompt could run many dos variously win32 os/2 1.x posix command line utilities command-line session allowing piping commands user interface icon windows 2000 followed native ms-dos interface 16-bit versions windows 3.11 ran graphical user interface gui top ms-dos windows 95 98 98 se ms-dos part superficially integrated treating operating systems complete package though dos component could actually stand alone command line accessed dos command line usually codice_1 windows module winoldap.mod new line windows windows nt boot kernel whose sole purpose load windows one run win32 applications loader system manner os/2 unix consumer windows launch character-mode sessions command session permits running various supported command line utilities win32 ms-dos os/2 1.x posix emulators ms-dos os/2 posix use host window way win16 applications use win32 explorer using host window allows one pipe output emulations ms-dos emulation done ntvdm nt virtual dos machine modified softpc former product similar virtualpc running modified ms-dos 5 ntio.sys ntdos.sys output handled console dlls program prompt codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 see output 64-bit windows either dos emulation dos commands come 32-bit windows dos version returns 5.00 5.50 depending api function used determine utilities ms-dos 5.00 run emulation without modification early beta programs nt show ms-dos 30.00 programs running ms-dos 30.00 would assume os/2 control os/2 emulation handled os2ss.exe os2.exe doscalls.dll os2.exe version os/2 shell cmd.exe passes commands os2ss.exe input-output windows nt shell windows 2000 last version nt support os/2 emulation os/2 1.30 posix emulated posix shell emulated shell commands handled directly cmd.exe command prompt often called ms-dos prompt part official name windows 9x early versions windows nt nt 3.5 earlier part softpc emulation dos redirects output actually codice_1 16-bit commands run ntvdm codice_7 codice_8 initialisation determined codice_9 optionally permitting use win32 console applications internal commands codice_10 directive win32 console applications use codice_3 command prompt shell confusion exist os/2 separate dos os/2 prompts running dos program os/2 launch separate dos window run application versions windows itanium longer sold microsoft x86-64 architectures longer include ntvdm therefore longer natively run ms-dos 16-bit windows applications alternatives form virtual machine emulators microsoft virtual pc well vmware dosbox others 1983 onwards various companies worked graphical user interfaces guis capable running pc hardware however required duplicated effort provide much consistency interface design even products company later 1985 microsoft windows 1.0 released microsoft first attempt providing consistent user interface applications early versions windows ran top ms-dos first windows met little success also true companies efforts well example gem version 3.0 windows gained market acceptance windows 9x used dos boot process launch protected mode basic features related file system long file names available dos running subsystem windows windows nt runs independently dos includes ntvdm component simulating dos environment legacy applications ms-dos compatible systems include microsoft manufactured ibm pc dos ibm ms-dos identical products eventually diverged starting ms-dos version 6.0 digital research follow microsoft version numbering scheme example ms-dos 4 released july 1988 followed dr dos 5.0 may 1990 ms-dos 5.0 came april 1991 dr dos 6.0 released following june products collectively referred dos even though disk operating system generic term used systems unrelated x86 ibm pc ms-dos also generic reference dos ibm pc compatible computers microsoft control windows platform programming practices intentionally made windows appear ran poorly competing versions dos crippled ability dos makers continue compete ms-dos digital research release interim releases circumvent windows limitations inserted artificially designed specifically provide microsoft competitive advantage 1-hop neighbor's text information: dna-os.dna-os dna-os french-made operating system supersede muteka obsolete operating system still providing posix thread api said soclib website kernel-mode lightweight operating system multiprocessor system chip build top thin hal ease porting new platforms processor architecture dna/os support virtual memory dna-os layered microkernel operating system written c99 released gnu gplv3 license 1-hop neighbor's text information: is-dos.is-dos is-dos disk operating system russian zx spectrum clones is-dos developed 1990 1991 iskra soft leningrad ussr handles floppy disks double sided double density hard disks cd-rom maximum is-dos partition size hard disk 16 mib unlike tr-dos is-dos ram-based operating system reduces amount memory user programs is-dos chic version developed nemo kay provides memory user programs tasis modern version developed nedopc atm turbo 2+ 2006 supports text mode high memory machine based is-dos chic Target text information: andos.andos andos russian operating system electronika bk-0010 electronika bk-0011 electronika bk-0011m series computers created 1990 first released 1992 initially developed alexey nadezhin whose name system named later also sergey kamnev joined project widespread system bk series computers used ms-dos-compatible file system format andos used fat12 filesystem 800 kb floppy disks electronika bk-0011m electronika bk-0011 andos provided electronika bk-0010 emulation loading bk-0010 rom image bk-0011 ram minimal configuration system able occupy less 4 kb ram system able support 64 disk drives hard drive partitions well ram disks computer memory tape recording also able read-only access microdos file system format disks although last version function transferred system core file manager became optional I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,853	val

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