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1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett_packard_enterprise.hewlett packard enterprise hewlett packard enterprise company commonly referred hpe american multinational enterprise information technology company based san jose california founded 1 november 2015 part splitting hewlett-packard company hpe business-focused organization two divisions enterprise group works servers storage networking consulting support financial services 4 december hpe reported fy2018 net revenue 30.9 billion 7 prior year period split structured former hewlett-packard company would change name hp inc. spin hewlett packard enterprise newly created company hp inc. retained old hp personal computer printing business well stock-price history original nyse ticker symbol hewlett-packard enterprise trades ticker symbol hpe according notes 2015 hpe revenue slightly less hp inc 2017 spun enterprise services business merged computer sciences corporation become dxc technology also spun software business merged micro focus hpe ranked 107 2018 fortune 500 list largest united states corporations total revenue full name company hewlett packard enterprise company drops hyphen previously existed hewlett packard former hewlett-packard company since separation many media outlets incorrectly named new organization using hp enterprises hp enterprise may 2016 company announced would sell enterprise services division one competitors computer sciences corporation deal valued merger hpe enterprise services csc form new company dxc technology completed 10 march 2017 approximately 100,000 current hpe employees affected 30,000 services employees areas hpe business remain hpe including technology services support consulting well software professional services august 2016 company announced plans acquire silicon graphics international sgi known capabilities high performance computing 1 november 2016 hpe announced completed acquisition per share cash transaction valued approximately net cash debt 7 september 2016 hpe announced spin-merge micro focus micro focus would acquire non-core software hpe shareholders would 50.1 percent merged company would retain current name merger concluded 1 september 2017 november 2016 pc world wrote hpe hewlett-packard failed develop middleware tools really make dent software market companies like ibm sap oracle excelling without major software product lines hpe ’ integrated offerings ’ strong competitors like dell software hardware assets adding hpe point focusing largely hardware ask end game september 2016 hewlett packard enterprise transferred two patents texas-based wholly owned shell company plectrum llc two patents originated 3com corporation bought hp 2010 along 1,400 patents us patent entitled quality service control mechanism apparatus us patent describes use high speed cache management unit replaces software-based systems hardware order reduce latency time 11 april 2017 reported synack raised round funding included hewlett packard enterprise january 2017 company acquired data management platform simplivity developer omnicube hyper-converged infrastructure appliance us 650m april 2017 hewlett packard enterprise completed acquisition hybrid flash flash manufacturer nimble storage inc per share october reuters reported company allowed russian defense agency examine cyber-defense system used pentagon report noted six former u.s. intelligence officials well former arcsight hewlett packard enterprise employees independent security experts said source code review could help moscow discover weaknesses software potentially helping attackers blind u.s. military cyber attack november 2017 meg whitman announced stepping ceo six years helm hp hpe noted 1 february 2018 antonio neri officially became hpe ’ president chief executive officer announcement created controversy leading 6 drop stock price quickly recovered next days june 2018 hewlett packard enterprise launched hybrid cloud service called greenlake hybrid cloud built top hpe onesphere cloud management saas offering greenlake hybrid cloud designed provide cloud management cost control compliance control capabilities run aws microsoft azure february 2019 meg whitman announced seeking re-election board directors ending professional involvement hpe may 2019 hewlett packard enterprise announced plans acquire cray nearly per share soon cray landed us department energy contract supply frontier supercomputer oak ridge national laboratory 2021 1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett-packard.hewlett-packard hewlett-packard company commonly referred hp stylized hp hewlett-packard american multinational information technology company headquartered palo alto california developed provided wide variety hardware components well software related services consumers small- medium-sized businesses smbs large enterprises including customers government health education sectors company founded one-car garage palo alto bill hewlett david packard initially produced line electronic test equipment hp world leading pc manufacturer 2007 q2 2013 time lenovo ranked ahead hp hp specialized developing manufacturing computing data storage networking hardware designing software delivering services major product lines included personal computing devices enterprise industry standard servers related storage devices networking products software diverse range printers imaging products hp directly marketed products households small- medium-sized businesses enterprises well via online distribution consumer-electronics office-supply retailers software partners major technology vendors hp also services consulting business around products partner products hewlett-packard company events included spin-off electronic bio-analytical measurement instruments part business agilent technologies 1999 merger compaq 2002 acquisition eds 2008 led combined revenues 118.4 billion 2008 fortune 500 ranking 9 2009 november 2009 hp announced acquisition 3com deal closing april 12 2010 april 28 2010 hp announced buyout palm inc. 1.2 billion september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hewlett-packard spun enterprise products services business hewlett packard enterprise november 1 2015 hewlett-packard held onto pc printer businesses renamed hp inc. bill hewlett david packard graduated degrees electrical engineering stanford university 1935 company originated garage nearby palo alto fellowship past professor frederick terman stanford great depression considered terman mentor forming hewlett-packard 1938 packard hewlett began part-time work rented garage initial capital investment us 538 1939 hewlett packard decided formalize partnership tossed coin decide whether company founded would called hewlett-packard hp packard-hewlett hp incorporated august 18 1947 went public november 6 1957 many projects worked first financially successful product precision audio oscillator model hp200a innovation use small incandescent light bulb known pilot light temperature dependent resistor critical portion circuit negative feedback loop stabilized amplitude output sinusoidal waveform allowed sell model 200a 89.40 competitors selling less stable oscillators 200 model 200 series generators continued production least 1972 200ab still tube-based improved design years one company earliest customers walt disney productions bought eight model 200b oscillators 71.50 use certifying fantasound surround sound systems installed theaters movie fantasia worked counter-radar technology artillery shell fuses world war ii allowed packard hewlett exempt draft hp recognized symbolic founder silicon valley although actively investigate semiconductor devices years traitorous eight abandoned william shockley create fairchild semiconductor 1957 hewlett-packard hp associates division established around 1960 developed semiconductor devices primarily internal use hp associates co-founded another former bell labs researcher mosfet mos transistor inventor mohamed atalla served director semiconductor research instruments calculators products using semiconductor devices hp associates 1960s hp partnered sony yokogawa electric companies japan develop several high-quality products products huge success high costs building hp-looking products japan hp yokogawa formed joint venture yokogawa-hewlett-packard 1963 market hp products japan hp bought yokogawa electric share hewlett-packard japan 1999 hp spun small company dynac specialize digital equipment name picked hp logo hp could turned upside reverse reflect image logo dy new company eventually dynac changed dymec folded back hp 1959 hp experimented using digital equipment corporation dec minicomputers instruments deciding would easier build another small design team deal dec hp entered computer market 1966 hp 2100 hp 1000 series minicomputers simple accumulator-based design two accumulator registers hp 1000 models two index registers series produced 20 years spite several attempts replace forerunner hp 9800 hp 250 series desktop business computers hp 3000 advanced stack-based design business computing server later redesigned risc technology hp 2640 series smart intelligent terminals introduced forms-based interfaces ascii terminals also introduced screen labeled function keys commonly used gas pumps bank atms hp 2640 series included one first bit mapped graphics displays combined hp 2100 21mx f-series microcoded scientific instruction set enabled first commercial wysiwyg presentation program bruno later became program hp-draw hp 3000 although scoffed formative days computing hp would eventually surpass even ibm world largest technology vendor terms sales although programma 101 first commercial desktop computer hp identified wired magazine producer world first device called personal computer hewlett-packard 9100a introduced 1968 programma 101 called computer personale italian fiera di milano 1966 hp called desktop calculator bill hewlett said called computer would rejected customers computer gurus n't look like ibm therefore decided call calculator nonsense disappeared engineering triumph time logic circuit produced without integrated circuits assembly cpu entirely executed discrete components crt display magnetic-card storage printer price around 5,000 machine keyboard cross scientific calculator adding machine alphabetic keyboard steve wozniak co-founder apple originally designed apple computer working hp offered right first refusal work take company wanted stay scientific business industrial markets wozniak said hp turned 5 times loyalty hp made hesitant start apple steve jobs company earned global respect variety products introduced world first handheld scientific electronic calculator 1972 hp-35 first handheld programmable 1974 hp-65 first alphanumeric programmable expandable 1979 hp-41c first symbolic graphing calculator hp-28c like scientific business calculators oscilloscopes logic analyzers measurement instruments reputation sturdiness usability latter products part spin-off agilent product line later spun agilent keysight technologies company design philosophy period summarized design guy next bench 98x5 series technical desktop computers started 1975 9815 cheaper 80 series technical computers started 1979 85 machines used version basic programming language available immediately switched used proprietary magnetic tape storage hp computers similar capabilities much later ibm personal computer although limitations available technology forced prices high 1984 hp introduced inkjet laser printers desktop along scanner product line later developed successful multifunction products significant single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines print mechanisms hp tremendously popular laserjet line laser printers depend almost entirely canon inc. components print engines turn use technology developed xerox hp develops hardware firmware software convert data dots printing march 3 1986 hp registered hp.com domain name making ninth internet .com domain ever registered 1987 palo alto garage hewlett packard started business designated california state historical landmark 1990s hp expanded computer product line initially targeted university research business users reach consumers hp also grew acquisitions bought apollo computer 1989 convex computer 1995 later decade hp opened hpshopping.com independent subsidiary sell online direct consumers 2005 store renamed hp home home office store 1995 1998 hewlett-packard sponsors english football team tottenham hotspur 1999 businesses related computers storage imaging spun hp form agilent technologies agilent spin-off largest initial public offering history silicon valley spin-off created 8 billion company 30,000 employees manufacturing scientific instruments semiconductors optical networking devices electronic test equipment telecom wireless r production july 1999 hp appointed carly fiorina formerly lucent first female ceo fortune-20 company dow jones industrial average fiorina received larger signing offer predecessors fiorina served ceo technology downturn early 2000s led merger compaq disastrous according cnn led firing 30,000 u.s. employees leadership company doubled size tenure ceo beset damaging leaks hp board directors asked fiorina step 2005 following boardroom disagreement resigned february 9 2005 1997 hp sold 120 million worth printers computer products iran european subsidiary dubai-based east distributor despite u.s. export sanctions prohibiting deals imposed bill clinton executive orders issued 1995 story initially reported boston globe triggered inquiry sec hp responded products worth 120 million sold fiscal year 2008 distribution way redington gulf company based netherlands sales took place foreign subsidiary hp violated sanctions hp named redington gulf wholesaler year 2003 turn published press release stating seeds redington-hewlett-packard relationship sowed six years ago one market — iran time redington gulf three employees whose sole purpose sell hp products iran market according former officials worked sanctions hp using loophole routing sales foreign subsidiary hp ended relationship redington gulf sec inquiry september 3 2001 hp announced agreement reached compaq merge two companies may 2002 passing shareholder vote hp officially merged compaq prior plans place consolidate companies product teams product lines compaq already taken digital equipment corporation 1998 hp therefore still offers support former digital equipment products pdp-11 vax alphaserver merger occurred proxy fight bill hewlett son walter objected merger compaq bought tandem computers 1997 started ex-hp employees digital equipment corporation 1998 following strategy hp became major player desktops laptops servers many different markets merger compaq new ticker symbol became hpq combination two previous symbols hwp cpq show significance alliance also key letters two companies hewlett-packard compaq latter company famous q logo products 2004 hp released dv 1000 series including hp pavilion dv 1658 1040 two years later may 2006 hp began campaign computer personal campaign designed bring back fact pc personal product campaign utilized viral marketing sophisticated visuals website www.hp.com/personal ads featured pharrell petra nemcova mark burnett mark cuban alicia keys jay-z gwen stefani shaun white january 2005 following years performance included hp compaq merger fell short disappointing earning reports board asked fiorina resign chair chief executive officer company following news fiorina departure hp stock jumped 6.9 percent robert wayman chief financial officer hp served interim ceo board undertook formal search replacement mark hurd ncr corporation hired take ceo president effective 1 april 2005 hurd board top choice given revival ncr took place leadership 2006 hp unveiled several new products including desktops enhanced notebooks workstation software manage openview client configuration manager 2.0 year hp share price skyrocketed due consistent results last couple quarters year hurd plan cutback hp workforce lower costs july 2007 hp signed definitive agreement acquire opsware cash tender deal values company 14.25 per share combined opsware software oracle enterprise management software first years hurd new role hp stock price doubled end fiscal 2007 hp hit 100 billion mark first time company annual revenue reached 104 billion allowing hp overtake competitor ibm may 13 2008 hp electronic data systems eds announced signed definitive agreement hp would purchase eds june 30 hp announced waiting period hart-scott-rodino antitrust improvements act 1976 expired transaction still requires eds stockholder approval regulatory clearance european commission non-u.s. jurisdictions subject satisfaction waiver closing conditions specified merger agreement agreement finalized august 26 2008 13 billion publicly announced eds would re-branded eds hp company first targeted layoff 24,600 former eds workers announced september 15 2008 company 2008 annual report gave number 24,700 completed end 2009 round factored purchase price 19.5 billion liability goodwill september 23 2009 eds known hp enterprise services november 11 2009 3com hewlett-packard announced hewlett-packard would acquiring 3com 2.7 billion cash acquisition one biggest size among series takeovers acquisitions technology giants push way become one-stop shops since beginning financial crisis 2007 tech giants constantly felt pressure expand beyond current market niches dell purchased perot systems recently invade technology consulting business area previously dominated ibm hewlett-packard latest move marked incursion enterprise networking gear market dominated cisco april 28 2010 palm inc. hewlett-packard announced hp would buy palm 1.2 billion cash debt announcement rumored either htc dell research motion hp would buy palm adding palm handsets hp product line created overlap ipaq series mobile devices thought significantly improve hp mobile presence ipaqdevices selling well buying palm gave hp library valuable patents well mobile operating platform known webos july 1 2010 acquisition palm final purchase palm webos began big gamble – build hp ecosystem july 1 2011 hp launched first tablet named hp touchpad bringing webos tablet devices september 2 2010 hp bidding war 3par 33 share offer 2.07 billion dell declined match hp acquisition palm phased compaq brand august 6 2010 ceo mark hurd resigned amid controversy cfo cathie lesjak assumed role interim ceo hurd turned hp around widely regarded one silicon valley star ceos leadership hp became largest computer company world measured total revenue accused sexual harassment colleague allegations deemed baseless investigation led questions concerning 1000 20000 private expenses lack disclosure related friendship observers argued hurd innocent board asked resignation avoid negative pr public analysis divided saw commendable tough action hp handling expenses irregularities saw ill-advised hasty expensive reaction ousting remarkably capable leader turned business around hp hurd oversaw series acquisitions worth 20 billion allowed company expand services networking equipment smartphones shares hp dropped 8.4 after-hours trading hitting 52-week low 9 billion market capitalization shaved larry ellison publicly attacked hp board ousting stating hp board made worst personnel decision since idiots apple board fired steve jobs many years ago september 30 2010 léo apotheker named hp new ceo president apotheker appointment sparked strong reaction oracle chief executive larry ellison complained apotheker charge sap one subsidiaries systematically stealing software oracle sap accepted subsidiary closed illegally accessed oracle intellectual property following hurd departure hp seen market problematic margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy broadly aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector august 18 2011 hp announced would strategically exit smartphone tablet computer business focusing higher-margin strategic priorities cloud solutions software emphasis enterprise commercial government markets also contemplated selling personal computer division spinning separate company quitting 'pc business continuing sell servers equipment business customers strategy already undertaken ibm 2005 hp stock continued drop 40 including 25 one day august 19 2011 company abruptly announced number decisions discontinue webos device business mobile phones tablet computers intent sell personal computer division time hp largest personal computer manufacturer world acquire british big data software firm autonomy 79 premium seen externally absurdly high price business known concerns accounts media analysts described hp actions botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings ultimately cost apotheker job autonomy acquisition objected even hp cfo september 22 2011 hp board directors fired apotheker chief executive effective immediately replaced fellow board member former ebay chief meg whitman raymond j lane executive chairman though apotheker served barely ten months received 13 million compensation hp lost 30 billion market capitalization tenure weeks later hp announced review concluded pc division integrated critical business operations company reaffirmed commitment personal systems group year later november 2012 wrote-down almost 9 billion related autonomy acquisition see takeover autonomy became subject intense litigation hp accused autonomy previous management fraudulently exaggerating autonomy financial position called law enforcement regulators countries autonomy previous management accused hp textbook obfuscation finger pointing protect hp executives criticism conceal hp culpability prior knowledge autonomy financial position gross mismanagement autonomy acquisition march 21 2012 hp said printing pc divisions would become one unit headed todd bradley pc division printing chief vyomesh joshi leaving company may 23 2012 hp announced plans lay approximately 27,000 employees posting profit decline 31 second quarter 2012 profit decline account growing popularity smart phones tablets mobile devices slowed sale personal computers may 30 2012 hp unveiled first net zero energy data center hp data center plans use solar energy renewable sources instead traditional power grids july 10 2012 hp server monitoring software discovered previously unknown security vulnerability security warning given customers two vulnerabilities patch released one month later hp official site training center hacked defaced pakistani hacker known 'hitcher demonstrate web vulnerability september 10 2012 hp revised restructuring figures cutting 29,000 jobs hp already cut 3,800 jobs – around 7 percent revised 29,000 figure – july 2012 december 31 2013 hp revised number jobs cut 29,000 34,000 october 2014 current number jobs cut end 2013 24,600 end 2013 company 317,500 employees may 22 2014 hp announced would cut 11,000 16,000 jobs addition 34,000 announced 2013 gradually shaping hp nimble lower-cost customer partner-centric company successfully compete across rapidly changing landscape ceo meg whitman said time june 2014 hp discover customer event las vegas meg whitman martin fink announced project radically new computer architecture called machine based memristors silicon photonics machine supposed come commercialization end decade meanwhile representing 75 research activity hp labs october 6 2014 hewlett-packard announced planning split two separate companies separating personal computer printer businesses technology services split first reported wall street journal confirmed media would result two publicly traded companies hewlett packard enterprise hp inc. meg whitman would serve chairman hp inc. ceo hewlett packard enterprise patricia russo would chairman enterprise business dion weisler would ceo hp inc. october 29 2014 hewlett-packard announced new sprout personal computer may 2015 company announced would selling controlling 51 percent stake chinese data-networking business tsinghua unigroup fee least 2.4 billion november 1 2015 previously announced hewlett-packard changed name hp inc. spun hewlett packard enterprise new publicly traded company hp inc. retains hewlett-packard stock price history stock ticker symbol hewlett packard enterprise trades symbol hp global operations directed headquarters palo alto california usa u.s. operations directed facility unincorporated harris county texas near houston latin america offices unincorporated miami-dade county florida u.s. near miami europe offices meyrin switzerland near geneva also research center paris-saclay cluster 20 km south paris france asia-pacific offices singapore also large operations leixlip ireland austin texas boise idaho corvallis oregon fort collins colorado roseville california saint petersburg florida san diego california tulsa oklahoma vancouver washington conway arkansas plano texas former headquarters eds hp acquired uk hp based large site bracknell berkshire offices various uk locations including landmark office tower london 88 wood street recent acquisition 3com expand employee base marlborough massachusetts company also large workforce numerous offices bucharest romania bangalore india address back end operations mphasis headquartered bangalore also enabled hp increase footprint city subsidiary eds company acquired hp produces lines printers scanners digital cameras calculators pdas servers workstation computers computers home small-business use many computers came 2002 merger compaq hp promotes supplying hardware software also full range services design implement support infrastructure hp imaging printing group ipg described company 2005 leading imaging printing systems provider world printer hardware printing supplies scanning devices providing solutions across customer segments individual consumers small medium businesses large enterprises products technology associated ipg include december 23 2008 hp released iprint photo iphone free downloadable software application allows printing 4 x 6 photos hp personal systems group psg claims one leading vendors personal computers pcs world based unit volume shipped annual revenue psg deals hp resold apple ipod november 2005 hp enterprise business eb incorporates hp technology services enterprise services amalgamation former eds known hp services hp enterprise security services oversees professional services network security information security information assurance/ compliancy hp software division enterprise servers storage networking group essn enterprise servers storage networking group essn oversees back end products like storage servers hp networking former procurve responsible nw family products business unit essn hp software division company enterprise software unit years hp produced marketed brand enterprise-management software hp openview september 2005 hp purchased several software companies part publicized deliberate strategy augment software offerings large business customers hp software sells several categories software including hp software also provides software service saas cloud computing solutions software services including consulting education professional services support hp office strategy technology four main functions office strategy technology comes hp labs research arm hp founded 1966 hp labs aims deliver new technologies create business opportunities go beyond hp current strategies examples recent hp labs technology includes memory spot chip 2006 hp idealab provides web forum early-state innovations encourage open feedback consumers development community hp also offers managed services provide complete it-support solutions companies organizations examples include founders developed management style came known hp way hewlett words hp way core ideology ... includes deep respect individual dedication affordable quality reliability commitment community responsibility view company exists make technical contributions advancement welfare humanity following tenets hp way july 2007 company announced met target set 2004 recycle one billion pounds electronics toner ink cartridges set new goal recycling two billion pounds hardware end 2010 2006 company recovered 187 million pounds electronics 73 percent closest competitor 2008 hp released supply chain emissions data — industry first september 2009 newsweek ranked hp 1 2009 green rankings america 500 largest corporations according environmentalleader.com hewlett-packard earned number one position due greenhouse gas ghg emission reduction programs first major company report ghg emissions associated supply chain according ranking addition hp made effort remove toxic substances products though greenpeace targeted company better hp took top spot corporate responsibility magazine 100 best corporate citizens list 2010 list cited pr week one america important business rankings hp beat russell 1000 index companies leadership seven categories including environment climate changes corporate philanthropy 2009 hp ranked fifth fortune magazine named hp one world admired companies 2010 placing 2 computer industry 32 overall list top 50 year computer industry hp ranked 1 social responsibility long-term investment global competitiveness use corporate assets may 2011 hp released global responsibility report covering accomplishments 2010 report company tenth provides comprehensive view hp global citizenship programs performance goals describes hp uses technology influence expertise make positive impact world company 2009 report best corporate responsibility report year 2009 reports claims hp decreased total energy use 9 percent compared 2008 hp recovered total 118,000 tonnes electronic products supplies recycling 2009 including 61 million print cartridges april 2010 san francisco chronicle article hp one 12 companies commended designing products safe start following principles green chemistry commendations came environment california environmental advocacy group praised select companies golden state bay area efforts keep planet clean green may 2010 hp named one world ethical companies ethisphere institute second year row hp made list ethisphere reviewed researched analyzed thousands nominations 100 countries 35 industries create 2010 list hp one 100 companies earn distinction top winner computer hardware vendor recognized ethisphere honors firms promote ethical business standards practices going beyond legal minimums introducing innovative ideas benefit public hp listed greenpeace guide greener electronics ranks electronics manufacturers according policies sustainability energy climate green products november 2011 hp secured 1st place 15 ranking climbing 3 places increased score 5.9 5.5 scored points new sustainable operations criteria best program measuring reducing emissions greenhouse gases suppliers scoring maximum points thorough paper procurement policy november 2012 report hp ranked second score 5.7 hp especially well disclosure externally verified greenhouse gas emissions setting targets reducing however greenpeace reports hp risks penalty point future editions due fact member trade associations commented energy efficiency standards hp earned recognition work area data privacy security 2010 company ranked 4 ponemon institute annual study trusted companies privacy since 2006 hp worked directly u.s. congress federal trade commission ftc department commerce establish new strategy federal legislation hp played key role work toward december 2010 ftc report protecting consumer privacy era rapid change winning nine straight annual respected company china awards economic observer peking university hp china added 10 year contribution award list accolades award aims identify companies business china outstanding sustained performance business operations development corporate social responsibility 2012 rankings consumer electronics companies progress relating conflict minerals enough project rated hp second 24 companies calling pioneer progress according businessweek study hp world 11th valuable brand 2009 hp many sponsorships one well known sponsorship epcot walt disney world resort 1995 1999 2013 hp shirt sponsor premier league club tottenham hotspur f.c 1997 1999 sponsors australian football league club north melbourne football club also sponsored bmw williams formula 1 team 2005 sponsorship formerly held compaq 2010 sponsor renault f1 hewlett-packard also naming rights arrangement hp pavilion san jose home san jose sharks nhl hockey team 2013 arena naming rights acquired sap ag renaming arena sap center san jose company also maintains number corporate sponsorships business sector including sponsorships trade organisations including fespa print trade exhibitions o'reilly media velocity web development conference acquisition compaq 2002 hp maintained compaq presario brand low-end home desktops laptops hp compaq brand business desktops laptops hp proliant brand intel-architecture servers hp pavilion brand used home entertainment laptops home desktops tandem nonstop servers branded hp integrity nonstop march 2003 hp restated first-quarter cash flow operations reducing 18 percent accounting error actual cash flow operations 647 million 791 million reported earlier hp shifted 144 million net cash used investing activities september 5 2006 shawn cabalfin david o'neil newsweek wrote hp general counsel behest chairwoman patricia dunn contracted team independent security experts investigate board members several journalists order identify source information leak turn security experts recruited private investigators used spying technique known pretexting pretexting involved investigators impersonating hp board members nine journalists including reporters cnet new york times wall street journal order obtain phone records information leaked related hp long-term strategy published part cnet article january 2006 hp employees accused criminal acts since acquitted november 2007 hewlett-packard released bios update covering wide range laptops intent speed computer fan well run constantly whether computer reason prevent overheating defective nvidia graphics processing units gpus shipped many original equipment manufacturers including hewlett-packard dell apple defect concerned new packaging material used nvidia 2007 onwards joining graphics chip onto motherboard perform well thermal cycling prone develop stress cracks – effectively severing connection gpu motherboard leading blank screen july 2008 hp issued extension initial one-year warranty replace motherboards selected models however option extended models defective nvidia chipsets despite research showing computers also affected fault furthermore replacement motherboard temporary fix since fault inherent units affected models point manufacture including replacement motherboards offered hp free 'repair since point several websites documenting issue notably www.hplies.com forum dedicated refer hewlett-packard multi-million dollar cover issue www.nvidiadefect.com details specifics fault offers advice owners affected computers several small-claims lawsuits filed several states well suits filed countries hewlett-packard also faced class-action lawsuit 2009 i7 processor computers complainants stated systems locked within 30 minutes powering consistently even replaced newer i7 systems lockups continued june 15 2011 hp filed lawsuit california superior court santa clara claiming oracle corporation breached agreement support itanium microprocessor used hp high-end enterprise servers june 15 2011 hp sent formal legal demand letter oracle attempt force world 3 software maker reverse decision discontinue software development intel itanium microprocessor build servers hp lawsuit 2012 requiring oracle continue produce software compatible itanium processor hp awarded 3 billion damages oracle june 30 2016 hp argued oracle canceling support damaged hp itanium server brand oracle announced appeal decision damages november 2012 hp recorded writedown around 8.8 billion related acquisition year earlier uk based autonomy corporation plc hp accused autonomy deliberately inflating value company prior takeover former management team autonomy flatly rejected charge autonomy specialized analysis large scale unstructured big data 2010 uk largest successful software business maintained aggressively entrepreneurial marketing approach controls described rod iron said include zero tolerance firing weakest 5 sales force quarter compensating best sales staff like rock stars time hp fired previous ceo expenses irregularities year appointed léo apotheker ceo president hp seen problematic market margins falling failed redirect establish major new markets cloud mobile services apotheker strategy aim disposing hardware moving profitable software services sector part strategy autonomy acquired hp october 2011 hp paid 10.3 billion 87.3 shares valuing autonomy around 11.7 billion £7.4 billion overall premium around 79 market price deal widely criticized absurdly high botched strategy shift chaotic attempt rapidly reposition hp enhance earnings objected even hp cfo within year apotheker fired major culture clashes became apparent hp written 8.8 billion autonomy value hp claim resulted accounting improprieties misrepresentations disclosure failures previous management turn accuse hp textbook example defensive stalling conceal evidence prior knowledge gross mismanagement undermining company noting public awareness since 2009 financial reporting issues even hp cfo disagreed price paid external observers generally state small part write-off appears due accounting mis-statements hp overpaid businesses previously serious fraud office united kingdom u.s. securities exchange commission joined fbi investigating potential anomalies hp incurred much damage stock falling decades low three lawsuits brought shareholders hp fall value hp shares august 2014 united states district court judge threw proposed settlement autonomy previous management argued would collusive intended divert scrutiny hp responsibility knowledge essentially engaging plaintiff attorneys existing cases redirecting previous autonomy vendors management fee 48 million plaintiffs agreeing end claims hp management similarly redirect claims previous autonomy vendors management january 2015 sfo closed investigation likelihood successful prosecution low dispute still litigated us investigated uk ireland financial reporting council june 9 2015 hp agreed pay 100 million investors bought hp shares august 19 2011 november 20 2012 settle suite autonomy purchase october 25 2012 richard falk human rights council special rapporteur situation human rights palestinian territories occupied since 1967 called boycotting hp together businesses profiting israeli settlements occupied palestinian lands brought operations line international human rights humanitarian law 2014 presbyterian church voted move forward divestment hp protest israeli policies toward palestinians 2015 city portland human rights commission requested place caterpillar g4s hewlett-packard motorola solutions city buy list april 9 2014 administrative proceeding securities exchange commission settled hp consenting order acknowledging hp violated foreign corrupt practices act fcpa hp subsidiaries russia poland mexico made improper payments government officials obtain retain lucrative public contracts sec order finds hp subsidiary russia paid 2 million agents various shell companies russian government official retain multimillion-dollar contract federal prosecutor office poland hp subsidiary provided gifts cash bribes worth 600,000 polish government official obtain contracts national police agency part bid win software sale mexico state-owned petroleum company hp subsidiary mexico paid 1 million inflated commissions consultant close ties company officials money funneled one officials hp agreed pay 108 million settle sec charges parallel criminal case 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: ibrix_fusion.ibrix fusion ibrix fusion parallel file system combined logical volume manager availability features management interface software produced sold supported ibrix incorporated billerica massachusetts hp announced july 17 2009 reached definitive agreement acquire ibrix subsequent acquisition software components ibrix combined proliant servers form x9000 series storage systems x9000 storage systems designed provide network-attached storage standard protocols smb nfs http ndmp well proprietary protocol architecturally file system limited 16 petabytes single namespace based upon design described used hpe storeonce former d2d products I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	5,232	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: storm_(software).storm software storm python programming library object-relational mapping one sql databases python objects allows python developers formulate complex queries spanning multiple database tables support dynamic storage retrieval object information mysql postgresql sqlite database support built storm api allows support others storm also supports django zope web frameworks natively twisted support planned .20 release storm developed canonical ltd. python use launchpad landscape applications subsequently released 2007 free software project free software released gnu lesser general public license contributors required assign copyrights canonical version control done bazaar issue tracking launchpad 1-hop neighbor's text information: bsd_licenses.bsd licenses bsd licenses family permissive free software licenses imposing minimal restrictions use distribution covered software contrast copyleft licenses share-alike requirements original bsd license used namesake berkeley software distribution bsd unix-like operating system original version since revised descendants referred modified bsd licenses bsd license class license generally referred bsd-like modified bsd license wide use today similar license originally used bsd version unix bsd license simple license merely requires code retain bsd license notice redistributed source code format reproduce notice redistributed binary format bsd license unlike licenses require source code distributed addition original 4-clause license used bsd several derivative licenses emerged also commonly referred bsd license today typical bsd license 3-clause version revised original 4-clause version bsd licenses following codice_1 organization codice_2 codice_2 codice_4 year copyright published bsd codice_2 regents university california codice_1 university california berkeley releases bsd prior adoption 4-clause bsd license used license clearly ancestral 4-clause bsd license releases include 4.3bsd-tahoe 1988 net/1 1989 although largely replaced 4-clause license license found 4.3bsd-reno net/2 4.4bsd-alpha original bsd license contained clause found later licenses known advertising clause clause eventually became controversial required authors works deriving bsd-licensed work include acknowledgment original source advertising material clause number 3 original license text clause objected grounds people changed license reflect name organization led escalating advertising requirements programs combined together software distribution every occurrence license different name required separate acknowledgment arguing richard stallman stated counted 75 acknowledgments 1997 version netbsd addition clause presented legal problem wishing publish bsd-licensed software relies upon separate programs using gnu gpl advertising clause incompatible gpl allow addition restrictions beyond already imposes gpl publisher free software foundation recommends developers use license though states reason use software already using today original license sometimes called bsd-old 4-clause bsd advertising clause removed license text official bsd william hoskins director office technology licensing uc berkeley bsd distributions removed clause many similar clauses remain bsd-derived code sources unrelated code using derived license original license sometimes referred bsd-old resulting 3-clause version sometimes referred bsd-new names include new bsd revised bsd bsd-3 3-clause bsd version vetted open source license osi bsd license free software foundation refers license modified bsd license states compatible gnu gpl fsf encourages users specific referring license name i.e simply referring bsd license bsd-style avoid confusion original bsd license version allows unlimited redistribution purpose long copyright notices license disclaimers warranty maintained license also contains clause restricting use names contributors endorsement derived work without specific permission even simplified version come use primarily known usage freebsd use early april 29 1999 likely well primary difference new bsd 3-clause license omits non-endorsement clause also adds disclaimer views opinions expressed software free software foundation refers license freebsd license states compatible gnu gpl addition fsf encourages users specific referring license name i.e simply referring bsd license bsd-style modified/new bsd license avoid confusion original bsd license projects netbsd use similar 2-clause license without additional disclaimer version vetted open source license osi simplified bsd license isc license functionally equivalent endorsed openbsd project license template new contributions formerly known free public license 1.0.0 bsd 0-clause license spdx 0bsd goes 2-clause license dropping requirements include copyright notice license text disclaimer either source binary forms freebsd project argues advantages bsd-style licenses companies commercial use-cases due license compatibility proprietary licenses general flexibility stating bsd-style licenses place minimal restrictions future behavior n't legal time-bombs unlike copyleft licenses bsd license allows proprietary use allows software released license incorporated proprietary products works based material may released proprietary license closed source software allowing usual commercial usages 3-clause bsd license like permissive licenses compatible almost foss licenses well proprietary licenses two variants license new bsd license/modified bsd license 3-clause simplified bsd license/freebsd license 2-clause verified gpl-compatible free software licenses free software foundation vetted open source licenses open source initiative original 4-clause bsd license accepted open source license although original considered free software license fsf fsf consider compatible gpl due advertising clause bsd license family one oldest broadly used license family foss ecosystem also many new licenses derived inspired bsd licenses many foss software projects use bsd license instance bsd os family freebsd etc google bionic toybox bsd 3-clause license ranked popularity number five according black duck software sixth according github data 1-hop neighbor's text information: doctrine_(php).doctrine php doctrine project doctrine set php libraries primarily focused providing persistence services related functionality prize projects object-relational mapper orm database abstraction layer built top one doctrine key features option write database queries doctrine query language dql object-oriented dialect sql entities doctrine 2 lightweight php objects contain persistable properties persistable property instance variable entity saved retrieved database doctrine ’ data mapping capabilities via entity manager implementation data mapper pattern doctrine 1.x follows active record pattern working data class corresponds database table instance programmer wanted create new user object database would longer need write sql queries instead could use following php code one feature doctrine low level configuration needed start project doctrine generate object classes existing database programmer specify relations add custom functionality generated classes need generate maintain complex xml database schemas seen many frameworks another key feature doctrine ability optionally write database queries oo object oriented sql dialect called dql doctrine query language inspired hibernate hql alternately querybuilder class doctrine_query doctrine 1.x allows one construct queries fluent interface interfaces provide developers powerful alternatives sql maintain flexibility still allow switching database back-ends without requiring code duplication writing queries explicitly however always necessary doctrine performs joins fetches related objects automatically small projects easily constructed without writing queries notable features doctrine doctrine started konsta vesterinen also known zyne- project initial commit made april 13 2006 project became mature adoption began pick long community active development receiving regular contributions among others google summer code project doctrine 1.0.0 released september 1 2008 first stable version doctrine 2.0 released december 22 2010 2.5 years dedicated development starting early 2008 doctrine influenced dozens projects many different people largest influences java orm hibernate activerecord ruby rails orm solutions implemented fully featured solution java ruby languages purpose doctrine project build equally powerful solution php language high-load websites maintain constant flow visitors doctrine orm used improve performance websites Target text information: comparison_of_object-relational_mapping_software.comparison object-relational mapping software table shows comparison notable orm software products currently available I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	3,763	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_thinkpad_310.ibm thinkpad 310 ibm thinkpad 310 notebook computer manufactured 1997 ibm corporation part thinkpad laptop 300 series models shipped windows 95 capable running windows 3.1 later versions windows far recent windows xp provided sufficient ram driver upgrades run properly well several linux variations features hardware varied model three models 310 lineup featured cd-rom standard none featured internal floppy drive bay capable housing floppy drive models feature port back allowed connection external floppy drive could boot models featured intel pentium processor running 166 mhz graphics hardware chips technologies 65550 pci system approximately 1 mb video memory dstn display capable 800x600 resolution models also featured 2 type ii cardbus slots models came either 16mb 32mb edo ram 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_thinkpad_380.ibm thinkpad 380 ibm thinkpad 380 notebook computer manufactured 1997 ibm part thinkpad laptop series notable incorporating cd-rom floppy drive considered mid-range laptop ibm time sold well 380 shipped windows 95 capable running windows 3.11 windows nt os/2 warp windows 98 windows red hat linux well various linux distributions originally two models base thinkpad 380 thinkpad 380d equipped cd-rom drive 380 came intel pentium processor running 150 mhz without optional mmx feature 16 mb base ram included base hard drive 1.08 gb size windows 3.11 better operating system choice base model however 32 mb installed could run windows 95 properly models—apart base 380—could run versions windows including windows xp windows xp run smoothly however would need configured least 64 mb ram 2.0 gb hard drive larger 1-hop neighbor's text information: vmware.vmware vmware inc. publicly traded software company listed nyse stock ticker vmw dell technologies majority share holder vmware provides cloud computing virtualization software services one first commercially successful companies virtualize x86 architecture vmware desktop software runs microsoft windows linux macos enterprise software hypervisor servers vmware esxi bare-metal hypervisor runs directly server hardware without requiring additional underlying operating system 1998 vmware founded diane greene mendel rosenblum scott devine ellen wang edouard bugnion greene rosenblum married first met university california berkeley edouard bugnion remained chief architect cto vmware 2005 went found nuova systems part cisco first year vmware operated stealth mode roughly 20 employees end 1998 company launched officially early second year february 1999 demo conference organized chris shipley first product vmware workstation delivered may 1999 company entered server market 2001 vmware gsx server hosted vmware esx server hostless 2003 vmware launched vmware virtual center vmotion virtual smp technology 64-bit support introduced 2004 january 9 2004 terms definitive agreement announced december 15 2003 emc dell emc acquired company 625 million cash august 14 2007 emc sold 15 vmware public via initial public offering shares priced per share closed day july 8 2008 disappointing financial performance board directors fired vmware co-founder president ceo diane greene replaced paul maritz retired 14-year microsoft veteran heading emc cloud computing business unit greene ceo since company founding ten years earlier september 10 2008 mendel rosenblum company co-founder chief scientist husband diane greene resigned september 16 2008 vmware announced collaboration cisco systems one result cisco nexus 1000v distributed virtual software switch integrated option vmware infrastructure april 2011 emc transferred control mozy backup service vmware april 12 2011 vmware released open-source platform-as-a-service system called cloud foundry well hosted version service supported application deployment java ruby rails sinatra node.js scala well database support mysql mongodb redis postgres rabbitmq march 2013 vmware announced corporate spin-off pivotal software general electric making investment company vmware application- developer-oriented products including spring tc server cloud foundry rabbitmq gemfire sqlfire transferred organization may 2013 vmware launched iaas service vcloud hybrid service new palo alto headquarters vcloud hybrid service rebranded vcloud air subsequently sold cloud provider ovh announcing early access program las vegas data center service designed function extension customer existing vsphere installations full compatibility existing virtual machines virtualized vmware software tightly integrated networking service based vcloud director 5.1/vsphere 5.1 september 2013 vmworld san francisco vmware announced general availability vcloud hybrid service expansion sterling virginia santa clara california dallas texas service beta uk announced acquisition desktone october 2013 january 2016 anticipation dell acquisition emc vmware announced restructuring reduce 800 positions executives resigned entire development team behind vmware workstation fusion disbanded us developers immediately fired april 24 2016 maintenance release 12.1.1 released september 8 2016 vmware announced release workstation 12.5 fusion 8.5 free upgrade supporting windows 10 windows server 2016 april 2016 vmware president coo carl eschenbach left vmware join sequoia capital martin casado vmware general manager networking security business left join andreessen horowitz analysts commented cultures dell emc emc vmware different said heard impending corporate cultural collisions potentially radical product overlap pruning would cause many emc vmware personnel leave vmware ceo pat gelsinger following rumours categorically denied would leave august 2016 vmware introduced vmware cloud provider website new branch role funneling cloud related information central source cloud provider technology content thanks “ services first ” approach cloud providers find differentiated monetizable services deliver leveraging vmware ’ platform latest case studies demos blogs architecture toolkits vmware available one place mozy transferred dell 2016 merger dell emc april 2017 according glassdoor vmware ranked 3rd list highest paying companies united states q2 2017 vmware sold vcloud air french cloud service provider ovh march 2015 software freedom conservancy announced funding litigation christoph hellwig hamburg germany vmware alleged violation copyrights esxi product sfc claimed vmware using linux kernel busybox without respecting terms gpl copyright license vmware told journalists believed case without merit expressed disappointment conservancy resorted litigation lawsuit dismissed court july 2016 hellwig announced would file appeal appeal decided february 2019 dismissed german court basis meeting procedural requirements burden proof plaintiff vmware notable products hypervisors vmware became well known first type 2 hypervisor known gsx product since evolved two hypervisor products lines vmware type 1 hypervisors running directly hardware hosted type 2 hypervisors vmware software provides completely virtualized set hardware guest operating system vmware software virtualizes hardware video adapter network adapter hard disk adapters host provides pass-through drivers guest usb serial parallel devices way vmware virtual machines become highly portable computers every host looks nearly identical guest practice system administrator pause operations virtual machine guest move copy guest another physical computer resume execution exactly point suspension alternatively enterprise servers feature called vmotion allows migration operational guest virtual machines similar separate hardware hosts sharing storage vmotion storage separate storage used transitions completely transparent users virtual machine time migrated vmware workstation server esx take optimized path running target operating systems host emulators bochs simulate function cpu instruction target machine one-by-one dynamic recompilation compiles blocks machine-instructions first time execute uses translated code directly code runs subsequently microsoft virtual pc macos takes approach vmware software emulate instruction set different hardware physically present significantly boosts performance cause problems moving virtual machine guests hardware hosts using different instruction sets found 64-bit intel amd cpus hardware hosts differing number cpus software cpu agnostic usually survive transition unless agnostic forking startup case software guest os must stopped moving restarted move vmware products predate virtualization extensions x86 instruction set require virtualization-enabled processors newer processors hypervisor designed take advantage extensions however unlike many hypervisors vmware still supports older processors cases uses cpu run code directly whenever possible example running user-mode virtual 8086 mode code x86 direct execution operate kernel-level real-mode code vmware products use binary translation bt re-write code dynamically translated code gets stored spare memory typically end address space segmentation mechanisms protect make invisible reasons vmware operates dramatically faster emulators running 80 speed virtual guest operating system would run directly hardware one study vmware claims slowdown native ranging 0–6 percent vmware esx server vmware approach avoids difficulties virtualization x86-based platforms virtual machines may deal offending instructions replacing simply running kernel code user mode replacing instructions runs risk code may fail find expected content reads one protect code reading allowing normal execution replacing place becomes complicated running code unmodified user mode also fail instructions read machine state cause exception betray real state program certain instructions silently change behavior user mode one must always rewrite performing simulation current program counter original location necessary notably remapping hardware code breakpoints although vmware virtual machines run user mode vmware workstation requires installation various device drivers host operating system notably dynamically switch global descriptor table gdt interrupt descriptor table idt vmware product line also run different operating systems dual-boot system simultaneously booting one partition natively using guest within vmware workstation vmware esxi enterprise software product deliver greater performance freeware vmware server due lower system computational overhead vmware esxi bare-metal product runs directly server hardware allowing virtual servers also use hardware less directly addition vmware esxi integrates vmware vcenter offers extra services vmware workspace portal self-service app store workspace management vmware storage availability products composed two primary offerings vmware nsx vmware network virtualization product marketed using term software-defined data center sddc technology included acquired 2012 purchase nicira workspace one allows mobile users access apps data vix virtual infrastructure extension api allows automated scripted management computer virtualized using either vmware vsphere workstation player fusion products vix provides bindings programming languages c perl visual basic vbscript c Target text information: thinkpad.thinkpad thinkpad line business-oriented laptop computers tablets designed developed marketed sold lenovo formerly ibm thinkpads known minimalist black boxy design initially modeled 1990 industrial designer richard sapper based concept traditional japanese bento lunchbox revealing nature opened according later interviews sapper also characterized simple thinkpad form elementary simple black cigar box similar proportions offers 'surprise opened thinkpad line first developed ibm yamato facility japan led arimasa naitoh dubbed father thinkpad first thinkpads released october 1992 considered innovative became large success ibm decade thinkpads especially popular businesses older models revered technology enthusiasts collectors power users due durable design relatively high resale value abundance aftermarket replacement parts thinkpads received somewhat cult following small loyal fanbase throughout years aftermarket parts developed models custom motherboards current processors created x60 x200 thinkpad laptops used outer space 2003 laptops certified use international space station name thinkpad product ibm corporate history culture thomas j. watson sr. first introduced think ibm slogan 1920s every minicomputer mainframe ibm installed almost leased – sold blue plastic sign placed atop operator console think command aluminum plate decades ibm distributed small notepads word think emblazoned brown leatherette cover customers employees name thinkpad suggested ibm employee denny wainwright think notepad pocket name opposed ibm corporate naming committee names ibm computers numeric time thinkpad kept due praise journalists public thinkpad ibm answer toshiba compaq notebook market well apple dec task making notebook given yamato facility japan led arimasa naitoh japanese man joined ibm 1970s dubbed father thinkpad ibm pushing thinkpad 1992 launch keep harvard business school happy april 1992 ibm announced first thinkpad tablet computer news conference first thinkpad tablet penpoint-based device formally known ibm 2521 thinkpad positioned developer release thinkpad tablet became available purchase general public october year addition giving innovative name ibm marketed thinkpad imaginative activities early customer pilot programs numerous pre-launch announcements extensive loaner program designed showcase product strengths weaknesses ibm even worked archaeologists excavating ancient egyptian city leontopolis field test thinkpad device loaned dig team summer resulting report documented thinkpad excellent performance difficult conditions report said thinkpad impressive machine rugged enough used without special care worst conditions egypt offer first thinkpad model announced april 1992 700 renamed 700t release three newer models 300 new 700 700c october 1992 bright red trackpoint kind pointing stick embedded keyboard enabled notebook used without external pointing device first thinkpads successful collecting 300 awards design quality thinkpad 755c laptop computers used payload general support computers aboard space shuttle 1990s thinkpad 760ed also tested part shuttle–mir program period 760ed computer used without modification model used space program contained intel 133 mega hertz pentium processor 48 megabytes ram four speed cd-rom power supply unit 1.44 megabyte floppy disk drive two 1.2 gigabyte hard drives accessories use space laptops subject radiation could cause errors 760ed noted improvement area 755c traditionally black thinkpads commonly featured magnesium carbon fiber reinforced plastic titanium composite cases thinkpad introduced innovations including trackpoint pointing device thinklight led keyboard light top lcd screen active protection system accelerometer sensor detects thinkpad falling shuts hard disk drive prevent damage roll cage design minimize motherboard flex stainless steel hinges biometric fingerprint reader client security solution improves security using built-in trusted platform module tpm facilitates deployment corporate environment thinkvantage technologies suite computer management applications drain holes help reduce damage keyboard components accidental spillage original design concept thinkpad created 1990 italy-based designer richard sapper corporate design consultant ibm since 2005 lenovo sapper noted design classic products tizio lamp artemide office chair knoll kitchenwares alessi ballpoint lamy design based concept traditional japanese bento lunchbox revealing nature opened according later interviews sapper also characterized simple thinkpad form elementary simple black cigar box similar proportions offers 'surprise opened computers also known iconic red trackpoint variation joystick middle keyboard first thinkpad notebook 700c announced 1992 first new product emerge ibm differentiated product personality strategy resulting collaboration sapper tom hardy head corporate ibm design program development 700c also involved close working relationship sapper kazuhiko yamazaki lead notebook designer ibm yamato design center japan liaison sapper yamato engineering 1990–1992 pre-internet collaboration italy japan facilitated special sony digital communications system transmitted high-res images telephone lines system established several key global design centers hardy ibm designers could visually communicate effectively interact directly sapper advice projects innovative design management leadership thinkpad development hardy named innovator year 1992 pc magazine since 1992 thinkpad design regularly updated developed refined years sapper respective teams ibm later lenovo included yamazaki tom takahashi sam lucente since 1995 david hill vice president user experience design leads manages design/user experience thinkpad hill approach maintaining evolution sapper original thinkpad design analogous porsche manages evolution classic 911 fold-out butterfly keyboard appeared thinkpad 701 series designed sapper collaboration sam lucente john karidis widely considered design masterpiece display museum modern art new york city thinkpad 760 series also included unusual keyboard design keyboard elevated two arms riding small rails side screen tilting keyboard achieve ergonomic design although almost models feature trackpoint models touchpad left right buttons possibly making mouse clicks less ergonomic touchpads x220 double regular mouse buttons also case newer models december 2013 cause problems accidental clicking much pressure exerted mouse movements occasion 20th anniversary thinkpad introduction david hill authored designed commemorative book thinkpad design titled thinkpad design spirit essence book revealed event held moma thinkpads especially popular businesses older models revered technology enthusiasts collectors power users due durable design relatively high resale value abundance aftermarket replacement parts thinkpads received somewhat cult following small loyal fanbase throughout years laptop magazine 2006 called thinkpad highest-quality laptop computer keyboard available ranked first reliability support pc magazine 2007 survey lenovo thinkpad pc magazine 2006 reader choice pc based laptops ranked number 1 support pc based laptops thinkpad series first product receive pc world hall fame award enderle group rob enderle said constant thing thinkpad brand stands quality build best keyboard business thinkpad x tablet-series pc magazine editor choice tablet pcs thinkpad x60s ranked number one ultraportable laptops pc world lasted 8 hours 21 minutes single charge 8-cell battery lenovo thinkpad x60s series pc world top 100 products 2006 2005 pc world reliability service survey ranked thinkpad products ahead brands reliability 2004 survey ranked second behind emachines lenovo named environment-friendly company electronics industry greenpeace 2007 since dropped place 14 17 october 2010 lenovo thinkpad t60p received editor choice award mobile graphic workstation pc magazine lenovo thinkpad x60 pc magazine editor choice among ultra-portable laptops lenovo thinkpad t400-series pc world top 100 products 2009 thinkpad laptops 2003 laptops certified use international space station 2017 currently operate linux windows xp windows vista software nasa purchased 500 thinkpad 750 laptops flight qualification software development crew training astronaut senator john glenn used thinkpad laptops spaceflight mission sts-95 1998 thinkpad models used shuttle missions include least three thinkpad 750c left spektr module mir module depressurized laptops used aboard space shuttle international space station feature safety operational improvements weightless environment must operate modifications include velcro tape attach surfaces upgrades cpu video card cooling fans accommodate microgravity hotter air n't rise lower density cabin air adapter station 28 volt dc power thinkpad 750 flew aboard space shuttle endeavour mission repair hubble space telescope 2 december 1993 thinkpad 750c task run nasa test program determined radiation inherent space environment causes memory anomalies 750c generates unexpected problems 755c also used 760ed tested well part shuttle–mir test thinkpads used conjunction joystick portable in-flight landing operations trainer pilot throughout 2006 thinkpad a31p used service module central post international space station seven thinkpad a31p laptops service orbit aboard international space station 2010 space station equipped 68 thinkpad a31 computers along 32 new lenovo thinkpad t61p laptops plus dedicated ip phone also limited video phone capabilities work incorporating laptops station lan continued june 2011 laptops aboard iss connected station lan via wi-fi connected ground 3 mbit/s 10 mbit/s comparable home dsl connection speeds 2005 chinese technology company lenovo purchased ibm personal computer business thinkpad flagship brand along speaking purchase ibm personal computer division liu chuanzhi said benefited three ways ibm acquisition got thinkpad brand ibm advanced pc manufacturing technology company international resources global sales channels operation teams three elements shored sales revenue past several years although lenovo acquired right use ibm brand name five years acquisition ibm personal computer business lenovo used three years majority thinkpad computers since 2005 acquisition brand lenovo made china addition chinese manufacturing facilities lenovo employs 300 people combined manufacturing distribution center near american headquarters morrisville north carolina device made facility packed box sports red-white-and-blue sticker proclaiming whitsett north carolina 2012 lenovo partially moved production thinkpad line computers japan thinkpads produced nec yonezawa yamagata akaemi watanabe president lenovo japan said japanese glad see return domestic production goal realize full-scale production improve image make products acceptable japanese customers 2014 although sales rose 5.6 percent previous year lenovo lost position top commercial notebook maker however company celebrated milestone 2015 shipment 100 millionth unit thinkpad line lenovo laptops x230 w530 t430 block third-party batteries lenovo calls feature battery safeguard first introduced models may 2012 laptops feature scan security chips thinkpad-branded batteries contain affected thinkpads flash message stating genuine lenovo battery attached third-party batteries used thinkpad yoga ultrabook-class convertible device functions laptop tablet computer yoga gets name consumer-oriented ideapad yoga line computers form factor thinkpad yoga backlit keyboard flattens flipped tablet mode accomplished platform surrounding keys rises level keyboard buttons locking mechanism prevents key presses feet pop prevent keyboard directly resting flat surfaces lenovo implemented design response complaints earlier yoga 13 11 models awkward use tablet mode reinforced hinge required implement design convertible form factor thinkpad yoga retains standard thinkpad features black magnesium-reinforced chassis island keyboard red trackpoint large buttonless trackpad released august 2011 thinkpad tablet first lenovo line business-oriented tablets thinkpad brand tablet described gadget mix premium business tablet since tablet primarily business-oriented includes features security anti-theft software ability remotely disable tablet sd card encryption layered data encryption cisco virtual private network vpn additionally thinkpad tablet able run software ibm lotus notes traveler stylus could used write notes tablet also included software convert handwritten content text another feature tablet drag-and-drop utility designed take advantage tablet touch capabilities feature could used transfer data usb devices internal storage sd card slashgear summarized thinkpad tablet saying stylus styling add distinctive slate n't merely attempt ape apple ipad order celebrate 20th anniversary thinkpad lenovo held large party new york announced several products including tablet 2 lenovo says thinkpad tablet 2 available 28 october 2012 windows 8 released thinkpad tablet 2 runs windows 8 professional operating system able run desktop software compatible version windows tablet 2 based clover trail version intel atom processor customized tablets tablet 2 2 gigabytes ram 64gb ssd tablet 2 10.1-inch ips display 16:9 aspect ratio resolution preview cnet wrote windows 8 looked readable functional metro standard windows-based interfaces mini-hdmi port included video output 8-megapixel rear camera 2-megapixel front camera included along noise-canceling microphone order facilitate video conferencing announced released january 2014 thinkpad 8 based intel bay trail atom z3770 processor 2 gb ram 128 gb built-in storage thinkpad 8 8.3-inch ips display 16:10 aspect ratio resolution pixels features include aluminum chassis micro-hdmi port 8-megapixel back camera flash optional 4g connectivity runs windows 8 operating system announced may 2014 lenovo thinkpad 10 successor thinkpad tablet 2 scheduled launch summer 2014 along accessories docking station external detachable magnetic keyboards used windows 8.1 pro operating system available 64 128gb variants 1.6ghz quad-core intel atom baytrail processor 2gb 4gb ram optionally supported 3g 4g lte display resolution announced paired stylus pen thinkpad x1 tablet fanless tablet powered core cpus available 4 8 16gb lpddr3 ram sata pcie nvme ssds 1tb ips screen supports touch pen input thinkpad 11e budget laptop computer schools students 11-inch screen without trackpoint 11e yoga convertible version 11e e series low-cost thinkpad line designed small business mass-market requirements currently contains 14 15 sub-lines e series line laptops replaced lenovo edge series somewhere countries currently may 2019 offered thinkpad edge/e series names l series replaced former r series positioned mid-range thinkpad offering mainstream intel core i3/i5/i7 cpus l series 3 sub-lines long-running 14 15.6 launched line two models l412 l512 2010 2018 also 13 l380 available replaces thinkpad 13 main difference e series l series basic mil-std-810 certification l series thinkpads series historically high-end features magnesium alloy rollcages high-density ips screens known flexview discontinued t60 series 7-row keyboards screen latches lenovo ultrabay thinklight models included 14.1-inch 15.4-inch displays available 4:3 16:10 aspect ratios since 2012 entire thinkpad line given complete overhaul modifications removal separate buttons use trackpoint reintroduced 2015 removal separate audio control buttons removal screen latch removal led indicator lights new ultra-portable models t430u t431s non-replaceable batteries newer models combination built-in replaceable battery enabling user switch replaceable without putting computer hibernation also non-widescreen displays longer available 16:9 aspect ratio remaining choice x series main high-end ultraportable thinkpad line offering lightweight highly portable laptop moderate performance current sub-lines x series includes daughter line includes x1 tablet confused 2005-2013 x series tablets mainstream current workhorse models x390 x390 yoga 13 successors classic discountinued 12 line lenovo x series thinkpads premium 14 /15 thin-and-light line 13.3 thinkpad models x300/x301 ultrabay cd-rom removable battery replaced modern premium x1-series ultrabook line x1 carbon x1 yoga x1 extreme sub-series discountinued mainstream lines 12 x200 x201 x220 models could ordered high-end thinkpad features like trackpoint thinklight 7-row keyboard docking port hot-swappable hdd solid magnesium case optional slice battery discontinued 12.5 x220 x230 still featured roll cage thinklight optional premium ips display first ips display non-tablet thinkpad since t60p 7-row keyboard offered x220 however lacked lid latch mechanism present previous x200 x201 versions discontinued slim 12 line contained x200s x201s low power cpus high resolution displays x230s low power cpus 12.5 x series thinkpads x240 later simplified design last 12 x280 model trackpoint feature partially magnesium case simplified docking port obsolete low-cost 11.6 netbook line x100e x120e plastic lacking latch thinklight using variant island keyboard known chiclet keyboard found edge series x100e also offered red addition blue white countries like high-end netbooks whereas x200 series like full ultraportables featuring intel core previously core 2 celeron series cpus rather amd netbook cpus x series tablet suffixes outdated variant 12 x series models low voltage cpus flip-screen tablet resistive touchscreen include traditional thinkpad features noted using higher quality affs-type screen better viewing angles compared screens used thinkpads p series line laptops replaced lenovo w series p series excluding models suffix designed engineers architects animators etc comes variety high-end options p series models included fingerprint readers first generation comes variety high-end options intel xeon processors 4k screens ddr4 ram 64gb 1080p screens intel core series cpus pcie ssds come standard p series uses cooling system known flex features two fans connected heat pipe located near cpu gpu three-button touchpad included color calibrator dropped nvidia pascal gpus new dock stations side connection port hardware update optional oled screen p1 gen2 thinkpad stack line products includes accessories designed portability interoperability line includes external hard drives wireless router power bank bluetooth 4.0 speaker stack device includes rubber feet magnets pogo-pin power connections allow use single cable combined weight stack devices slightly less two pounds stack series announced january 2015 international ces stack series accessories expanded 2016 international ces include 720p resolution projector 150 lumens brightness wireless charging station stack blocky black rectangular look thinkpad logo shares common design language thinkpad laptop computers dock stations finder thinkpad usb 3.0 secure hard drive thinkpad keyboards thinkpad stands japan-only thinkpad 235 type 2607 progeny ibm/ricoh rios project also known clavius chandra2 contains unusual features like presence three pcmcia slots use dual camcorder batteries source power features intel pentium mmx 233 mhz cpu support 160 mb edo memory built-in hard drive udma support hitachi marketed chandra2 prius note 210 ultraportable thinkpad 240 x z started intel celeron processor went 600 mhz intel pentium iii models using intel 440bx chipset ram expandable 320 mb max bios update screen key pitch standard key pitch also one first thinkpad series contain built-in mini pci card slot form factor 3b 240s optical disc drives external floppy drive optional extended battery sticks bottom like bar props back laptop weighing smallest lightest thinkpads ever made 300-series 300 310 340 350 360 365 380 385 390 various sub-series long-running value series starting 386sl/25 processor way pentium iii 450 300 series offered slightly lower-price alternative 700 series exceptions thinkpad 360pe unique model series could used regular laptop transform tablet flipping monitor top retailing 3,699 1995 360pe featured touch sensitive monitor operated stylus machine could run operating systems supported touch screen pendos 2.2 500-series 500 510 560 e x z 570 e main line ultraportable thinkpads starting 486slc2-50 blue lightning pentium iii 500 machines hard disk board drives external 570 case ultrabase weighed around 600-series 600 600e 600x direct predecessors series 600-series packed svga xga tft lcd pentium mmx pentium ii iii processor full-sized keyboard optical bay package weighing roughly ibm able create light fully featured machine using lightweight strong carbon fiber composite plastics battery shipped 600-series models manufacturing defect left vulnerable memory effect resulted poor battery life problem avoided use third-party battery 700-series 700 701 720 730 tablet 750 755 760 765 770 various sub-models considered cutting-edge intel-based thinkpads featured best screens largest hard drives fastest processors available time first successful thinkpad introduced 1992 first thinkpad tablet pc 700t model without keyboard mouse thinkpad 800-series 800/820/821/822/823/850/851/860 unique based powerpc architecture rather intel x86 architecture 800 series laptops used powerpc 603e cpu speeds 100 mhz 166 mhz 860 model although earliest 800 type 6020 direct ancestor 850 used 603 apparently offered developers units used scsi-2 instead ide hard disks id every scsi device system could configured cursor driven gui-based bios another unusual aspect series unique startup chime reminiscent apple macintosh computers time powerpc thinkpad line considerably expensive standard x86 thinkpads—even modestly configured 850 cost upwards 12,000 hand 800 850 851 later 860 861 capable supporting optional web camera one first commercially available webcams available laptop units could also record pal ntsc signals onboard composite connectors batteries contained internal processors regulate power usage optimized battery longevity powerpc thinkpads could run windows nt 3.5 4.0 os/2 warp connect powerpc edition aix 4.1.x solaris desktop 2.5.1 powerpc edition many powerpc operating systems corresponding compilers scarce hard find however also possible run certain powerpc versions linux 800 series thinkpad series introduced ibm 1999 geared towards multimedia focus many models featuring independent integrated cd players multimedia access buttons 1400 1500 models designed acer ibm contract featured similar hardware found acer laptops including ali chipsets three way audio jacks internal plastics painted copper paint series thinkpads particularly acer developed models prone broken hinges stress damage chassis one notable thinkpad series lineup s3x s30/s31 models featuring unique keyboard lid design allowing standard size keyboard fit chassis otherwise would n't able support protruding keyboard models largely available asia pacific ibm offered optional piano black lid models designed yamato design lab thinkpad since 701c feature special design accommodate keyboard physically larger laptop also thinkpad aside z61 deviate away standard matte lid a-series developed all-around productivity machine equipped hardware powerful enough make desktop replacement hence biggest heaviest thinkpad series time also features even found t-series age a-series dropped favor g-series r-series a31 released 2002 desktop replacement system equipped pentium 4-m processor clocked 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 ghz max supported 2.6 ghz ati mobility radeon 7500 128 256 mb pc2100 ram officially upgradable 1 gb unofficially upgraded 2 gb ibm high rate wireless prism 2.5 based modified support wpa-tkip equipped 20 30 40 gb hard disk drive r series budget line beginning r30 2001 ending r400 r500 presented 2008 successor r400 r500 models thinkpad l series l412 l512 models notable model r50p optional 15 ips lcd screen introduced 2003 g-series consisted three models g40 g41 g50 large heavy machines equipped powerful desktop processors line thinkpads consequently served mainly replacements desktop computers z series released high-end multimedia laptop result first thinkpad feature widescreen 16:10 aspect ratio display z-series also unique certain models featured optional titanium lid integrated wwan webcam also found configurations series ever included z60 z60m z60t z61 z61m z61t z61p latter first z-series thinkpad intel yonah dual core technology processor supports intel vt-x disabled bios turned bios update running fully virtualised operating systems via xen vmware therefore possible despite z61 carrying number t61 hardware z61 closer t60 likewise z60 closer t43 15-year anniversary thinkpad model based x60s laptop model initially known inside lenovo scout name horse ridden tonto sidekick 1950s television series lone ranger lenovo envisioned scout high-end thinkpad would analogous luxury car unit covered fine leather embossed owners initials extensive market research conducted consumers would perceive form factor determined appreciated emphasised warmth nature human relations technology scout soon renamed thinkpad reserve edition came bundled premium services including dedicated 24-hour technical support hotline would answered immediately released 2007 sold 5,000 united states sl series launched 2008 low-end thinkpad targeted mainly geared toward small businesses lacked several traditional thinkpad features thinklight magnesium alloy roll cage ultrabay lid latch use 6-row keyboard different layout traditional 7-row thinkpad keyboard also sl-series models ideapad-based firmware models offered included 14 sl400 sl410 15.6 sl500 sl510 13.3 model sl300 previously offered discontinued w series introduced 2008 replace p-suffixed performance series e.g t61p geared towards cad users photographers power users others need high-performance system demanding tasks w530 released june 2012 minimum specifications include intel core i5 i7 cpu 15.6 hd screen nvidia quadro k1000m graphics processor four dimm slots capable accepting maximum 32 gb ram previously available w7xx series 17 widescreen model w500 15.4 16:10 ratio model w510 15.6 16:9 ratio model w520 15.6 16:9 ratio model w700ds w701ds two displays 17 main lcd 10 slide-out secondary lcd w7xx series also available wacom digitizer built palm rest high-performance workstation models offered high-end components quad core cpus higher-end workstation graphics compared t-series powerful thinkpad laptops available w540 retained thinklight ultrabay roll cage lid latch found t-series w540 release marked end lid latch thinklight hot-swappable ultrabays found earlier models thinkpad w series discontinued replaced p series mobile workstations edge series released early 2010 small business consumer-end machines design radical departure compared traditional black boxy thinkpad design glossy surfaces optional matte finish later models rounded corners silver trim also offered red first traditionally black thinkpads like sl series targeted towards small businesses consumers lack roll cage ultrabay lid latch thinklight traditional thinkpads though 2011 e220s e420s thinklights also introduced island-style keyboard significantly different layout models included 12.5 e220 e220s 13.3 edge 13 14 edge 14 e420 e420s 15.6 edge 15 e520 e545 sizes 11.6 edge 11 model offered available united states series positioned mid-range thinkpad offering containing ultrabooks derived edge series august 2013 series includes s531 s440 models cases made aluminum magnesium alloy available silver gunmetal colors lenovo thinkpad twist s230u laptop/tablet computer hybrid aimed high-end users twist gets name screen ability twist manner converts device tablet twist 12.5 screen makes use intel core i7 processor ssd technology lieu hard drive review engadget dana wollman wrote lately feel like reviews windows 8 convertibles end way thinkpad twist plenty going bright ips display good port selection affordable price unrivaled typing experience like thinkpads past also offers useful software features businesses lacking dedicated departments good things road warrior battery barely lasts four hours something tells us twist still appeal lenovo loyalists folks trust thinkpad build quality would n't caught dead using keyboard 're brand-agnostic though windows 8 convertibles comfortable keyboards – mention sharper screens faster performance longer battery life helix convertible laptop satisfying tablet conventional notebook users uses rip flip design allows user detach display replace facing different direction sports 11.6 full hd 1920 × 1080 display support windows 8 multi-touch essential processing hardware contained display assembly multitouch capability detached monitor used standalone tablet computer helix high-end hardware build quality including gorilla glass stylus-based input intel vpro hardware-based security features designed appeal business users review published forbes jason evangelho wrote first laptop owned thinkpad t20 next one may likely thinkpad helix lenovo unveiled ces 2013 sea touch-inspired windows 8 hardware first ultrabook convertible form factor gets everything right first batch windows 8 ultrabooks get high marks inspired designs n't quite flexible enough truly byod bring device solutions lenovo ideapad yoga came close sensation feeling keyboard underneath fingers transformed tablet mode slightly jarring dell xps 12 solved problem clever rotating hinge design wanted ability remove tablet display entirely products thinkpad 13 also known thinkpad s2 mainland china budget model 13-inch screen versions running windows 10 google chrome os options powerful configuration skylake core i7 processor 512gb ssd connectivity includes hdmi usb 3.0 onelink+ usb type-c etc weighs thick 2017 second generation ultrabook model released kaby lake core i7 processor fhd touchscreen available certain countries lineup merged l-series 2018 l380 successor 13 second generation lenovo released 25th anniversary retro thinkpad 25 october 2017 model based t470 difference 7-row classic keyboard layout found −20 series logo received splash colour reminiscent ibm era last thinkpad models 7-row keyboard introduced 2011 september 2017 lenovo announced two thinkpad models featuring amd pro chipset technology – a275 a475 sees revival series nameplate seen since early 2000s thinkpads ibm ownership however likely moniker emphasised uses amd technology rather comparative product segment workstation class previous line n't first time lenovo offered amd derived thinkpad first released alternative premium offering established series x series thinkpads use intel chipsets instead I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	3,304	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: anti-spam_techniques.anti-spam techniques various anti-spam techniques used prevent email spam unsolicited bulk email technique complete solution spam problem trade-offs incorrectly rejecting legitimate email false positives opposed rejecting spam false negatives – associated costs time effort cost wrongfully obstructing good mail anti-spam techniques broken four broad categories require actions individuals automated email administrators automated email senders employed researchers law enforcement officials number techniques individuals use restrict availability email addresses goal reducing chance receiving spam sharing email address among limited group correspondents one way limit chance address harvested targeted spam similarly forwarding messages number recipients n't know one another recipient addresses put bcc field recipient get list recipients email addresses email addresses posted webpages usenet chat rooms vulnerable e-mail address harvesting address munging practice disguising e-mail address prevent automatically collected way still allow human reader reconstruct original email address nowiki no-one example.com /nowiki might written no-one example dot com instance related technique display part email address image jumbled text order characters restored using css common piece advice reply spam messages spammers may simply regard responses confirmation email address valid similarly many spam messages contain web links addresses user directed follow removed spammer mailing list – treated dangerous case sender addresses often forged spam messages responding spam may result failed deliveries – may reach completely innocent third parties businesses individuals sometimes avoid publicising email address asking contact come via contact form webpage – typically forwards information via email forms however sometimes inconvenient users able use preferred email client risk entering faulty reply address typically notified delivery problems contact forms drawback require website appropriate technology many modern mail programs incorporate web browser functionality display html urls images avoiding disabling feature help avoid spam may however useful avoid problems user opens spam message offensive images tracked web bugs targeted javascript attacks upon security vulnerabilities html renderer mail clients automatically download display html images attachments fewer risks clients configured display default email user may sometimes need give address site without complete assurance site owner use sending spam one way mitigate risk provide disposable email address — address user disable abandon forwards email real account number services provide disposable address forwarding addresses manually disabled expire given time interval expire certain number messages forwarded disposable email addresses used users track whether site owner disclosed address security breach systems use ham passwords ask unrecognised senders include email password demonstrates email message ham spam message typically email address ham password would described web page ham password would included subject line email message appended username part email address using plus addressing technique ham passwords often combined filtering systems let messages identified ham tracking spammer isp reporting offense lead spammer service terminated criminal prosecution unfortunately difficult track spammer online tools spamcop network abuse clearinghouse assist always accurate historically reporting spam way played large part abating spam since spammers simply move operation another url isp network ip addresses many countries consumers may also forward unwanted deceptive commercial email authorities e.g us email address spam uce.gov maintained us federal trade commission ftc similar agencies countries large number applications appliances services software systems email administrators use reduce load spam systems mailboxes general attempt reject block majority spam email outright smtp connection stage accept message typically analyze content – may decide quarantine categorised spam number systems developed allow domain name owners identify email authorized many systems use dns list sites authorized send email behalf many proposals spf dkim dmarc widely supported growing adoption directly attacking spam systems make much harder spoof addresses common technique spammers also used phishing types fraud via email method may used internet service providers specialized services enterprises combat spam require unknown senders pass various tests messages delivered strategies termed challenge/response systems checksum-based filter exploits fact messages sent bulk identical small variations checksum-based filters strip everything might vary messages reduce remains checksum look checksum database distributed checksum clearinghouse collects checksums messages email recipients consider spam people button email client click nominate message spam checksum database message likely spam avoid detected way spammers sometimes insert unique invisible gibberish known hashbusters middle messages make message unique checksum email servers expect never communicate particular countries receive great deal spam therefore use country-based filtering – technique blocks email certain countries technique based country origin determined sender ip address rather trait sender large number free commercial dns-based blacklists dnsbls allow mail server quickly look ip incoming mail connection reject listed administrators choose scores dnsbls reflects different policies list sites known emit spam others list open mail relays proxies others list isps known support spam spam/phishing messages contain url entice victims clicking thus popular technique since early 2000s consists extracting urls messages looking databases spamhaus domain block list dbl surbl uribl many spammers use poorly written software unable comply standards legitimate control computer using send spam zombie computer setting tighter limits deviation rfc standards mta accept mail administrator reduce spam significantly also runs risk rejecting mail older poorly written configured servers greeting delay – sending server required wait received smtp greeting banner sends data deliberate pause introduced receiving servers allow detect deny spam-sending applications wait receive banner temporary rejection – greylisting technique built fact smtp protocol allows temporary rejection incoming messages greylisting temporarily rejects messages unknown senders mail servers – using standard 4xx error codes compliant mtas proceed retry delivery later many spammers spambots downside legitimate messages first-time senders experience delay delivery helo/ehlo checking – says smtp server may verify domain name argument ehlo command actually corresponds ip address client however verification fails server must refuse accept message basis systems however configured invalid pipelining – several smtp commands allowed placed one network packet pipelined example email sent cc header several smtp rcpt commands might placed single packet instead one packet per rcpt command smtp protocol however requires errors checked everything synchronized certain points many spammers send everything single packet since care errors efficient mtas detect invalid pipelining reject email sent way nolisting – email servers given domain specified prioritized list via mx records nolisting technique simply adding mx record pointing non-existent server primary i.e lowest preference value – means initial mail contact always fail many spam sources retry failure spammer move next victim legitimate email servers retry next higher numbered mx normal email delivered brief delay quit detection – smtp connection always closed quit command many spammers skip step spam already sent taking time properly close connection takes time bandwidth mtas capable detecting whether connection closed correctly use measure trustworthy system another approach simply imitation mta gives appearance open mail relay imitation tcp/ip proxy server gives appearance open proxy spammers probe systems open relays/proxies find host attempt send mail wasting time resources potentially revealing information origin spam sending entity operates honeypot system may simply discard spam attempts submit dnsbls store analysis spamassassin policyd-weight others use various tests spam assigns numerical score test message scanned patterns applicable scores tallied total fixed value message rejected flagged spam ensuring single spam test flag message spam false positive rate greatly reduced outbound spam protection involves scanning email traffic exits network identifying spam messages taking action blocking message shutting source traffic primary impact spam spam recipients sending networks also experience financial costs wasted bandwidth risk ip addresses blocked receiving networks outbound spam protection stops spam also lets system administrators track spam sources network remediate – example clearing malware machines become infected virus participating botnet ptr dns records reverse dns used number things including content filtering techniques rely specification lists words regular expressions disallowed mail messages thus site receives spam advertising herbal viagra administrator might place phrase filter configuration mail server would reject message containing phrase header filtering looks header email contains information origin destination content message although spammers often spoof fields header order hide identity try make email look legitimate many spoofing methods detected violation rfc 5322 standard header formed also serve basis rejecting message since large percentage spam forged invalid sender addresses spam detected checking address valid mail server try verify sender address making smtp connection back mail exchanger address creating bounce stopping email sent callback verification various drawbacks 1 since nearly spam forged return addresses nearly callbacks innocent third party mail servers unrelated spam 2 spammer uses trap address sender address receiving mta tries make callback using trap address mail command receiving mta ip address blacklisted 3 finally standard vrfy expn commands used verify address exploited spammers mail administrators enable leaving receiving smtp server effective way validate sender email address smtp proxies allow combating spam real time combining sender behavior controls providing legitimate users immediate feedback eliminating need quarantine spamtrapping seeding email address spammers find normal users email address used sender must spammer black listed example email address spamtrap example.org placed source html web site way n't displayed web page human visitors website would see spammers hand use web page scrapers bots harvest email addresses html source code would find address spammer later sends address spamtrap knows highly likely spammer take appropriate action statistical bayesian filtering set requires administrative maintenance per se instead users mark messages spam nonspam filtering software learns judgements thus matched end user needs long users consistently mark/tag emails respond quickly changes spam content statistical filters typically also look message headers considering content also peculiarities transport mechanism email software programs implement statistical filtering include bogofilter dspam spambayes assp crm114 email programs mozilla mozilla thunderbird mailwasher later revisions spamassassin tarpit server software intentionally responds extremely slowly client commands running tarpit treats acceptable mail normally known spam slowly appears open mail relay site slow rate spammers inject messages mail facility depending server internet speed tarpit slow attack factor around 500 many systems simply disconnect server n't respond quickly eliminate spam however legitimate email systems also deal correctly delays fundamental idea slow attack perpetrator waste time without significant success organization successfully deploy tarpit able define range addresses protocols ports deception process involves router passing supported traffic appropriate server sent contacts sent tarpit examples tarpits include labrea tarpit honeyd smtp tarpits ip-level tarpits variety techniques email senders use try make sure send spam failure control amount spam sent judged email receivers often cause even legitimate email blocked sender put dnsbls since spammer accounts frequently disabled due violations abuse policies constantly trying create new accounts due damage done isp reputation source spam many isps web email providers use captchas new accounts verify real human registering account automated spamming system also verify credit cards stolen accepting new customers check spamhaus project rokso list background checks malicious person easily attempt subscribe another user mailing list — harass make company organisation appear spamming prevent modern mailing list management programs gnu mailman listserv majordomo qmail ezmlm support confirmed opt-in default whenever email address presented subscription list software send confirmation message address confirmation message contains advertising content construed spam address added live mail list unless recipient responds confirmation message email senders typically type anti-spam checks email coming users customers inward email coming rest internet protects reputation could otherwise harmed case infection spam-sending malware receiving server initially fully accepts email later determines message spam non-existent recipient generate bounce message back supposed sender however often case spam sender information incoming email forged unrelated third party bounce message backscatter spam reason generally preferable rejection incoming email happen smtp connection stage 5xx error code sending server still connected case sending server report problem real sender cleanly firewalls routers programmed allow smtp traffic tcp port 25 machines network supposed run mail transfer agents send email practice somewhat controversial isps block home users especially isps allow blocking turned upon request email still sent computers designated smart hosts via port 25 smart hosts via email submission port 587 network address translation used intercept port 25 smtp traffic direct mail server enforces rate limiting egress spam filtering commonly done hotels cause email privacy problems well making impossible use starttls smtp-auth port 587 submission port n't used machines suddenly start sending lots email may well become zombie computers limiting rate email sent around typical computer question legitimate email still sent large spam runs slowed manual investigation done monitoring spam reports places spamcop aol feedback loop network abuse clearinghouse domain abuse mailbox etc. isps often learn problems seriously damage isp reputation mail servers blacklisted malicious software human spam senders often use forged addresses sending spam messages control may enforced smtp servers ensure senders use correct email address field outgoing messages email users database user record email address smtp server must check email address field outgoing message address belongs user credentials supplied smtp authentication field forged smtp error returned email client e.g email address trying send isps webmail providers either acceptable use policy aup terms service tos agreement discourages spammers using system allows spammer terminated quickly violations 2000 onwards many countries enacted specific legislation criminalize spamming appropriate legislation enforcement significant impact spamming activity legislation provides specific text bulk emailers must include also makes legitimate bulk email easier identify increasingly anti-spam efforts led co-ordination law enforcement researchers major consumer financial service companies internet service providers monitoring tracking email spam identity theft phishing activities gathering evidence criminal cases analysis sites spamvertised given piece spam often followed domain registrars good results several approaches proposed improve email system since spamming facilitated fact large volumes email inexpensive send one proposed set solutions would require senders pay cost order send email making prohibitively expensive spammers anti-spam activist daniel balsam attempts make spamming less profitable bringing lawsuits spammers artificial intelligence techniques deployed filtering spam emails artificial neural networks algorithms bayesian filters methods use probabilistic methods train networks examination concentration frequency words seen spam versus legitimate email contents channel email new proposal sending email attempts distribute anti-spam activities forcing verification probably using bounce messages back-scatter occur first email sent new contacts spam subject several research conferences including 1-hop neighbor's text information: feedback_loop_(email).feedback loop email feedback loop fbl sometimes called complaint feedback loop inter-organizational form feedback mailbox provider mp forwards complaints originating users sender organizations mps receive users complaints placing report spam buttons webmail pages email client via help desks message sender organization often email service provider come agreement mp want collect users complaints feedback loops one ways reporting spam whether provide fbl choice mp end users report abuse mailbox provider reporting hub also help filtering alternative competent users may send abuse complaints directly acting mailbox providers marketers striving mail delivered twofold advantage remove subscribers n't want receive kind advertising listwashing analyze complaint rate hence advertising meets market expectations unsubscribing users complain marketers reduce overall complaint rate per ip domain ensuring targeted mail much likely reach subscribers actually want receive esps playing sender role sensitive sending mail behalf customers may affect reputation monitoring complaint rate one ways control users sending weakness fbl relative asynchrony produce glitches possibly large time interval sits esp subscription fbl recipient clicking junk button interval click actual deletion recipient name list much shorter may noteworthy case huge mailbox providers gmail aol bulk messages provide information unsubscribe directly header fields codice_1 codice_2 besides providing direct better way unsubscribe also allows tell apart unsubscription junk reporting example one report message posted discussion list junk staying subscribed sketched process implies spencer besides author sender message connected postmaster responsible mail domain subscribing fbl usually involves postmaster authorization fbl subscriber may may forward abuse reports relevant authors subscribers exist given mail domain isaac omit sending abuse report fact subscriptions done one one laborious task mail domains engaged mass mailing may want skip addresses latter shortcoming proposing auto-subscribe just-in-time fbls started sending unsolicited abuse report directives minimum way unsubscribe ipsos noted majority respondents survey spam reporting marked messages spam based solely subject sender data years end users told trust email unsubscribe links many users hit spam button alternative unsubscribing consequently report spam may act unsubscribe cases one reasons hit unsubscribe links avoid confirming message received opened abuse reporting format arf standard format fbl reports much like bounce messages whose design inherited arf abuse report consists human readable part followed machine readable part original message report characterized feedback-type field whose values may indicate one abuse fraud virus types registered iana microsoft use name junk mail reporting jmr also use format google gmail beta testing non-traditional fbl select esps gmail uses format—an aggregate report reveals spam rate per notable sender sendgrid reports gmail fbl developed launched julian tempelsman sri somanchi effective identifying spam anti-spam systems miss 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_spamassassin.apache spamassassin apache spamassassin computer program used e-mail spam filtering uses variety spam-detection techniques including dns-based fuzzy-checksum-based spam detection bayesian filtering external programs blacklists online databases released apache license 2.0 part apache foundation since 2004 program integrated mail server automatically filter mail site also run individual users mailbox integrates several mail programs apache spamassassin highly configurable used system-wide filter still configured support per-user preferences apache spamassassin created justin mason maintained number patches earlier program named filter.plx mark jeftovic turn begun august 1997 mason rewrote jeftovic code scratch uploaded resulting codebase sourceforge april 20 2001 summer 2004 project became apache software foundation project later officially renamed apache spamassassin spamassassin 3.4.2 release first well three years developers say project picked new set developers moving forward apache spamassassin perl-based application mail :spamassassin cpan usually used filter incoming mail one several users run standalone application subprogram another application milter sa-exim exiscan mailscanner mimedefang amavis client spamc communicates daemon spamd client/server embedded mode operation performance benefits certain circumstances may introduce additional security risks typically either variant application set generic mail filter program called directly mail user agent supports whenever new mail arrives mail filter programs procmail made pipe incoming mail apache spamassassin adjustment user .procmailrc file apache spamassassin comes large set rules applied determine whether email spam rules based regular expressions matched body header fields message apache spamassassin also employs number spam-fighting techniques rules called tests spamassassin documentation test score value assigned message matches test criteria scores positive negative positive values indicating spam negative ham non-spam messages message matched tests apache spamassassin combines results global score assigned message higher score higher probability message spam apache spamassassin internal configurable score threshold classify message spam usually message considered spam matches multiple criteria matching single test usually enough reach threshold apache spamassassin considers message spam rewritten default configuration content mail appended mime attachment brief excerpt message body description tests resulted mail classified spam score lower defined settings default information tests passed total score still added email headers used post-processing less severe actions tagging mail suspicious apache spamassassin allows per-user configuration behavior even installed system-wide service configuration read file database configuration users specify individuals whose emails never considered spam change scores certain rules user also define list languages want receive mail apache spamassassin assigns higher score mails appear written another language apache spamassassin based heuristics pattern recognition software exhibits false positives false negatives apache spamassassin also supports methods added reasonably easily writing perl plug-in apache spamassassin apache spamassassin reinforces rules bayesian filtering user administrator feeds examples good ham bad spam filter order learn difference two purpose apache spamassassin provides command-line tool sa-learn instructed learn single mail entire mailbox either ham spam typically user move unrecognized spam separate folder run sa-learn folder non-spam folder spam separately alternatively mail user agent supports sa-learn called individual emails regardless method used perform learning spamassassin bayesian test help score future e-mails based learning improve accuracy apache spamassassin free/open source software licensed apache license 2.0 versions prior 3.0 dual-licensed artistic license gnu general public license codice_1 utility distributed apache spamassassin compiles spamassassin ruleset deterministic finite automaton allows apache spamassassin use processor power efficiently apache spamassassin designed trigger gtube 68-byte string similar antivirus eicar test file string inserted rfc 5322 formatted message passed apache spamassassin engine apache spamassassin trigger weight 1000 Target text information: distributed_checksum_clearinghouse.distributed checksum clearinghouse distributed checksum clearinghouse also referred dcc hash sharing method spam email detection basic logic dcc spam mails sent many recipients message body appearing many times therefore bulk email dcc identifies bulk email taking checksum sending checksum clearinghouse server server responds number times received checksum individual email create score 1 time processed bulk mail identified response number high content examined dcc works udp protocol uses little bandwidth dcc resistant hashbusters main dcc checksums fuzzy ignore aspects messages fuzzy checksums changed spam evolves dcc likely identify mailing lists bulk email unless white listed likewise repeatedly sending email server increases number server therefore likelihood treated spam others according official dcc website dcc based idea paul vixie fuzzy body matching reject spam corporate firewall operated vernon schryver starting 1997 dcc designed written rhyolite software starting 2000 used production since winter 2000/2001 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,495	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: self-service_password_reset.self-service password reset self-service password reset sspr defined process technology allows users either forgotten password triggered intruder lockout authenticate alternate factor repair problem without calling help desk common feature identity management software often bundled software package password synchronization capability typically users forgotten password launch self-service application extension workstation login prompt using another user web browser telephone call users establish identity without using forgotten disabled password answering series personal questions using hardware authentication token responding notification e-mail less often providing biometric sample voice recognition users either specify new unlocked password ask randomly generated one provided self-service password reset expedites problem resolution users fact thus reduces help desk call volume also used ensure password problems resolved adequate user authentication eliminating important weakness many help desks social engineering attacks intruder calls help desk pretends intended victim user claims forgotten account password asks new password rather merely asking users answer security questions modern password reset systems may also leverage sequence authentication steps despite benefits self-service password reset relies solely answers personal questions introduce new vulnerabilities since answers questions often obtained social engineering phishing techniques simple research users frequently reminded never reveal password less likely treat sensitive answers many commonly used security questions pet names place birth favorite movie much information may publicly available users personal home pages answers elicited someone pretending conduct opinion survey offering free dating service since many organizations standard ways determining login names real names attacker knows names several employees organization choose one whose security answers readily obtained vulnerability strictly due self-service password reset—it often exists help desk prior deployment automation self-service password reset technology often used reduce type vulnerability introducing stronger caller authentication factors human-operated help desk using prior deployment automation september 2008 yahoo e-mail account governor alaska vice president united states nominee sarah palin accessed without authorization someone able research answers two security questions zip code date birth able guess third met husband incident clearly highlighted choice security questions important prevent social engineering attacks password systems jakobsson stolterman wetzel yang proposed use preferences authenticate users password reset underlying insights preferences stable long period time publicly recorded approach includes two phases -- setup authentication setup user asked select items either like dislike several categories items dynamically selected big candidate set presented user random order authentication phase users asked classify preferences like dislike selected items displayed random order jakobsson stolterman wetzel yang evaluated security approach user experiments user emulations attacker simulations two-factor authentication 'strong authentication method adds another layer security password reset process cases consists preference based authentication plus second form physical authentication using something user possesses i.e smartcards usb tokens etc. one popular method sms email advanced sspr software requires user provide mobile phone number personal e-mail address setup event password reset pin code sent user phone email need enter code password reset process modern technology also allows authentication via voice biometrics using voice recognition technology major problem self-service password reset inside corporations similar organizations enabling users access system forgot primary password since sspr systems typically web-based users need launch web browser fix problem yet log workstation problem solved various approaches addressing catch-22 compromises e.g. desktop software deployment domain-wide password reset account telephone access visiting neighbour continuing call help desk etc. companies created software presents restricted web browser login screen sole ability access password reset page without logging system example novell client login extension technology technologies effectively give user access computer resources specifically web browser reset passwords without authenticating computer security high priority capabilities limited user expected mode two additional problems related one locked users conjunction preference-based authentication self-service password reset procedures could also rely network existing human relations among users scenario user forgot password asks colleague assistance helper colleague authenticates password reset application vouches user identity scenario problem changes one authenticating user forgot password one understanding users ability vouch users 1-hop neighbor's text information: login.login computer security logging logging signing signing process individual gains access computer system identifying authenticating user credentials typically form username matching password credentials sometimes referred login logon sign-in sign-on practice modern secure systems also often require second factor extra security access longer needed user log log sign sign logging usually used enter specific page trespassers see user logged login token may used track actions user taken connected site logging may performed explicitly user taking actions entering appropriate command clicking website link labeled also done implicitly user powering workstation closing web browser window leaving website refreshing webpage within defined period case websites use cookies track sessions user logs session-only cookies site usually deleted user computer addition server invalidates associations session making session-handle user cookie store useless feature comes handy user using public computer computer using public wireless connection security precaution one rely implicit means logging system especially public computer instead one explicitly log wait confirmation request taken place logging computer leaving common security practice preventing unauthorized users tampering also people choose password-protected screensaver set activate period inactivity requiring user re-enter login credentials unlock screensaver gain access system different methods logging may via image fingerprints eye scan password oral textual input etc terms became common time sharing systems 1960s bulletin board systems bbs 1970s early home computers personal computers generally require windows nt os/2 linux 1990s noun login comes verb log analogy verb clock computer systems keep log users access system term log comes chip log historically used record distance travelled sea recorded ship log log book sign connotes idea based analogy manually signing log visitors book agreed difference meaning three terms login logon sign different technical communities tend prefer one another – unix novell linux apple typically using login apple style guide saying users log file server log ... contrast microsoft style guides traditionally suggested opposite prescribed log logon past microsoft reserved sign accessing internet windows 8 onwards moved sign terminology local authentication 1-hop neighbor's text information: password_cracking.password cracking cryptanalysis computer security password cracking process recovering passwords data stored transmitted computer system common approach brute-force attack try guesses repeatedly password check available cryptographic hash password purpose password cracking might help user recover forgotten password installing entirely new password less security risk involves system administration privileges gain unauthorized access system preventive measure system administrators check easily crackable passwords file-by-file basis password cracking utilized gain access digital evidence judge allowed access particular file access restricted time crack password related bit strength see password strength measure password entropy details password stored methods password cracking require computer produce many candidate passwords checked one example brute-force cracking computer tries every possible key password succeeds common methods password cracking dictionary attacks pattern checking word list substitution etc attempt reduce number trials required usually attempted brute force higher password bit strength exponentially increases number candidate passwords must checked average recover password reduces likelihood password found cracking dictionary ability crack passwords using computer programs also function number possible passwords per second checked hash target password available attacker number billions trillions per second since offline attack possible rate depends whether authentication software limits often password tried either time delays captchas forced lockouts number failed attempts another situation quick guessing possible password used form cryptographic key cases attacker quickly check see guessed password successfully decodes encrypted data kinds password hash ordinary desktop computers test hundred million passwords per second using password cracking tools running general purpose cpu billions passwords per second using gpu-based password cracking tools see john ripper benchmarks rate password guessing depends heavily cryptographic function used system generate password hashes suitable password hashing function bcrypt many orders magnitude better naive function like simple md5 sha user-selected eight-character password numbers mixed case symbols commonly selected passwords dictionary matches filtered reaches estimated 30-bit strength according nist 2 one billion permutations would cracked seconds hashing function naive ordinary desktop computers combined cracking effort done botnets capabilities password cracking considerably extended 2002 distributed.net successfully found 64-bit rc5 key four years effort included 300,000 different computers various times generated average 12 billion keys per second graphics processors speed password cracking factor 50 100 general purpose computers 2011 available commercial products claim ability test 2,800,000,000 passwords second standard desktop computer using high-end graphics processor device crack 10 letter single-case password one day work distributed many computers additional speedup proportional number available computers comparable gpus emergence hardware acceleration past decade gpu resources used increase efficiency speed brute force attack 2012 stricture consulting group unveiled 25-gpu cluster achieved brute force attack speed 350 billion guesses per second allowing check formula_1password combinations 5.5 hours using ocl-hashcat plus virtual opencl cluster platform linux-based gpu cluster used crack 90 percent 6.5 million password hashes belonging users linkedin despite capabilities desktop cpus slower cracking passwords purpose-built password breaking machines 1998 electronic frontier foundation eff built dedicated password cracker using asics opposed general purpose cpus machine deep crack broke des 56-bit key 56 hours testing 90 billion keys per second 2010 georgia tech research institute developed method using gpgpu crack passwords coming minimum secure password length 12 characters passwords difficult remember reduce security system users might need write electronically store password using insecure method b users need frequent password resets c users likely re-use password similarly stringent requirements password strength e.g mix uppercase lowercase letters digits change monthly greater degree users subvert system memorability security passwords jeff yan et al examines effect advice given users good choice password found passwords based thinking phrase taking first letter word memorable naively selected passwords hard crack randomly generated passwords combining two unrelated words another good method personally designed algorithm generating obscure passwords another good method however asking users remember password consisting mix uppercase lowercase characters similar asking remember sequence bits hard remember little bit harder crack e.g 128 times harder crack 7-letter passwords less user simply capitalizes one letters asking users use letters digits often lead easy-to-guess substitutions e → 3 → 1 substitutions well known attackers similarly typing password one keyboard row higher common trick known attackers research detailed april 2015 paper several professors carnegie mellon university shows people choices password structure often follow several known patterns result passwords may much easily cracked mathematical probabilities would otherwise indicate passwords containing one digit example disproportionately include end password july 16 1998 cert reported incident attacker found 186,126 encrypted passwords time discovered already cracked 47,642 passwords december 2009 major password breach rockyou.com website occurred led release 32 million passwords attacker leaked full list 32 million passwords identifiable information internet passwords stored cleartext database extracted sql injection vulnerability imperva application defense center adc analysis strength passwords june 2011 nato north atlantic treaty organization experienced security breach led public release first last names usernames passwords 11,000 registered users e-bookshop data leaked part operation antisec movement includes anonymous lulzsec well hacking groups individuals july 11 2011 booz allen hamilton large american consulting firm substantial amount work pentagon servers hacked anonymous leaked day leak dubbed 'military meltdown monday includes 90,000 logins military personnel—including personnel uscentcom socom marine corps various air force facilities homeland security state department staff looks like private sector contractors leaked passwords wound hashed unsalted sha-1 later analyzed adc team imperva revealing even military personnel used passwords weak 1234 july 18 2011 microsoft hotmail banned password 123456 july 2015 group calling impact team stole user data ashley madison many passwords hashed using relatively strong bcrypt algorithm weaker md5 hash attacking latter algorithm allowed 11 million plaintext passwords recovered best method preventing password cracked ensure attackers get access even hashed password example unix operating system hashed passwords originally stored publicly accessible file /etc/passwd modern unix similar systems hand stored shadow password file /etc/shadow accessible programs running enhanced privileges i.e. system privileges makes harder malicious user obtain hashed passwords first instance however many collections password hashes stolen despite protection another strong approach combine site-specific secret key password hash prevents plaintext password recovery even hashed values purloined third approach use key derivation functions reduce rate passwords guessed unfortunately many common network protocols transmit passwords cleartext use weak challenge/response schemes modern unix systems replaced traditional des-based password hashing function crypt stronger methods bcrypt scrypt systems also begun adopt methods instance cisco ios originally used reversible vigenère cipher encrypt passwords uses md5-crypt 24-bit salt enable secret command used newer methods use large salt values prevent attackers efficiently mounting offline attacks multiple user accounts simultaneously algorithms also much slower execute drastically increases time required mount successful offline attack many hashes used storing passwords md5 sha family designed fast computation efficient implementation hardware result ineffective preventing password cracking especially methods like rainbow tables using key stretching algorithms pbkdf2 form password hashes significantly reduce rate passwords tested solutions like security token give formal proof answer constantly shifting password solutions abruptly reduce timeframe brute forcing attacker needs break use password within single shift reduce value stolen passwords short time validity 2013 long-term password hashing competition announced choose new standard algorithm password hashing many password cracking software tools popular aircrack cain abel john ripper hashcat hydra davegrohl elcomsoft many litigation support software packages also include password cracking functionality packages employ mixture cracking strategies algorithm brute force dictionary attacks proving productive increased availability computing power beginner friendly automated password cracking software number protection schemes allowed activity taken script kiddies Target text information: password_fatigue.password fatigue password fatigue feeling experienced many people required remember excessive number passwords part daily routine logon computer work undo bicycle lock conduct banking automated teller machine atm concept also known password chaos broadly identity chaos increasing prominence information technology internet employment finance recreation aspects people lives ensuing introduction secure transaction technology led people accumulating proliferation accounts passwords according 2002 survey british online-security consultant nta monitor typical intensive computer user 21 accounts require password factors causing password fatigue aside contributing stress password fatigue may encourage people adopt habits reduce security protected information example account holder might use password several different accounts deliberately choose easy-to-remember passwords vulnerable cracking rely written records passwords many sites attempt prevent users choosing easy-to-guess passwords add restrictions password length composition contribute password fatigue many cases restrictions placed passwords actually serve decrease security account either preventing good passwords making password complex user ends storing insecurely post-it note sites also block non-ascii non-alphanumeric characters password fatigue typically affect users also affect technical departments manage user accounts constantly reinitializing passwords situation ends lowering morale cases many cases users end typing passwords cleartext text files remember even writing post-it notes stick desk drawer companies well organized respect implemented alternative authentication methods adopted technologies user credentials entered automatically others may focus ease use even worsen situation constantly implementing new applications authentication system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,994	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: itanium.itanium itanium family 64-bit intel microprocessors implement intel itanium architecture formerly called ia-64 intel markets processors enterprise servers high-performance computing systems itanium architecture originated hewlett-packard hp later jointly developed hp intel itanium-based systems produced hp hp integrity servers line several manufacturers 2008 itanium fourth-most deployed microprocessor architecture enterprise-class systems behind x86-64 power isa sparc february 2017 intel released current generation test customers may began shipping volume last processor itanium family intel officially announced end life product discontinuance itanium cpu family january 30th 2019 1989 hp determined reduced instruction set computing risc architectures approaching processing limit one instruction per cycle hp researchers investigated new architecture later named explicitly parallel instruction computing epic allows processor execute multiple instructions clock cycle epic implements form long instruction word vliw architecture single instruction word contains multiple instructions epic compiler determines advance instructions executed time microprocessor simply executes instructions need elaborate mechanisms determine instructions execute parallel goal approach twofold enable deeper inspection code compile time identify additional opportunities parallel execution simplify processor design reduce energy consumption eliminating need runtime scheduling circuitry hp believed longer cost-effective individual enterprise systems companies develop proprietary microprocessors partnered intel 1994 develop ia-64 architecture derived epic intel willing undertake large development effort ia-64 expectation resulting microprocessor would used majority enterprise systems manufacturers hp intel initiated large joint development effort goal delivering first product merced 1998 development intel hp industry analysts predicted ia-64 would dominate servers workstations high-end desktops eventually supplant risc complex instruction set computing cisc architectures general-purpose applications compaq silicon graphics decided abandon development alpha mips architectures respectively favor migrating ia-64 several groups ported operating systems architecture including microsoft windows openvms linux hp-ux solaris tru64 unix monterey/64 latter three canceled reaching market 1997 apparent ia-64 architecture compiler much difficult implement originally thought delivery timeframe merced began slipping intel announced official name processor itanium october 4 1999 within hours name itanic coined usenet newsgroup reference rms titanic unsinkable ocean liner sank maiden voyage 1912 itanic since often used register others imply multibillion-dollar investment itanium—and early hype associated it—would followed relatively quick demise time itanium released june 2001 performance superior competing risc cisc processors itanium competed low-end primarily four-cpu smaller systems servers based x86 processors high-end ibm power sun microsystems sparc processors intel repositioned itanium focus high-end business hpc computing attempting duplicate x86 successful horizontal market i.e. single architecture multiple systems vendors success initial processor version limited replacing pa-risc hp systems alpha compaq systems mips sgi systems though ibm also delivered supercomputer based processor power sparc remained strong 32-bit x86 architecture continued grow enterprise space building economies scale fueled enormous installed base thousand systems using original merced itanium processor sold due relatively poor performance high cost limited software availability recognizing lack software could serious problem future intel made thousands early systems available independent software vendors isvs stimulate development hp intel brought next-generation itanium 2 processor market year later itanium 2 processor released 2002 marketed enterprise servers rather whole gamut high-end computing first itanium 2 code-named mckinley jointly developed hp intel relieved many performance problems original itanium processor mostly caused inefficient memory subsystem mckinley contains 221 million transistors 25 million logic measured 19.5 mm 21.6 mm 421 mm fabricated 180 nm bulk cmos process six layers aluminium metallization 2003 amd released opteron cpu implements 64-bit architecture called amd64 opteron gained rapid acceptance enterprise server space provided easy upgrade x86 influence microsoft intel responded implementing amd x86-64 instruction set architecture instead ia-64 xeon microprocessors 2004 resulting new industry-wide de facto standard intel released new itanium 2 family member codenamed madison 2003 madison used 130 nm process basis new itanium processors montecito released june 2006 march 2005 intel announced working new itanium processor codenamed tukwila released 2007 tukwila would four processor cores would replace itanium bus new common system interface would also used new xeon processor later year intel revised tukwila delivery date late 2008 november 2005 major itanium server manufacturers joined intel number software vendors form itanium solutions alliance promote architecture accelerate software porting alliance announced members would invest 10 billion itanium solutions end decade 2006 intel delivered montecito marketed itanium 2 9000 series dual-core processor roughly doubled performance decreased energy consumption 20 percent intel released itanium 2 9100 series codenamed montvale november 2007 may 2009 schedule tukwila follow-on revised release oems planned first quarter 2010 itanium 9300 series processor codenamed tukwila released february 8 2010 greater performance memory capacity device uses 65 nm process includes two four cores 24 mb on-die caches hyper-threading technology integrated memory controllers implements double-device data correction helps fix memory errors tukwila also implements intel quickpath interconnect qpi replace itanium bus-based architecture peak interprocessor bandwidth 96 gb/s peak memory bandwidth 34 gb/s quickpath processor integrated memory controllers interfaces memory directly using qpi interfaces directly connect processors i/o hubs quickpath also used intel processors using nehalem microarchitecture possibly enabled tukwila nehalem use chipsets tukwila incorporates four memory controllers supports multiple ddr3 dimms via separate memory controller much like nehalem-based xeon processor code-named beckton itanium 9500 series processor codenamed poulson follow-on processor tukwila released november 8 2012 according intel skips 45 nm process technology uses 32 nm process technology features eight cores 12-wide issue architecture multithreading enhancements new instructions take advantage parallelism especially virtualization poulson l3 cache size 32 mb l2 cache size 6 mb 512 kb 256 kb per core die size 544 mm² less predecessor tukwila 698.75 mm² isscc 2011 intel presented paper called 32nm 3.1 billion transistor 12-wide-issue itanium processor mission critical servers given intel history disclosing details itanium microprocessors isscc paper likely referred poulson analyst david kanter speculated poulson would use new microarchitecture advanced form multithreading uses two threads improve performance single threaded multithreaded workloads information also released hot chips conference information presented improvements multithreading resiliency improvements intel instruction replay ras new instructions thread priority integer instruction cache prefetching data access hints intel product change notification pcn 111456-01 lists four models itanium 9500 series cpu later removed revised document parts later listed intel material declaration data sheets mdds database intel later posted itanium 9500 reference manual models following 2012 hewlett-packard co. v. oracle corp. support lawsuit court documents unsealed santa clara county court judge revealed 2008 hewlett-packard paid intel around 440 million keep producing updating itanium microprocessors 2009 2014 2010 two companies signed another 250 million deal obliged intel continue making itanium cpus hp machines 2017 terms agreements hp pay chips gets intel intel launches tukwila poulson kittson kittson+ chips bid gradually boost performance platform rumors successor poulson code named kittson began circulate 2012–2013 first associated forthcoming 22 nm process shrink later revised face declining itanium sales less-ambitious 32 nm node april 2015 intel although yet confirmed formal specifications confirm continued work project meanwhile aggressively multicore xeon e7 platform displaced itanium-based solutions intel roadmap july 2016 hp spin-off hewlett packard enterprise hpe announced computer world kittson would released mid-2017 february 2017 intel reported shipping kittson test customers plans ship volume later year intel officially launched itanium 9700 series processor family may 11 2017 notably kittson microarchitecture improvements poulson higher clock speeds intel announced 9700 series last itanium chips produced models comparison xeon family server processors itanium never high-volume product intel intel release production numbers one industry analyst estimated production rate 200,000 processors per year 2007 according gartner inc. total number itanium servers processors sold vendors 2007 55,000 unclear whether clustered servers counted single server compares 417,000 risc servers spread across risc vendors 8.4 million x86 servers idc reports total 184,000 itanium-based systems sold 2001 2007 combined power/sparc/itanium systems market idc reports power captured 42 revenue sparc captured 32 itanium-based system revenue reached 26 second quarter 2008 according idc analyst 2007 hp accounted perhaps 80 itanium systems revenue according gartner 2008 hp accounted 95 itanium sales hp itanium system sales annual rate 4.4bn end 2008 declined 3.5bn end 2009 compared 35 decline unix system revenue sun 11 drop ibm x86-64 server revenue increase 14 period december 2012 idc released research report stating itanium server shipments would remain flat 2016 annual shipment 26,000 systems decline 50 compared shipments 2008 2006 hp manufactured least 80 itanium systems sold 7,200 first quarter 2006 bulk systems sold enterprise servers machines large-scale technical computing average selling price per system excess us 200,000 typical system uses eight itanium processors 2012 manufacturers offered itanium systems including hp bull nec inspur huawei addition intel offered chassis could used system integrators build itanium systems 2015 hp supplied itanium-based systems hp split late 2015 itanium systems branded integrity handled hewlett-packard enterprise hpe recent major update 2017 integrity i6 hp-ux 11i v3 update 16 hpe also supports operating systems including windows server 2008 r2 linux openvms nonstop itanium affected spectre meltdown itanium bus interfaces rest system via chipset enterprise server manufacturers differentiate systems designing developing chipsets interface processor memory interconnections peripheral controllers chipset heart system-level architecture system design development chipset costs tens millions dollars represents major commitment use itanium ibm created chipset 2003 intel 2002 neither developed chipsets support newer technologies ddr2 pci express tukwila moved away fsb chipsets supporting technologies manufactured itanium server vendors hp fujitsu sgi nec hitachi tukwila itanium processor model designed share common chipset intel xeon processor ex intel xeon processor designed four processor larger servers goal streamline system development reduce costs server oems many develop itanium- xeon-based servers however 2013 goal pushed back evaluated future implementation opportunities itanium supported i.e windows version longer bought following operating systems microsoft announced windows server 2008 r2 would last version windows server support itanium support started xp would also discontinue development itanium versions visual studio sql server likewise red hat enterprise linux 5 first released march 2007 last itanium edition red hat enterprise linux debian longer supports itanium officially last release official support debian 7 wheezy covered long term support lts unofficial support newer debian still available limited form via debian ports last available kernel wheezy-backports linux 3.14.0 released march 30 2014 possible manually update latest 3.14.x version recent kernel versions like 4.17.17 september 2018 addition canonical ltd. chose support itanium ubuntu 10.04 lts released april 2010 discontinued hp supporting certifying linux itanium 9300 tukwila servers late september 2012 nec announced return ia-64 previous noah line proprietary mainframe processors produced quad-core variant 40 nm called noah-6 hp sells virtualization technology itanium called integrity virtual machines allow software run itanium intel supported development compilers optimized platform especially suite compilers starting november 2010 introduction new product suites intel itanium compilers longer bundled intel x86 compilers single product intel offers itanium tools intel x86 tools including compilers independently different product bundles gcc open64 microsoft visual studio 2005 later also able produce machine code itanium according itanium solutions alliance 13,000 applications available itanium-based systems early 2008 though sun contested itanium application counts past isa also supported gelato itanium hpc user group developer community ported supported open-source software itanium emulation technique allows computer execute binary code compiled different type computer ibm acquisition quicktransit 2009 application binary software irix/mips solaris/sparc could run via type emulation called dynamic binary translation linux/itanium similarly hp implemented method execute pa-risc/hp-ux itanium/hp-ux via emulation simplify migration pa-risc customers radically different itanium instruction set itanium processors also run mainframe environment gcos groupe bull several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators itanium aimed enterprise server high-performance computing hpc markets enterprise- hpc-focused processor lines include oracle fujitsu sparc processors ibm power microprocessors measured quantity sold itanium serious competition comes x86-64 processors including intel xeon line amd opteron line since 2009 servers shipped x86-64 processors 2005 itanium systems accounted 14 hpc systems revenue percentage declined industry shifted x86-64 clusters application october 2008 gartner report tukwila processor stated ... future roadmap itanium looks strong risc peer like power sparc itanium-based computer first appeared list top500 supercomputers november 2001 best position ever achieved itanium 2 based system list 2 achieved june 2004 thunder lawrence livermore national laboratory entered list rmax 19.94 teraflops november 2004 columbia entered list 2 51.8 teraflops least one itanium-based computer top 10 june 2007 peak number itanium-based machines list occurred november 2004 list 84 systems 16.8 june 2012 dropped one system 0.2 itanium system remained list november 2012 itanium processors show progression capability merced proof concept mckinley dramatically improved memory hierarchy allowed itanium become reasonably competitive madison shift 130 nm process allowed enough cache space overcome major performance bottlenecks montecito 90 nm process allowed dual-core implementation major improvement performance per watt montvale added three new features core-level lockstep demand-based switching front-side bus frequency 667 mhz first released 2001 itanium performance disappointing compared better-established risc cisc processors emulation run existing x86 applications operating systems particularly poor one benchmark 2001 reporting equivalent best 100 mhz pentium mode 1.1 ghz pentiums market time itanium failed make significant inroads ia-32 risc suffered following arrival x86-64 systems offered greater compatibility older x86 applications 2009 article history processor — itanium killed computer industry — journalist john c. dvorak reported continues one great fiascos last 50 years tech columnist ashlee vance commented delays underperformance turned product joke chip industry interview donald knuth said itanium approach ... supposed terrific—until turned wished-for compilers basically impossible write red hat microsoft announced plans drop itanium support operating systems due lack market interest however linux distributions gentoo debian remain available itanium march 22 2011 oracle corporation announced would longer develop new products hp-ux itanium although would continue provide support existing products following announcement hp sued oracle breach contract arguing oracle violated conditions imposed settlement oracle hiring former hp ceo mark hurd co-ceo requiring vendor support itanium software time hp discontinues sales itanium-based servers breach harmed business 2012 court ruled favor hp ordered oracle resume support itanium june 2016 hewlett-packard enterprise corporate successor hp server business awarded 3 billion damages lawsuit former intel official reported itanium business become profitable intel late 2009 2009 chip almost entirely deployed servers made hp 95 itanium server market share making main operating system itanium hp-ux march 22 2011 intel reaffirmed commitment itanium multiple generations chips development schedule although itanium attain limited success niche market high-end computing intel originally hoped would find broader acceptance replacement original x86 architecture amd chose different direction designing less radical x86-64 64-bit extension existing x86 architecture microsoft supported forcing intel introduce extensions x86-based processors designs run existing 32-bit applications native hardware speed offering support 64-bit memory addressing enhancements new applications architecture become predominant 64-bit architecture desktop portable market although itanium-based workstations initially introduced companies sgi longer available 1989 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2017 2019 1-hop neighbor's text information: intel_iapx_432.intel iapx 432 iapx 432 intel advanced performance architecture computer architecture introduced 1981 intel first 32-bit processor design main processor architecture general data processor implemented set two separate integrated circuits due technical limitations time project started 1975 8800 8008 8080 intended intel major design 1980s unlike 8086 designed following year successor 8080 iapx 432 radical departure intel previous designs meant different market niche completely unrelated 8080 x86 product lines iapx 432 project considered commercial failure intel discontinued 1986 iapx 432 referred micromainframe designed programmed entirely high-level languages instruction set architecture also entirely new significant departure intel previous 8008 8080 processors iapx 432 programming model stack machine visible general-purpose registers supported object-oriented programming garbage collection multitasking well conventional memory management directly hardware microcode direct support various data structures also intended allow modern operating systems implemented using far less program code ordinary processors intel imax 432 operating system 432 written entirely ada ada also intended primary language application programming aspects may seen high-level language computer architecture properties features resulted hardware microcode design complex processors era especially microprocessors however internal external buses mostly wider 16-bit like 32-bit microprocessors era 68000 32016 32-bit arithmetical instructions implemented 16-bit alu via random logic microcode kinds sequential logic iapx 432 enlarged address space 8080 also limited fact linear addressing data could still use 16-bit offsets somewhat akin intel first 8086-based designs including contemporary 80286 new 32-bit segment offsets 80386 architecture described publicly detail 1984 using semiconductor technology day intel engineers n't able translate design efficient first implementation along lack optimization premature ada compiler contributed rather slow expensive computer systems performing typical benchmarks roughly 1/4 speed new 80286 chip clock frequency early 1982 initial performance gap rather low-profile low-priced 8086 line probably main reason intel plan replace latter later known x86 iapx 432 failed although engineers saw ways improve next generation design iapx 432 capability architecture started regarded implementation overhead rather simplifying support intended originally designed clock frequencies 10 mhz actual devices sold specified maximum clock speeds 4 mhz 5 mhz 7 mhz 8 mhz peak performance 2 million instructions per second 8 mhz intel 432 project started 1975 year 8-bit intel 8080 completed year 16-bit 8086 project began 432 project initially named 8800 next step beyond existing intel 8008 8080 microprocessors became big step instruction sets 8-bit processors well fitted typical algol-like compiled languages however major problem small native addressing ranges 16k 8008 64k 8080 far small many complex software systems without using kind bank switching memory segmentation similar mechanism built 8086 years later intel aimed build sophisticated complete system lsi chips functionally equal better best 32-bit minicomputers mainframes requiring entire cabinets older chips system would support multiprocessors modular expansion fault tolerance advanced operating systems advanced programming languages large applications ultra reliability ultra security architecture would address needs intel customers decade iapx 432 development team managed bill lattin justin rattner lead engineer rattner would later become cto intel initially team worked santa clara march 1977 lattin team 17 engineers moved intel new site portland lead engineer iapx 432 fred pollack specialized superscalarity later became lead architect i686 chip intel pentium pro soon became clear would take several years many engineers design would similarly take several years progress moore law improved chip manufacturing could fit dense chips meanwhile intel urgently needed simpler interim product meet immediate competition motorola zilog national semiconductor intel began rushed project design 8086 low-risk incremental evolution 8080 using separate design team mass-market 8086 shipped 1978 8086 designed backward-compatible 8080 sense 8080 assembly language could mapped 8086 architecture using special assembler existing 8080 assembly source code albeit executable code thereby made upward compatible new 8086 degree contrast 432 software compatibility migration requirements architects total freedom novel design scratch using whatever techniques guessed would best large-scale systems software applied fashionable computer science concepts universities particularly capability machines object-oriented programming high-level cisc machines ada densely encoded instructions ambitious mix novel features made chip larger complex chip complexity limited clock speed lengthened design schedule core design — main processor — termed general data processor gdp built two integrated circuits one 43201 fetch decode instructions 43202 execute systems would also include 43203 interface processor ip operated channel controller i/o attached processor ap conventional intel 8086 provided processing power i/o subsystem largest designs era two-chip gdp combined count approximately 97,000 transistors single chip ip approximately 49,000 comparison motorola 68000 introduced 1979 approximately 40,000 transistors 1983 intel released two additional integrated circuits iapx 432 interconnect architecture 43204 bus interface unit biu 43205 memory control unit mcu chips allowed nearly glueless multiprocessor systems 63 nodes innovative features iapx 432 detrimental good performance many cases iapx 432 significantly slower instruction throughput conventional microprocessors era national semiconductor 32016 motorola 68010 intel 80286 one problem two-chip implementation gdp limited speed motherboard electrical wiring larger issue capability architecture needed large associative caches run efficiently chips room left instruction set also used bit-aligned variable-length instructions instead usual semi-fixed byte word-aligned formats used majority computer designs instruction decoding therefore complex designs although hamper performance used additional transistors mainly large barrel shifter design already lacking space transistors caches wider buses performance oriented features addition biu designed support fault-tolerant systems 40 bus time held wait states another major problem immature untuned ada compiler used high-cost object-oriented instructions every case instead faster scalar instructions would made sense instance iapx 432 included expensive inter-module procedure call instruction compiler used calls despite existence much faster branch link instructions another slow call enter_environment set memory protection compiler ran every single variable system even variables used inside existing environment checked make matters worse data passed procedures always passed value-return rather reference running dhrystone benchmark parameter passing took ten times longer computations combined according new york times i432 ran 5 10 times slowly competitor motorola 68000 iapx 432 one first systems implement new ieee-754 standard floating-point arithmetic outcome failure 432 microprocessor designers concluded object support chip leads complex design invariably run slowly 432 often cited counter-example proponents risc designs however hold oo support primary problem 432 implementation shortcomings especially compiler mentioned would made cpu design slow since iapx 432 one attempt similar design rekursiv processor although inmos transputer process support similar — fast intel spent considerable time money mindshare 432 skilled team devoted unwilling abandon entirely failure marketplace new architect—glenford myers—was brought produce entirely new architecture implementation core processor would built joint intel/siemens project later biin resulting i960-series processors i960 risc subset became popular time embedded processor market high-end 960mc tagged-memory 960mx marketed military applications according new york times intel collaboration hp merced processor later known itanium company comeback attempt high-end market iapx 432 instruction variable length peculiarly bit rather byte aligned instruction taking 6 321 bits iapx 432 hardware microcode support object-oriented programming capability-based addressing system uses segmented memory 2 segments 64 kb providing total virtual address space 2 bytes physical address space 2 bytes 16 mb programs able reference data instructions address instead must specify segment offset within segment segments referenced access descriptors ads provide index system object table set rights capabilities governing accesses segment segments may access segments contain access descriptors data segments contain ads hardware microcode rigidly enforce distinction data access segments allow software treat data access descriptors vice versa system-defined objects consist either single access segment access segment data segment system-defined segments contain data access descriptors system-defined data designated offsets though operating system user software may extend additional data system object type field checked microcode port object used carrier object needed user program define new object types get full benefit hardware type checking use type control objects tco release 1 iapx 432 architecture system-defined object typically consisted access segment optionally depending object type data segment specified access descriptor fixed offset within access segment release 3 architecture order improve performance access segments data segments combined single segments 128 kb split access part data part 0–64 kb reduced number object table lookups dramatically doubled maximum virtual address space iapx432 recognizes fourteen types predefined system objects software running 432 need explicitly deallocate objects longer needed instead microcode implements part marking portion edsger dijkstra on-the-fly parallel garbage collection algorithm mark-and-sweep style collector entries system object table contain bits used mark object white black grey needed collector imax 432 operating system includes software portion garbage collector executable instructions contained within system instruction object since instructions bit-aligned 16-bit bit displacement instruction object allows object contain 8192 bytes instructions 65,536 bits instructions consist operator consisting class opcode zero three operand references fields organized present information processor sequence required decoding frequently used operators encoded using fewer bits instruction begins 4 6 bit class field indicates number operands called order instruction length operand optionally followed 0 4 bit format field describes operands operands format present come zero three operands described format instruction terminated 0 5 bit opcode classes contain one instruction therefore opcode format field permits gdp appear programmer zero- one- two- three-address architecture format field indicates operand data reference top next-to-top element operand stack 1-hop neighbor's text information: aes_instruction_set.aes instruction set advanced encryption standard instruction set integrated many processors purpose instruction set improve speed well resistance side-channel attacks applications performing encryption decryption using advanced encryption standard aes often implemented instructions implementing single round aes along special version last round slightly different method aes-ni intel advanced encryption standard new instructions aes-ni first major implementation aes-ni extension x86 instruction set architecture microprocessors intel amd proposed intel march 2008 following intel processors support aes-ni instruction set several amd processors support aes instructions aes support unprivileged processor instructions also available latest sparc processors t3 t4 t5 m5 forward latest arm processors sparc t4 processor introduced 2011 user-level instructions implementing aes rounds instructions addition higher level encryption commands armv8-a processor architecture announced 2011 including arm cortex-a53 a57 previous v7 processors like cortex a5 7 8 9 11 15 also user-level instructions implement aes rounds august 2012 ibm announced then-forthcoming power7+ architecture would aes support commands architectures directly compatible aes-ni commands implement similar functionality ibm z9 later mainframe processors support aes single-opcode km kmc aes ecb/cbc instructions via ibm cryptoexpress hardware single-instruction aes versions therefore easier use intel ni ones may extended implement algorithms based aes round functions whirlpool hash function via x86 cpus amd geode marvell kirkwood arm mv_cesa linux use driver-based accelerated aes handling instead see crypto api linux following chips supporting aes hardware acceleration support aes instruction set programming information available arm architecture reference manual armv8 armv8-a architecture profile aes-ni performance analyzed patrick schmid achim roos found impressive results handful applications already optimized take advantage intel aes-ni capability performance analysis using crypto++ security library showed increase throughput approximately 28.0 cycles per byte 3.5 cycles per byte aes/gcm versus pentium 4 acceleration modern compilers emit aes instructions much security cryptography software supports aes instruction set including following core infrastructure Target text information: ice_lake_(microprocessor).ice lake microprocessor ice lake intel codename 10th generation intel core processors based new sunny cove microarchitecture ice lake expected replace coffee lake whiskey lake kaby lake cannon lake microarchitectures 2019 2020 representing architecture step intel process-architecture-optimization model ice lake produced second generation intel 10 nm process 10 nm+ becoming intel second microarchitecture manufactured 10 nm process following limited launch cannon lake 2018 ice lake designed intel israel processor design team haifa israel expected ice lake in-silicon mitigations certain meltdown spectre hardware vulnerabilities intel released details ice lake intel architecture day december 2018 stating sunny cove core ice lake would focusing single-thread performance new instructions scalability improvements intel stated performance improvements would achieved making core deeper wider smarter core ice lake built sunny cove features 50 increase size l1 data cache larger l2 cache size product dependent larger μop cache larger 2nd level tlb core also increased width increasing execution ports 8 10 doubling l1 store bandwidth allocation width also increased 4 5 paging table main memory supports linear address space 57 bits physical address space 52 bits increasing theoretical addressable memory space 4 pb 64 tb ice lake features intel gen11 graphics increasing number execution units eus 64 24 48 gen9.5 graphics achieving 1 tflops compute performance eu supports 7 threads meaning design 512 concurrent pipelines feeding eus 3 mb l3 cache 4x increase gen9.5 alongside increased memory bandwidth enabled lpddr4x low-power mobile platforms gen11 graphics also introduces tile-based rendering coarse pixel shading cps intel implementation variable-rate shading vrs architecture also includes all-new hevc encoder design august 1 2019 intel released specifications icelake u cpus cpus lost suffix m3 naming instead intel uses trailing zero indicate power package 9w pre-orders laptops featuring ice lake cpus started august 2019 shipment expected september I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,998	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: booting.booting computing booting process starting computer initiated hardware button press software command switched computer central processing unit cpu software main memory process must load software memory executed may done hardware firmware cpu separate processor computer system restarting computer also called rebooting hard e.g electrical power cpu switched soft power cut systems soft boot may optionally clear ram zero hard soft booting initiated hardware button press software command booting complete operative runtime system typically operating system applications attained process returning computer state hibernation sleep involve booting minimally embedded systems require noticeable boot sequence begin functioning turned may simply run operational programs stored rom computing systems state machines reboot may method return designated zero-state unintended locked state addition loading operating system stand-alone utility boot process also load storage dump program diagnosing problems operating system boot short bootstrap bootstrap load derives phrase pull oneself one bootstraps usage calls attention requirement software loaded onto computer software already running computer mechanism must exist load initial software onto computer early computers used variety ad-hoc methods get small program memory solve problem invention read-only memory rom various types solved paradox allowing computers shipped start program could erased growth capacity rom allowed ever elaborate start procedures implemented many different methods available load short initial program computer methods reach simple physical input removable media hold complex programs early computers 1940s 1950s one-of-a-kind engineering efforts could take weeks program program loading one many problems solved early computer eniac program stored memory set problem configuration interconnecting cables bootstrapping apply eniac whose hardware configuration ready solving problems soon power applied edsac system second stored-program computer built used stepping switches transfer fixed program memory start button pressed program stored device david wheeler completed late 1948 loaded instructions punched tape executed first programmable computers commercial sale univac ibm 701 included features make operation simpler typically included instructions performed complete input output operation hardware logic could used load contents punch card typical ones input media magnetic drum magnetic tape contained bootstrap program pressing single button booting concept called variety names ibm computers 1950s early 1960s ibm used term initial program load ibm 7030 stretch later used mainframe lines starting system/360 1964 ibm 701 computer 1952–1956 load button initiated reading first 36-bit word main memory punched card card reader magnetic tape tape drive magnetic drum unit depending position load selector switch left 18-bit half-word executed instruction usually read additional words memory loaded boot program executed turn loaded larger program medium memory without help human operator term boot used sense since least 1958 ibm computers era similar features example ibm 1401 system c. 1958 used card reader load program punched card 80 characters stored punched card read memory locations 001 080 computer would branch memory location 001 read first stored instruction instruction always move information first 80 memory locations assembly area information punched cards 2 3 4 could combined form stored program information moved assembly area machine would branch instruction location 080 read card next card would read information processed another example ibm 650 1953 decimal machine group ten 10-position switches operator panel addressable memory word address 8000 could executed instruction thus setting switches 7004000400 pressing appropriate button would read first card card reader memory op code 70 starting address 400 jump 400 begin executing program card ibm competitors also offered single button program load noteworthy variation found burroughs b1700 neither bootstrap rom hardwired ipl operation instead system reset reads executes opcodes sequentially tape drive mounted front panel sets boot loader ram executed however since makes assumptions system equally well used load diagnostic maintenance test routine tapes display intelligible code front panel even cases gross cpu failure ibm system/360 successors including current z/architecture machines boot process known initial program load ipl ibm coined term 7030 stretch revived design system/360 continues use environments today system/360 processors ipl initiated computer operator selecting three hexadecimal digit device address cuu c=i/o channel address uu=control unit device address followed pressing load button high end system/360 models system/370 later systems functions switches load button simulated using selectable areas screen graphics console often ibm 2250-like device ibm 3270-like device example system/370 model 158 keyboard sequence 0-7-x zero seven x order results ipl device address keyed input area amdahl 470v/6 related cpus supported four hexadecimal digits cpus optional second channel unit installed total 32 channels later ibm would also support 16 channels ipl function system/360 successors compatibles amdahl reads 24 bytes operator-specified device main storage starting real address zero second third groups eight bytes treated channel command words ccws continue loading startup program first ccw always simulated cpu consists read ipl command command chaining suppress incorrect length indication enforced i/o channel commands complete first group eight bytes loaded processor program status word psw startup program begins execution location designated psw ipl device usually disk drive hence special significance read-type command exactly procedure also used ipl input-type devices tape drives even card readers device-independent manner allowing example installation operating system brand-new computer os initial distribution magnetic tape disk controllers command also causes selected device seek cylinder head simulating seek cylinder head command search record simulating search id equal command seeks searches simulated tape card controllers device classes command simply sequential read command read ipl command disk tape card deck must contain special program load actual operating system standalone utility main storage specific purpose ipl text placed disk stand-alone dasdi direct access storage device initialization program equivalent program running operating system e.g. ickdsf ipl-able tapes card decks usually distributed ipl text already present minicomputers starting digital equipment corporation dec pdp-5 pdp-8 1965 simplified design using cpu assist input output operations saved cost made booting complicated pressing single button minicomputers typically way toggle short programs manipulating array switches front panel since early minicomputers used magnetic core memory lose information power bootstrap loaders would remain place unless erased erasure sometimes happened accidentally program bug caused loop overwrote memory minicomputers simple form booting include hewlett-packard hp 2100 series mid-1960s original data general nova 1969 dec pdp-11 1970 dec later added optional diode matrix read-only memory pdp-11 stored bootstrap program 32 words 64 bytes consisted printed circuit card m792 plugged unibus held 32 16 array semiconductor diodes 512 diodes place memory contained one bits card programmed cutting diode whose bit zero dec also sold versions card bm792-yx series pre-programmed many standard input devices simply omitting unneeded diodes following older approach earlier pdp-1 hardware loader operator need push load switch instruct paper tape reader load program directly core memory data general supernova used front panel switches cause computer automatically load instructions memory device specified front panel data switches jump loaded code nova 800 1200 switch loaded program main memory special read-only memory jumped minicomputer paper tape reader first program run boot process boot loader would read core memory either second-stage boot loader often called binary loader could read paper tape checksum operating system outside storage medium pseudocode boot loader might simple following eight instructions related example based loader nicolet instrument corporation minicomputer 1970s using paper tape reader-punch unit teletype model 33 asr teleprinter bytes second-stage loader read paper tape reverse order length second stage loader final byte overwrites location 7 instruction location 6 executes location 7 starts second stage loader executing second stage loader waits much longer tape containing operating system placed tape reader difference boot loader second stage loader addition checking code trap paper tape read errors frequent occurrence relatively low-cost part-time-duty hardware teletype model 33 asr friden flexowriters far reliable also comparatively costly earliest microcomputers altair 8800 released first 1975 even earlier similar machine based intel 8008 cpu bootstrapping hardware started cpu would see memory would contain executable code containing binary zeros—memory cleared resetting powering front panels machines carried toggle switches entering addresses data one switch per bit computer memory word address bus simple additions hardware permitted one memory location time loaded switches store bootstrap code meanwhile cpu kept attempting execute memory content correctly loaded cpu enabled execute bootstrapping code process tedious error-free boot process minicomputers microcomputers revolutionized introduction integrated circuit read-only memory rom many variants including mask-programmed roms programmable roms prom erasable programmable roms eprom flash memory allowed firmware boot programs included part computer introduction external rom italian telephone switching elaborator called gruppi speciali patented 1975 alberto ciaramella researcher cselt gruppi speciali starting 1975 fully single-button machine booting operating system rom memory composed semiconductors ferrite cores although rom device natively embedded computer gruppi speciali due design machine also allowed single-button rom booting machines designed therefore bootstrap device architecture-independent e.g pdp-11 storing state machine switch-off also place another critical feature telephone switching contest typically every microprocessor reset power-on condition perform start-up process usually takes form begin execution code found starting specific address look multibyte code specific address jump indicated location begin execution system built using microprocessor permanent rom occupying special locations system always begins operating without operator assistance example intel x86 processors always start running instructions beginning f000 fff0 mos 6502 processor initialization begins reading two-byte vector address fffd ms byte fffc ls byte jumping location run bootstrap code apple inc. first computer apple 1 introduced 1976 featured prom chips eliminated need front panel boot process case altair 8800 commercial computer according apple ad announcing switches lights ... firmware proms enables enter display debug programs hex keyboard due expense read-only memory time apple ii series booted disk operating systems using series small incremental steps passing control onward next phase gradually complex boot process see apple dos boot loader little disk operating system relied rom hardware also extremely flexible supported wide range customized disk copy protection mechanisms see software cracking history operating systems notably pre-1995 macintosh systems apple closely interwoven hardware impossible natively boot operating system standard one opposite extreme scenario using switches mentioned highly inflexible relatively error-proof foolproof long hardware working normally common solution situations design boot loader works program belonging standard os hijacks system loads alternative os technique used apple a/ux unix implementation copied various freeware operating systems beos personal edition 5 machines like atari st microcomputer instant-on operating system executing rom retrieval os secondary tertiary store thus eliminated one characteristic operations bootstrapping allow system customizations accessories support software loaded automatically atari floppy drive read additional components boot process timeout delay provided time manually insert floppy system searched extra components could avoided inserting blank disk atari st hardware also designed cartridge slot could provide native program execution gaming purposes holdover atari legacy making electronic games inserting spectre gcr cartridge macintosh system rom game slot turning atari could natively boot macintosh operating system rather atari tos ibm personal computer included rom-based firmware called bios one functions firmware perform power-on self test machine powered read software boot device execute firmware compatible bios ibm personal computer used ibm pc compatible computers extensible firmware interface developed intel originally itanium-based machines later also used alternative bios x86-based machines including apple macs using intel processors unix workstations originally vendor-specific rom-based firmware sun microsystems later developed openboot later known open firmware incorporated forth interpreter much firmware written forth standardized ieee ieee standard 1275-1994 firmware implements standard used powerpc-based macs powerpc-based machines well sun sparc-based computers advanced risc computing specification defined another firmware standard implemented mips-based alpha-based machines sgi visual workstation x86-based workstations computer turned softwareincluding operating systems application code dataremains stored non-volatile memory computer powered typically operating system loader random-access memory ram computer first executes relatively small program stored read-only memory rom along small amount needed data access nonvolatile device devices operating system programs data loaded ram small program starts sequence known bootstrap loader bootstrap boot loader small program job load data programs executed ram often multiple-stage boot loaders used several programs increasing complexity load one process chain loading computer systems upon receiving boot signal human operator peripheral device may load small number fixed instructions memory specific location initialize least one cpu point cpu instructions start execution instructions typically start input operation peripheral device may switch-selectable operator systems may send hardware commands directly peripheral devices i/o controllers cause extremely simple input operation read sector zero system device memory starting location 1000 carried effectively loading small number boot loader instructions memory completion signal i/o device may used start execution instructions cpu smaller computers often use less flexible automatic boot loader mechanisms ensure computer starts quickly predetermined software configuration many desktop computers example bootstrapping process begins cpu executing software contained rom example bios ibm pc predefined address cpus including intel x86 series designed execute software reset without outside help software contains rudimentary functionality search devices eligible participate booting load small program special section commonly boot sector promising device typically starting fixed entry point start sector boot loaders may face peculiar constraints especially size instance ibm pc compatibles boot sector typically work 32 kb later relaxed 64 kb system memory use instructions supported original 8088/8086 processors first stage pc boot loaders fsbl first-stage boot loader located fixed disks removable drives must fit first 446 bytes master boot record order leave room default 64-byte partition table four partition entries two-byte boot signature bios requires proper boot loader — even less additional features like four partition entries 16 16 bytes disk signature 6 bytes disk timestamp 6 bytes advanced active partition 18 bytes special multi-boot loaders supported well environments floppy superfloppy volume boot records 59 bytes occupied extended bios parameter block fat12 fat16 volumes since dos 4.0 whereas fat32 ebpb introduced dos 7.1 requires even 87 bytes leaving 423 bytes boot loader assuming sector size 512 bytes microsoft boot sectors therefore traditionally imposed certain restrictions boot process example boot file located fixed position root directory file system stored consecutive sectors conditions taken care codice_1 command slightly relaxed later versions dos boot loader able load first three sectors file memory happened contain another embedded boot loader able load remainder file memory microsoft added lba fat32 support even switched boot loader reaching two physical sectors using 386 instructions size reasons time vendors managed squeeze much functionality single boot sector without relaxing original constraints minimal available memory 32 kb processor support 8088/8086 example dr-dos boot sectors able locate boot file fat12 fat16 fat32 file system load memory whole via chs lba even file stored fixed location consecutive sectors examples first-stage bootloaders include coreboot libreboot das u-boot second-stage boot loaders gnu grub bootmgr syslinux ntldr bootx operating systems able load operating system properly transfer execution operating system subsequently initializes may load extra device drivers second-stage boot loader need drivers operation may instead use generic storage access methods provided system firmware bios open firmware though typically restricted hardware functionality lower performance many boot loaders like gnu grub windows bootmgr windows nt/2000/xp ntldr configured give user multiple booting choices choices include different operating systems dual multi-booting different partitions drives different versions operating system case new version unexpected problems different operating system loading options e.g. booting rescue safe mode standalone programs function without operating system memory testers e.g. memtest86+ basic shell gnu grub even games see list pc booter games boot loaders also load boot loaders example grub loads bootmgr instead loading windows directly usually default choice preselected time delay user press key change choice delay default choice automatically run normal booting occur without interaction boot process considered complete computer ready interact user operating system capable running system programs application programs many embedded systems must boot immediately example waiting minute digital television gps navigation device start generally unacceptable therefore devices software systems rom flash memory device begin functioning immediately little loading necessary loading precomputed stored rom device made large complex systems may boot procedures proceed multiple phases finally operating system programs loaded ready execute operating systems designed never start stop boot loader might load operating system configure mere process within system irrevocably transfer control operating system boot loader terminates normally process would computers also capable booting computer network scenario operating system stored disk server certain parts transferred client using simple protocol trivial file transfer protocol tftp parts transferred operating system takes control booting process second-stage boot loader network booting begins using generic network access methods provided network interface boot rom typically contains preboot execution environment pxe image drivers required system functionality limited operating system kernel drivers transferred started result rom-based booting completed entirely possible network boot operating system ability use network interface boot device device operating system loaded modern pc uefi bios firmware supports booting various devices typically local solid state drive hard disk drive via gpt master boot record mbr drive disk optical disc drive using el torito usb mass storage device ftl-based flash drive sd card multi-media card slot hard disk drive optical disc drive etc network interface card using pxe older less common bios-bootable devices include floppy disk drives scsi devices zip drives ls-120 drives typically firmware uefi bios allow user configure boot order boot order set first dvd drive second hard disk drive firmware try boot dvd drive fails e.g dvd drive try boot local hard disk drive example pc windows xp installed hard drive user could set boot order one given insert linux live cd order try linux without install operating system onto hard drive example dual booting user chooses operating system start computer performed power-on self-test post example dual booting user chooses inserting removing cd computer common choose operating system boot selecting bios uefi boot menu using computer keyboard boot menu typically entered pressing keys post several devices available enable user quick-boot usually variant linux various simple tasks internet access examples splashtop latitude upon starting ibm-compatible personal computer x86 cpu executes real mode instruction located reset vector physical memory address 16-bit x86 processors 32-bit 64-bit x86 processors usually pointing firmware uefi bios entry point inside rom memory location typically contains jump instruction transfers execution location firmware uefi bios start-up program program runs power-on self-test post check initialize required devices dram pci bus including running embedded roms complicated step setting dram spi made difficult fact point memory limited initializing required hardware firmware uefi bios goes pre-configured list non-volatile storage devices boot device sequence finds one bootable bootable mbr device defined one read last two bytes first sector contain little-endian word found byte sequence disk also known mbr boot signature otherwise established code inside sector executable x86 pcs bios found bootable device loads boot sector linear address usually segment offset bioses erroneously use transfers execution boot code case hard disk referred master boot record mbr definition operating-system specific conventional mbr code checks mbr partition table partition set bootable one active flag set active partition found mbr code loads boot sector code partition known volume boot record vbr executes vbr often operating-system specific however operating systems main function load execute operating system kernel continues startup active partition active partition boot sector invalid mbr may load secondary boot loader select partition often via user input load boot sector usually loads corresponding operating system kernel cases mbr may also attempt load secondary boot loaders trying boot active partition else fails issue int 18h bios interrupt call followed int 19h case int 18h would return order give back control bios would attempt boot devices attempt remote boot via network invoke rom basic systems particularly newer macintoshes new editions microsoft windows use intel efi also coreboot allows computer boot without firmware/bios constantly running system management mode 16-bit bios interfaces required certain x86 operating systems dos windows 3.1/95/98 booted via uefi however boot loaders retain 16-bit bios call support modern cpus microcontrollers example ti omap sometimes even dsps may boot rom boot code integrated directly silicon processor could perform quite sophisticated boot sequence load boot programs various sources like nand flash sd mmc card difficult hardwire required logic handling devices integrated boot rom used instead scenarios boot rom usage enables flexible boot sequences hardwired logic could provide example boot rom could try perform boot multiple boot sources also boot rom often able load boot loader diagnostic program via serial interfaces like uart spi usb feature often used system recovery purposes reasons usual boot software non-volatile memory got erased could also used initial non-volatile memory programming clean non-volatile memory installed hence software available system yet embedded system designs may also include intermediary boot sequence step form additional code gets loaded system ram integrated boot rom additional code loaded way usually serves way overcoming platform limitations small amounts ram dedicated primary boot loader das u-boot loaded next step system boot sequence additional code boot sequence step usually referred secondary program loader spl also possible take control system using hardware debug interface jtag interface may used write boot loader program bootable non-volatile memory e.g flash instructing processor core perform necessary actions program non-volatile memory alternatively debug interface may used upload diagnostic boot code ram start processor core instruct execute uploaded code allows example recovery embedded systems software remains supported boot device processor integrated boot rom jtag standard popular interface many cpus microcontrollers devices manufactured jtag interfaces 2009 microcontrollers provide special hardware interfaces used take arbitrary control system directly run code instead allow insertion boot code bootable non-volatile memory like flash memory via simple protocols manufacturing phase interfaces used inject boot code possibly code non-volatile memory system reset microcontroller begins execute code programmed non-volatile memory like usual processors using roms booting notably technique used atmel avr microcontrollers others well many cases interfaces implemented hardwired logic cases interfaces could created software running integrated on-chip boot rom gpio pins digital signal processors serial mode boot parallel mode boot host port interface hpi boot case dsps often second microprocessor microcontroller present system design responsible overall system behavior interrupt handling dealing external events user interface etc dsp dedicated signal processing tasks systems dsp could booted another processor sometimes referred host processor giving name host port processor also sometimes referred master since usually boots first memories controls overall system behavior including booting dsp controlling dsp behavior dsp often lacks boot memories relies host processor supply required code instead notable systems design cell phones modems audio video players dsp cpu/microcontroller co-existing many fpga chips load configuration external serial eeprom configuration rom power-up 1-hop neighbor's text information: trap_(computing).trap computing computing operating systems trap also known exception fault typically type synchronous interrupt caused exceptional condition e.g. breakpoint division zero invalid memory access trap usually results switch kernel mode wherein operating system performs action returning control originating process trap system process serious trap user process systems fatal usages term trap refers specifically interrupt intended initiate context switch monitor program debugger deriving original usage trap sometimes used mechanism intercepting normal control flow domains snmp trap type pdu used report alert asynchronous event managed subsystem 1-hop neighbor's text information: program_counter.program counter program counter pc commonly called instruction pointer ip intel x86 itanium microprocessors sometimes called instruction address register iar instruction counter part instruction sequencer processor register indicates computer program sequence processors pc incremented fetching instruction holds memory address points next instruction would executed processor incrementation precedes fetch pc points current instruction executed processors usually fetch instructions sequentially memory control transfer instructions change sequence placing new value pc include branches sometimes called jumps subroutine calls returns transfer conditional truth assertion lets computer follow different sequence different conditions branch provides next instruction fetched elsewhere memory subroutine call branches saves preceding contents pc somewhere return retrieves saved contents pc places back pc resuming sequential execution instruction following subroutine call typical central processing unit cpu pc digital counter origin term program counter may one many registers cpu hardware instruction cycle begins fetch cpu places value pc address bus send memory memory responds sending contents memory location data bus stored-program computer model executable instructions stored alongside ordinary data memory handled identically following fetch cpu proceeds execution taking action based memory contents obtained point cycle pc modified next instruction executed different one typically incremented next instruction one starting memory address immediately following last memory location current instruction like processor registers pc may bank binary latches one representing one bit value pc number bits width pc relates processor architecture instance “ 32-bit ” cpu may use 32 bits able address 2 units memory pc binary counter may increment pulse applied count input cpu may compute value load pc pulse load input identify current instruction pc may combined registers identify segment page approach permits pc fewer bits assuming memory units interest within current vicinity use pc normally increments assumes computer execute usually linear sequence instructions pc central von neumann architecture thus programmers write sequential control flow even algorithms sequential resulting “ von neumann bottleneck ” led research parallel computing including non-von neumann dataflow models use pc example rather specifying sequential steps high-level programmer might specify desired function low-level programmer might specify using combinatory logic research also led ways making conventional pc-based cpus run faster including modern high-level programming languages still follow sequential-execution model indeed common way identifying programming errors “ procedure execution ” programmer finger identifies point execution pc would high-level language essentially machine language virtual machine complex built hardware instead emulated interpreted software however new programming models transcend sequential-execution programming Target text information: ibm_system/360_architecture.ibm system/360 architecture ibm system/360 architecture model independent architecture entire s/360 line mainframe computers including limited instruction set architecture elements architecture documented ibm system/360 principles operation ibm system/360 i/o interface channel control unit original equipment manufacturers information manuals system/360 architecture provides following features memory storage system/360 addressed terms 8-bit bytes various instructions operate larger units called halfword 2 bytes fullword 4 bytes doubleword 8 bytes quad word 16 bytes 2048 byte storage block specifying leftmost lowest address unit within halfword fullword doubleword quadword low numbered bytes significant high numbered bytes sometimes referred big-endian many uses units require aligning corresponding boundaries within article unqualified term word refers fullword original architecture system/360 provided 2 16,777,216 bytes memory later model 67 extended architecture allow 2 4,294,967,296 bytes virtual memory system/360 uses truncated addressing means instructions contain complete addresses rather specify base register positive offset addresses base registers case system/360 base address contained one 15 general registers instructions example shifts computations performed 32-bit quantities addresses s/360 architecture defines formats characters integers decimal integers hexadecimal floating point numbers character integer instructions mandatory decimal floating point instructions part decimal arithmetic floating-point arithmetic features instructions s/360 two four six bytes length opcode byte 0 instructions one following formats instructions must two-byte boundary memory hence low-order bit instruction address always 0 program status word psw contains variety controls currently operating program 64-bit psw describes among things address current instruction executed condition code interrupt masks load program status word lpsw privileged instruction loads program status word psw including program mode protection key address next instruction executed lpsw often used return interruption loading old psw associated interruption class privileged instructions e.g. ssm stnsm stosm spka etcetera available manipulating subsets psw without causing interruption loading psw one non-privileged instruction spm available manipulating program mask architecture defines 5 classes interruption interruption mechanism automatically changing program state used synchronous asynchronous events two storage fields assigned class interruption s/360 old psw double-word new psw double-word processor stores psw interruption code inserted old psw location loads psw new psw location generally replaces instruction address thereby effecting branch optionally sets and/or resets fields within psw thereby effecting mode change s/360 architecture defines priority interruption class relevant two interruptions occur simultaneously interruption routine interrupted enabled interruption including another occurrence initial interruption reason normal practice specify mask bits exception machine-check mask bit 0 first-level interruption handlers second-level interruption handlers generally designed stacked interruptions multiple occurrences interruptions interruption class i/o interruption occurs completion channel program fetching ccw pci bit set also asynchronous events detected device control unit channel e.g. completion mechanical movement system stores device address interruption code stores channel status csw location 64 '40 x program interruption occurs instruction encounters one 15 exceptions however program mask bit corresponding exception 0 interruption exception 360/65 360/67 360/85 protection exception addressing exception interruptions imprecise case store instruction length code 0 interruption code may supervisor call interruption occurs result supervisor call instruction system stores bits 8-15 svc instruction interruption code external interruption occurs result certain asynchronous events bits 16-24 external old psw set 0 one bits 24-31 set 1 machine check interruption occurs report unusual conditions associated channel cpu reported another class interruption important class conditions causing machine check hardware error parity error found registers storage models may use report less serious conditions interruption code data stored scanout area '80 x 128 decimal model dependent article describes i/o cpu perspective discuss channel cable connectors summary elsewhere details found ibm literature i/o carried conceptually separate processor called channel channels instruction set access memory independently program running cpu smaller models 360/50 single microcode engine runs cpu program channel program larger models channels separate cabinets interfaces memory channel may contain multiple subchannels containing status individual channel program subchannel associated multiple devices concurrently channel programs referred shared subchannel representing single device referred unshared three types channels s/360 conceptually peripheral equipment attached s/360 control units turn attached channels however architecture require control units physically distinct practice sometimes integrated devices control similarly architecture require channels physically distinct processor smaller s/360 models 360/50 integrated channels steal cycles processor peripheral devices addressed 16-bit addresses. referred cua cuu article use term cuu high 8 bits identify channel numbered 0 6 low 8 bits identify device channel device may multiple cuu addresses control units assigned address capture range example cu might assigned range 20-2f 40-7f purpose assist connection prioritization multiple control units channel example channel might three disk control units 20-2f 50-5f 80-8f captured addresses need assigned physical device control unit also marked high low priority channel device selection progresses channel control unit order physically attached channel end chain selection process continues reverse back towards channel selection returns channel control unit accepted command sio returns condition code 3 control units marked high priority check outbound cuu within range i/o processed selection passed next outbound cu control units marked low priority check inbound returning cuu within range i/o processed selection passed next inbound cu channel connection three controls unit channel might physically -a-b-c marked high priority would abc marked low priority would cba b marked high ac low order would bca extending line reasoning first n controllers would priority 1 high 2n-1 low second priority 2 2n-2 third priority 3 2n-3 etc last physically attached would always priority n. three storage fields reserved i/o double word i/o old psw doubleword i/o new psw fullword channel address word caw performing i/o normally requires following channel program consists sequence channel control words ccws chained together see normally channel fetches ccws consecutive doublewords control unit direct channel skip ccw transfer channel tic ccw direct channel start fetching ccws new location several defined ways channel command complete allow channel continue fetching ccws others terminate channel program general ccw chain-command bit set tic channel terminate i/o operation cause i/o interruption command completes certain status bits control unit suppress chaining common ways command complete count exhausted chain-data set control unit signal data transfers made suppress-length-indication sli set one occurs without chaining allowed common situations suppress chaining unit-exception unit-check however combination unit-check status-modifier suppress chaining rather causes channel command retry reprocessing ccw addition interruption signal sent cpu i/o operation complete channel also send program-controlled interruption pci cpu channel program running without terminating operation delayed device-end interruption i/o completion interruption conditions detected channel indicated csw conditions presented channel control unit device cases handled channel cases indicated csw distinction conditions detected control unit conditions detected device fullword channel address word caw contains 4-bit storage protection key 24-bit address channel program started channel command word doubleword containing following low order 2 4 bits determine six types operations channel performs encoding meaning high order six four bits modifier bits table depends upon type i/o device attached see e.g. dasd ckd ccws eight bits sent interpreted associated control unit functional equivalent control used cause state change device control unit often associated mechanical motion e.g. rewind seek sense used read data describing status device important case command terminates unit check specific cause determined sense examining data returned sense command modifier bits zero always valid noteworthy deviation architecture dasd use sense command codes reserve release instead using control flags ccw affect executes terminates channel status word csw provides data associated i/o interruption architecture system/360 specified existence several common functions specify means implementation allowed ibm use different physical means e.g. dial keyboard pushbutton roller image text crt selecting functions values different processors reference key switch read applying e.g. light-pen selection equivalent keyboard sequence models alignment requirements problem-state instructions relaxed mechanism turn feature programs depending receiving program check type 6 alignment instructions must modified decimal arithmetic feature provides instructions operate packed decimal data packed decimal number 1-31 decimal digits followed 4-bit sign decimal arithmetic instructions except pack unpack generate data exception digit range 0-9 sign range a-f direct control feature provides six external signal lines 8-bit data path to/from storage floating-point arithmetic feature provides 4 64-bit floating point registers instructions operate 32 64 bit hexadecimal floating point numbers 360/85 360/195 also support 128 bit extended precision floating point numbers interval timer feature installed processor decrements word location 80 '50 x regular intervals architecture specify interval require value subtracted make appear though 1 subtracted bit 23 300 times per second smaller models decremented frequency 50 hz 60 hz ac power supply larger models high resolution timer feature processor causes external interruption timer goes zero multi-system operation set features support multi-processor systems e.g. direct control direct address relocation prefixing storage protection feature installed 4-bit storage key associated every 2,048-byte block storage key checked storing address block either cpu i/o channel cpu channel key 0 disables check nonzero cpu channel key allows data stored block matching key storage protection used prevent defective application writing storage belonging operating system another application permitted testing performed along production key four bits length maximum number different applications could run simultaneously 15 additional option available models fetch protection allowed operating system specify blocks protected fetching well storing system/360 model 20 radically different considered s/360 system/360 model 44 missing certain instructions feature allowed missing instructions simulated hidden memory thus allowing use standard s/360 operating systems applications models features extended architecture e.g. emulation instructions paging models make minor deviations architecture examples include deviations served prototypes features s/370 architecture I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	663	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: word_embedding.word embedding word embedding collective name set language modeling feature learning techniques natural language processing nlp words phrases vocabulary mapped vectors real numbers conceptually involves mathematical embedding space many dimensions per word continuous vector space much lower dimension methods generate mapping include neural networks dimensionality reduction word co-occurrence matrix probabilistic models explainable knowledge base method explicit representation terms context words appear word phrase embeddings used underlying input representation shown boost performance nlp tasks syntactic parsing sentiment analysis linguistics word embeddings discussed research area distributional semantics aims quantify categorize semantic similarities linguistic items based distributional properties large samples language data underlying idea word characterized company keeps popularized firth technique representing words vectors roots 1960s development vector space model information retrieval reducing number dimensions using singular value decomposition led introduction latent semantic analysis late 1980s 2000 bengio et al provided series papers neural probabilistic language models reduce high dimensionality words representations contexts learning distributed representation words bengio et al 2003 word embeddings come two different styles one words expressed vectors co-occurring words another words expressed vectors linguistic contexts words occur different styles studied lavelli et al 2004 roweis saul published science use locally linear embedding lle discover representations high dimensional data structures area developed gradually really took 2010 partly important advances made since quality vectors training speed model many branches many research groups working word embeddings 2013 team google led tomas mikolov created word2vec word embedding toolkit train vector space models faster previous approaches new word embedding techniques rely neural network architecture instead traditional n-gram models unsupervised learning one main limitations word embeddings word vector space models general possible meanings word conflated single representation single vector semantic space sense embeddings proposed solution problem individual meanings words represented distinct vectors space word embeddings n- grams biological sequences e.g dna rna proteins bioinformatics applications proposed asgari mofrad named bio-vectors biovec refer biological sequences general protein-vectors protvec proteins amino-acid sequences gene-vectors genevec gene sequences representation widely used applications deep learning proteomics genomics results presented asgari mofrad suggest biovectors characterize biological sequences terms biochemical biophysical interpretations underlying patterns thought vectors extension word embeddings entire sentences even documents researchers hope improve quality machine translation software training using word embeddings includes tomas mikolov word2vec stanford university glove allennlp elmo fasttext gensim indra deeplearning4j principal component analysis pca t-distributed stochastic neighbour embedding t-sne used reduce dimensionality word vector spaces visualize word embeddings clusters instance fasttext also used calculate word embeddings text corpora sketch engine available online 1-hop neighbor's text information: n-gram.n-gram fields computational linguistics probability n -gram contiguous sequence n items given sample text speech items phonemes syllables letters words base pairs according application n -grams typically collected text speech corpus items words -grams may also called shingles using latin numerical prefixes n -gram size 1 referred unigram size 2 bigram less commonly digram size 3 trigram english cardinal numbers sometimes used e.g. four-gram five-gram computational biology polymer oligomer known size called k -mer instead n -gram specific names using greek numerical prefixes monomer dimer trimer tetramer pentamer etc. english cardinal numbers one-mer two-mer three-mer etc n -gram model type probabilistic language model predicting next item sequence form n − 1 –order markov model n -gram models widely used probability communication theory computational linguistics instance statistical natural language processing computational biology instance biological sequence analysis data compression two benefits n -gram models algorithms use simplicity scalability – larger n model store context well-understood space–time tradeoff enabling small experiments scale efficiently figure 1 shows several example sequences corresponding 1-gram 2-gram 3-gram sequences examples word-level 3-grams 4-grams counts number times appeared google n -gram corpus 3-grams 4-grams n -gram model models sequences notably natural languages using statistical properties n -grams idea traced experiment claude shannon work information theory shannon posed question given sequence letters example sequence ex likelihood next letter training data one derive probability distribution next letter given history size formula_1 0.4 b 0.00001 c 0 ... probabilities possible next-letters sum 1.0 concisely n -gram model predicts formula_2 based formula_3 probability terms formula_4 used language modeling independence assumptions made word depends last n − 1 words markov model used approximation true underlying language assumption important massively simplifies problem estimating language model data addition open nature language common group words unknown language model together note simple n -gram language model probability word conditioned number previous words one word bigram model two words trigram model etc described following categorical distribution often imprecisely called multinomial distribution practice probability distributions smoothed assigning non-zero probabilities unseen words n -grams see smoothing techniques n -gram models widely used statistical natural language processing speech recognition phonemes sequences phonemes modeled using n -gram distribution parsing words modeled n -gram composed n words language identification sequences characters/graphemes e.g letters alphabet modeled different languages sequences characters 3-grams sometimes referred trigrams generated good morning goo ood od mo mor forth counting space character gram sometimes beginning end text modeled explicitly adding ⁠_g _go ng_ g_ ⁠_ sequences words trigrams shingles generated dog smelled like skunk dog dog smelled dog smelled like smelled like like skunk skunk practitioners interested multiple word terms might preprocess strings remove spaces many simply collapse whitespace single space preserving paragraph marks whitespace frequently either element writing style introduces layout presentation required prediction deduction methodology punctuation also commonly reduced removed preprocessing frequently used trigger functionality n -grams also used sequences words almost type data example used extracting features clustering large sets satellite earth images determining part earth particular image came also successful first pass genetic sequence search identification species short sequences dna originated n -gram models often criticized lack explicit representation long range dependency explicit dependency range n − 1 tokens n -gram model since natural languages incorporate many cases unbounded dependencies wh-movement means n -gram model principle distinguish unbounded dependencies noise since long range correlations drop exponentially distance markov model reason n -gram models made much impact linguistic theory part explicit goal model dependencies another criticism made markov models language including n -gram models explicitly capture performance/competence distinction n -gram models designed model linguistic knowledge make claims even potentially complete models linguistic knowledge instead used practical applications practice n -gram models shown extremely effective modeling language data core component modern statistical language applications modern applications rely n -gram based models machine translation applications rely exclusively models instead typically also incorporate bayesian inference modern statistical models typically made two parts prior distribution describing inherent likelihood possible result likelihood function used assess compatibility possible result observed data language model used used part prior distribution e.g gauge inherent goodness possible translation even often component distribution handcrafted features various sorts also used example variables represent position word sentence general topic discourse addition features based structure potential result syntactic considerations often used features also used part likelihood function makes use observed data conventional linguistic theory incorporated features although practice rare features specific generative particular theories grammar incorporated computational linguists tend agnostic towards individual theories grammar issue using n-gram language models out-of-vocabulary oov words encountered computational linguistics natural language processing input includes words present system dictionary database preparation default language model estimated entire observed vocabulary used cases may necessary estimate language model specific fixed vocabulary scenario n-grams corpus contain out-of-vocabulary word ignored n-gram probabilities smoothed words vocabulary even observed nonetheless essential cases explicitly model probability out-of-vocabulary words introducing special token e.g unk vocabulary out-of-vocabulary words corpus effectively replaced special unk token n-grams counts cumulated option possible estimate transition probabilities n-grams involving out-of-vocabulary words n -grams also used efficient approximate matching converting sequence items set n -grams embedded vector space thus allowing sequence compared sequences efficient manner example convert strings letters english alphabet single character 3-grams get formula_5-dimensional space first dimension measures number occurrences aaa second aab forth possible combinations three letters using representation lose information string example strings abc bca give rise exactly 2-gram bc although ab bc clearly bc ca however know empirically two strings real text similar vector representation measured cosine distance likely similar metrics also applied vectors n -grams varying sometimes better results example z-scores used compare documents examining many standard deviations n -gram differs mean occurrence large collection text corpus documents form background vector event small counts g-score also known g-test may give better results comparing alternative models also possible take principled approach statistics n -grams modeling similarity likelihood two strings came source directly terms problem bayesian inference n -gram-based searching also used plagiarism detection n -grams find use several areas computer science computational linguistics applied mathematics used choose value n n -gram model necessary find right trade stability estimate appropriateness means trigram i.e triplets words common choice large training corpora millions words whereas bigram often used smaller ones problems balance weight infrequent grams example proper name appeared training data frequent grams also items seen training data given probability 0.0 without smoothing unseen plausible data sample one introduce pseudocounts pseudocounts generally motivated bayesian grounds practice necessary smooth probability distributions also assigning non-zero probabilities unseen words n -grams reason models derived directly n -gram frequency counts severe problems confronted n -grams explicitly seen – zero-frequency problem various smoothing methods used simple add-one laplace smoothing assign count 1 unseen n -grams see rule succession sophisticated models good–turing discounting back-off models methods equivalent assigning prior distribution probabilities n -grams using bayesian inference compute resulting posterior n -gram probabilities however sophisticated smoothing models typically derived fashion instead independent considerations field computational linguistics particular language modeling skip-grams generalization n -grams components typically words need consecutive text consideration may leave gaps skipped provide one way overcoming data sparsity problem found conventional n -gram analysis formally -gram consecutive subsequence length sequence tokens -skip -- gram length- subsequence components occur distance example input text set 1-skip-2-grams includes bigrams 2-grams addition subsequences syntactic n -grams n -grams defined paths syntactic dependency constituent trees rather linear structure text example sentence economic news little effect financial markets transformed syntactic n -grams following tree structure dependency relations news-economic effect-little effect-on-markets-financial syntactic n -grams intended reflect syntactic structure faithfully linear n -grams many applications especially features vector space model syntactic n -grams certain tasks gives better results use standard n -grams example authorship attribution another type syntactic n -grams part-of-speech n -grams defined fixed-length contiguous overlapping subsequences extracted part-of-speech sequences text part-of-speech n -grams several applications commonly information retrieval 1-hop neighbor's text information: natural_language_processing.natural language processing natural language processing nlp subfield linguistics computer science information engineering artificial intelligence concerned interactions computers human natural languages particular program computers process analyze large amounts natural language data challenges natural language processing frequently involve speech recognition natural language understanding natural language generation history natural language processing nlp generally started 1950s although work found earlier periods 1950 alan turing published article titled computing machinery intelligence proposed called turing test criterion intelligence georgetown experiment 1954 involved fully automatic translation sixty russian sentences english authors claimed within three five years machine translation would solved problem however real progress much slower alpac report 1966 found ten-year-long research failed fulfill expectations funding machine translation dramatically reduced little research machine translation conducted late 1980s first statistical machine translation systems developed notably successful natural language processing systems developed 1960s shrdlu natural language system working restricted blocks worlds restricted vocabularies eliza simulation rogerian psychotherapist written joseph weizenbaum 1964 1966 using almost information human thought emotion eliza sometimes provided startlingly human-like interaction patient exceeded small knowledge base eliza might provide generic response example responding head hurts say head hurts 1970s many programmers began write conceptual ontologies structured real-world information computer-understandable data examples margie schank 1975 sam cullingford 1978 pam wilensky 1978 talespin meehan 1976 qualm lehnert 1977 politics carbonell 1979 plot units lehnert 1981 time many chatterbots written including parry racter jabberwacky 1980s natural language processing systems based complex sets hand-written rules starting late 1980s however revolution natural language processing introduction machine learning algorithms language processing due steady increase computational power see moore law gradual lessening dominance chomskyan theories linguistics e.g transformational grammar whose theoretical underpinnings discouraged sort corpus linguistics underlies machine-learning approach language processing earliest-used machine learning algorithms decision trees produced systems hard if-then rules similar existing hand-written rules however part-of-speech tagging introduced use hidden markov models natural language processing increasingly research focused statistical models make soft probabilistic decisions based attaching real-valued weights features making input data cache language models upon many speech recognition systems rely examples statistical models models generally robust given unfamiliar input especially input contains errors common real-world data produce reliable results integrated larger system comprising multiple subtasks many notable early successes occurred field machine translation due especially work ibm research successively complicated statistical models developed systems able take advantage existing multilingual textual corpora produced parliament canada european union result laws calling translation governmental proceedings official languages corresponding systems government however systems depended corpora specifically developed tasks implemented systems often continues major limitation success systems result great deal research gone methods effectively learning limited amounts data recent research increasingly focused unsupervised semi-supervised learning algorithms algorithms able learn data hand-annotated desired answers using combination annotated non-annotated data generally task much difficult supervised learning typically produces less accurate results given amount input data however enormous amount non-annotated data available including among things entire content world wide web often make inferior results algorithm used low enough time complexity practical 2010s representation learning deep neural network-style machine learning methods became widespread natural language processing due part flurry results showing techniques achieve state-of-the-art results many natural language tasks example language modeling parsing many others popular techniques include use word embeddings capture semantic properties words increase end-to-end learning higher-level task e.g. question answering instead relying pipeline separate intermediate tasks e.g. part-of-speech tagging dependency parsing areas shift entailed substantial changes nlp systems designed deep neural network-based approaches may viewed new paradigm distinct statistical natural language processing instance term neural machine translation nmt emphasizes fact deep learning-based approaches machine translation directly learn sequence-to-sequence transformations obviating need intermediate steps word alignment language modeling used statistical machine translation smt early days many language-processing systems designed hand-coding set rules e.g writing grammars devising heuristic rules stemming however rarely robust natural language variation since so-called statistical revolution late 1980s mid 1990s much natural language processing research relied heavily machine learning machine-learning paradigm calls instead using statistical inference automatically learn rules analysis large corpora typical real-world examples corpus plural corpora set documents possibly human computer annotations many different classes machine-learning algorithms applied natural-language-processing tasks algorithms take input large set features generated input data earliest-used algorithms decision trees produced systems hard if-then rules similar systems hand-written rules common increasingly however research focused statistical models make soft probabilistic decisions based attaching real-valued weights input feature models advantage express relative certainty many different possible answers rather one producing reliable results model included component larger system systems based machine-learning algorithms many advantages hand-produced rules following list commonly researched tasks natural language processing tasks direct real-world applications others commonly serve subtasks used aid solving larger tasks though natural language processing tasks closely intertwined frequently subdivided categories convenience coarse division given first published work artificial intelligence published 2018 1 road marketed novel contains sixty million words Target text information: paraphrasing_(computational_linguistics).paraphrasing computational linguistics paraphrase paraphrasing computational linguistics natural language processing task detecting generating paraphrases applications paraphrasing varied including information retrieval question answering text summarization plagiarism detection paraphrasing also useful evaluation machine translation well semantic parsing generation new samples expand existing corpora barzilay lee proposed method generate paraphrases usage monolingual parallel corpora namely news articles covering event day training consists using multi-sequence alignment generate sentence-level paraphrases unannotated corpus done achieved first clustering similar sentences together using n-gram overlap recurring patterns found within clusters using multi-sequence alignment position argument words determined finding areas high variability within clusters aka words shared 50 cluster sentences pairings patterns found comparing similar variable words different corpora finally new paraphrases generated choosing matching cluster source sentence substituting source sentence argument number patterns cluster paraphrase also generated use phrase-based translation proposed bannard callison-burch chief concept consists aligning phrases pivot language produce potential paraphrases original language example phrase control english sentence aligned phrase unter kontrolle german counterpart phrase unter kontrolle found another german sentence aligned english phrase check paraphrase control probability distribution modeled formula_1 probability phrase formula_2 paraphrase formula_3 equivalent formula_4 summed formula_5 potential phrase translation pivot language additionally sentence formula_3 added prior add context paraphrase thus optimal paraphrase formula_7 modeled formula_9 formula_10 approximated simply taking frequencies adding formula_11 prior modeled calculating probability forming formula_11 formula_3 substituted success using long short-term memory lstm models generate paraphrases short model consists encoder decoder component implemented using variations stacked residual lstm first encoding lstm takes one-hot encoding words sentence input produces final hidden vector viewed representation input sentence decoding lstm takes hidden vector input generates new sentence terminating end-of-sentence token encoder decoder trained take phrase reproduce one-hot distribution corresponding paraphrase minimizing perplexity using simple stochastic gradient descent new paraphrases generated inputting new phrase encoder passing output decoder paraphrase recognition attempted socher et al use recursive autoencoders main concept produce vector representation sentence along components recursively using autoencoder vector representations paraphrases similar vector representations processed fed input neural network classification given sentence formula_14 formula_15 words autoencoder designed take 2 formula_16-dimensional word embeddings input produce formula_16-dimensional vector output autoencoder applied every pair words formula_11 produce formula_19 vectors autoencoder applied recursively new vectors inputs single vector produced given odd number inputs first vector forwarded next level recursion autoencoder trained reproduce every vector full recursion tree including initial word embeddings given two sentences formula_20 formula_21 length 4 3 respectively autoencoders would produce 7 5 vector representations including initial word embeddings euclidean distance taken every combination vectors formula_20 formula_21 produce similarity matrix formula_24 formula_11 subject dynamic min-pooling layer produce fixed size formula_26 matrix since formula_11 uniform size among potential sentences formula_11 split formula_29 roughly even sections output normalized mean 0 standard deviation 1 fed fully connected layer softmax output dynamic pooling softmax model trained using pairs known paraphrases skip-thought vectors attempt create vector representation semantic meaning sentence similar fashion skip gram model skip-thought vectors produced use skip-thought model consists three key components encoder two decoders given corpus documents skip-thought model trained take sentence input encode skip-thought vector skip-thought vector used input decoders one attempts reproduce previous sentence following sentence entirety encoder decoder implemented use recursive neural network rnn lstm since paraphrases carry semantic meaning one another similar skip-thought vectors thus simple logistic regression trained good performance absolute difference component-wise product two skip-thought vectors input multiple methods used evaluate paraphrases since paraphrase recognition posed classification problem standard evaluations metrics accuracy f1 score roc curve relatively well however difficulty calculating f1-scores due trouble produce complete list paraphrases given phrase along fact good paraphrases dependent upon context metric designed counter problems parametric parametric aims calculate precision recall automatic paraphrase system comparing automatic alignment paraphrases manual alignment similar phrases since parametric simply rating quality phrase alignment used rate paraphrase generation systems well assuming uses phrase alignment part generation process noted drawback parametric large exhaustive set manual alignments must initially created rating produced evaluation paraphrase generation similar difficulties evaluation machine translation often quality paraphrase dependent upon context whether used summary generated among factors additionally good paraphrase usually lexically dissimilar source phrase simplest method used evaluate paraphrase generation would use human judges unfortunately evaluation human judges tends time consuming automated approaches evaluation prove challenging essentially problem difficult paraphrase recognition originally used evaluate machine translations bilingual evaluation understudy bleu used successfully evaluate paraphrase generation models well however paraphrases often several lexically different equally valid solutions hurts bleu similar evaluation metrics metrics specifically designed evaluate paraphrase generation include paraphrase n-gram change pinc paraphrase evaluation metric pem along aforementioned parametric pinc designed used conjunction bleu help cover inadequacies since bleu difficulty measuring lexical dissimilarity pinc measurement lack n-gram overlap source sentence candidate paraphrase essentially jaccard distance sentence excluding n-grams appear source sentence maintain semantic equivalence pem hand attempts evaluate adequacy fluency lexical dissimilarity paraphrases returning single value heuristic calculated using n-grams overlap pivot language however large drawback pem must trained using large in-domain parallel corpora well human judges words tantamount training paraphrase recognition system order evaluate paraphrase generation system 11 online paraphrasing tool rewording articles paraphrasing tool I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	3,748	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: eni_number.eni number eni number european number identification european vessel identification number registration ships capable navigating inland european waters unique eight-digit identifier attached hull entire lifetime independent vessel current name flag eni introduced inland transport committee united nations economic commission europe meeting 11–13 october 2006 geneva based rhine vessel certification system previously used ships navigating rhine comparable imo ship identification number eni number consists eight arabic numerals first three digits identify competent authority number assigned see list prefixes last five digits serial number ships vessel number accordance rhine inspection rules receive eni beginning 0 followed seven digit rhine number vessel issued imo number may receive eni number appropriate certifications inland water travel eni begin 9 followed seven digit imo number eni number transmitted inland-automatic identification system transponders european vessels required carry eni number april 2007 vessel must eni operates inland waterways meets following criteria length greater volume tug push boat operates qualifying vessel passenger ship floating installation/equipment vessel issued eni number must displayed sides stern vessel Target text information: imo_number.imo number international maritime organization imo number unique reference ships registered ship owners management companies imo numbers introduced improve maritime safety security reduce maritime fraud consist three letters imo followed unique seven-digit numbers assigned international convention safety life sea solas 1987 imo adopted resolution a.600 15 aimed enhancement maritime safety pollution prevention prevention maritime fraud assigning ship permanent identification number imo number remains linked hull lifetime regardless changes names flags owners imo adopted existing unique 7-digit numbers applied ships lloyd register since 1969 modified 6-digit numbers introduced 1963 solas regulation xi/3 adopted 1994 came force 1 january 1996 made imo numbers mandatory applied cargo vessels least 300 gross tons gt passenger vessels least 100 gt solas convention cargo ships means ships passenger ships imo scheme however apply december 2002 diplomatic conference maritime security adopted number measures aimed enhancing security ships port facilities included modification solas regulation xi-1/3 require ships identification numbers permanently marked visible place either ship hull superstructure well internally ship certificates passenger ships also carry marking horizontal surface visible air may 2005 imo adopted new solas regulation xi-1/3-1 mandatory company registered owner identification number scheme entry force 1 january 2009 regulation provides every ship owner management company shall unique identification number amendments require numbers added relevant certificates documents international safety management code ism international ship port facility security code isps like imo ship identification number company identification number seven-digit number prefix imo example ship atlantic star imo 5304986 referred former ship manager pullmantur cruises ship management ltd imo 5364264 former owner pullmantur cruises empress ltd. imo identification numbers ships companies registered owners assigned ihs markit previously lloyd register-fairplay new vessels imo number assigned hull construction generally upon keel laying many vessels fall outside mandatory requirements solas numbers allocated lloyd register ihs markit numerical series including fishing vessels commercial yachts imo number made three letters imo followed seven-digit number consists six-digit sequential unique number followed check digit integrity imo number verified using check digit done multiplying first six digits factor 2 7 corresponding position right left rightmost digit sum check digit example imo 9074729 9× 7 0× 6 7× 5 4× 4 7× 3 2× 2 139 01718423143 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	4,413	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: programming_language.programming language programming language formal language comprises set instructions produce various kinds output programming languages used computer programming implement algorithms programming languages consist instructions computers programmable machines use set specific instructions rather general programming languages early ones preceded invention digital computer first probably automatic flute player described 9th century brothers musa baghdad islamic golden age since early 1800s programs used direct behavior machines jacquard looms music boxes player pianos programs machines player piano scrolls produce different behavior response different inputs conditions thousands different programming languages created created every year many programming languages written imperative form i.e. sequence operations perform languages use declarative form i.e desired result specified achieve description programming language usually split two components syntax form semantics meaning languages defined specification document example c programming language specified iso standard languages perl dominant implementation treated reference languages basic language defined standard extensions taken dominant implementation common programming language notation writing programs specifications computation algorithm authors restrict term programming language languages express possible algorithms traits often considered important constitutes programming language include markup languages like xml html troff define structured data usually considered programming languages programming languages may however share syntax markup languages computational semantics defined xslt example turing complete language entirely using xml syntax moreover latex mostly used structuring documents also contains turing complete subset term computer language sometimes used interchangeably programming language however usage terms varies among authors including exact scope one usage describes programming languages subset computer languages similarly languages used computing different goal expressing computer programs generically designated computer languages instance markup languages sometimes referred computer languages emphasize meant used programming another usage regards programming languages theoretical constructs programming abstract machines computer languages subset thereof runs physical computers finite hardware resources john c. reynolds emphasizes formal specification languages much programming languages languages intended execution also argues textual even graphical input formats affect behavior computer programming languages despite fact commonly turing-complete remarks ignorance programming language concepts reason many flaws input formats early computers colossus programmed without help stored program modifying circuitry setting banks physical controls slightly later programs could written machine language programmer writes instruction numeric form hardware execute directly example instruction add value two memory location might consist 3 numbers opcode selects add operation two memory locations programs decimal binary form read punched cards paper tape magnetic tape toggled switches front panel computer machine languages later termed first-generation programming languages 1gl next step development so-called second-generation programming languages 2gl assembly languages still closely tied instruction set architecture specific computer served make program much human-readable relieved programmer tedious error-prone address calculations first high-level programming languages third-generation programming languages 3gl written 1950s early high-level programming language designed computer plankalkül developed german z3 konrad zuse 1943 1945 however implemented 1998 2000 john mauchly short code proposed 1949 one first high-level languages ever developed electronic computer unlike machine code short code statements represented mathematical expressions understandable form however program translated machine code every time ran making process much slower running equivalent machine code university manchester alick glennie developed autocode early 1950s programming language used compiler automatically convert language machine code first code compiler developed 1952 mark 1 computer university manchester considered first compiled high-level programming language second autocode developed mark 1 r. a. brooker 1954 called mark 1 autocode brooker also developed autocode ferranti mercury 1950s conjunction university manchester version edsac 2 devised d. f. hartley university cambridge mathematical laboratory 1961 known edsac 2 autocode straight development mercury autocode adapted local circumstances noted object code optimisation source-language diagnostics advanced time contemporary separate thread development atlas autocode developed university manchester atlas 1 machine 1954 fortran invented ibm john backus first widely used high-level general purpose programming language functional implementation opposed design paper still popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers another early programming language devised grace hopper us called flow-matic developed univac remington rand period 1955 1959 hopper found business data processing customers uncomfortable mathematical notation early 1955 team wrote specification english programming language implemented prototype flow-matic compiler became publicly available early 1958 substantially complete 1959 flow-matic major influence design cobol since direct descendant aimaco actual use time increased use high-level languages introduced requirement low-level programming languages system programming languages languages varying degrees provide facilities assembly languages high-level languages used perform tasks require direct access hardware facilities still provide higher-level control structures error-checking period 1960s late 1970s brought development major language paradigms use languages spawned descendants modern programming languages count least one ancestry 1960s 1970s also saw considerable debate merits structured programming whether programming languages designed support edsger dijkstra famous 1968 letter published communications acm argued goto statements eliminated higher level programming languages 1980s years relative consolidation c++ combined object-oriented systems programming united states government standardized ada systems programming language derived pascal intended use defense contractors japan elsewhere vast sums spent investigating so-called fifth-generation languages incorporated logic programming constructs functional languages community moved standardize ml lisp rather inventing new paradigms movements elaborated upon ideas invented previous decades one important trend language design programming large-scale systems 1980s increased focus use modules large-scale organizational units code modula-2 ada ml developed notable module systems 1980s often wedded generic programming constructs rapid growth internet mid-1990s created opportunities new languages perl originally unix scripting tool first released 1987 became common dynamic websites java came used server-side programming bytecode virtual machines became popular commercial settings promise write run anywhere ucsd pascal popular time early 1980s developments fundamentally novel rather refinements many existing languages paradigms although syntax often based c family programming languages programming language evolution continues industry research current directions include security reliability verification new kinds modularity mixins delegates aspects database integration microsoft linq fourth-generation programming languages 4gl computer programming languages aim provide higher level abstraction internal computer hardware details 3gls fifth-generation programming languages 5gl programming languages based solving problems using constraints given program rather using algorithm written programmer programming languages primitive building blocks description data processes transformations applied like addition two numbers selection item collection primitives defined syntactic semantic rules describe structure meaning respectively programming language surface form known syntax programming languages purely textual use sequences text including words numbers punctuation much like written natural languages hand programming languages graphical nature using visual relationships symbols specify program syntax language describes possible combinations symbols form syntactically correct program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard-coded reference implementation since languages textual article discusses textual syntax programming language syntax usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus–naur form grammatical structure simple grammar based lisp grammar specifies following following examples well-formed token sequences grammar codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill-formed per language rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well-defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence may false following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operations semantically defined operation codice_4 meaning value complex type codice_5 defined value codice_6 null pointer type declaration first line omitted program would trigger error undefined variable p compilation however program would still syntactically correct since type declarations provide semantic information grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy syntax programming languages specified using type-2 grammar i.e. context-free grammars languages including perl lisp contain constructs allow execution parsing phase languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser make syntax analysis undecidable problem generally blur distinction parsing execution contrast lisp macro system perl codice_7 blocks may contain general computations c macros merely string replacements require code execution term semantics refers meaning languages opposed form syntax static semantics defines restrictions structure valid texts hard impossible express standard syntactic formalisms compiled languages static semantics essentially include semantic rules checked compile time examples include checking every identifier declared used languages require declarations labels arms case statement distinct many important restrictions type like checking identifiers used appropriate context e.g adding integer function name subroutine calls appropriate number type arguments enforced defining rules logic called type system forms static analyses like data flow analysis may also part static semantics newer programming languages like java c definite assignment analysis form data flow analysis part static semantics data specified machine must instructed perform operations data example semantics may define strategy expressions evaluated values manner control structures conditionally execute statements dynamic semantics also known execution semantics language defines various constructs language produce program behavior many ways defining execution semantics natural language often used specify execution semantics languages commonly used practice significant amount academic research went formal semantics programming languages allow execution semantics specified formal manner results field research seen limited application programming language design implementation outside academia type system defines programming language classifies values expressions types manipulate types interact goal type system verify usually enforce certain level correctness programs written language detecting certain incorrect operations decidable type system involves trade-off rejects many incorrect programs also prohibit correct albeit unusual programs order bypass downside number languages type loopholes usually unchecked casts may used programmer explicitly allow normally disallowed operation different types typed languages type system used type check programs number languages usually functional ones infer types relieving programmer need write type annotations formal design study type systems known type theory language typed specification every operation defines types data operation applicable example data represented codice_8 string many programming languages dividing number string meaning executed invalid operation may detected program compiled static type checking rejected compiler compilation error message may detected program running dynamic type checking resulting run-time exception many languages allow function called exception handler handle exception example always return -1 result special case typed languages single-typed languages often scripting markup languages rexx sgml one data type–—most commonly character strings used symbolic numeric data contrast untyped language assembly languages allows operation performed data generally sequences bits various lengths high-level untyped languages include bcpl tcl varieties forth practice languages considered typed type theory verifying rejecting operations modern languages offer degree typing many production languages provide means bypass subvert type system trading type-safety finer control program execution see casting static typing expressions types determined prior program executed typically compile-time example 1 2+2 integer expressions passed function expects string stored variable defined hold dates statically typed languages either manifestly typed type-inferred first case programmer must explicitly write types certain textual positions example variable declarations second case compiler infers types expressions declarations based context mainstream statically typed languages c++ c java manifestly typed complete type inference traditionally associated less mainstream languages haskell ml however many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference example c++ java c infer types certain limited cases additionally programming languages allow types automatically converted types example int used program expects float dynamic typing also called latent typing determines type-safety operations run time words types associated run-time values rather textual expressions type-inferred languages dynamically typed languages require programmer write explicit type annotations expressions among things may permit single variable refer values different types different points program execution however type errors automatically detected piece code actually executed potentially making debugging difficult lisp smalltalk perl python javascript ruby examples dynamically typed languages weak typing allows value one type treated another example treating string number occasionally useful also allow kinds program faults go undetected compile time even run time strong typing prevents program faults attempt perform operation wrong type value raises error strongly typed languages often termed type-safe safe alternative definition weakly typed refers languages perl javascript permit large number implicit type conversions javascript example expression codice_9 implicitly converts codice_10 number conversion succeeds even codice_10 codice_12 codice_13 codice_14 string letters implicit conversions often useful mask programming errors strong static generally considered orthogonal concepts usage literature differs use term strongly typed mean strongly statically typed even confusingly mean simply statically typed thus c called strongly typed weakly statically typed may seem odd professional programmers c could weakly statically typed however notice use generic pointer void* pointer allow casting pointers pointers without needing explicit cast extremely similar somehow casting array bytes kind datatype c without using explicit cast codice_15 codice_16 programming languages associated core library sometimes known 'standard library especially included part published language standard conventionally made available implementations language core libraries typically include definitions commonly used algorithms data structures mechanisms input output line language core library differs language language cases language designers may treat library separate entity language however language core library often treated part language users language specifications even require library made available implementations indeed languages designed meanings certain syntactic constructs even described without referring core library example java string literal defined instance codice_17 class similarly smalltalk anonymous function expression block constructs instance library codice_18 class conversely scheme contains multiple coherent subsets suffice construct rest language library macros language designers even bother say portions language must implemented language constructs must implemented parts library programming languages share properties natural languages related purpose vehicles communication syntactic form separate semantics showing language families related languages branching one another artificial constructs also differ fundamental ways languages evolved usage significant difference programming language fully described studied entirety since precise finite definition contrast natural languages changing meanings given users different communities constructed languages also artificial languages designed ground specific purpose lack precise complete semantic definition programming language many programming languages designed scratch altered meet new needs combined languages many eventually fallen disuse although attempts design one universal programming language serves purposes failed generally accepted filling role need diverse programming languages arises diversity contexts languages used one common trend development programming languages add ability solve problems using higher level abstraction earliest programming languages tied closely underlying hardware computer new programming languages developed features added let programmers express ideas remote simple translation underlying hardware instructions programmers less tied complexity computer programs computing less effort programmer lets write functionality per time unit natural language programming proposed way eliminate need specialized language programming however goal remains distant benefits open debate edsger w. dijkstra took position use formal language essential prevent introduction meaningless constructs dismissed natural language programming foolish alan perlis similarly dismissive idea hybrid approaches taken structured english sql language designers users must construct number artifacts govern enable practice programming important artifacts language specification implementation specification programming language artifact language users implementors use agree upon whether piece source code valid program language behavior shall programming language specification take several forms including following implementation programming language provides way write programs language execute one configurations hardware software broadly two approaches programming language implementation compilation interpretation generally possible implement language using either technique output compiler may executed hardware program called interpreter implementations make use interpreter approach distinct boundary compiling interpreting instance implementations basic compile execute source line time programs executed directly hardware usually run much faster interpreted software one technique improving performance interpreted programs just-in-time compilation virtual machine execution translates blocks bytecode going used machine code direct execution hardware although commonly used programming languages fully open specifications implementations many programming languages exist proprietary programming languages implementation available single vendor may claim proprietary language intellectual property proprietary programming languages commonly domain specific languages internal scripting languages single product proprietary languages used internally within vendor others available external users programming languages exist border proprietary open example oracle corporation asserts proprietary rights aspects java programming language microsoft c programming language open implementations parts system also common language runtime clr closed environment many proprietary languages widely used spite proprietary nature examples include matlab vbscript wolfram language languages may make transition closed open example erlang originally ericsson internal programming language thousands different programming languages created mainly computing field software commonly built 5 programming languages programming languages differ forms human expression require greater degree precision completeness using natural language communicate people human authors speakers ambiguous make small errors still expect intent understood however figuratively speaking computers exactly told understand code programmer intended write combination language definition program program inputs must fully specify external behavior occurs program executed within domain control program hand ideas algorithm communicated humans without precision required execution using pseudocode interleaves natural language code written programming language programming language provides structured mechanism defining pieces data operations transformations may carried automatically data programmer uses abstractions present language represent concepts involved computation concepts represented collection simplest elements available called primitives programming process programmers combine primitives compose new programs adapt existing ones new uses changing environment programs computer might executed batch process without human interaction user might type commands interactive session interpreter case commands simply programs whose execution chained together language run commands interpreter unix shell command-line interface without compiling called scripting language determining widely used programming language difficult since definition usage varies context one language may occupy greater number programmer hours different one lines code third may consume cpu time languages popular particular kinds applications example cobol still strong corporate data center often large mainframes fortran scientific engineering applications ada aerospace transportation military real-time embedded applications c embedded applications operating systems languages regularly used write many different kinds applications various methods measuring language popularity subject different bias measured proposed combining averaging information various internet sites stackify.com reported ten popular programming languages descending order overall popularity java c c++ python c javascript vb .net r php matlab dialect programming language data exchange language relatively small variation extension language change intrinsic nature languages scheme forth standards may considered insufficient inadequate illegitimate implementors often deviate standard making new dialect cases dialect created use domain-specific language often subset lisp world languages use basic s-expression syntax lisp-like semantics considered lisp dialects although vary wildly say racket clojure common one language several dialects become quite difficult inexperienced programmer find right documentation basic programming language many dialects explosion forth dialects led saying 've seen one forth ... 've seen one forth overarching classification scheme programming languages given programming language usually single ancestor language languages commonly arise combining elements several predecessor languages new ideas circulation time ideas originate one language diffuse throughout family related languages leap suddenly across familial gaps appear entirely different family task complicated fact languages classified along multiple axes example java object-oriented language encourages object-oriented organization concurrent language contains built-in constructs running multiple threads parallel python object-oriented scripting language broad strokes programming languages divide programming paradigms classification intended domain use general-purpose programming languages distinguished domain-specific programming languages traditionally programming languages regarded describing computation terms imperative sentences i.e issuing commands generally called imperative programming languages great deal research programming languages aimed blurring distinction program set instructions program assertion desired answer main feature declarative programming refined paradigms include procedural programming object-oriented programming functional programming logic programming languages hybrids paradigms multi-paradigmatic assembly language much paradigm direct model underlying machine architecture purpose programming languages might considered general purpose system programming languages scripting languages domain-specific languages concurrent/distributed languages combination general purpose languages designed largely educational goals programming language may also classified factors unrelated programming paradigm instance programming languages use english language keywords minority languages may classified deliberately esoteric 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_validation.data validation computer science data validation process ensuring data undergone data cleansing ensure data quality correct useful uses routines often called validation rules validation constraints check routines check correctness meaningfulness security data input system rules may implemented automated facilities data dictionary inclusion explicit application program validation logic data validation intended provide certain well-defined guarantees fitness accuracy consistency various kinds user input application automated system data validation rules defined designed using various methodologies deployed various contexts data validation rules may defined designed deployed example definition design contexts depts business applications data validation defined declarative data integrity rules procedure-based business rules data conform rules negatively affect business process execution therefore data validation start business process definition set business rules within process rules collected requirements capture exercise evaluating basics data validation generalizations made regarding different types validation according scope complexity purpose various validation operations carried example data type validation customarily carried one simple data fields simplest kind data type validation verifies individual characters provided user input consistent expected characters one known primitive data types defined programming language data storage retrieval mechanism well specification following primitive data types 1 integer 2 float decimal 3 string example many database systems allow specification following lcodice_1 codice_2 plus minus parentheses sophisticated data validation routine would check see user entered valid country code i.e. number digits entered matched convention country area specified validation process involves two distinct steps validation check b post-check action check step uses one computational rules see section determine data valid post-validation action sends feedback help enforce validation simple range constraint validation may examine user input consistency minimum/maximum range consistency test evaluating sequence characters one tests regular expressions example us phone number 10 digits letters special characters code cross-reference validation includes tests data type validation combined one operations verify user-supplied data consistent one external rules requirements validity constraints relevant particular organization context set underlying assumptions additional validity constraints may involve cross-referencing supplied data known look-up table directory information service ldap example experienced user may enter well-formed string matches specification valid e-mail address defined rfc 5322 well-formed string might actually correspond resolvable domain connected active e-mail account structured validation allows combination various basic data type validation steps along complex processing complex processing may include testing conditional constraints entire complex data object set process operations within system validation rule criterion constraint used process data validation carried data encoded onto input medium involves data vet validation program distinct formal verification operation program determined intended meets purpose validation rule check system still used many major software manufacturers designed employee microsoft sometime 1997 1999 method check data follows appropriate parameters defined systems analyst judgement whether data valid made possible validation program ensure complete accuracy achieved use clerical computer controls built system design stage difference data validity accuracy illustrated trivial example company established personnel file record contains field job grade permitted values b c d. entry record may valid accepted system one characters may correct grade individual worker concerned whether grade correct established clerical checks reference files systems design therefore data definitions established place limits constitutes valid data using data definitions range software validation checks carried consistency check ensures entered data logical example delivery date order date example validation check procedure used verify isbn failures omissions data validation lead data corruption soasp/html/ch10.html chapter10 data validation /ref data validation checks data fit purpose valid sensible reasonable secure processed category data security category data quality Target text information: quantum_(statistical_programming_language).quantum statistical programming language quantum software package programming language statistical survey data validation manipulation tabulation originally developed quantime run unix systems incorporated spss inc. spss mr product line acquisition quantime september 1997 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,530	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: winn_schwartau.winn schwartau winn schwartau born july 1 1952 new york city expert security privacy infowar cyber-terrorism related topics known appearances defcon host popular game hacker jeopardy provocative original ideas written dozen works security topics 2002 honored “ power thinker ” one 50 powerful people networking network world 2008 voted one 25 influential people security industry security magazine first non-fiction book information warfare chaos electronic superhighway 1994 1996 1997 introduces concepts cyberterrorism public another books cybershock 2000 2001 non-technical look def con conference hackers general phreaking importance computer security wrote time based security outlining use time security metric pearl harbor dot com novel terrorist cyberattack united states 2001 winn labeled one network world major power thinkers network world 2007 sc magazine labeled one top 5 security thinkers called civilian architect information warfare identified one 25 influential people security industry schwartau author internet computer ethics kids parents teachers without clue 2001/2002 dr. fred cohen all.net described book “ best security book ever written ” latest work analogue network security released august 8th 2018 bsides las vegas schwartau chairman board mobile active defense specializing security compliance smartphones tablets president founder security awareness company formerly known interpact inc. develops security awareness programs private public organisations also founded infowarcon 1994 trusted learning 2003 co-founded scipp international 2007 1-hop neighbor's text information: black_hat_briefings.black hat briefings black hat briefings commonly referred black hat computer security conference provides security consulting training briefings hackers corporations government agencies around world black hat brings together variety people interested information security ranging non-technical individuals executives hackers industry leading security professionals conference takes place regularly las vegas barcelona london abu dhabi conference also hosted amsterdam tokyo washington d.c. past black hat founded 1997 jeff moss also founded def con today moss conference chair black hat review board considered premier information security conferences world black hat started single annual conference las vegas nevada held multiple locations around world black hat acquired cmp media subsidiary u.k.-based united business media ubm 2005 black hat typically scheduled prior def con many attendees going conferences black hat perceived security industry corporate security conference whereas def con informal conference composed three major sections black hat briefings black hat trainings black hat arsenal briefings composed tracks covering various topics including reverse engineering identity privacy hacking briefings also contain keynote speeches leading voices information security field including robert lentz chief security officer united states department defense michael lynn amit yoran former director national cyber security division department homeland security general keith b. alexander former director national security agency former commander united states cyber command training offered various computer security vendors individual security professionals conference hosted national security agency information assurance manager course various courses cisco systems offensive security others arsenal portion conference dedicated giving researchers open source community place showcase latest open-source information security tools arsenal primarily consists live tool demonstrations setting attendees able ask questions tools sometimes use arsenal added 2010 toolswatch maintains archive black hat briefings arsenals black hat known antics hacker contingent disclosures brought talks conference attendees known hijack wireless connections hotels hack hotel television billing systems even hack automated teller machine hotel lobby 2009 web sites belonging handful security researchers groups hacked passwords private e-mails im chats sensitive documents exposed vandalized site dan kaminsky days conference black hat usa 2009 usb thumb drive passed around among attendees found infected conficker virus 2008 three men expelled packet sniffing press room local area network past companies attempted ban researchers disclosing vital information products black hat usa 2005 cisco systems tried stop michael lynn speaking vulnerability said could let hackers virtually shut internet however recent years researchers worked vendors resolve issues vendors challenged hackers attack products 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security_conference.computer security conference computer security conference convention individuals involved computer security generally serve meeting places system network administrators hackers computer security experts common activities hacker conventions may include general security conferences might held non-profit/not-for-profit/for-profit professional associations individuals informal group individuals security product vendor companies hacker conference also known hacker con convention hackers serve meeting places phreakers hackers security professionals actual events time-spans details various themes conventions depends specific convention attended also perceived reputation typically actual details given convention couched mild secrecy due legality certain panels well willingness attendees explain law enforcement less computer-savvy individuals see hacker definition controversy common topics include wardriving lockpicking corporate network security personal rights freedoms new technologies well general 'geek motifs may also contests general collaborative events hackathons one facet hacker conferences tends differentiate many hackercons general computer security conferences evolution conference badge many conferences use fairly standard paper/plastic badge identify attendees name many hacker con evolved use non-traditional badges electronic pcb led lcd screens include wifi advanced often hidden functionality include games identify individual sometimes promoting group identity regional/local group affiliation spurred creation so-called badgelife different individuals organizations local hacker groups may design create sell otherwise distribute separate badge attendees wear addition conference badge badges may purchased may earned completing challenge conference one rarest desirable badges defcon black badge use badges traditionally associated defcon use spread conferences Target text information: security_bsides.security bsides security bsides commonly referred bsides series loosely affiliated information security conferences co-founded mike dahn jack daniel chris nickerson 2009 due overwhelming number presentation submissions black hat usa 2009 rejected presentations presented smaller group individuals time conference format matured released enable individuals start bsides conferences three event styles structured unconference hybrid structured event follows traditional conference model often times happens tandem larger conferences black hat rsa etc attendees typically intermingle attend one events talks submitted local event ahead time selected scheduled prior start conference unconference event style completely attendee driven attendees appear predetermined time discuss ideas collaboratively agree upon schedule look like day talks get attention conversation get added schedule I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,575	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: openmosix.openmosix openmosix free cluster management system provided single-system image ssi capabilities e.g automatic work distribution among nodes allowed program processes threads migrate machines node network would able run process faster process migration particularly useful running parallel applications low moderate input/output i/o released linux kernel patch also available specialized live cds openmosix development halted developers linuxpmi project continuing development former openmosix code openmosix originally forked mosix moshe bar february 10 2002 mosix became proprietary software openmosix considered stable linux kernel 2.4.x x86 architecture porting linux 2.6 kernel remained alpha stage support 64-bit amd64 architecture started 2.6 version july 15 2007 bar announced openmosix project would reach end life march 1 2008 due decreasing need ssi clustering low-cost multi-core processors increase availability openmosix used distributed gentoo linux kernel choice removed gentoo linux portage tree february 2007 march 1 2008 openmosix read-only source code still hosted sourceforge linuxpmi project continuing development former openmosix code clusterknoppix specialized linux distribution based knoppix distribution uses openmosix kernel traditionally clustered computing could achieved setting individual rsh keys creating nfs shares editing host files setting static ips applying kernel patches manually clusterknoppix effectively renders work unnecessary distribution contains autoconfiguration system new clusterknoppix-running computers attached network automatically join cluster clusterknoppix modified knoppix distro using openmosix kernel linux live cds openmosix include 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: x86.x86 x86 family instruction set architectures based intel 8086 microprocessor 8088 variant 8086 introduced 1978 fully 16-bit extension intel 8-bit 8080 microprocessor memory segmentation solution addressing memory covered plain 16-bit address term x86 came names several successors intel 8086 processor end 86 including 80186 80286 80386 80486 processors many additions extensions added x86 instruction set years almost consistently full backward compatibility architecture implemented processors intel cyrix amd via many companies also open implementations zet soc platform nevertheless intel amd via hold x86 architectural licenses producing modern 64-bit designs term synonymous ibm pc compatibility implies multitude computer hardware embedded systems well general-purpose computers used x86 chips pc-compatible market started ibm pc 1981 2018 majority personal computers laptops sold based x86 architecture categories—especially high-volume mobile categories smartphones tablets—are dominated arm high end x86 continues dominate compute-intensive workstation cloud computing segments 1980s early 1990s 8088 80286 still common use term x86 usually represented 8086 compatible cpu today however x86 usually implies binary compatibility also 32-bit instruction set 80386 due fact instruction set become something lowest common denominator many modern operating systems probably also term became common introduction 80386 1985 years introduction 8086 8088 intel added complexity naming scheme terminology iapx ambitious ill-fated intel iapx 432 processor tried successful 8086 family chips applied kind system-level prefix 8086 system including coprocessors 8087 8089 well simpler intel-specific system chips thereby described iapx 86 system also terms irmx operating systems isbc single-board computers isbx multimodule boards based 8086-architecture together heading microsystem 80 however naming scheme quite temporary lasting years early 1980s although 8086 primarily developed embedded systems small multi-user single-user computers largely response successful 8080-compatible zilog z80 x86 line soon grew features processing power today x86 ubiquitous stationary portable personal computers also used midrange computers workstations servers new supercomputer clusters top500 list large amount software including large list using x86-based hardware modern x86 relatively uncommon embedded systems however small low power applications using tiny batteries well low-cost microprocessor markets home appliances toys lack significant x86 presence simple 8-bit 16-bit based architectures common although x86-compatible via c7 via nano amd geode athlon neo intel atom examples 32- 64-bit designs used relatively low power low cost segments several attempts including intel end market dominance inelegant x86 architecture designed directly first simple 8-bit microprocessors examples iapx 432 project originally named intel 8800 intel 960 intel 860 intel/hewlett-packard itanium architecture however continuous refinement x86 microarchitectures circuitry semiconductor manufacturing would make hard replace x86 many segments amd 64-bit extension x86 intel eventually responded compatible design scalability x86 chips eight-core intel xeon 12-core amd opteron underlining x86 example continuous refinement established industry standards resist competition completely new architectures table lists processor models model series implementing variations x86 instruction set chronological order line item characterized significantly improved commercially successful processor microarchitecture designs various times companies ibm nec amd ti stm fujitsu oki siemens cyrix intersil c nexgen umc dm p started design manufacture x86 processors cpus intended personal computers well embedded systems x86 implementations seldom simple copies often employ different internal microarchitectures well different solutions electronic physical levels quite naturally early compatible microprocessors 16-bit 32-bit designs developed much later personal computer market real quantities started appear around 1990 i386 i486 compatible processors often named similarly intel original chips companies designed manufactured x86 x87 processors include itt corporation national semiconductor ulsi system technology weitek following fully pipelined i486 intel introduced pentium brand name unlike numbers could trademarked new set superscalar x86 designs x86 naming scheme legally cleared x86 vendors choose different names x86-compatible products initially chose continue variations numbering scheme ibm partnered cyrix produce 5x86 efficient 6x86 m1 6x86mx mii lines cyrix designs first x86 microprocessors implementing register renaming enable speculative execution amd meanwhile designed manufactured advanced delayed 5k86 k5 internally closely based amd earlier 29k risc design similar nexgen nx586 used strategy dedicated pipeline stages decode x86 instructions uniform easily handled micro-operations method remained basis x86 designs day early versions microprocessors heat dissipation problems 6x86 also affected minor compatibility problems nx586 lacked floating point unit fpu crucial pin-compatibility k5 somewhat disappointing performance eventually introduced customer ignorance alternatives pentium series contributed designs comparatively unsuccessful despite fact k5 good pentium compatibility 6x86 significantly faster pentium integer code amd later managed establish serious contender k6 set processors gave way successful athlon opteron also contenders centaur technology formerly idt rise technology transmeta via technologies energy efficient c3 c7 processors designed centaur company sold many years centaur newest design via nano first processor superscalar speculative execution introduced time intel first in-order processor since p5 pentium intel atom instruction set architecture twice extended larger word size 1985 intel released 32-bit 80386 later known i386 gradually replaced earlier 16-bit chips computers although typically embedded systems following years extended programming model originally referred i386 architecture like first implementation intel later dubbed ia-32 introducing unrelated ia-64 architecture 1999-2003 amd extended 32-bit architecture 64 bits referred x86-64 early documents later amd64 intel soon adopted amd architectural extensions name ia-32e later using name em64t finally using intel 64 microsoft sun microsystems/oracle also use term x64 many linux distributions bsds also use amd64 term microsoft windows example designates 32-bit versions x86 64-bit versions x64 installation files 64-bit windows versions required placed directory called amd64 x86 architecture variable instruction length primarily cisc design emphasis backward compatibility instruction set typical cisc however basically extended version simple eight-bit 8008 8080 architectures byte-addressing enabled words stored memory little-endian byte order memory access unaligned addresses allowed valid word sizes largest native size integer arithmetic memory addresses offsets 16 32 64 bits depending architecture generation newer processors include direct support smaller integers well multiple scalar values handled simultaneously via simd unit present later generations described immediate addressing offsets immediate data may expressed 8-bit quantities frequently occurring cases contexts -128..127 range enough typical instructions therefore 2 3 bytes length although much longer single-byte conserve encoding space registers expressed opcodes using three four bits latter via opcode prefix 64-bit mode one operand instruction memory location however memory operand may also destination combined source destination operand source either register immediate among factors contributes code size rivals eight-bit machines enables efficient use instruction cache memory relatively small number general registers also inherited 8-bit ancestors made register-relative addressing using small immediate offsets important method accessing operands especially stack much work therefore invested making accesses fast register accesses i.e one cycle instruction throughput circumstances accessed data available top-level cache dedicated floating point processor 80-bit internal registers 8087 developed original 8086 microprocessor subsequently developed extended 80387 later processors incorporated backward compatible version functionality microprocessor main processor addition modern x86 designs also contain simd-unit see sse instructions work parallel one two 128-bit words containing two four floating point numbers 64 32 bits wide respectively alternatively 2 4 8 16 integers 64 32 16 8 bits wide respectively presence wide simd registers means existing x86 processors load store 128 bits memory data single instruction also perform bitwise operations although integer arithmetic full 128-bits quantities parallel intel sandy bridge processors added avx advanced vector extensions instructions widening simd registers 256 bits knights corner architecture used intel xeon phi co-processors uses 512-bit wide simd registers execution current x86 processors employ extra decoding steps split instructions smaller pieces called micro-operations handed control unit buffers schedules compliance x86-semantics executed partly parallel one several less specialized execution units modern x86 designs thus pipelined superscalar also capable order speculative execution via branch prediction register renaming memory dependence prediction means may execute multiple partial complete x86 instructions simultaneously necessarily order given instruction stream intel amd starting amd zen cpus also capable simultaneous multithreading two threads per core xeon phi four threads per core case intel transactional memory tsx introduced mid-1990s method sometimes referred risc core risc translation partly marketing reasons also micro-operations share properties certain types risc instructions however traditional microcode used since 1950s also inherently shares many properties new method differs mainly translation micro-operations occurs asynchronously synchronize execution units decode steps opens possibilities analysis buffered code stream therefore permits detection operations performed parallel simultaneously feeding one execution unit latest processors also opposite appropriate combine certain x86 sequences compare followed conditional jump complex micro-op fits execution model better thus executed faster less machine resources involved another way try improve performance cache decoded micro-operations processor directly access decoded micro-operations special cache instead decoding intel followed approach execution trace cache feature netburst microarchitecture pentium 4 processors later decoded stream buffer core-branded processors since sandy bridge transmeta used completely different method x86 compatible cpus used just-in-time translation convert x86 instructions cpu native vliw instruction set transmeta argued approach allows power efficient designs since cpu forgo complicated decode step traditional x86 implementations minicomputers late 1970s running 16-bit 64-kb address limit memory become cheaper minicomputers like pdp-11 used complex bank-switching schemes case digital vax redesigned much expensive processors could directly handle 32-bit addressing data original 8086 developed simple 8080 microprocessor primarily aiming small inexpensive computers specialized devices instead adopted simple segment registers increased memory address width 4 bits multiplying 64-kb address 16 20-bit address could address total one megabyte 1,048,576 bytes quite large amount small computer time concept segment registers new many mainframes used segment registers swap quickly different tasks practice x86 much-criticized implementation greatly complicated many common programming tasks compilers however architecture soon allowed linear 32-bit addressing starting 80386 late 1985 major actors microsoft took several years convert 16-bit based systems 80386 80486 therefore largely used fast still 16-bit based 8086 many years data code could managed within near 16-bit segments within 64 kb portions total 1 mb address space compiler could operate far mode using 32-bit codice_1 pairs reaching 1 mb would also prove quite limiting mid-1980s working emerging pc market made simple translate software older 8008 8080 8085 z80 newer processor 1985 16-bit segment addressing model effectively factored introduction 32-bit offset registers 386 design real mode segmentation achieved shifting segment address left 4 bits adding offset order receive final 20-bit address example ds a000h si 5677h ds si point absolute address ds × 10h si a5677h thus total address space real mode 2 bytes 1 mb quite impressive figure 1978 memory addresses consist segment offset every type access code data stack default segment register associated data register usually ds code cs stack ss data accesses segment register explicitly specified using segment override prefix use four segment registers scheme two different segment/offset pairs point single absolute location thus ds a111h si 4567h ds si point a5677h scheme makes impossible use four segments cs ss vital correct functioning program ds es used point data segments outside program precisely outside currently executing segment program stack protected mode introduced 80286 segment register longer contains physical address beginning segment contain selector points system-level structure called segment descriptor segment descriptor contains physical address beginning segment length segment access permissions segment offset checked length segment offsets referring locations outside segment causing exception offsets referring locations inside segment combined physical address beginning segment get physical address corresponding offset segmented nature make programming compiler design difficult use near far pointers affects performance addressing modes 16-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 32-bit x86 processors 32-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 64-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula instruction relative addressing 64-bit code rip displacement rip instruction pointer register simplifies implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems 8086 eight-bit alternatively i/o space one segment stack memory supported computer hardware words two bytes pushed stack stack grows toward numerically lower addresses pointing recently pushed item 256 interrupts invoked hardware software interrupts cascade using stack store return address original intel 8086 8088 fourteen 16-bit registers four ax bx cx dx general-purpose registers gprs although may additional purpose example cx used counter loop instruction accessed two separate bytes thus bx high byte accessed bh low byte bl two pointer registers special roles sp stack pointer points top stack bp base pointer often used point place stack typically local variables see frame pointer registers si di bx bp address registers may also used array indexing four segment registers cs ds ss es used form memory address flags register contains flags carry flag overflow flag zero flag finally instruction pointer ip points next instruction fetched memory executed register directly accessed read written program intel 80186 80188 essentially upgraded 8086 8088 cpu respectively on-chip peripherals added cpu registers 8086 8088 addition interface registers peripherals 8086 8088 80186 80188 use optional floating-point coprocessor 8087 8087 appears programmer part cpu adds eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 hold numeric data one seven formats 32- 64- 80-bit floating point 16- 32- 64-bit binary integer 80-bit packed decimal integer intel 80286 support protected mode three special registers hold descriptor table addresses gdtr ldtr idtr fourth task register tr used task switching 80287 floating-point coprocessor 80286 registers 8087 data formats advent 32-bit 80386 processor 16-bit general-purpose registers base registers index registers instruction pointer flags register segment registers expanded 32 bits nomenclature represented prefixing e extended register names x86 assembly language thus ax register corresponds lowest 16 bits new 32-bit eax register si corresponds lowest 16 bits esi general-purpose registers base registers index registers used base addressing modes registers except stack pointer used index addressing modes two new segment registers fs gs added greater number registers instructions operands machine code format expanded provide backward compatibility segments executable code marked containing either 16-bit 32-bit instructions special prefixes allow inclusion 32-bit instructions 16-bit segment vice versa 80386 optional floating-point coprocessor 80387 eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 like 8087 80287 80386 could also use 80287 coprocessor 80486 subsequent x86 models floating-point processing unit fpu integrated on-chip pentium mmx added eight 64-bit mmx integer registers mmx0 mmx7 share lower bits 80-bit-wide fpu stack pentium iii intel added 32-bit streaming simd extensions sse control/status register mxcsr eight 128-bit sse floating point registers xmm0 xmm7 starting amd opteron processor x86 architecture extended 32-bit registers 64-bit registers way similar 16 32-bit extension took place r-prefix identifies 64-bit registers rax rbx rcx rdx rsi rdi rbp rsp rflags rip eight additional 64-bit general registers r8-r15 also introduced creation x86-64 however extensions usable 64-bit mode one two modes available long mode addressing modes dramatically changed 32-bit mode except addressing extended 64 bits virtual addresses sign extended 64 bits order disallow mode bits virtual addresses selector details dramatically reduced addition addressing mode added allow memory references relative rip instruction pointer ease implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems simd registers xmm0–xmm15 simd registers ymm0–ymm15 simd registers zmm0–zmm31 x86 processors protected mode i.e 80286 later processors also three descriptor registers gdtr ldtr idtr task register tr 32-bit x86 processors starting 80386 also include various special/miscellaneous registers control registers cr0 4 cr8 64-bit debug registers dr0 3 plus 6 7 test registers tr3 7 80486 model-specific registers msrs appearing pentium although main registers exception instruction pointer general-purpose 32-bit 64-bit versions instruction set used anything originally envisioned used following purposes segment registers particular purposes envisioned 8 registers available 64-bit mode instructions compile execute efficiently using registers designed purpose example using al accumulator adding immediate byte value produces efficient add al opcode 04h whilst using bl register produces generic longer add register opcode 80c3h another example double precision division multiplication works specifically ax dx registers modern compilers benefited introduction sib byte scale-index-base byte allows registers treated uniformly minicomputer-like however using sib byte universally non-optimal produces longer encodings using selectively necessary main benefit sib byte orthogonality powerful addressing modes provides make possible save instructions use registers address calculations scaling index special instructions lost priority hardware design became slower equivalent small code sequences notable example lodsw instruction note pl registers available 64-bit mode note il registers available 64-bit mode real address mode commonly called real mode operating mode 8086 later x86-compatible cpus real mode characterized 20-bit segmented memory address space meaning 1 mib memory addressed—actually slightly direct software access peripheral hardware concept memory protection multitasking hardware level x86 cpus 80286 series later start real mode power-on 80186 cpus earlier one operational mode equivalent real mode later chips ibm pc platform direct software access ibm bios routines available real mode since bios written real mode however characteristic x86 cpu ibm bios design order use 64 kb memory segment registers must used created great complications compiler implementors introduced odd pointer modes near far huge leverage implicit nature segmented architecture different degrees pointers containing 16-bit offsets within implied segments pointers containing segment addresses offsets within segments technically possible use 256 kb memory code data 64 kb code setting four segment registers using 16-bit offsets optionally default-segment override prefixes address memory puts substantial restrictions way data addressed memory operands combined violates architectural intent intel designers separate data items e.g arrays structures code units contained separate segments addressed segment addresses new programs ported earlier 8-bit processors 16-bit address spaces addition real mode intel 80286 supports protected mode expanding addressable physical memory 16 mb addressable virtual memory 1 gb providing protected memory prevents programs corrupting one another done using segment registers storing index descriptor table stored memory two tables global descriptor table gdt local descriptor table ldt holding 8192 segment descriptors segment giving access 64 kb memory 80286 segment descriptor provides 24-bit base address base address added 16-bit offset create absolute address base address table fulfills role literal value segment register fulfills real mode segment registers converted direct registers indirect registers segment assigned one four ring levels used hardware-based computer security segment descriptor also contains segment limit field specifies maximum offset may used segment offsets 16 bits segments still limited 64 kb 80286 protected mode time segment register loaded protected mode 80286 must read 6-byte segment descriptor memory set hidden internal registers therefore loading segment registers much slower protected mode real mode changing segments frequently avoided actual memory operations using protected mode segments slowed much 80286 later hardware check offset segment limit parallel instruction execution intel 80386 extended offsets also segment limit field segment descriptor 32 bits enabling segment span entire memory space also introduced support protected mode paging mechanism making possible use paged virtual memory 4 kb page size paging allows cpu map page virtual memory space page physical memory space uses additional mapping tables memory called page tables protected mode 80386 operate paging either enabled disabled segmentation mechanism always active generates virtual addresses mapped paging mechanism enabled segmentation mechanism also effectively disabled setting segments base address 0 size limit equal whole address space also requires minimally-sized segment descriptor table four descriptors since fs gs segments need used paging used extensively modern multitasking operating systems linux 386bsd windows nt developed 386 first intel architecture cpu support paging 32-bit segment offsets 386 architecture became basis development x86 series x86 processors support protected mode boot real mode backward compatibility older 8086 class processors upon power-on a.k.a booting processor initializes real mode begins executing instructions operating system boot code might stored rom may place processor protected mode enable paging features instruction set protected mode similar used real mode however certain constraints apply real mode able use ax cx dx addressing apply protected mode conversely segment arithmetic common practice real mode code allowed protected mode also sub-mode operation 32-bit protected mode a.k.a 80386 protected mode called virtual 8086 mode also known v86 mode basically special hybrid operating mode allows real mode programs operating systems run control protected mode supervisor operating system allows great deal flexibility running protected mode programs real mode programs simultaneously mode exclusively available 32-bit version protected mode exist 16-bit version protected mode long mode mid 1990s obvious 32-bit address space x86 architecture limiting performance applications requiring large data sets 32-bit address space would allow processor directly address 4 gb data size surpassed applications video processing database engines using 64-bit addresses possible directly address 16 eib data although 64-bit architectures support access full 64-bit address space example amd64 supports 48 bits 64-bit address split four paging levels 1999 amd published nearly complete specification 64-bit extension x86 architecture called x86-64 claimed intentions produce design currently used almost x86 processors exceptions intended embedded systems mass-produced x86-64 chips general market available four years later 2003 time spent working prototypes tested refined time initial name x86-64 changed amd64 success amd64 line processors coupled lukewarm reception ia-64 architecture forced intel release implementation amd64 instruction set intel previously implemented support amd64 opted enable hopes amd would bring amd64 market itanium new ia-64 instruction set widely adopted branded implementation amd64 em64t later re-branded intel 64 literature product version names microsoft sun refer amd64/intel 64 collectively x64 windows solaris operating systems linux distributions refer either x86-64 variant x86_64 amd64 bsd systems use amd64 macos uses x86_64 long mode mostly extension 32-bit instruction set unlike 16–to–32-bit transition many instructions dropped 64-bit mode affect actual binary backward compatibility would execute legacy code modes retain support instructions changes way assembler compilers new code work first time major extension x86 architecture initiated originated manufacturer intel also first time intel accepted technology nature outside source early x86 processors could extended floating-point hardware form series floating point numerical co-processors names like 8087 80287 80387 abbreviated x87 also known npx numeric processor extension apt name since coprocessors used mainly floating-point calculations also performed integer operations binary decimal formats exceptions 80486 subsequent x86 processors integrated x87 functionality chip made x87 instructions de facto integral part x86 instruction set x87 register known st 0 st 7 80 bits wide stores numbers ieee floating-point standard double extended precision format registers organized stack st 0 top done order conserve opcode space registers therefore randomly accessible either operand register-to-register instruction st0 must always one two operands either source destination regardless whether operand st x memory operand however random access stack registers obtained instruction exchanges specified st x st 0 operations include arithmetic transcendental functions including trigonometric exponential functions well instructions load common constants 0 1 e base natural logarithm log2 10 log10 2 one stack registers integer capability often overlooked x87 operate larger integers single instruction 8086 80286 80386 x86 cpu without 64-bit extensions repeated integer calculations even small values e.g 16-bit accelerated executing integer instructions x86 cpu x87 parallel x86 cpu keeps running x87 coprocessor calculates x87 sets signal x86 finished interrupts x86 needs attention error mmx simd instruction set designed intel introduced 1997 pentium mmx microprocessor mmx instruction set developed similar concept first used intel i860 supported subsequent ia-32 processors intel vendors mmx typically used video processing multimedia applications instance mmx added 8 new registers architecture known mm0 mm7 henceforth referred mmn reality new registers aliases existing x87 fpu stack registers hence anything done floating point stack would also affect mmx registers unlike fp stack mmn registers fixed relative therefore randomly accessible instruction set adopt stack-like semantics existing operating systems could still correctly save restore register state multitasking without modifications mmn registers 64-bit integers however one main concepts mmx instruction set concept packed data types means instead using whole register single 64-bit integer quadword one may use contain two 32-bit integers doubleword four 16-bit integers word eight 8-bit integers byte given mmx 64-bit mmn registers aliased fpu stack floating point registers 80 bits wide upper 16 bits floating point registers unused mmx bits set ones mmx instruction correspond floating point representation nans infinities 1997 amd introduced 3dnow introduction technology coincided rise 3d entertainment applications designed improve cpu vector processing performance graphic-intensive applications 3d video game developers 3d graphics hardware vendors use 3dnow enhance performance amd k6 athlon series processors 3dnow designed natural evolution mmx integers floating point uses exactly register naming convention mmx mm0 mm7 difference instead packing integers registers two single precision floating point numbers packed register advantage aliasing fpu registers instruction data structures used save state fpu registers also used save 3dnow register states thus special modifications required made operating systems would otherwise know 1999 intel introduced streaming simd extensions sse instruction set following 2000 sse2 first addition allowed offloading basic floating-point operations x87 stack second made mmx almost obsolete allowed instructions realistically targeted conventional compilers introduced 2004 along prescott revision pentium 4 processor sse3 added specific memory thread-handling instructions boost performance intel hyperthreading technology amd licensed sse3 instruction set implemented sse3 instructions revision e later athlon 64 processors athlon 64 support hyperthreading lacks sse3 instructions used hyperthreading sse discarded legacy connections fpu stack also meant instruction set discarded legacy connections previous generations simd instruction sets like mmx freed designers allowing use larger registers limited size fpu registers designers created eight 128-bit registers named xmm0 xmm7 note amd64 number sse xmm registers increased 8 16 however downside operating systems awareness new set instructions order able save register states intel created slightly modified version protected mode called enhanced mode enables usage sse instructions whereas stay disabled regular protected mode os aware sse activate enhanced mode whereas unaware os enter traditional protected mode sse simd instruction set works floating point values like 3dnow however unlike 3dnow severs legacy connection fpu stack larger registers 3dnow sse pack twice number single precision floats registers original sse limited single-precision numbers like 3dnow sse2 introduced capability pack double precision numbers 3dnow possibility since double precision number 64-bit size would full size single 3dnow mmn register 128 bits sse xmmn registers could pack two double precision floats one register thus sse2 much suitable scientific calculations either sse1 3dnow limited single precision sse3 introduce additional registers physical address extension pae first added intel pentium pro later amd athlon processors allow 64 gb ram addressed without pae physical ram 32-bit protected mode usually limited 4 gb pae defines different page table structure wider page table entries third level page table allowing additional bits physical address although initial implementations 32-bit processors theoretically supported 64 gb ram chipset platform limitations often restricted could actually used x64 processors define page table structures theoretically allow 52 bits physical address although chipset platform concerns like number dimm slots available maximum ram possible per dimm prevent large physical address space realized x64 processors pae mode must active switch long mode must remain active long mode active long mode non-pae mode pae mode affect width linear virtual addresses 2000s 32-bit x86 processors limitations memory addressing obstacle utilization high-performance computing clusters powerful desktop workstations aged 32-bit x86 competing much advanced 64-bit risc architectures could address much memory intel whole x86 ecosystem needed 64-bit memory addressing x86 survive 64-bit computing era workstation desktop software applications soon start hitting limitations present 32-bit memory addressing however intel felt right time make bold step use transition 64-bit desktop computers transition away x86 architecture general experiment ultimately failed 2001 intel attempted introduce non-x86 64-bit architecture named ia-64 itanium processor initially aiming high-performance computing market hoping would eventually replace 32-bit x86 ia-64 incompatible x86 itanium processor provide emulation capabilities translating x86 instructions ia-64 affected performance x86 programs badly rarely ever actually useful users programmers rewrite x86 programs ia-64 architecture performance itanium would orders magnitude worse true x86 processor market rejected itanium processor since broke backward compatibility preferred continue using x86 chips programs rewritten ia-64 amd decided take another path toward 64-bit memory addressing making sure backward compatibility would suffer april 2003 amd released first x86 processor 64-bit general-purpose registers opteron capable addressing much 4 gb virtual memory using new x86-64 extension also known amd64 x64 64-bit extensions x86 architecture enabled newly introduced long mode therefore 32-bit 16-bit applications operating systems could simply continue using amd64 processor protected modes without even slightest sacrifice performance full compatibility back original instructions 16-bit intel 8086 market responded positively adopting 64-bit amd processors high-performance applications business home computers seeing market rejecting incompatible itanium processor microsoft supporting amd64 intel respond introduced x86-64 processor prescott pentium 4 july 2004 result itanium processor ia-64 instruction set rarely used x86 x86-64 incarnation still dominant cpu architecture non-embedded computers x86-64 also introduced nx bit offers protection security bugs caused buffer overruns result amd 64-bit contribution x86 lineage subsequent acceptance intel 64-bit risc architectures ceased threat x86 ecosystem almost disappeared workstation market x86-64 began utilized powerful supercomputers amd opteron intel xeon incarnations market previously natural habitat 64-bit risc designs ibm power microprocessors sparc processors great leap toward 64-bit computing maintenance backward compatibility 32-bit 16-bit software enabled x86 architecture become extremely flexible platform today x86 chips utilized small low-power systems example intel quark intel atom fast gaming desktop computers example intel core i7 amd fx/ryzen even dominate large supercomputing clusters effectively leaving arm 32-bit 64-bit risc architecture competitor smartphone tablet market prior 2005 x86 architecture processors unable meet popek goldberg requirements specification virtualization created 1974 gerald j. popek robert p. goldberg however proprietary open-source x86 virtualization hypervisor products developed using software-based virtualization proprietary systems include hyper-v parallels workstation vmware esx vmware workstation vmware workstation player windows virtual pc free open-source systems include qemu kqemu virtualbox xen introduction amd-v intel vt-x instruction sets 2005 allowed x86 processors meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements Target text information: mosix.mosix mosix proprietary distributed operating system although early versions based older unix systems since 1999 focuses linux clusters grids mosix cluster/grid need modify link applications library copy files login remote nodes even assign processes different nodes – done automatically like smp mosix researched developed since 1977 hebrew university jerusalem research team prof. amnon barak far ten major versions developed first version called mos multicomputer os 1981–83 based bell lab seventh edition unix ran cluster pdp-11 computers later versions based unix system v release 2 1987–89 ran cluster vax ns32332-based computers followed bsd/os-derived version 1991–93 cluster 486/pentium computers since 1999 mosix tuned linux x86 platforms second version mosix called mosix2 compatible linux-2.6 3.0 kernels mosix2 implemented os virtualization layer provides users applications single system image linux run-time environment allows applications run remote nodes run locally users run regular sequential parallel applications mosix transparently automatically seek resources migrate processes among nodes improve overall performance mosix2 manage cluster multicluster grid well workstations shared resources flexible management grid allows owners clusters share computational resources still preserving autonomy clusters ability disconnect nodes grid time without disrupting already running programs mosix grid extend indefinitely long trust cluster owners must include guarantees guest applications modified running remote clusters hostile computers connected local network nowadays requirements standard within clusters organizational grids mosix2 run native mode virtual machine vm native mode performance better requires modifications base linux kernel whereas vm run top unmodified operating system supports virtualization including microsoft windows linux mac os x. mosix2 suitable running compute intensive applications low moderate amount input/output i/o tests mosix2 show performance several applications 1 gbit/s campus grid nearly identical single cluster mosix suitable running hpc applications low moderate amount i/o tests mosix show performance several applications 1 gbit/s campus grid nearly identical single cluster particularly suitable examples mosix4 released july 2014 version 4 mosix n't require kernel patching mosix became proprietary software late 2001 moshe bar forked last free version started openmosix project february 10 2002 july 15 2007 bar decided end openmosix project effective march 1 2008 claiming increasing power availability low cost multi-core processors rapidly making single-system image ssi clustering less factor computing plans reconfirmed march 2008 linuxpmi project continuing development former openmosix code I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	8,901	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: countermeasure_(computer).countermeasure computer computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken definition ietf rfc 2828 cnss instruction 4009 dated 26 april 2010 committee national security systems united states america according glossary infosectoday meaning countermeasure synonym security control telecommunications communication countermeasures defined security services part osi reference model itu-t x.800 recommendation x.800 iso iso 7498-2 information processing systems – open systems interconnection – basic reference model – part 2 security architecture technically aligned following picture explain relationships concepts terms resource physical logical one vulnerabilities exploited threat agent threat action result potentially compromises confidentiality integrity availability properties resources potentially different vulnerable one organization others involved parties customers suppliers so-called cia triad basis information security attack active attempts alter system resources affect operation compromises integrity availability passive attack attempts learn make use information system affect system resources compromising confidentiality threat potential violation security exists circumstance capability action event could breach security cause harm threat possible danger enabling exploitation vulnerability threat either intentional i.e. intelligent e.g. individual cracker criminal organization accidental e.g. possibility computer malfunctioning possibility act god earthquake fire tornado set policies concerned information security management information security management systems isms developed manage according risk management principles countermeasures order accomplish security strategy set following rules regulations applicable country potential malicious actor physical access computer system greater chance inflicting harm upon devices usb killer may used damage render completely unusable anything connection motherboard computer usb port video port ethernet port serial port without proper protection devices may result destruction ports adapter cards storage devices ram motherboards cpus anything physically connected device attacked monitors flash drives wired switches types devices even used damage smartphones cars well threat mitigated installing restricting physical access easily accessible ports situations necessary port-closing lock permanently disables access port short actual port disassembled necessary port accessible optocoupler allow port send receive data computer device without direct electrical connection preventing computer device receiving dangerous voltage external device unsecured scenario malicious actor may steal destroy storage devices hard drives ssds resulting destruction theft valuable data data storage device longer necessary data theft best prevented physically destroying shredding storage device data storage device use must secured one use encryption encrypt contents storage device even encrypt whole storage device save master boot record device unlocked password biometric authentication physical dongle network interchange one-time password combination thereof device boot drive however must unencrypted pre-boot environment operating system accessed striping breaking data chunks stored upon multiple drives must assemble order access data possible solution physical drive theft provided drives stored multiple individually secured locations enough number one drive used piece together meaningful information neglected process adding physical barriers storage devices locked cases physically hidden drives limited amount personnel knowledge access keys locations may prove good first line physical theft 1-hop neighbor's text information: exploit_(computer_security).exploit computer security exploit english verb exploit meaning use something one ’ advantage piece software chunk data sequence commands takes advantage bug vulnerability cause unintended unanticipated behavior occur computer software hardware something electronic usually computerized behavior frequently includes things like gaining control computer system allowing privilege escalation denial-of-service dos related ddos attack several methods classifying exploits common exploit communicates vulnerable software remote exploit works network exploits security vulnerability without prior access vulnerable system local exploit requires prior access vulnerable system usually increases privileges person running exploit past granted system administrator exploits client applications also exist usually consisting modified servers send exploit accessed client application exploits client applications may also require interaction user thus may used combination social engineering method another classification action vulnerable system unauthorized data access arbitrary code execution denial service examples many exploits designed provide superuser-level access computer system however also possible use several exploits first gain low-level access escalate privileges repeatedly one reaches highest administrative level often called root exploit made known authors affected software vulnerability often fixed patch exploit becomes unusable reason black hat hackers well military intelligence agencies hackers publish exploits keep private exploits unknown everyone people found developed referred zero day exploits exploitations commonly categorized named type vulnerability exploit see vulnerabilities list whether local/remote result running exploit e.g eop dos spoofing pivoting refers method used penetration testers uses compromised system attack systems network avoid restrictions firewall configurations may prohibit direct access machines example attacker compromises web server corporate network attacker use compromised web server attack systems network types attacks often called multi-layered attacks pivoting also known island hopping pivoting distinguished proxy pivoting vpn pivoting proxy pivoting generally describes practice channeling traffic compromised target using proxy payload machine launching attacks computer type pivoting restricted certain tcp udp ports supported proxy vpn pivoting enables attacker create encrypted layer tunnel compromised machine route network traffic target machine example run vulnerability scan internal network compromised machine effectively giving attacker full network access behind firewall typically proxy vpn applications enabling pivoting executed target computer payload software exploit pivoting usually done infiltrating part network infrastructure example vulnerable printer thermostat using scanner find devices connected attack attacking vulnerable piece networking attacker could infect network gain complete control 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: w3af.w3af w3af web application attack audit framework open-source web application security scanner project provides vulnerability scanner exploitation tool web applications provides information security vulnerabilities use penetration testing engagements scanner offers graphical user interface command-line interface w3af divided two main parts core plug-ins core coordinates process provides features consumed plug-ins find vulnerabilities exploit plug-ins connected share information using knowledge base plug-ins categorized discovery audit grep attack output mangle evasion bruteforce w3af started andres riancho march 2007 many years development community july 2010 w3af announced sponsorship partnership rapid7 rapid7 sponsorship project able increase development speed keep growing terms users contributors I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,526	none
[''] Target text information: pacific_ocean_shelf_tracking_project.pacific ocean shelf tracking project pacific ocean shelf tracking project post field project census marine life researches behavior marine animals use ocean telemetry data management systems system telemetry consists highly efficient lines acoustic receivers create sections continental shelf along coast pacific northwest acoustic receivers pick signals tagged animals pass along lines allowing documentation movement patterns receivers also allow estimation parameters swimming speed mortality trackers sit seabed continental shelf major rivers world method used improve fishing skills management program started 2002 initially limited study movement ocean-survival hatchery-raised wild salmon pacific northwest successful pilot period program moved tracking trout sharks rockfish lingcod I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	9,474	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: system_7.system 7 system 7 codenamed big bang sometimes retrospectively called mac os 7 graphical user interface-based operating system macintosh computers part classic mac os series operating systems introduced may 13 1991 apple computer inc succeeded system 6 main macintosh operating system succeeded mac os 8 1997 features added system 7 release included virtual memory personal file sharing quicktime quickdraw 3d improved user interface release version 7.6 1997 apple officially renamed operating system mac os name first appeared system 7.5.1 boot screen system 7 developed macs used motorola 680x0 line processors ported powerpc apple adopted new processor 1994 introduction power macintosh development macintosh system software system 6 followed fairly smooth progression addition new features relatively small changes upgrades time major additions fairly limited notably adding color quickdraw system 6 perspective scope changes seen examining official system documentation inside macintosh initially shipped three volumes adding another describe changes introduced mac plus another mac ii mac se limited changes meant original macintosh system remained largely initially introduced machine geared towards single user task running floppy disk based machine extremely limited ram however many assumptions model longer appropriate notable among single-tasking model replacement first examined 1986 switcher replaced outright multifinder system 5 running multifinder normally required larger amount ram hard drive became common late 1980s additions relatively limited fixes underlying oddities system architecture instance support limited form multitasking original mac os supported small co-resident programs known desk accessories installed system using special tools system able support multiple tasks one-off solution would longer needed — desk accessories could simply small programs placed anywhere yet multifinder still optional step taken numerous examples sort problem could found throughout system finally widespread adoption hard drives local area networks led number new features requested users developers late 1980s list new upgrades suggested changes existing model considerable march 1988 shortly release system 6 technical middle managers apple held offsite meeting plan future course mac os development ideas written index cards features seemed simple enough implement short term like adding color user interface written blue cards longer-term goals like true multitasking pink cards far ideas like object-oriented file system red cards development ideas contained blue pink cards proceed parallel first two projects known simply blue pink including taligent apple intended blue team came call blue meanies characters yellow submarine release updated version existing macintosh operating system 1990–1991 time-frame pink team release entirely new os around 1993 blue aimed relatively simple upgrades feature list reads degree sort system 6 corrected underlying os number formerly optional components made mandatory furthermore number oddities original system typically included due limited resources finally changed use basic underlying os features system also offered wide variety new features system 7 first apple operating system available compact disc although shipped set 15 floppy disks initially unlike earlier systems system 7 come bundled major software packages newly purchased macintosh computers system 7 installed often bundled software hypercard ease mouse practice later macintosh performa family added various software bundles including clarisworks new grolier multimedia encyclopedia microsoft bookshelf spectre vr power pete since system 7 introduced internet came popular attention software mactcp freeppp netscape included first later available disk internet service providers bundled books adam c. engst internet starter kit macintosh power macintosh machines also included nucalc graphing calculator system 7 also includes appletalk networking file sharing software form system extensions control panels basic utilities installed default system 7 include teachtext replaced simpletext later versions basic text editing tasks reading readme documents also available additional disk tools floppy disk disk first aid disk repair apple hd sc setup initializing partitioning disks later versions system 7 specifically system 7.5 mac os 7.6 come dedicated utilities folder apple extras folder including applescript disk copy quickdraw gx extras quicktime movie player optional extras utilities could manually installed system cd system 7.1.2 first version macintosh system software support apple new powerpc-based computers 68k applications yet updated run natively systems emulated transparently without user intervene built-in 68k processor emulator fat binaries contained code necessary run natively powerpc 68k systems became common time process similar distribution universal binaries apple transition intel processors 2006 system 7.0 7.1 offered utility called apple file exchange could access contents fat- apple ii — formatted floppy disks system 7 pro system 7.5 shipped pc exchange previously separate product allowed system mount fat-formatted floppy disks desktop manner regular macintosh disks os/2 disks read pc dos disks due fact os/2 used fat file system time macs could also read write unix file systems help extra software system 7 allowed users access pc networks allowed communication via tcp/ip compatible networking stacks actual pc software compatibility however required third party software softpc allowed ms-dos early microsoft windows programs run connectix virtual pc allowed mac run windows via full pc emulation pc compatibility solutions took native approach running windows ms-dos using x86 expansion cards x86 chip card apple offered systems configured way marketed dos compatible —a card dedicated x86 cpu ram used mac hard drive sound subsystem networking input provided services pc pc could run simultaneously mac user could switch two fashion similar kvm switch earliest systems 680x0 based systems running system 7 system 7 provided support accessing pc volume mac pc exchange software actual control pc hardware accomplished way control panels time release many users noticed performance suffered result upgrading system 6 system 7 though newer hardware soon made speed difference another problem system 7 large memory footprint system 6 could boot system single 800k floppy disk took ram whereas system 7 used well megabyte time average mac shipped enough ram built system 7 truly comfortable system 7 first system release could longer usefully run floppy-only systems although macintosh models sold time included hard disk standard equipment owners older models required upgrade buying either new mac external scsi hard disk drive wished run system 7 order take advantage system 7 virtual memory feature macintosh equipped paged memory management unit pmmu required motorola 68030 cpu one built-in one added motherboard motorola 68020-equipped macintosh ii macintosh model using 68020 macintosh lc use virtual memory apple introduced 68030-equipped macintosh lc ii shortly system 7 introduction despite newer processor lcii retained earlier model 16-bit bus perform faster lc replaced despite setbacks system 7.0 adopted quite rapidly mac users quickly became one base requirements new software engineering group within apple responsible system 7 came known blue meanies named blue index cards written features could implemented relatively short time part apple operating system strategy comparison pink index card features handled pink group later becoming ill-fated taligent project system 7.0 last version macintosh operating system available charge could freely redistributed although system 7 could purchased apple cost nominal considered cover duplication media common macintosh dealers allow customers use store demo machines copy system 7 install disks cost box floppies cd-rom magazines nautilus included system 7 disks mac users downloaded thousands copies system 7 online services aol compuserve genie apple surveyed services based popularity started selling mac os retail product system 7.1 apple continued charging major operating system upgrades release os x mavericks 2013 soon initial release system 7 7.0.1 minor update released october 1991 patch called system 7 tune-up also followed fixed disappearing files bug system would lose files added minimum preferred memory allotments application get info box august 1992 7.1 update released first version system software apple charged money change david pogue wrote new 7.1 fonts folder replaced often time-consuming method dragging fonts system file introduced system 7.0 also replaced font/da mover application system 6 could also used 7.0 system 7.1 also included lot internal changes support internationalization dates time numbers also first version support enablers removed requirement release new version system software every time new hardware released set specialized versions 7.1 ranging 7.1p1 7.1p6 excluding 7.1p4 created included various performa models already available released 7.1 specialized versions included ease launcher changes integrated later versions system software first major upgrade system 7.1.1 also known system 7 pro release bundle 7.1 applescript tools quicktime apple open collaboration environment aoce system 7 trouble running slightly older machines due memory footprint system 7 pro barely fit macintosh computers time commonly used minor bug fixes rather new functionality apple joined aim alliance apple ibm motorola shortly release system 7 1991 started work powerpc-based machines later became power macintosh family support machines resulted system 7.1.2 system 7.1.2 never offered retail sale shipped first batches powerpc macs 68k version shipped small number quadra 600 series systems later shipments shipped system 7.5 instead system 7.1.2p 7.1.2 shipped performa 630 lc 630 quadra 630 models released july november 1994 next major release system 7.5 included bug fixes previous updates added several new features including system 7.5 codenamed capone reference al capone chicago code name microsoft windows 95 also name default system font used mac os version 8 system 7.5.1 primarily bug fix 7.5 also introduced new mac os startup screen preparation mac clones system 7.5.2 released first pci-based power macs notable introducing apple new networking architecture open transport system 7.5.3 major bug-fix update also included open transport powerpc-based machines well 68k-based machines 7.5.3 also made several improvements 68k emulator added translucent dragging support drag manager also included first version control strip compatible macs also first version mac os support smp 9500/mp system 7.5.3 revision 2 included performance enhancements better reliability powerbooks using third-party ram doubler program improved reliability powerbook 500 2300 5300 series computers powerpc upgrade card improved reliability using startup disk control panel improved reliability copying files 1 gb hard disks system 7.5.3 revision 2.1 shipped performa 6400/180 6400/200 particular release specific machines stability problems system 7.5.3 release 2 new hardware especially video card transferring files localtalk system 7.5.4 pulled due mistake apple components included installer system 7.5.5 included significant performance improvements virtual memory memory management powerpc-based macs including elimination one type 11 error also included number reliability improvements fixes macs using floppy disks equipped dos compatibility card improved hard disk access powerpc powerbooks performa 5400 9500 computers fixes macs included apple tv tuner macintosh tv remote control improvements localtalk networking especially performa 5400 6400 fixes system startup faster 180 mhz macs included powerpc 604 604e processors improved reliability using sound-intensive applications quadra centris computers contained powerpc upgrade card improved stability using multiple background applications shared printers network system 7.5.5 also last system 7 release run 68000-based macs macintosh plus macs roms lack support 32-bit addressing macintosh iicx 7.6 later required 68030 processor 32-bit-addressing-capable rom automatically turn 32-bit addressing boot mac os 7.6 codenamed harmony last major update released 1997 7.6 operating system officially called mac os instead system new features include revamped extensions manager native powerpc code power macs bundled internet tools utilities stable finder increased memory allocation version powertalk feature added 7.5 removed due poor application support support large number older macintosh models dropped minor update mac os 7.6.1 finally ported 68k exception handling routines powerpc turning type 11 errors less harmful errors type 1 2 3 usually crashing applications would often terminate safely instead crashing operating system period apple attempting release completely new modern operating system named copland copland project abandoned 1996 apple announced plans release os update every six months rhapsody would 2001 evolve released mac os x shipped two releases shipped officially branded mac os — mac os 7.6 minor bug fix 7.6.1 future versions released mac os 8–8.6 mac os 9–9.2 1-hop neighbor's text information: unix.unix unix trademarked unix family multitasking multiuser computer operating systems derive original unix development starting 1970s bell labs research center ken thompson dennis ritchie others initially intended use inside bell system licensed unix outside parties late 1970s leading variety academic commercial unix variants vendors including university california berkeley bsd microsoft xenix ibm aix sun microsystems solaris early 1990s sold rights unix novell sold unix business santa cruz operation sco 1995 unix trademark passed open group neutral industry consortium allows use mark certified operating systems comply single unix specification sus 2014 unix version largest installed base apple macos unix systems characterized modular design sometimes called unix philosophy concept entails operating system provides set simple tools performs limited well-defined function unified filesystem unix filesystem main means communication shell scripting command language unix shell combine tools perform complex workflows unix distinguishes predecessors first portable operating system almost entire operating system written c programming language thus allowing unix reach numerous platforms unix originally meant convenient platform programmers developing software run systems rather non-programmers system grew larger operating system started spreading academic circles users added tools system shared colleagues first unix designed portable multi-tasking later unix gradually gained portability multi-tasking multi-user capabilities time-sharing configuration unix systems characterized various concepts use plain text storing data hierarchical file system treating devices certain types inter-process communication ipc files use large number software tools small programs strung together command-line interpreter using pipes opposed using single monolithic program includes functionality concepts collectively known unix philosophy brian kernighan rob pike summarize unix programming environment idea power system comes relationships among programs programs era standard computer consisted hard disk storage data terminal input output i/o unix file model worked quite well i/o generally linear 1980s non-blocking i/o set inter-process communication mechanisms augmented unix domain sockets shared memory message queues semaphores well network sockets support communication hosts graphical user interfaces developed file model proved inadequate task handling asynchronous events generated mouse early 1980s users began seeing unix potential universal operating system suitable computers sizes unix environment client–server program model essential elements development internet reshaping computing centered networks rather individual computers unix c programming language developed distributed government academic institutions led ported wider variety machine families operating system unix operating system consists many libraries utilities along master control program kernel kernel provides services start stop programs handles file system common low-level tasks programs share schedules access avoid conflicts programs try access resource device simultaneously mediate access kernel special rights reflected division user space kernel space — although microkernel implementations like minix redox functions network protocols may also run user space origins unix date back mid-1960s massachusetts institute technology bell labs general electric developing multics time-sharing operating system ge-645 mainframe computer multics featured several innovations also presented severe problems frustrated size complexity multics goals individual researchers bell labs started withdrawing project last leave ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna decided reimplement experiences new project smaller scale new operating system initially without organizational backing also without name new operating system single-tasking system 1970 group coined name unics uniplexed information computing service pronounced eunuchs pun multics stood multiplexed information computer services brian kernighan takes credit idea adds one remember origin final spelling unix dennis ritchie doug mcilroy peter g. neumann also credit kernighan operating system originally written assembly language 1973 version 4 unix rewritten c. version 4 unix however still many pdp-11 dependent codes suitable porting first port platform made five years later 1978 interdata 8/32 bell labs produced several versions unix collectively referred research unix 1975 first source license unix sold donald b. gillies university illinois department computer science uiuc graduate student greg chesson worked unix kernel bell labs instrumental negotiating terms license late 1970s early 1980s influence unix academic circles led large-scale adoption unix bsd system v commercial startups including sequent hp-ux solaris aix xenix late 1980s unix system laboratories sun microsystems developed system v release 4 svr4 subsequently adopted many commercial unix vendors 1990s unix unix-like systems grew popularity bsd linux distributions developed collaboration worldwide network programmers 2000 apple released darwin also unix system became core mac os x operating system later renamed macos unix operating systems widely used modern servers workstations mobile devices late 1980s open operating system standardization effort known posix provided common baseline operating systems ieee based posix around common structure major competing variants unix system publishing first posix standard 1988 early 1990s separate similar effort started industry consortium common open software environment cose initiative eventually became single unix specification sus administered open group starting 1998 open group ieee started austin group provide common definition posix single unix specification 2008 become open group base specification 1999 effort towards compatibility several unix system vendors agreed svr4 executable linkable format elf standard binary object code files common format allows substantial binary compatibility among different unix systems operating cpu architecture filesystem hierarchy standard created provide reference directory layout unix-like operating systems mainly used linux unix system composed several components originally packaged together including development environment libraries documents portable modifiable source code components addition kernel operating system unix self-contained software system one key reasons emerged important teaching learning tool broad influence inclusion components make system large original v7 unix distribution consisting copies compiled binaries plus source code documentation occupied less 10 mb arrived single nine-track magnetic tape printed documentation typeset online sources contained two volumes names filesystem locations unix components changed substantially across history system nonetheless v7 implementation considered many canonical early structure unix system significant impact operating systems achieved reputation interactivity providing software nominal fee educational use running inexpensive hardware easy adapt move different machines unix originally written assembly language soon rewritten c high-level programming language although followed lead multics burroughs unix popularized idea unix drastically simplified file model compared many contemporary operating systems treating kinds files simple byte arrays file system hierarchy contained machine services devices printers terminals disk drives providing uniform interface expense occasionally requiring additional mechanisms ioctl mode flags access features hardware fit simple stream bytes model plan 9 operating system pushed model even eliminated need additional mechanisms unix also popularized hierarchical file system arbitrarily nested subdirectories originally introduced multics common operating systems era ways divide storage device multiple directories sections fixed number levels often one level several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned multics dec rsx-11m group user hierarchy evolved vms directories cp/m volumes evolved ms-dos 2.0+ subdirectories hp mpe group.account hierarchy ibm ssp os/400 library systems folded broader posix file systems making command interpreter ordinary user-level program additional commands provided separate programs another multics innovation popularized unix unix shell used language interactive commands scripting shell scripts – separate job control language like ibm jcl since shell os commands another program user could choose even write shell new commands could added without changing shell unix innovative command-line syntax creating modular chains producer-consumer processes pipelines made powerful programming paradigm coroutines widely available many later command-line interpreters inspired unix shell fundamental simplifying assumption unix focus newline-delimited text nearly file formats binary editors original version unix – entire system configured using textual shell command scripts common denominator i/o system byte – unlike record-based file systems focus text representing nearly everything made unix pipes especially useful encouraged development simple general tools could easily combined perform complicated ad hoc tasks focus text bytes made system far scalable portable systems time text-based applications also proven popular application areas printing languages postscript odf application layer internet protocols e.g. ftp smtp http soap sip unix popularized syntax regular expressions found widespread use unix programming interface became basis widely implemented operating system interface standard posix see c programming language soon spread beyond unix ubiquitous systems applications programming early unix developers important bringing concepts modularity reusability software engineering practice spawning software tools movement time leading developers unix programs ran established set cultural norms developing software norms became important influential technology unix termed unix philosophy tcp/ip networking protocols quickly implemented unix versions widely used relatively inexpensive computers contributed internet explosion worldwide real-time connectivity formed basis implementations many platforms unix policy extensive on-line documentation many years ready access system source code raised programmer expectations contributed launch free software movement 1983 1983 richard stallman announced gnu short gnu unix project ambitious effort create free software unix-like system free sense everyone received copy would free use study modify redistribute gnu project kernel development project gnu hurd yet produced working kernel 1991 linus torvalds released linux kernel free software gnu general public license addition use linux operating system many gnu packages – gnu compiler collection rest gnu toolchain gnu c library gnu core utilities – gone play central roles free unix systems well linux distributions consisting linux kernel large collections compatible software become popular individual users business popular distributions include red hat enterprise linux fedora suse linux enterprise opensuse debian gnu/linux ubuntu linux mint mandriva linux slackware linux arch linux gentoo free derivative bsd unix 386bsd released 1992 led netbsd freebsd projects 1994 settlement lawsuit brought university california berkeley software design inc. usl v. bsdi unix systems laboratories clarified berkeley right distribute bsd unix free desired since bsd unix developed several different product branches including openbsd dragonfly bsd linux bsd increasingly filling market needs traditionally served proprietary unix operating systems well expanding new markets consumer desktop mobile embedded devices modular design unix model sharing components relatively common consequently unix unix-like systems include least bsd code systems also include gnu utilities distributions 1999 interview dennis ritchie voiced opinion linux bsd operating systems continuation basis unix design derivatives unix interview states views unix linux continuation ideas started ken many others many years ago opensolaris open-source counterpart solaris developed sun microsystems included cddl-licensed kernel primarily gnu userland however oracle discontinued project upon acquisition sun prompted group former sun employees members opensolaris community fork opensolaris illumos kernel 2014 illumos remains active open-source system v derivative may 1975 rfc 681 described development network unix center advanced computation university illinois system said present several interesting capabilities arpanet mini-host time unix required license bell laboratories 20,000 us expensive non-university users educational license cost 150 noted bell open suggestions arpanet-wide license specific features found beneficial local processing facilities compilers editors document preparation system efficient file system access control mountable unmountable volumes unified treatment peripherals special files integration network control program ncp within unix file system treatment network connections special files accessed standard unix i/o calls closing files program exit decision desirable minimize amount code added basic unix kernel october 1993 novell company owned rights unix system v source time transferred trademarks unix x/open company open group 1995 sold related business operations santa cruz operation sco whether novell also sold copyrights actual software subject federal lawsuit 2006 sco v. novell novell case appealed august 30 2011 united states court appeals tenth circuit affirmed trial decisions closing case unix vendor sco group inc. accused novell slander title present owner trademark unix open group industry standards consortium systems fully compliant certified single unix specification qualify unix others called unix-like decree open group term unix refers class operating systems specific implementation operating system operating systems meet open group single unix specification able bear unix 98 unix 03 trademarks today operating system vendor pays substantial certification fee annual trademark royalties open group systems licensed use unix trademark include aix hp-ux inspur k-ux irix solaris tru64 unix formerly digital unix osf/1 macos part z/os notably inspur k-ux linux distribution certified unix 03 compliant sometimes representation like unx nix *n x used indicate operating systems similar unix comes use asterisk question mark characters wildcard indicators many utilities notation also used describe unix-like systems met requirements unix branding open group open group requests unix always used adjective followed generic term system help avoid creation genericized trademark unix original formatting usage unix remains widespread typeset small caps unix according dennis ritchie presenting original unix paper third operating systems symposium american association computing machinery acm new typesetter troff invented intoxicated able produce small caps many operating system predecessors contemporaries used all-uppercase lettering many people wrote name upper case due force habit acronym trademark names registered different entities different countries trademark laws countries allow trademark name controlled two different entities entity uses trademark easily distinguishable categories result unix used brand name various products including book shelves ink pens bottled glue diapers hair driers food containers several plural forms unix used casually refer multiple brands unix unix-like systems common conventional unixes unices treating unix latin noun third declension also popular pseudo-anglo-saxon plural form unixen common although occasionally seen sun microsystems developer solaris variant asserted term unix plural referencing many implementations 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_stream_interface.data stream interface data stream interface dsi session layer used carry apple filing protocol traffic transmission control protocol apple introduced tcp mactcp open transport system 7 1990s needed file sharing protocol afp run tcp appletalk introduced appletalk session protocol asp dsi tcp coincidentally afp 2.x dsi implemented directly afp clients mac os afpfs-ng dsi spoken client afp server dsi communication contains following dsi header fields seven possible commands upon receiving dsi requests client server sends reply message reply contains dsitickle dsiclosesession commands trigger reply session set client sending dsiopensession include size receive buffer client packets called request quantum typically 1024 bytes server acknowledges request returns size data receive buffer typically 256k mac os x leopard session closure initiated either side sending dsiclosesession sender need wait reply immediately close session sending message maintaining connection done tickling dsi provides mechanism ensuring client server know still active every 30 seconds inactivity server sends tickle request client similarly client also sends tickle response packet either client server terminate dsi session fail hear 120 seconds client may also disconnect request flight neither response tickle received within 60 seconds mac os x v.10.2 later dsi command encapsulates fpgetsrvrinfo packet used client get information server n't logged data elements organized packet catalog indices pointing structured data request dsigetstatus request cause server respond following information dsigetstatus reply format identical afp fpgetsrvrinfo used aspgetstatus error codes returned afp result codes dsi never documented separately sufficiently simple static older references suitable modern implementations concepts dsi identical appletalk session protocol asp overview inside appletalk second edition helpful succinct guide afp tcp chapter apple filing protocol programming guide significant source information understanding dsi found analyzing communication afp clients servers using packet sniffer Target text information: open_transport.open transport open transport name given apple inc. implementation unix-originated system v streams networking stack based code licensed mentat portable streams product open transport built provide classic mac os modern tcp/ip implementation replacing mactcp apple also added implementation appletalk stack support legacy networks prior release open transport classic mac os used variety stand-alone inits provide networking functionality one widely used throughout os appletalk system among protocol stacks supported mactcp becoming increasingly important internet boom started gain momentum mactcp emulated berkeley sockets system widely used among unix-like operating systems mactcp previous generation appletalk library slow powerpc-based macintoshes written previous generation 680x0-based macintoshes therefore ran emulation powerpc-based machines mactcp also lacking features however major upgrade clearly needed apple keep hand internet market late 1980s several major efforts re-combine many unix derivatives single system underway significant among t-led system v. system v included entirely new networking stack streams replacing existing berkeley sockets system streams number advantages sockets including ability support multiple networking stacks time ability plug modules middle existing stacks provide simple mechanisms filtering similar duties offering single application programming interface user programs time appeared streams would become de facto standard change market led apple move support streams well also presented two practical advantages company streams multiprotocol support would allow support tcp/ip appletalk single interface portable cross-platform version streams available purchase commercially one included high-quality tcp implementation using streams also appeared offer way one microsoft whose tcp/ip networking system winsock based apparently soon-to-be-obsolete sockets open transport introduced may 1995 power mac 9500 included system 7.5.2 release new pci based power macs became available older hardware later mactcp supported pci-based macs older systems could switch mactcp open transport using control panel called network software selector unlike mactcp open transport allowed users save switch configuration sets developer opinion open transport divided felt offered enormous speed improvements mactcp developers also liked flexible way allowed protocols stacked apply filters duties however system also large complex flexibility open transport architecture one could plug desired protocol felt thoroughly overcomplicated additionally unix code still used sockets streams mactcp offered real advantages terms porting software mac vaunted flexibility open transport architecture undermined ultimately made obsolete rapid rise tcp/ip networking mid-90s true wider unix market system v undermined rapid rise free unix-like systems notably linux systems grew popularity vast majority programmers ignored closed streams favour bsd-licensed sockets open transport abandoned move os x derived bsd networking stack based entirely sockets open transport received deprecation status starting mac os x 10.4 sdks open transport support removed entirely os x starting version 10.9 mavericks I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,864	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: optical_character_recognition.optical character recognition optical character recognition optical character reader ocr mechanical electronic conversion images typed handwritten printed text machine-encoded text whether scanned document photo document scene-photo example text signs billboards landscape photo subtitle text superimposed image example television broadcast widely used form information entry printed paper data records – whether passport documents invoices bank statements computerized receipts business cards mail printouts static-data suitable documentation – common method digitizing printed texts electronically edited searched stored compactly displayed on-line used machine processes cognitive computing machine translation extracted text-to-speech key data text mining ocr field research pattern recognition artificial intelligence computer vision early versions needed trained images character worked one font time advanced systems capable producing high degree recognition accuracy fonts common support variety digital image file format inputs systems capable reproducing formatted output closely approximates original page including images columns non-textual components early optical character recognition may traced technologies involving telegraphy creating reading devices blind 1914 emanuel goldberg developed machine read characters converted standard telegraph code concurrently edmund fournier d'albe developed optophone handheld scanner moved across printed page produced tones corresponded specific letters characters late 1920s 1930s emanuel goldberg developed called statistical machine searching microfilm archives using optical code recognition system 1931 granted usa patent number 1,838,389 invention patent acquired ibm advent smart-phones smartglasses ocr used internet connected mobile device applications extract text captured using device camera devices ocr functionality built operating system typically use ocr api extract text image file captured provided device ocr api returns extracted text along information location detected text original image back device app processing text-to-speech display 1974 ray kurzweil started company kurzweil computer products inc. continued development omni-font ocr could recognize text printed virtually font kurzweil often credited inventing omni-font ocr use companies including compuscan late 1960s 1970s kurzweil decided best application technology would create reading machine blind would allow blind people computer read text loud device required invention two enabling technologiesthe ccd flatbed scanner text-to-speech synthesizer january 13 1976 successful finished product unveiled widely reported news conference headed kurzweil leaders national federation blind 1978 kurzweil computer products began selling commercial version optical character recognition computer program lexisnexis one first customers bought program upload legal paper news documents onto nascent online databases two years later kurzweil sold company xerox interest commercializing paper-to-computer text conversion xerox eventually spun scansoft merged nuance communications research group headed a. g. ramakrishnan medical intelligence language engineering lab indian institute science developed printtobraille tool open source gui front end used ocr convert scanned images printed books braille books 2000s ocr made available online service webocr cloud computing environment mobile applications like real-time translation foreign-language signs smartphone various commercial open source ocr systems available common writing systems including latin cyrillic arabic hebrew indic bengali bangla devanagari tamil chinese japanese korean characters ocr engines developed many kinds domain-specific ocr applications receipt ocr invoice ocr check ocr legal billing document ocr used ocr generally offline process analyses static document handwriting movement analysis used input handwriting recognition instead merely using shapes glyphs words technique able capture motions order segments drawn direction pattern putting pen lifting additional information make end-to-end process accurate technology also known on-line character recognition dynamic character recognition real-time character recognition intelligent character recognition ocr software often pre-processes images improve chances successful recognition techniques include segmentation fixed-pitch fonts accomplished relatively simply aligning image uniform grid based vertical grid lines least often intersect black areas proportional fonts sophisticated techniques needed whitespace letters sometimes greater words vertical lines intersect one character two basic types core ocr algorithm may produce ranked list candidate characters matrix matching involves comparing image stored glyph pixel-by-pixel basis also known pattern matching pattern recognition image correlation relies input glyph correctly isolated rest image stored glyph similar font scale technique works best typewritten text work well new fonts encountered technique early physical photocell-based ocr implemented rather directly feature extraction decomposes glyphs features like lines closed loops line direction line intersections extraction features reduces dimensionality representation makes recognition process computationally efficient features compared abstract vector-like representation character might reduce one glyph prototypes general techniques feature detection computer vision applicable type ocr commonly seen intelligent handwriting recognition indeed modern ocr software nearest neighbour classifiers k-nearest neighbors algorithm used compare image features stored glyph features choose nearest match software cuneiform tesseract use two-pass approach character recognition second pass known adaptive recognition uses letter shapes recognized high confidence first pass recognize better remaining letters second pass advantageous unusual fonts low-quality scans font distorted e.g blurred faded ocr result stored standardized alto format dedicated xml schema maintained united states library congress list optical character recognition software see comparison optical character recognition software ocr accuracy increased output constrained lexicona list words allowed occur document might example words english language technical lexicon specific field technique problematic document contains words lexicon like proper nouns tesseract uses dictionary influence character segmentation step improved accuracy output stream may plain text stream file characters sophisticated ocr systems preserve original layout page produce example annotated pdf includes original image page searchable textual representation near-neighbor analysis make use co-occurrence frequencies correct errors noting certain words often seen together example washington d.c. generally far common english washington doc knowledge grammar language scanned also help determine word likely verb noun example allowing greater accuracy levenshtein distance algorithm also used ocr post-processing optimize results ocr api recent years major ocr technology providers began tweak ocr systems deal efficiently specific types input beyond application-specific lexicon better performance may taking account business rules standard expression rich information contained color images strategy called application-oriented ocr customized ocr applied ocr license plates invoices screenshots id cards driver licenses automobile manufacturing new york times adapted ocr technology proprietary tool entitle document helper enables interactive news team accelerate processing documents need reviewed note enables process amounts many 5,400 pages per hour preparation reporters review contents several techniques solving problem character recognition means improved ocr algorithms special fonts like ocr-a ocr-b micr fonts precisely specified sizing spacing distinctive character shapes allow higher accuracy rate transcription bank check processing ironically however several prominent ocr engines designed capture text popular fonts arial times new roman incapable capturing text fonts specialized much different popularly used fonts google tesseract trained recognize new fonts recognize ocr-a ocr-b micr fonts comb fields pre-printed boxes encourage humans write legiblyone glyph per box often printed dropout color easily removed ocr system palm os used special set glyphs known graffiti similar printed english characters simplified modified easier recognition platform computationally limited hardware users would need learn write special glyphs zone-based ocr restricts image specific part document often referred template ocr crowdsourcing humans perform character recognition quickly process images like computer-driven ocr higher accuracy recognizing images obtained computers practical systems include amazon mechanical turk recaptcha national library finland developed online interface users correct ocred texts standardized alto format crowd sourcing also used perform character recognition directly invite software developers develop image processing algorithms example use rank-order tournaments commissioned u.s. department energy doe information science research institute isri mission foster improvement automated technologies understanding machine printed documents conducted authoritative annual test ocr accuracy 1992 1996 recognition latin-script typewritten text still 100 accurate even clear imaging available one study based recognition 19th- early 20th-century newspaper pages concluded character-by-character ocr accuracy commercial ocr software varied 81 99 total accuracy achieved human review data dictionary authentication areas—including recognition hand printing cursive handwriting printed text scripts especially east asian language characters many strokes single character —are still subject active research mnist database commonly used testing systems ability recognise handwritten digits accuracy rates measured several ways measured greatly affect reported accuracy rate example word context basically lexicon words used correct software finding non-existent words character error rate 1 99 accuracy may result error rate 5 95 accuracy worse measurement based whether whole word recognized incorrect letters example difficulties inherent digitizing old text inability ocr differentiate long f characters web-based ocr systems recognizing hand-printed text fly become well known commercial products recent years see tablet pc history accuracy rates 80 90 neat clean hand-printed characters achieved pen computing software accuracy rate still translates dozens errors per page making technology useful limited applications recognition cursive text active area research recognition rates even lower hand-printed text higher rates recognition general cursive script likely possible without use contextual grammatical information example recognizing entire words dictionary easier trying parse individual characters script reading amount line cheque always written-out number example using smaller dictionary increase recognition rates greatly shapes individual cursive characters simply contain enough information accurately greater 98 recognize handwritten cursive script programs allow users set confidence rates means software achieve desired level accuracy user notified manual review characters support ocr added unicode standard june 1993 release version 1.1 characters mapped fonts specific micr ocr-a ocr-b 1-hop neighbor's text information: air_gap_(networking).air gap networking air gap air wall air gapping network security measure employed one computers ensure secure computer network physically isolated unsecured networks public internet unsecured local area network means computer network network interfaces connected networks physical conceptual air gap analogous air gap used plumbing maintain water quality air-gapped computer network one network interfaces either wired wireless connected outside networks many computers even plugged wired network wireless network interface controller wifi connected nearby wireless networks access internet update software represents security vulnerability air-gapped computers either wireless interface controller permanently disabled physically removed move data outside world air-gapped system necessary write data physical medium thumbdrive physically move computers physical access easier control electronic network interface attacked time exterior insecure system malware infects secure system used export secure data environments networks devices rated handle different levels classified information two disconnected devices networks referred low side high side low unclassified high referring classified classified higher level also occasionally referred red classified black unclassified access policies often based bell–lapadula confidentiality model data moved low-to-high minimal security measures high-to-low requires much stringent procedures ensure protection data higher level classification concept represents nearly maximum protection one network another save turning device way transfer data outside world air-gapped system copy data removable storage medium removable disk usb flash drive physically carry storage system access easily controlled upside network generally regarded closed system terms information signals emissions security unable accessed outside world downside transferring information outside world analyzed computers secure network extraordinarily labor-intensive often involving human security analysis prospective programs data entered onto air-gapped networks possibly even human manual re-entry data following security analysis sophisticated computer viruses use cyberwarfare stuxnet agent.btz designed infect air-gapped systems exploiting security holes related handling removable media possibility using acoustic communication also demonstrated researchers researchers also demonstrated feasibility data exfiltration using fm frequency signals examples types networks systems may air gapped include many systems since added features connect public internet longer effectively air gapped including thermostats internet connections automobiles bluetooth wi-fi cellular phone connectivity limitations imposed devices used environments may include ban wireless connections secure network similar restrictions em leakage secure network use tempest faraday cage scientists 2013 demonstrated viability air gap malware designed defeat air gap isolation using acoustic signaling shortly network security researcher dragos ruiu badbios received press attention 2014 researchers introduced airhopper bifurcated attack pattern showing feasibility data exfiltration isolated computer nearby mobile phone using fm frequency signals 2015 bitwhisper covert signaling channel air-gapped computers using thermal manipulations introduced bitwhisper supports bidirectional communication requires additional dedicated peripheral hardware later 2015 researchers introduced gsmem method exfiltrating data air-gapped computers cellular frequencies transmission generated standard internal bus renders computer small cellular transmitter antenna projectsauron malware discovered 2016 demonstrates infected usb device used remotely leak data air-gapped computer malware remained undetected 5 years relied hidden partitions usb drive visible windows transport channel air-gapped computer computer connected internet presumably way share files two systems nfcdrip name given discovery stealthy data exfiltration nfc near-field communication radio abuse signal detection 2018 although nfc enables devices establish effective communication bringing within centimeters researchers showed abused transmit information much longer range expected 100 meters general malware exploit various hardware combinations leak sensitive information air-gapped systems using air-gap covert channels hardware combinations use number different mediums bridge air-gap including acoustic light seismic magnetic thermal radio-frequency 1-hop neighbor's text information: edward_snowden.edward snowden edward joseph snowden born june 21 1983 american whistle-blower copied leaked highly classified information national security agency nsa 2013 central intelligence agency cia employee subcontractor disclosures revealed numerous global surveillance programs many run nsa five eyes intelligence alliance cooperation telecommunication companies european governments prompted cultural discussion national security individual privacy 2013 snowden hired nsa contractor booz allen hamilton previous employment dell cia snowden says gradually became disillusioned programs involved tried raise ethical concerns internal channels ignored may 20 2013 snowden flew hong kong leaving job nsa facility hawaii early june revealed thousands classified nsa documents journalists glenn greenwald laura poitras ewen macaskill snowden came international attention stories based material appeared guardian washington post disclosures made publications including der spiegel new york times snowden 30th birthday june 21 2013 u.s. department justice unsealed charges snowden two counts violating espionage act 1917 theft government property following department state revoked passport two days later flew moscow sheremetyevo airport russian authorities noted u.s. passport cancelled restricted airport terminal one month russia later granted snowden right asylum initial visa residence one year repeated extensions permitted stay least 2020 early 2016 became president freedom press foundation san francisco-based organization states purpose protect journalists hacking government surveillance 2017 living undisclosed location moscow edward joseph snowden born june 21 1983 elizabeth city north carolina maternal grandfather edward j. barrett rear admiral u.s. coast guard became senior official fbi pentagon 2001 september 11 attacks snowden father lonnie also officer coast guard mother elizabeth clerk u.s. district court district maryland older sister jessica lawyer federal judicial center washington d.c. edward snowden said expected work federal government rest family parents divorced 2001 father remarried snowden scored 145 two separate iq tests early 1990s still grade school snowden moved family area fort meade maryland mononucleosis caused miss high school almost nine months rather returning school passed ged test took classes anne arundel community college although snowden undergraduate college degree worked online toward master degree university liverpool england 2011 interested japanese popular culture studied japanese language worked anime company resident office u.s also said basic understanding mandarin chinese deeply interested martial arts age 20 listed buddhism religion military recruitment form noting choice agnostic strangely absent snowden said 2008 presidential election voted third-party candidate though believed obama promises following election believed president barack obama continuing policies espoused george w. bush accounts published june 2013 interviewers noted snowden laptop displayed stickers supporting internet freedom organizations including electronic frontier foundation eff tor project week publication leaks began ars technica confirmed snowden active participant site online forum 2001 may 2012 discussing variety topics pseudonym thetruehooha january 2009 entry thetruehooha exhibited strong support u.s. security state apparatus said leakers classified information shot balls however snowden disliked obama cia director appointment leon panetta saying obama named fucking politician run cia snowden also offended possible ban assault weapons writing lunatic gun-toting nra compatriots would steps congress c-span feed finished snowden disliked obama economic policies social security favored ron paul call return gold standard 2014 snowden supported basic income feeling duty fight iraq war help free oppressed people snowden enlisted united states army reserve may 7 2004 became special forces candidate 18x enlistment option complete training breaking legs training accident discharged september 28 2004 snowden employed less year 2005 security guard university maryland center advanced study language research center sponsored national security agency nsa according university classified facility though heavily guarded june 2014 snowden told wired job security guard required high-level security clearance passed polygraph exam underwent stringent background check attending 2006 job-fair focused intelligence agencies snowden accepted offer position cia agency assigned global communications division cia headquarters langley virginia may 2006 snowden wrote ars technica trouble getting work computer wizard distinguishing junior employee top computer-team snowden sent cia secret school technology specialists lived hotel six months studying training full-time march 2007 cia stationed snowden diplomatic cover geneva switzerland responsible maintaining computer-network security assigned u.s permanent mission united nations diplomatic mission representing u.s. interests un international organizations snowden received diplomatic passport four-bedroom apartment near lake geneva according greenwald snowden considered top technical cybersecurity expert country hand-picked cia support president 2008 nato summit romania snowden described cia experience geneva formative stating cia deliberately got swiss banker drunk encouraged drive home snowden said latter arrested cia operative offered help exchange banker becoming informant ueli maurer president swiss confederation year 2013 june year publicly disputed snowden claims would mean cia successfully bribed geneva police judiciary due respect ca n't imagine said maurer february 2009 snowden resigned cia 2009 snowden began work contractee dell manages computer systems multiple government agencies assigned nsa facility yokota air base near tokyo snowden instructed top officials military officers defend networks chinese hackers four years dell rose supervising nsa computer system upgrades working résumé termed cyberstrategist expert cyber counterintelligence several u.s. locations 2011 returned maryland spent year lead technologist dell cia account capacity consulted chiefs cia technical branches including agency chief information officer chief technology officer u.s. officials sources familiar investigation said snowden began downloading documents describing government electronic spying programs working dell april 2012 investigators estimated 50,000 200,000 documents snowden gave greenwald poitras copied snowden working dell march 2012 dell reassigned snowden hawaii lead technologist nsa information-sharing office time departure u.s. may 2013 employed 15 months inside nsa hawaii regional operations center focuses electronic monitoring china north korea last three consulting firm booz allen hamilton intelligence officials described position system administrator snowden said infrastructure analyst meant job look new ways break internet telephone traffic around world march 15 2013—three days later called breaking point seeing director national intelligence james clapper directly lie oath congress —snowden quit job dell although said career high annual salary 200,000 snowden said took pay cut work booz allen sought employment order gather data release details nsa worldwide surveillance activity anonymous source told reuters hawaii snowden may persuaded 20–25 co-workers give logins credentials telling needed job nsa sent memo congress saying snowden tricked fellow employee sharing personal public key infrastructure certificate gain greater access nsa computer system snowden disputed memo saying january 2014 never stole passwords trick army co-workers booz allen terminated snowden employment june 10 2013 one month left country former nsa co-worker said although nsa full smart people snowden genius among geniuses created widely implemented backup system nsa often pointed security flaws agency former colleague said snowden given full administrator privileges virtually unlimited access nsa data snowden offered position nsa elite team hackers tailored access operations turned join booz allen anonymous source later said booz allen hiring screeners found possible discrepancies snowden resume still decided hire snowden résumé stated attended computer-related classes johns hopkins university spokeswoman johns hopkins said university find records show snowden attended university suggested may instead attended advanced career technologies private for-profit organization operated computer career institute johns hopkins university university maryland university college acknowledged snowden attended summer session um campus asia snowden résumé stated estimated would receive university liverpool computer security master degree 2013 university said snowden registered online master degree program computer security 2011 inactive student completed program snowden said told multiple employees two supervisors concerns nsa disputes claim snowden elaborated january 2014 saying made tremendous efforts report programs co-workers supervisors anyone proper clearance would listen reactions told scale constitutional violations ranged deeply concerned appalled one willing risk jobs families possibly even freedom go thomas andrews drake march 2014 testimony european parliament snowden wrote revealing classified information reported clearly problematic programs ten officials said nothing response may 2014 interview snowden told nbc news bringing concerns legality nsa spying programs officials told stay silent matter asserted nsa copies emails sent office general counsel oversight compliance personnel broaching concerns nsa interpretations legal authorities raised complaints officially writing email supervisors colleagues one office may 2014 u.s. officials released single email snowden written april 2013 inquiring legal authorities said found evidence snowden expressed concerns someone oversight position june 2014 nsa said able find records snowden raising internal complaints agency operations month snowden explained produced communiqués question ongoing nature dispute disclosing first time working nsa regard records 're going back forth n't want reveal everything come may 2014 interview nbc news snowden accused u.s. government trying use one position career distract totality experience downplaying low level analyst words trained spy traditional sense word lived worked undercover overseas—pretending work job 'm not—and even assigned name mine said 'd worked nsa undercover overseas dia developed sources methods keep information people secure hostile dangerous environments around world say 'm low-level systems administrator n't know 'm talking 'd say somewhat misleading june interview globo tv snowden reiterated actually functioning senior level july interview guardian snowden explained nsa career began move merely overseeing systems actively directing use many people ’ understand actually analyst designated individuals groups targeting snowden subsequently told wired dell 2011 would sit cio cia cto cia chiefs technical branches would tell hardest technology problems job come way fix time nsa analyst directing work others snowden recalled moment colleagues began severe ethical doubts snowden said 18 22-year-old analysts suddenly thrust position extraordinary responsibility access private records course daily work stumble across something completely unrelated sort necessary sense—for example intimate nude photo someone sexually compromising situation 're extremely attractive turn around chair show co-worker ... sooner later person whole life seen people snowden observed behavior happened routinely every two months never reported considered one fringe benefits work exact size snowden disclosure unknown australian officials estimated 15,000 australian intelligence files british officials estimate least 58,000 british intelligence files nsa director keith alexander initially estimated snowden copied anywhere 50,000 200,000 nsa documents later estimates provided u.s. officials order 1.7 million number originally came department defense talking points july 2014 washington post reported cache previously provided snowden domestic nsa operations consisting roughly 160,000 intercepted e-mail instant-message conversations hundreds pages long 7,900 documents taken 11,000 online accounts u.s. defense intelligence agency report declassified june 2015 said snowden took 900,000 department defense files downloaded nsa march 2014 army general martin dempsey chairman joint chiefs staff told house armed services committee vast majority documents snowden ... exfiltrated highest levels security ... nothing exposing government oversight domestic activities vast majority related military capabilities operations tactics techniques procedures asked may 2014 interview quantify number documents snowden stole retired nsa director keith alexander said accurate way counting took snowden may downloaded million documents according snowden indiscriminately turn documents journalists stating carefully evaluated every single document disclosed ensure legitimately public interest sorts documents would made big impact n't turn screen everything releasing journalists ... time go information would like make available journalists country despite measures improper redaction document new york times resulted exposure intelligence activity al-qaeda june 2014 nsa recently installed director u.s. navy admiral michael s. rogers said terrorist groups altered communications avoid surveillance techniques revealed snowden damage done significant enough conclude sky falling nevertheless february 2015 rogers said snowden disclosures material impact nsa detection evaluation terrorist activities worldwide 14 june 2015 uk sunday times reported russian chinese intelligence services decrypted 1 million classified files snowden cache forcing uk mi6 intelligence agency move agents live operations hostile countries sir david omand former director uk gchq intelligence gathering agency described huge strategic setback harming britain america nato allies sunday times said clear whether russia china stole snowden data whether snowden voluntarily handed remain liberty hong kong moscow april 2015 henry jackson society british neoconservative think tank published report claiming snowden intelligence leaks negatively impacted britain ability fight terrorism organized crime gus hosein executive director privacy international criticized report opinion presuming public became concerned privacy snowden disclosures snowden decision leak nsa documents developed gradually following march 2007 posting technician geneva cia station snowden first made contact glenn greenwald journalist working guardian december 1 2012 contacted greenwald anonymously cincinnatus said sensitive documents would like share greenwald found measures source asked take secure communications encrypting email annoying employ snowden contacted documentary filmmaker laura poitras january 2013 according poitras snowden chose contact seeing new york times article nsa whistleblower william binney originally attracted snowden greenwald poitras salon article written greenwald detailing poitras controversial films made target government greenwald began working snowden either february april 2013 poitras asked greenwald meet new york city point snowden began providing documents barton gellman writing washington post says first direct contact may 16 2013 according gellman snowden approached greenwald post declined guarantee publication within 72 hours 41 powerpoint slides snowden leaked exposing prism electronic data mining program publish online encrypted code allowing snowden later prove source snowden communicated using encrypted email going codename verax asked quoted length fear identification stylometry according gellman prior first meeting person snowden wrote understand made suffer actions return information public marks end snowden also told gellman articles published journalists working would also mortal risk united states intelligence community think single point failure could stop disclosure make sole owner information may 2013 snowden permitted temporary leave position nsa hawaii pretext receiving treatment epilepsy mid-may snowden gave electronic interview poitras jacob appelbaum published weeks later der spiegel disclosing copied documents snowden promised nothing would stop subsequent disclosures june 2013 said say right us government going able cover jailing murdering truth coming stopped may 20 2013 snowden flew hong kong staying initial articles based leaked documents published beginning guardian june 5 greenwald later said snowden disclosed 9,000 10,000 documents within months documents obtained published media outlets worldwide notably guardian britain der spiegel germany washington post new york times u.s. globo brazil le monde france similar outlets sweden canada italy netherlands norway spain australia 2014 nbc broke first story based leaked documents february 2014 reporting based snowden leaks journalists glenn greenwald laura poitras barton gellman guardian′ ewen macaskill honored co-recipients 2013 george polk award dedicated snowden nsa reporting journalists also earned guardian washington post 2014 pulitzer prize public service exposing widespread surveillance helping spark huge public debate extent government spying guardian chief editor alan rusbridger credited snowden performed public service ongoing publication leaked documents revealed previously unknown details global surveillance apparatus run united states nsa close cooperation three four five eyes partners australia asd uk gchq canada csec june 5 2013 media reports documenting existence functions classified surveillance programs scope began continued throughout entire year first program revealed prism allows court-approved direct access americans google yahoo accounts reported washington post guardian published one hour apart barton gellman washington post first journalist report snowden documents said u.s. government urged specify name companies involved gellman decided name would make real americans reports also revealed details tempora british black-ops surveillance program run nsa british partner gchq initial reports included details nsa call database boundless informant secret court order requiring verizon hand nsa millions americans phone records daily surveillance french citizens phone internet records high-profile individuals world business politics xkeyscore analytical tool allows collection almost anything done internet described guardian program shed light one snowden controversial statements sitting desk could wiretap anyone accountant federal judge even president personal email nsa top-secret black budget obtained snowden washington post exposed successes failures 16 spy agencies comprising u.s. intelligence community revealed nsa paying u.s. private tech companies clandestine access communications networks agencies allotted 52 billion 2013 fiscal year revealed nsa harvesting millions email instant messaging contact lists searching email content tracking mapping location cell phones undermining attempts encryption via bullrun agency using cookies piggyback tools used internet advertisers pinpoint targets government hacking bolster surveillance nsa shown secretly accessing yahoo google data centers collect information hundreds millions account holders worldwide tapping undersea cables using muscular surveillance program nsa cia gchq spied users second life xbox live world warcraft attempted recruit would-be informants sites according documents revealed december 2013 leaked documents showed nsa agents also spied love interests practice nsa employees termed loveint nsa shown tracking online sexual activity people termed radicalizers order discredit following revelation black pearl program targeting private networks nsa accused extending beyond primary mission national security agency intelligence-gathering operations targeted among others oil giant petrobras brazil largest company nsa gchq also shown surveilling charities including unicef médecins du monde well allies european commissioner joaquín almunia israeli prime minister october 2013 glenn greenwald said shocking significant stories ones still working yet publish november guardian editor-in-chief alan rusbridger said one percent documents published december australia minister defence david johnston said government assumed worst yet come october 2013 snowden disclosures created tensions u.s. close allies revealed u.s. spied brazil france mexico britain china germany spain well 35 world leaders notably german chancellor angela merkel said spying among friends unacceptable compared nsa stasi leaked documents published der spiegel 2014 appeared show nsa targeted 122 high-ranking leaders nsa mission statement titled sigint strategy 2012-2016 affirmed nsa plans continued expansion surveillance activities stated goal dramatically increase mastery global network acquire adversaries data anyone anytime anywhere leaked slides revealed greenwald book place hide released may 2014 showed nsa stated objective collect process exploit partner sniff know snowden said january 2014 interview german television nsa limit data collection national security issues accusing agency conducting industrial espionage using example german company siemens said information siemens beneficial us national interests—even n't anything national security—then 'll take information nevertheless wake snowden revelations response inquiry left party germany domestic security agency bundesamt für verfassungsschutz bfv investigated found concrete evidence u.s. conducted economic industrial espionage germany february 2014 testimony european union snowden said remaining undisclosed programs leave public interest determinations may safely disclosed responsible journalists coordination government stakeholders march 2014 documents disclosed glenn greenwald writing intercept showed nsa cooperation gchq plans infect millions computers malware using program called turbine revelations included information quantumhand program nsa set fake facebook server intercept connections according report washington post july 2014 relying information furnished snowden 90 placed surveillance u.s. ordinary americans intended targets newspaper said examined documents including emails message texts online accounts support claim august 2014 interview snowden first time disclosed cyberwarfare program works codenamed monstermind would automate detection foreign cyberattack began automatically fire back attacks spoofed said snowden could someone sitting china example making appear one attacks originating russia end shooting back russian hospital happens next snowden first contemplated leaking confidential documents around 2008 held back partly believed newly elected barack obama might introduce reforms disclosures identity made public guardian request june 9 2013 want live world everything say recorded said sole motive inform public done name done snowden said wanted embolden others step forward demonstrating win also said system reporting problems work report wrongdoing responsible cited lack whistleblower protection government contractors use 1917 espionage act prosecute leakers belief used internal mechanisms sound alarm revelations would buried forever december 2013 upon learning u.s. federal judge ruled collection u.s. phone metadata conducted nsa likely unconstitutional snowden said acted belief nsa mass surveillance programs would withstand constitutional challenge american public deserved chance see issues determined open courts ... today secret program authorized secret court exposed light day found violate americans rights january 2014 snowden said breaking point seeing director national intelligence james clapper directly lie oath congress referred testimony march 12 2013—three months snowden first sought share thousands nsa documents greenwald nine months nsa says snowden made first illegal downloads summer 2012—in clapper denied u.s. senate select committee intelligence nsa wittingly collects data millions americans snowden said saving intelligence community believes lie public legislators need able trust regulate actions seeing really meant going back beyond creeping realization one else going public right know programs march 2014 snowden said reported policy legal issues related spying programs ten officials contractor legal avenue pursue whistleblowing may 2013 snowden took leave absence telling supervisors returning mainland epilepsy treatment instead left hawaii hong kong arrived may 20 snowden told guardian reporters june room mira hotel since arrival city rarely going june 10 correspondent ewen macaskill said snowden left hotel briefly three times since may 20 snowden vowed challenge extradition attempt u.s. government engaged hong kong-based canadian human rights lawyer robert tibbo legal adviser snowden told south china morning post planned remain hong kong long government would permit snowden also told post united states government committed tremendous number crimes hong kong prc well going identify chinese internet protocol addresses nsa monitored stating nsa collected text-message data hong kong residents glenn greenwald said snowden motivated need ingratiate people hong kong china leaving mira hotel snowden stayed cramped apartment refugees seeking asylum hong kong arrangement set tibbo hide authorities russian newspaper kommersant nevertheless reported snowden living russian consulate shortly departure hong kong moscow ben wizner lawyer american civil liberties union aclu legal adviser snowden said january 2014 every news organization world trying confirm story n't able false ref name= mayer/new yorker /ref likewise rejecting kommersant story anatoly kucherena became snowden lawyer july 2013 snowden asked help seeking temporary asylum russia kucherena said snowden communicate russian diplomats hong kong early september 2013 however russian president vladimir putin said days boarding plane moscow snowden met hong kong russian diplomatic representatives june 22 18 days publication snowden nsa documents began officials revoked u.s. passport june 23 snowden boarded commercial aeroflot flight su213 moscow accompanied sarah harrison wikileaks hong kong authorities said snowden detained u.s. request fully complied hong kong law legal basis prevent snowden leaving june 24 u.s. state department spokesman rejected explanation technical noncompliance accusing hong kong government deliberately releasing fugitive despite valid arrest warrant sufficient time prohibit travel day julian assange said wikileaks paid snowden lodging hong kong flight october 2013 snowden said flying moscow gave classified documents obtained journalists met hong kong kept copies january 2014 told german tv interviewer gave information american journalists reporting american issues first american tv interview may 2014 snowden said protected russian leverage destroying material holding landing moscow june 23 2013 snowden landed moscow sheremetyevo airport wikileaks said circuitous safe route asylum ecuador snowden seat reserved continue cuba board onward flight saying january 2014 interview intended transit russia stopped en route asserted planeload reporters documented seat supposed ticketed havana u.s. cancelled passport said u.s. wanted stay moscow could say 'he russian spy greenwald account differed point snowden already ticketed according greenwald snowden passport valid departed hong kong revoked hours transit moscow preventing obtaining ticket leave russia greenwald said snowden thus forced stay moscow seek asylum according one russian report snowden planned fly moscow havana latin america however cuba told moscow would allow aeroflot plane carrying snowden land russian newspaper kommersant reported cuba change heart receiving pressure u.s. officials leaving stuck transit zone last minute havana told officials moscow allow flight washington post contrasted version called widespread speculation russia never intended let snowden proceed fidel castro called claims cuba would blocked snowden entry lie libel describing snowden arrival moscow surprise likening unwanted christmas gift russian president putin said snowden remained transit area sheremetyevo airport committed crime russia free leave putin denied russia intelligence agencies worked working snowden following snowden arrival moscow white house expressed disappointment hong kong decision allow leave anonymous u.s. official authorized discuss matter told ap snowden passport revoked left hong kong senior official country airline could order subordinates overlook withdrawn passport u.s. secretary state john kerry said snowden passport cancelled within two hours charges snowden made public friday june 21 july 1 statement snowden said although convicted nothing u.s. government unilaterally revoked passport leaving stateless person without judicial order administration seeks stop exercising basic right right belongs everybody right seek asylum four countries offered snowden permanent asylum ecuador nicaragua bolivia venezuela direct flights moscow venezuela bolivia nicaragua existed however u.s. pressured countries along route hand snowden said july 2013 decided bid asylum russia felt safe way reach latin america snowden said remained russia talking possibilities asylum latin america united states forced bolivian president plane citing morales plane incident issue said governments western european north american states demonstrated willingness act outside law behavior persists today unlawful threat makes impossible travel latin america enjoy asylum granted accordance shared rights said would travel russia interference u.s. government four months snowden received asylum russia julian assange commented venezuela ecuador could protect short term long term could change government russia safe well-regarded likely change advice snowden would physically safest russia according snowden cia powerful presence latin america governments security services relatively much less capable say russia ... could basically snatched ... october 2014 interview nation magazine snowden reiterated originally intended travel latin america lot people still unaware never intended end russia according snowden u.s. government waited departed hong kong cancel passport order trap russia snowden added really wanted capture would 've allowed travel latin america cia operate impunity want chose keep russia july 1 2013 president evo morales bolivia attending conference russia suggested interview russia today would consider request snowden asylum following day morales plane en route bolivia rerouted austria landed france spain italy denied access airspace plane parked vienna spanish ambassador austria arrived two embassy personnel asked search plane denied permission morales u.s. officials raised suspicions snowden may board morales blamed u.s. putting pressure european countries said grounding plane violation international law april 2015 bolivia ambassador russia maría luisa ramos urzagaste accused julian assange inadvertently putting morales life risk intentionally providing u.s. false rumors snowden morales plane assange responded n't expecting outcome result caused united states intervention regret happened snowden applied political asylum 21 countries statement attributed contended u.s. administration specifically vice president joe biden pressured governments refuse asylum petitions biden telephoned president rafael correa days prior snowden remarks asking ecuadorian leader grant snowden asylum ecuador initially offered snowden temporary travel document later withdrew correa later called offer mistake july 1 statement published wikileaks snowden accused u.s. government using citizenship weapon using described old bad tools political aggression citing obama promise allow wheeling dealing case snowden commented kind deception world leader justice neither extralegal penalty exile several days later wikileaks announced snowden applied asylum six additional countries declined name alleging attempted u.s. interference evaluating law snowden situation french interior ministry rejected request asylum poland refused process application conform legal procedure brazil foreign ministry said government planned response snowden asylum request germany india rejected snowden application outright austria ecuador finland norway italy netherlands spain said must territory apply november 2014 germany announced snowden renewed previously denied request considered asylum glenn greenwald later reported sigmar gabriel vice-chancellor germany told u.s. government threatened stop sharing intelligence germany offered snowden asylum arranged travel putin said july 1 2013 snowden wanted granted asylum russia would required stop work aimed harming american partners spokesman putin subsequently said snowden withdrawn asylum application upon learning conditions july 12 meeting sheremetyevo airport representatives human rights organizations lawyers organized part russian government snowden said accepting offers asylum already received would receive added venezuela grant asylum formalized asylee status removing basis state interference right asylum also said would request asylum russia resolved travel problems russian federal migration service officials confirmed july 16 snowden submitted application temporary asylum july 24 kucherena said client wanted find work russia travel create life already begun learning russian amid media reports early july 2013 attributed u.s. administration sources obama one-on-one meeting putin ahead g20 meeting st petersburg scheduled september doubt due snowden protracted sojourn russia top u.s. officials repeatedly made clear moscow snowden immediately returned united states face charges unauthorized leaking classified information russian lawyer said snowden needed asylum faced persecution u.s. government feared could subjected torture capital punishment letter russian minister justice aleksandr konovalov dated july 23 u.s. attorney general eric holder repudiated snowden claim refugee status offered limited validity passport good direct return u.s asserted snowden would subject torture death penalty would receive trial civilian court proper legal counsel day russian president spokesman reiterated government would hand snowden noting putin personally involved matter handled talks fbi russia fsb june 14 2013 united states federal prosecutors filed criminal complaint snowden charging theft government property two counts violating espionage act 1917 unauthorized communication national defense information willful communication classified communications intelligence information unauthorized person three charges carries maximum possible prison term ten years charge initially secret unsealed week later snowden asked january 2014 interview returning u.s. face charges court obama suggested days prior snowden explained rejected request n't say crimes charged crimes n't allow make case n't allow defend open court public convince jury benefit ... would say illustrative president would choose say someone face music knows music show trial snowden legal representative jesselyn radack wrote espionage act effectively hinders person defending jury open court said arcane world war law never meant prosecute whistleblowers rather spies betrayed trust selling secrets enemies profit non-profit betrayals considered june 23 2013 snowden landed moscow sheremetyevo airport aboard commercial aeroflot flight hong kong august 1 39 days transit section left airport granted temporary asylum russia one year year later temporary asylum expired snowden received three-year residency permit allowing travel freely within russia go abroad three months granted permanent political asylum january 2017 spokesperson russian foreign ministry wrote facebook snowden asylum due expire 2017 extended couple years snowden lawyer anatoly kucherena said extension valid 2020 subject controversy snowden variously called hero whistleblower dissident patriot traitor pentagon papers leaker daniel ellsberg called snowden release nsa material significant leak u.s. history numerous high-ranking current former u.s. government officials reacted publicly snowden disclosures u.s. snowden actions precipitated intense debate privacy warrantless domestic surveillance president obama initially dismissive snowden saying 'm going scrambling jets get 29-year-old hacker august 2013 obama rejected suggestion snowden patriot november said benefit debate generated worth damage done another way june 2013 u.s senator bernie sanders vermont wrote blog love hate owe snowden thanks forcing upon nation important debate debate n't gnawing questions actions raised shadows snowden said december 2013 inspired global debate ignited leaks nsa culture indiscriminate global espionage ... collapsing end 2013 however washington post noted public debate offshoots produced meaningful change policy status quo continuing 2016 axe files podcast former u.s. attorney general eric holder said snowden performed public service raising debate engaged changes made holder nevertheless said snowden actions inappropriate illegal september 2016 bipartisan u.s. house permanent select committee intelligence completed review snowden disclosures said federal government would spend millions dollars responding fallout snowden disclosures report also said public narrative popularized snowden allies rife falsehoods exaggerations crucial omissions report denounced washington post reporter barton gellman called aggressively dishonest contemptuous fact august 2013 president obama said called review u.s. surveillance activities snowden begun revealing details nsa operations announced directing dni james clapper establish review group intelligence communications technologies december task force issued 46 recommendations adopted would subject nsa additional scrutiny courts congress president would strip nsa authority infiltrate american computer systems using backdoors hardware software panel member geoffrey r. stone said evidence bulk collection phone data stopped terror attacks june 6 2013 wake snowden leaks conservative public interest lawyer judicial watch founder larry klayman filed lawsuit claiming federal government unlawfully collected metadata telephone calls harassing klayman v. obama judge richard j. leon referred nsa almost-orwellian technology ruled bulk telephone metadata program probably unconstitutional snowden later described judge leon decision vindication june 11 aclu filed lawsuit james clapper director national intelligence alleging nsa phone records program unconstitutional december 2013 ten days judge leon ruling judge william h. pauley iii came opposite conclusion aclu v. clapper although acknowledging privacy concerns trivial pauley found potential benefits surveillance outweigh considerations ruled nsa collection phone data legal gary schmitt former staff director senate select committee intelligence wrote two decisions generated public confusion constitutionality nsa data collection program—a kind judicial 'he-said she-said standoff may 7 2015 case aclu v. clapper united states court appeals second circuit said section 215 patriot act authorize nsa collect americans calling records bulk exposed snowden 2013 decision voided u.s. district judge william pauley december 2013 finding nsa program lawful remanded case review appeals court rule constitutionality bulk surveillance declined enjoin program noting pending expiration relevant parts patriot act circuit judge gerard e. lynch wrote given national security interests stake prudent give congress opportunity debate decide matter june 2 2015 u.s. senate passed president obama signed usa freedom act restored modified form several provisions patriot act expired day first time imposing limits bulk collection telecommunication data u.s. citizens american intelligence agencies new restrictions widely seen stemming snowden revelations hans-georg maaßen head federal office protection constitution germany domestic security agency said snowden could working russian government snowden rejected insinuation crediting snowden leaks united nations general assembly unanimously adopted resolution 68/167 december 2013 non-binding resolution denounced unwarranted digital surveillance included symbolic declaration right individuals online privacy support snowden came latin american leaders including argentinian president cristina fernández de kirchner brazilian president dilma rousseff ecuadorian president rafael correa bolivian president evo morales venezuelan president nicolás maduro nicaraguan president daniel ortega official report published october 2015 united nations special rapporteur promotion protection right freedom speech professor david kaye criticized u.s. government harsh treatment bringing criminal charges whistleblowers including edward snowden report found snowden revelations important people everywhere made deep lasting impact law policy politics european parliament invited snowden make pre-recorded video appearance aid nsa investigation snowden gave written testimony said seeking asylum eu told european parliamentarians u.s. would allow eu partners make offer told parliament nsa working security agencies eu states get access much data eu citizens possible nsa foreign affairs division claimed lobbies eu countries change laws allowing everyone country spied legally july 2014 navi pillay un high commissioner human rights told news conference geneva u.s. abandon efforts prosecute snowden since leaks public interest surveys conducted news outlets professional polling organizations found american public opinion divided snowden disclosures polled canada europe supportive snowden respondents u.s. although americans grown supportive snowden disclosure global surveillance disclosures snowden honored publications organizations based europe united states voted guardian person year 2013 garnering four times number votes candidate march 2014 snowden spoke south southwest sxsw interactive technology conference austin texas front 3,500 attendees participated teleconference carried multiple routers running google hangouts platform on-stage moderators christopher soghoian snowden legal counsel wizner aclu snowden said nsa setting fire future internet sxsw audience firefighters attendees could use twitter send questions snowden answered one saying information gathered corporations much less dangerous gathered government agency governments power deprive rights representative mike pompeo r-ks house intelligence committee later director cia tried unsuccessfully get sxsw management cancel snowden appearance instead sxsw director hugh forrest said nsa welcome respond snowden 2015 conference later month snowden appeared teleconference ted conference vancouver british columbia represented stage robot video screen video camera microphones speakers snowden conversed ted curator chris anderson told attendees online businesses act quickly encrypt websites described nsa prism program u.s. government using businesses collect data nsa intentionally misleads corporate partners using example bullrun decryption program create backdoor access snowden said would gladly return u.s. given immunity prosecution concerned alerting public abuses government authority anderson invited internet pioneer tim berners-lee stage converse snowden said would support berners-lee concept internet magna carta encode values structure internet september 15 2014 snowden appeared via remote video link along julian assange kim dotcom moment truth town hall meeting held auckland made similar video link appearance february 2 2015 along greenwald keynote speaker world affairs conference upper canada college toronto march 2015 speaking fifdh international human rights film festival made public appeal switzerland grant asylum saying would like return live geneva worked undercover central intelligence agency november 10 2015 snowden appeared newseum via remote video link pen american center secret sources whistleblowers national security free expression event 2015 snowden earned 200,000 digital speaking engagements u.s. march 19 2016 snowden delivered opening keynote address libreplanet conference meeting international free software activists developers presented free software foundation conference held massachusetts institute technology first time snowden spoke via teleconference using full free software stack end-to-end july 21 2016 snowden hardware hacker bunnie huang talk mit media lab forbidden research event published research smartphone case so-called introspection engine would monitor signals received sent phone provide alert user phone transmitting receiving information n't example turned airplane mode feature described snowden useful journalists activists operating hostile governments would otherwise track activities phones july 2013 media critic jay rosen defined snowden effect direct indirect gains public knowledge cascade events reporting followed edward snowden leaks classified information surveillance state u.s. december 2013 nation wrote snowden sparked overdue debate national security individual privacy forbes effect seen nearly united u.s. congress opposition massive post-9/11 domestic intelligence gathering system spring 2014 global attitudes survey pew research center found snowden disclosures tarnished image united states especially europe latin america november 2 2018 snowden provided court declaration jewel v. national security agency snowden impact public figure felt cinema advertising video games literature music statuary social media Target text information: panama_papers.panama papers panama papers 11.5 million leaked documents detail financial attorney–client information 214,488 offshore entities documents dating back 1970s created taken panamanian law firm corporate service provider mossack fonseca leaked 2015 anonymous source documents contain personal financial information wealthy individuals public officials previously kept private offshore business entities legal see offshore magic circle reporters found mossack fonseca shell corporations used illegal purposes including fraud tax evasion evading international sanctions john doe whistleblower leaked documents german journalist bastian obermayer newspaper süddeutsche zeitung sz remains anonymous even journalists worked investigation life danger told may 6 2016 statement john doe cited income inequality reason action said leaked documents simply understood enough contents realize scale injustices described added never worked government intelligence agency expressed willingness help prosecutors granted immunity prosecution sz verified statement fact come source panama papers international consortium investigative journalists icij posted full document website sz asked icij help amount data involved journalists 107 media organizations 80 countries analyzed documents detailing operations law firm year analysis first news stories published april 3 2016 along 150 documents project represents important milestone use data journalism software tools mobile collaboration documents dubbed panama papers country leaked however panamanian government expressed strong objections name concerns would tarnish government country image worldwide entities panama elsewhere led advertising campaign weeks leak titled panama papers media outlets covering story used name mossack fonseca papers addition much-covered business dealings british prime minister david cameron icelandic prime minister sigmundur davíð gunnlaugsson leaked documents also contain identity information shareholders directors 214,000 shell companies set mossack fonseca well financial transactions generally law offshore shell company although offshore shell companies may sometimes used illegal purposes journalists investigative team found business transactions many important figures world politics sports art many transactions legal since data incomplete questions remain many cases still others seem clearly indicate ethical legal impropriety disclosures – tax avoidance poor countries wealthy entities individuals example – lead questions moral grounds according namibian instance shell company registered beny steinmetz octea owes 700,000 us property taxes city koidu sierra leone 150 million red even though exports twice average month 2012–2015 period steinmetz personal worth 6 billion offshore shell company transactions described documents seem broken exchange laws violated trade sanctions stemmed political corruption according icij reporters example named leak 12 current former world leaders 128 public officials politicians hundreds celebrities businessmen wealthy individuals 200 countries individuals entities may open offshore accounts number reasons legal ethically questionable canadian lawyer based dubai noted example businesses might wish avoid falling islamic inheritance jurisprudence owner dies businesses countries may wish hold funds dollars also said brazilian lawyer estate planning another example legal tax avoidance american film-maker stanley kubrick estimated personal worth 20 million died 1999 much invested 18th-century english manor bought 1978 lived manor rest life filming scenes shining full metal jacket eyes wide shut well three holding companies set mossack fonseca property turn held trusts set children grandchildren since kubrick american living britain without trust estate would pay transfer taxes governments possibly forced sell property obtain liquid assets pay kubrick buried grounds along one daughters rest family still lives uses ambiguous chinese companies may incorporate offshore order raise foreign capital normally law china world hereditary dictatorships law may side elite use offshore companies award oil contracts gold concessions children however dealings sometimes prosecuted international law standard official definition exists economist international monetary fund describe offshore financial center tax jurisdiction whose banking infrastructure primarily provides services people businesses live requires little disclosure information business offers low taxes obvious use offshore financial centers avoid taxes economist added oxfam blamed tax havens 2016 annual report income inequality much widening gap rich poor tax havens core global system allows large corporations wealthy individuals avoid paying fair share said raymond c. offenheiser president oxfam america depriving governments rich poor resources need provide vital public services tackle rising inequality international monetary fund imf researchers estimated july 2015 profit shifting multinational companies costs developing countries around us 213 billion year almost two percent national income igor angelini head europol financial intelligence group said shell companies play important role large-scale money laundering activities often means transfer bribe money tax justice network concluded 2012 report designing commercial tax abuse schemes turning blind eye upon suspicious transactions become inherent part work bankers accountants money-laundering affects first world well since favored shell company investment real estate europe north america london miami new york paris vancouver san francisco affected practice parking assets luxury real estate frequently cited fueling skyrocketing housing prices miami miami association realtors said cash sales accounted 90 new home sales 2015 huge amount dirty money flowing miami disguised investment according former congressional investigator jack blum miami 76 condo owners pay cash practice considered red flag money-laundering real estate london housing prices increased 50 2007 2016 also frequently purchased overseas investors donald toon head britain national crime agency said 2015 london property market skewed laundered money prices artificially driven overseas criminals want sequester assets uk three quarters londoners 35 afford buy home andy yan urban planning researcher adjunct professor university british columbia studied real estate sales vancouver—also thought affected foreign purchasers—found 18 transactions vancouver expensive neighborhoods cash purchases 66 owners appeared chinese nationals recent arrivals china calls data foreign investors rejected provincial government chinese nationals accounted 70 2014 vancouver home sales ca 3 million june 24 2016 china citic bank corp filed suit canada chinese citizen borrowed cn¥50 million lumber business china withdrew roughly ca 7.5 million line credit left country bought three houses vancouver surrey british columbia together valued ca 7.3 million three-month period june 2014 issue surely raised g20 summit predicted tomasz kozlowski ambassador european union eu india need strengthen international cooperation exchange tax information tax authorities panama vanuatu lebanon may find list uncooperative tax havens organisation economic co-operation development oecd re-activated july 2016 request g20 nations warned le monde french newspaper participated investigation three countries followed none oecd three broad guidelines international banking cooperation oecd g20 european union could also institute another list countries inadequate one area countries meeting none criteria panama vanuatu lebanon would go blacklist countries meet one criterion would go greylist april 2016 greylist place would included nine countries antigua barbuda bahrain brunei dominica liberia nauru samoa tobago united arab emirates international consortium investigative journalists helped organize research document review süddeutsche zeitung realized scale work required validate authenticity 2.6 terabytes leaked data enlisted reporters resources guardian bbc le monde sonntagszeitung falter la nación german broadcasters ndr wdr austrian broadcaster orf eventually many others ultimately reporters 100 news media outlets working 25 languages used documents investigate individuals organizations associated mossack fonseca security factored number project management considerations saying life danger john doe insisted reporters communicate encrypted channels agree would never meet face-to-face sz also concerns security source leaked documents data also safety partners investigation living corrupt regimes might want money-handling practices made public stored data room limited physical access air gapped computers never connected internet guardian also limited access journalists project work area make even harder sabotage computers steal drives sz journalists made tamper-evident painting screws holding drives place glitter nail polish reporters sorted documents huge file structure containing folder shell company held associated emails contracts transcripts scanned documents mossack fonseca generated business company administering client behalf 4.8 million leaked files emails 3 million database entries 2.2 million pdfs 1.2 million images 320,000 text files 2242 files formats journalists indexed documents using open software packages apache solr apache tika accessed means custom interface built top blacklight süddeutsche zeitung reporters also used nuix proprietary software donated australian company also named nuix using nuix süddeutsche zeitung reporters performed optical character recognition ocr processing millions scanned documents making data contained become searchable machine-readable project reporters used neo4j linkurious extract individual corporate names documents analysis access nuix used well reporters cross-referenced compiled lists people processed documents analyzed information trying connect people roles monetary flow structure legality us banking sec expert david p. weber assisted journalists reviewing information panama papers additional stories released based data full list companies released early may 2016 icij later announced release may 9 2016 searchable database containing information 200,000 offshore entities implicated panama papers investigation 100,000 additional companies implicated 2013 offshore leaks investigation mossack fonseca asked icij publish leaked documents database sent cease desist letter company said statement sheer quantity leaked data greatly exceeds wikileaks cablegate leak 2010 1.7 gb offshore leaks 2013 260 gb 2014 lux leaks 4 gb 3.3 gb swiss leaks 2015 comparison 2.6 tb panama papers equals approximately 2,660 gb mossack fonseca notified clients april 1 2016 sustained email hack mossack fonseca also told news sources company hacked always operated within law data security experts noted however company encrypting emails furthermore seemed running three-year-old version drupal several known vulnerabilities according james sanders techrepublic drupal ran apache 2.2.15 version march 6 2010 worse oracle fork apache default allows users view directory structure network architecture also inherently insecure email web servers segmented client database way reports also suggest parts site may running wordpress out-of-date version revolution slider plugin whose previously-announced vulnerabilities well-documented grey hat hacker named 1×0123 announced april 12 mossack fonseca content management system secured sql injection well-known database attack vector able access customer database computer security expert chris kubecka announced may 24 2016 mossack fonseca client login portal running four different government grade remote access trojans rats kubecka confirmed still numerous critical vulnerabilities many open ports infrastructure internet access archive server due weak security kubecka explained data security issue discovered detail full-length book titled rabbit hole osint journey gerard ryle director international consortium investigative journalists called leak probably biggest blow offshore world ever taken extent documents edward snowden described release twitter message biggest leak history data journalism icij also said leak likely one explosive leaks inside information history nature revelations unique opportunity test effectiveness leaktivism said micah white co-founder occupy ... panama papers dissected via unprecedented collaboration hundreds highly credible international journalists working secretly year global professionalization leaktivism days wikileaks amateurism wikileaks spokesperson kristinn hrafnsson icelandic investigative journalist worked cablegate 2010 said withholding documents time maximise leak impact called full online publication panama papers eventually tweet wikileaks criticized decision icij release everything ethical reasons censor 99 documents engaged 1 journalism definition offshore business entities illegal jurisdictions registered often illegal reporters found mossack fonseca shell corporations seem used illegal purposes including fraud kleptocracy tax evasion evading international sanctions reports april 3 note law firm many connections high-ranking political figures relatives well celebrities business figures among things leaked documents illustrate wealthy individuals including public officials keep personal financial information private initial reports identified five then-heads state government leaders argentina iceland saudi arabia ukraine united arab emirates well government officials close relatives close associates various heads government forty countries names then-current national leaders documents include president khalifa bin zayed al nahyan united arab emirates petro poroshenko ukraine king salman saudi arabia prime minister iceland sigmundur davíð gunnlaugsson former heads state mentioned papers include former prime ministers leaked files identified 61 family members associates prime ministers presidents kings including clients included less-senior government officials close relatives associates forty countries £10 million cash sale gold stolen 1983 brink's-mat robbery laundered first unwittingly later complicity mossack fonseca panamanian company feberion inc company set behalf unnamed client twelve months robbery brinks money put feberion front companies banks switzerland liechtenstein jersey isle man issued bearer shares two nominee directors sark appointed feberion jersey-based offshore specialist centre services offshore firms recycled funds land property transactions united kingdom although metropolitan police service raided offices centre services late 1986 cooperation jersey authorities seized papers two feberion bearer shares n't 1995 brink's-mat solicitors finally able take control feberion assets actor jackie chan mentioned leaked documents shareholder six companies based british virgin islands law firms play central role offshore financial operations mossack fonseca one biggest field biggest financial institutions refer customers services clients include incorporating operating shell companies friendly jurisdictions behalf include creating complex shell company structures legal also allow firm clients operate behind often impenetrable wall secrecy leaked papers detail intricate multilevel multinational corporate structures mossack fonseca acted global consultancy partners like emirates asset management ltd ryan mohanlal ltd sun hedge invest blue capital ltd behalf 300,000 companies registered british overseas territories leaked documents also indicate firm would also backdate documents request based 2007 exchange emails leaked documents routinely enough establish price structure 8.75 per month past 2008 mossack fonseca hired 90-year-old british man pretend owner offshore company marianna olszewski us businesswoman blatant breach anti-money laundering rules according bbc anonymity offshore shell companies also used circumvent international sanctions 30 mossack fonseca clients one time another blacklisted us treasury department including businesses linked senior figures russia syria north korea three mossack fonseca companies started clients helene mathieu legal consultants later sanctioned us treasury office foreign assets control ofac pangates international corporation accused july 2014 supplying government syria large amount specialty petroleum products limited civilian application syria two maxima middle east trading morgan additives manufacturing co owners wael abdulkarim ahmad barqawi said engaged deceptive measures supply oil products syria mossack fonseca also ran six businesses rami makhlouf cousin syrian president bashar al-assad despite us sanctions internal mossack fonseca documents show 2011 mossack fonseca rejected recommendation compliance team sever ties mr. makhlouf agreed months later firm said never knowingly allowed anyone connected rogue regimes use companies frederik obermaier co-author panama papers story investigative reporter german newspaper süddeutsche zeitung told democracy mossack fonseca realised makhlouf cousin realised sanctioned realised allegedly one financiers syrian regime said 'oh bank still business still keep well hsbc also appeared reassure mossack fonseca comfortable makhlouf client suggested could rapprochement assad family us makhlouf already known long-standing client hsbc swiss private bank holding least 15 million multiple accounts 2006 panamanian files also show hsbc provided financial services makhlouf company called drex technologies hsbc said company good standing dcb finance virgin islands-based shell company founded north korean banker kim chol-sam british banker nigel cowie also ignored international sanctions continued business north korea help panamanian firm us treasury department 2013 called dcb finance front company daedong credit bank announced sanctions companies providing banking services north korean arms dealer korea mining development trading corporation attempting evade sanctions country helping sell arms expand north korea nuclear weapons programme cowie said holding company used legitimate business aware illicit transactions mossack fonseca required international banking standards avoid money-laundering fraudster clients like banks supposed particularly alert signs corruption politically exposed persons pep words clients either close ties government officials however somehow failed turn red flags concerning tareq abbas even though shares family name president palestine sat board directors company four fellow directors firm deem pep ties palestinian politics yet mossack fonseca actually documented due diligence research including google search mossack fonseca managed 300,000 companies years number active companies peaked 80,000 2009 210,000 companies twenty-one jurisdictions figure leaks half incorporated british virgin islands others panama bahamas seychelles niue samoa mossack fonseca clients come 100 countries corporate clients hong kong switzerland united kingdom luxembourg panama cyprus mossack fonseca worked 14,000 banks law firms incorporators others set companies foundations trusts clients 3,100 companies listed database appear ties us offshore specialists 3,500 shareholders offshore companies list us addresses mossack fonseca offices nevada wyoming leaked documents indicate us 2 trillion passed firm hands several holding companies appear documents business sanctioned entities arms merchants relatives dictators sanctions place firm provided services seychelles company named pangates international us government believes supplied aviation fuel syrian government current civil war continued handle paperwork certify company good standing despite sanctions august 2015 500 banks registered nearly 15,600 shell companies mossack fonseca hsbc affiliates accounting 2,300 total dexia j. safra sarasin luxembourg credit suisse channel islands swiss ubs requested least 500 offshore companies clients hsbc spokesman said allegations historical cases dating back 20 years predating significant well-publicized reforms implemented last years response queries miami herald icij mossack fonseca issued 2,900-word statement listing legal requirements prevent using offshore companies tax avoidance total anonymity fatf protocols require identifying ultimate beneficial owners companies including offshore companies opening account transacting business miami herald printed statement editor note said statement address specific due diligence failings uncovered reporters monday april 4 mossack fonseca released another statement facts may victim data breach nothing 've seen illegally obtained cache documents suggests 've done anything illegal much keeping global reputation 've built past 40 years business right way co-founder ramón fonseca mora told cnn reports false full inaccuracies parties many circumstances cited icij never clients mossack fonseca firm provided longer statements icij official statement april 6 mossack fonseca suggested responsibility legal violations might lie institutions approximately 90 clientele professional clients ... act intermediaries regulated jurisdiction business clients obliged perform due diligence clients accordance kyc aml regulations subject interview bloomberg jürgen mossack said cat bag deal aftermath said leak inside job —the company hacked servers based abroad filed complaint panamanian attorney general office april 7 2016 mossack resigned panama council foreign relations conarex even though officially serving time brother peter mossack still serves honorary consul panama since 2010 may 5 2016 mossack fonseca sent cease desist letter icij attempt stop icij releasing leaked documents panama papers scandal despite icij released leaked documents may 9 2016 march 2018 mossack fonseca announced would close 5:00 april 3 news first broke ramón fonseca mora told television channel tvn responsible accused tribunal said firm victim hack responsibility clients offshore companies purchased mossack fonseca legal panamanian law later day independent movement movin called calm expressed hope panamanian justice system would allow culprits go impunity april 8 government understood media reports addressing tax evasion attacking panama president met wednesday april 7 candif committee representatives different sectors economy includes chamber commerce chamber industry agriculture national lawyers association international lawyers association banking association stock exchange entered full crisis management mode.on day announced creation new judiciary tribunal high-level commission led nobel prize laureate joseph stiglitz accussations foreign forces attacking panama panama stable robust economy isabel saint malo de alvarado vice president panama said op-ed piece published april 21 guardian president juan carlos varela administration strengthened panama controls money-laundering twenty months power panama setting independent commission co-chaired nobel laureate joseph stiglitz evaluate financial system determine best practices recommend measures strengthen global financial legal transparency expect findings within next six months share results international community however early august 2016 stiglitz resigned committee learned panamanian government would commit making final report public said always assumed final report would transparent april 8 president varela denounced france proposal return panama list countries cooperate information exchange minister presidency alvaro alemán categorically denied panama tax said country would scapegoat alemán said talks french ambassador panama begun april 25 meeting panamanian french finance ministers resulted agreement panama provide information france french nationals taxable assets country ministry economy finance panama dulcidio de la guardia formerly offshore specialist mossack fonseca competitor morgan morgan said legal often murky niche establishing offshore accounts firms trusts make less half percentage point panama gdp appeared suggest publication papers attack panama high level economic growth country shown eduardo morgan panamanian firm morgan morgan accused oecd starting scandal avoid competition panama interests countries panama papers affect image panama unfair manner come light result investigation hack said adolfo linares president chamber commerce industries agriculture panama cciap colegio nacional de abogados de panama cna urged government sue political analyst mario rognoni said world perceives panama tax government president juan carlos varela might become implicated tries cover involved rognoni said economist rolando gordon said affair hurts panama emerged greylist fatf added country especially panama must conduct investigations determine whether illegal improper acts committed panama lawyers movement called panama papers leak cyber bullying press conference condemned attack 'panama brand fraguela alfonso president said called direct attack country financial system invite organized forces country create great crusade rescue country image offshore companies legal said panamanian lawyer former controller republic alvin weeden illegality arises used money laundering arms smuggling terrorism tax evasion october 19 2016 became known government executive spent 370 million u.s. dollars order clean country image october 22 2016 midst state visit germany varela told journalist jenny pérez deutsche welle progress transparency many agreements exchange tax information tax evasion global problem asked ties ramón fonseca mora managing partner firm mossack fonseca acknowledged friend procuraduría de la nación announced would investigate mossack fonseca panama papers april 12 newly formed second specialized prosecutor organized crime raided mossack fonseca searched bella vista office part investigation initiated panama papers attorney general office issued press release following raid lasted 27 hours stating purpose obtain documents relevant information published news articles establishes possible use law firm illegal activities search ended without measures law firm confirmed prosecutor javier caraballo second prosecutor organized crime april 22 unit raided another panama location secured large amount evidence municipality regulation supervision financial subjects ministry economy finance mef initiated special review law firm mossack fonseca determine whether followed tax law carlamara sanchez charge proceeding said press conference quartermaster come verify whether firm complied since april 8 due diligence customer knowledge final beneficiary reporting suspicious transactions financial analysis unit uaf operations said law 23 2015 empowers regulation supervision said firms monitored since late last year special attention panama papers noted law carries fines 5,000 1 million even suspension firm icij investigation mossack fonseca reported public ministry samid dan sandoval former candidate mayor santiago de veraguas 2014 filed legal action journalists participated said project name damaged integrity dignity sovereignty country consortium would assume legal responsibility damage caused panamanian nation change.org petition requested icij stop using name panama panama papers request said generally- accepted name investigation damage image panama attorney general panama kenia isolda porcell diaz announced january 24 2017 suspending investigations mossack fonseca filed appeal protection constitutional rights first superior court justice panama requested deliver original documents issue judgment mossack fonseca detained february 8 2017 money-laundering charges march 2018 mossack fonseca announced would cease operations end march due irreversible damage image direct result panama papers many senior eu figures implicated panama papers scandal european commissioner taxation pierre moscovici said european union whole duty prevent kind tax avoidance uncovered panama papers scandal moscovici told reporters use offshore companies hide called shocking amounts financial assets tax authorities unethical estimated tax shelters resulted annual loss €1 trillion public finances adding european commission attempted tighten tax rules across union since november 2014 due luxembourg leaks scandal also revealed icij hoped extent panama papers revelations would spur countries action 2013 letter unearthed financial times president european council herman van rompuy prime minister united kingdom david cameron said offshore trusts automatically subject transparency requirements shell companies panama papers revealed minister finance andorra jordi cinca ceo orfund sa maintained offshore company called mariette holdings inc dissolution 2002 fear discovery participation businesses business activities orfund ties blood diamond trade refining sale african gold company closed shortly civil war ivory coast opposition demanded resignation result response cinca said connection would affect government andorra step still panama papers show major-general justice head armenia compulsory enforcement service mihran poghosyan connected three panama-registered companies sigtem real estates inc. hopkinten trading inc. bangio invest s.a. issued bearer shares poghosyan degree economics sole owner sigtem hopkinten together owned best realty ltd recently awarded government contracts poghosian resigned april 18 saying unacceptable caused armenia name mentioned alongside azerbaijan whose president ilham aliyev actually embezzled billions dollars april 8 armenian transparency international anti-corruption center filed petition ethics committee high level officials requesting investigation poghosyan members families poghosyan uncles grigor mikhail haroutyunyan also mentioned connection business varuzhan hotkanian head armenian branch anti-corruption watchdog transparency international said perhaps poghosian forced resign country leadership since evidence pointed directly said still questions government commitment fighting corruption leading opposition figure levon zourabian demanded answers matter floor parliament austria financial market authority announced audit two austrian banks mentioned panama papers – raiffeisenbank international rbi specifically examining whether banks complied obligation prevent money laundering hypo vorarlberg subsequently announced complied laws past planning retreat completely offshore sector 2018 investigative media bivol.bg accessed panama papers agreement international consortium investigative journalists later published story offshore company viafot attempting acquire key asset bulgaria defense industry arms producer dunarit panama papers show viafot owned alexander angelov lawyer media mogul delyan peevski bulgarian media reported state institutions help viafot acquire dunarit illegitimate means however inquiry opened bulgaria general prosecutor sotir tsatsarov initially 2016 access panama papers granted journalist alekseniya dimitrova however spokesperson ministry foreign affairs bulgaria raised concern dimitrova worked communist secret services work papers may biased central bank cyprus officially declared regard press reports citing leaked documents known panama papers central bank cyprus announces assessing information extent may concern cypriot banking system taking necessary appropriate action cypriot online paper said cyprus link stems fact fonseca runs office cyprus specifically limassol chart leaks name cyprus tax countries offer little tax although corporate tax rate 12.5 ireland september 2016 danish tax authorities purchased panama papers data 320 companies 500-600 individuals investigate although data came anonymous source vetted credible sample data french financial prosecutors opened probe former president françois hollande declared tax evaders would brought trial punished also result leak france restored panama list tax havens panama recently removed former french budget minister jérôme cahuzac spearheaded crackdown tax fraud office client mossack fonseca owned seychelles company named cerman group limited incorporated 2009 france investigated 2013 allegations mediapart 2000 cahuzac held undeclared assets account first switzerland singapore resigned cabinet post protesting innocence admitted months later indeed hidden €600,000 ubs account moved keep hidden continuing lead france clampdown tax evasion french socialist party unanimously voted expel week later heels april 2013 cahuzac affair president hollande created parquet national financier pnf judiciary investigation unit specializing large-scale fraud corruption investigations jean-marie le pen founder long-time leader far-right-wing front national fn member european parliament already subject along daughter marine le pen staff pnf tax fraud investigation drawing official scrutiny undeclared hsbc account containing €2.2m gold coins managed geneva aide trust based british virgin islands closed moved bahamas 2014 allegations overbilling misuse comingling campaign funds tax evasion jean-marie le pen also suspected using european parliament funds campaign administrative expenses french political party jean-marie le pen mentioned documents along daughter marine le pen current party leader frederic chatillon fn insider also close friend marine among three may hidden much million pounds offshore accounts bidzina ivanishvili became wealthy russia returning georgia becoming prime minister 2012 public official asset declaration 72 pages long however list lynden management mossack fonseca company held 20 shares raptor pharmaceuticals declare us-based company listed new york stock exchange refused nearly four years provide copy passport proof address law firm needed comply money-laundering regulations well inquiries company financial investigation agency british virgin islands forbes calculates ivanishvili net worth 4.8 billion panama papers confirmed politician stavros papastavrou advisor former prime ministers kostas karamanlis antonis samaras member council panamanian foundations green shamrock foundation diman foundation 2005 2014 2006 became deputy chairman aisios foundation still exists today however papstavrou resigned aisios foundation 2012 number greek families significant art collections implicated scandal prime minister sigmundur davíð gunnlaugsson elected 2008 banking collapse iceland pledged clean corruption banking system sigmundur davíð took seat disclose 50 interest wintris company owned bonds one bankrupt banks divest day new law took effect january 1 2010 would required declare conflict interest sold share wife owns half couple come wealthy families bought wintris working journalist anthropologist failure disclose asset apparently broke laws country remembers 2008 financial crisis well thought put past since sigmundur davíð negotiated behalf iceland creditors failed icelandic banks discovery sigmundur davíð wife bondholder caused much outrage 22,000–24,000 people attended anti-government protest outside parliament april 4 2016 almost 8 population sigmundur davíð suggested snap election members coalition government want elections resignation april 5 2016 prime minister iceland sigmundur davíð gunnlaugsson announced resignation reykjavik grapevine news site kjarninn revealed president ólafur ragnar grímsson connections lasca finance limited registered 2005 british virgin islands ólafur ragnar categorically denied personal family ties companies tax havens parents wife dorrit moussaieff operated company 1999–2005 financial statements moussaieff family business show received nearly £7 million 10.2 million us €9.1 million interest payments lasca 2000–2005 2005 moussaieff jewelers limited sold 10 stake lasca s. dorrit moussaieff deceased father mother 86 years old registered owner lasca ownership stake dorrit sisters tamara sharon inherit fortune considered among largest world bjarni benediktsson iceland finance minister chairman gunnlaugsson coalition partner comes one iceland wealthiest families confirmed owned 33 falson co. seychelles shell company founded 2005 purchase real estate dubai still active 2009 benediktsson already member parliament financial disclosure requirements said registered company tax authorities aware registered seychelles minister interior ólöf nordal husband powers attorney dooley securities s.a. offshore company located panama said company founded husband never used think disclose hrólfur ölvisson managing director gunnlaugsson progressive party says mossack fonseca companies list name inactive long time legal businesswoman ingibjörg pálmadóttir husband jón ásgeir jóhannesson several years financed business dealings panamanian company guru invest owns shares retailer sports direct rhapsody investments europe based luxembourg guru invest paid around us 16 million glitnir bank crashed cover debt gaumur one jón ásgeir companies loaned isk 100 million jón ásgeir company þú blásól offshore company owns named jovita asked journalists kjarninn money came ingibjörg reply ingibjörg primary owner 365 media group owns icelandic news outlets vísir.is television channel stöð 2 radio stations bylgjan fm 957 none seem reporting disclosure irish times newspaper handled irish component leak prominent irish names listed included golfer pádraig harrington property developer sean mulryan manager irish rock group u2 paul mcguinness lists also included stanley watson senior partner ireland largest tax-law firm matheson led creation many irish corporate tax management tools used us multinationals ireland avoid billions us taxes list also included irish fine gael political advisor frank flannery april 6 2016 italy procura turin ordered guardia di finanza investigate 800 italians contained panama papers documents former long-time prime minister silvio berlusconi already convicted tax evasion expelled parliament included papers notable people whose names mentioned papers include entrepreneurs luca cordero di montezemolo flavio briatore adriano galliani actor carlo verdone investigation icij partner namibian found imprisoned mafioso vito roberto palazzolo shielded finances italian namibian south african authorities shell companies british virgin islands set german banker hong kong wolf-peter berthold also used transfer control palazzolo assets son panama papers linked minister government prime minister joseph muscat konrad mizzi prime minister chief staff keith schembri shell companies panama furthermore mizzi wife sai mizzi liang malta trade envoy china consul general malta shanghai china also named beneficiary together children trust based new zealand holding mizzi panama shell company mizzi april 28 2016 minister health energy currently minister tourism listed panama papers owner panama shell company called hearnville inc indications maltese press mizzi links offshore trust prevent mizzi elected deputy leader party affairs ruling labour party february 25 2016 following change party statutes enable sitting mp appointed mizzi stepped deputy leader labour party april 28 2016 schembri businessman managed electoral campaign labour party 2013 maltese general elections serves chief staff muscat reported hold offshore company based british virgin islands owns anonymous shell company panama called tillgate inc held trust established new zealand konrad mizzi keith schembri acquired shell companies panama hearnville inc tillgate inc respectively via mossack fonseca representatives malta also tried open bank accounts linked two shell companies two politically exposed persons various jurisdictions owner third anonymous shell company panama egrant inc whose existence revealed document referring two companies remains unknown although strict secrecy observed acquisition including avoidance e-mail communications utilization communications via skype fuelled strong suspicions third top maltese politically exposed person involved 2015 declaration assets dated february 8 submitted maltese parliament end march 2016 muscat said 'd shown draft form panama papers leaked mizzi listed trust new zealand shell company panama april 28 2016 report matter commissioned government malta unnamed international audit firm still pending april 28 2016 muscat announced cabinet reshuffle mizzi lost ministerial portfolio health energy retained minister without portfolio office prime minister malta member european union minister implicated scandal date withstanding mizzi schembri involvement scandal still hold high positions maltese government mark a. sammut wrote book case called l-aqwa fl-ewropa il-panama papers u l-poter best europe panama papers power october 2017 daphne caruana galizia blogger led panama papers investigation corruption malta killed car bomb near home norwegian tax administration expects demand access information dnb norway largest financial services group approximately 30 companies formed dnb owned norwegians 20 living norway 200 norwegians client list mossack fonseca icij offshore leaks database shows portugal 246 offshore entities 300 officers 40 intermediaries 175 addresses linked activities described mossack-fonseca papers newspapers reporting involvement several politicians government officials bankers company managers may 2017 criminal judicial consequences involved süddeutsche zeitung one newspapers participating project made papers public described connections various individuals listed russian president vladimir putin quoted nobel-winning economist paul krugman us state department documents saying russia kleptocracy mafia state respectively süddeutsche zeitung reported 2 billion moved network companies associated russian firms individuals years companies appeared used questionable business transactions putin criticized offshore companies unpatriotic several occasions since 2011 2013 law passed banning foreign bank accounts government officials putin name appear records released date associates construction billionaires arkady boris rotenberg musician sergei roldugin business magnate alisher usmanov mentioned leaked documents putin long-standing friend billionaire gennady timchenko well press secretary spouse cousin former kgb colleagues well several oligarchs connected mossack fonseca shell companies sergei roldugin cellist st petersburg orchestra godfather putin eldest daughter described putin best friend appears prominently panama papers according leaked papers roldugin acquired assets worth least 100 million including 12.5 stake video international russia largest television advertising firm companies stock options russia biggest companies rights loans worth hundreds millions dollars 2008 company controlled roldugin joined several offshore companies help another putin insider acquire control kamaz russia largest truck manufacturer obtain investment german carmaker daimler ag 250 million 10 kamaz sandalwood another company roldugin insiders interest issued lines credit 2009 2012 worth 800,000 russian commercial bank rcb cyprus wholly owned subsidiary vtb bank largely owned russian state panama papers documents indicate roldugin companies received several loans collateral low interest rates never repaid 2013 several shell companies linked brothers boris arkady rotenberg loaned worth us 200 million company roldugin network leaked documents show whether repaid shortly loan granted arkady rotenberg company awarded tender south stream pipeline project worth billions asked companies rodulgin said take look find say ca n't financial matters delicate putin spokesperson dmitry peskov called western reporting panama papers putinophobia said target putin part conspiracy russia orchestrated central intelligence agency united states department state others putin denied element corruption said opponents trying destabilize russia putin also said wikileaks showed us official people official organs us behind 2016 annual direct line vladimir putin called leaked documents reliable confined comments roldugin saying western media understand musician spent off-shore income musical instruments russia putin also said goldman sachs owned shares parent company süddeutsche zeitung fact owned munich family german media group kremlin apologized mistake initially mainstream russian media almost entirely ignored leak neither state-owned channel 1 rossiya 1 privately owned ren-tv ntv mentioned story april 4 day story broke minimal coverage story ran middle night vesti tv relation lionel messi michel platini exception russian opposition newspaper novaya gazeta described icij russian partner reported story hard copy online end april occrp published analysis batch leaked documents demonstrating cash flow rodulgin accounts 2007 tax theft 230m moscow tax inspectors uncovered reported sergei magnitsky april 15 2016 josé manuel soria forced leave post acting minister industry energy tourism panama papers revealed family maintained several offshore societies tax havens previous decades soria initially denied reports kept leaking contradicted april 14 company came light owned jersey 2002 mayor las palmas soria put critical political position result confusing changing explanations issue resigned next day prominent spanish politician offshore companies former imf president rodrigo rato vice-president conservative government prime minister josé maría aznar €3.6 million two offshore companies charged spain alleged tax offenses money laundering corruption among individuals cases corruption micaela domecq-solís wife miguel arias cañete currently european commissioner climate action energy formerly eu minister agriculture food environment also opened shell societies spanish royal family also involved tax scandal princess pilar borbón duchess badajoz sister former king juan carlos aunt current king felipe vi offshore corporation 40 years abdication brother assembled company called delantera financiera 1974 president administrator initially denied name appeared panama papers husband died 1991 secretary-general corporation son bruno gomez-acebes treasurer manager company name count ripalda brother jaime de marichalar former husband king daughter elena de borbón also appears moreover huge corruption scandal involving royal house iñaki urdangarin business associate nóos foundation advised mossack fonseca move funds two great-grandchildren dictator francisco franco francisco juan josé franco suelves set registered societies british virgin islands mossack fonseca juan josé franco opened malini investments 1997 director 2012 closed 2013 told newspaper el confidencial absolutely ignorant francisco franco suelves older brother also opened vamfield alliance limited 1997 director son jordi pujol former president generalitat catalonia considered linchpin catalan independence granted diversion commission 6.8 million euros sale office opaque society repaid another offshore company 5 million pujol family parents children charged several counts tax fraud corruption among crimes current wife former prime minister spain felipe gonzález maría garcía vaquero opened account switzerland carmingo ltd 2004 tax niue island south pacific lawyer cándido conde-pumpido jr. son former general prosecutor spain magistrate supreme court spain cándido conde-pumpido asked open mossack fonseca offshore company 2008 though transaction n't completed intended offshore company intermediary project build skyscraper capital panama hide money francisco paesa important spy cni working ministry interior opened offshore account faking death 1998 top bankers spanish businessmen used firm open accounts companies miguel blesa president caja madrid tried spanish courts numerous cases corruption jesus barderas businessman close ex-prime minister felipe gonzález children lawyer javier de la rosa also linked corruption cases carlos ortega ceo pepe jeans families major hotel chains riu riu hotels resorts escarrer meliá hotels international martinón group martinón art collectors marina ruiz-picasso borja thyssen mossack fonseca companies thyssen lawyer said company fully declared tax authorities ruiz-picasso declined comment celebrities involved include spanish director pedro almodóvar oscar 2003 habla con ella brother agustin created company 1991 called glen valley british virgin islands agustin responded saying closed company 1994 paid taxes showbiz personality carmen lomana said death husband owner offshore company took care without knowing anything business tax bertín osborne host spanish singer famous actor imanol arias protagonist one longest important series spanish television cuéntame cómo pasó named osborne said account legal used recommended save money also involved scandal fraud treasury actress fellow protagonist series ana duato juan luis cebrián journalist co-founder el país ceo prisa spanish media conglomerate owns 2 star petroleum related oil corporation tax havens named decided take legal action la sexta revealed involvement scandal former president fc barcelona josep lluís núñez current vicepresident carles vilarrubí eduardo fernando de blas vicepresident real madrid offshore companies mossack fonseca swedish financial supervisory authority fi said april 4 2016 would investigate actions nordea one largest financial institutions nordic countries panama papers revealed bank luxembourg office helped set nearly 400 offshore companies clients 2004 2014 panama british virgin islands customers swedish financial supervisory authority fi said serious deficiencies exist nordea monitors money laundering given bank two warnings 2015 nordea pay largest possible fine—over five million eur 2012 nordea asked mossack fonseca change documents retroactively three danish customers power attorney documents would appear force since 2010 director nordea private banking thorben sanders admitted 2009 nordea screen tax evaders end 2009 decided bank shall means tax evasion said sanders swedish banks also present documents nordea occurs 10,902 times next frequently mentioned bank occurs 764 times swedish financial supervisory authority fi later said would also investigate three big banks sweden handelsbanken skandinaviska enskilda banken seb swedbank nordea cut ties mossack fonseca following interview nordea ceo casper von koskull svt april 4 response leaks prime minister stefan löfven said critical nordea conduct role minister finance magdalena andersson characterized bank conduct totally unacceptable april 6 federal police searched uefa headquarters nyon part criminal mismanagement probe champions league television rights deal signed fifa new president gianni infantino day geneva attorney general opened several procedures reaction report misconduct swiss lawyers trustees april 8 hours publication new series articles focusing art hidden behind offshore companies prosecutor sequestered modigliani worth 25 million geneva freeport litigation new york alleged painting stolen nazis world war ii defendants said leaked documents show control international art center shell company registered panama yves bouvier russian billionaire dmitry rybolovlev litigation art pricing mossack fonseca companies leaked papers also shed light ownership shell companies protracted litigation lausanne ownership artwork gstaad chalet late greek shipping tycoon basil goulandris april 11 another investigation abuse name charities like red cross wwf launched swiss-based diacore mossack fonseca client approximately thirty companies diacore run daniel steinmetz recently brother beny steinmetz power attorney company diacore part steinmetz group ukrainian president petro poroshenko took office 2014 popular uprising toppled predecessor viktor yanukovych poroshenko pledged sell candy business roshen elected leaked documents indicate august 21 2014 instead mossack fonseca set offshore holding company prime asset partners ltd british virgin islands moved company roughly two months election move potential save millions dollars ukrainian taxes records cyprus show firm shareholder legal experts say explanation may sound however n't making difference ukrainian media making point poroshenko opened offshore account august 2014 ukrainian soldiers massacred russians ilovaisk panama papers report may also figured defeat trade deal netherlands referendum april 6 anti-corruption group transparency international believes creation businesses serving president direct violation constitution also journalists organized crime corruption reporting project believe move poroshenko committed two illegalities starting new business office failing afterwards report disclosure statements poroshenko denied wrongdoing spokesman said offshore company active assets legitimate corporate restructure aimed helping sell poroshenko roshen group analysts ukraine responded secretive way poroshenko set accounts certain undermine trust party ukraine news poroshenko offshore business came government campaigned offshore companies oleh lyashko leader radical party urged lawmakers begin impeachment proceedings even allies backed calls parliamentary commission investigate allegations ukrainian parliament relations poroshenko bloc people front party prime minister arseniy yatsenyuk previous months already soured mutual accusations corruption prime minister arseniy yatsenyuk also announced would resign panama papers leaks according guardian £170bn uk property held overseas ... nearly one 10 31,000 tax companies british property linked mossack fonseca included among panama paper documents names six members house lords several donors cameron conservative party well conservative donors include united kingdom still exercises varying degrees control british overseas territories crown dependencies make large number many tax havens secrecy jurisdictions exist pressure mounted prime minister david cameron make changes according wall street journal panama papers shining light constellation offshore centers last remnants british empire gibraltar british virgin islands bvi companies created mossack fonseca included leaked data bvi companies topped list 113,000 nearly 215,000 companies mossack fonseca managed incorporated british overseas territory anguilla 7th list cameron criticized complex offshore structures 2013 saying fair right companies saying 've got lots sales uk 'm going pay sort royalty fee another company another country special tax dispensation said would bring issue g8 summit year summit cameron demanded transparency arguing would better business 2014 cameron asked overseas territories crown dependencies set open register firms individuals investments registered jurisdictions time panama papers leak april 2016 montserrat gibraltar agreed leader opposition jeremy corbyn said government needs stop pussyfooting around tax dodging called direct rule imposed british overseas territories crown dependencies act tax havens former business secretary vince cable agreed although former attorney general dominic grieve described proposal bit nuclear option would destroy livelihoods bvi inhabitants finance industry labour party also said cameron planned anti-corruption summit may would charade cameron chairman summit require representatives crown dependencies overseas territories attend jennie granger spokeswoman hmrc said department received great deal information offshore companies including panama wide range sources currently subject intensive investigation said hmrc asked icij share data private eye revealed edward troup appointed executive chair hmrc april 2016 former partner simmons simmons london-based legal firm whose clients included panama-registered fund created david cameron father blairmore holdings papers obtained süddeutsche zeitung icij reveal simmons simmons close relationship running offshore companies major overseas property owners including investment company run behalf sheikh hamad bin abdullah al thani troup senior tax partner ian cameron late father uk prime minister david cameron ran offshore fund blairmore holdings inc. mossack fonseca avoided uk taxes 30 years company moved ireland david cameron became prime minister april 6 cameron admitted owned shares blairmore said sold shares becoming pm prominent politicians criticized involvement cameron family scandal leader opposition jeremy corbyn urged immediate independent investigation tax affairs cameron family well tighter laws uk tax avoidance opponents also called cameron resignation admitted owning shares blairmore azerbaijan international mineral resources operating company ltd aimroc consortium partners spent nearly us 230 million open mine build refinery western azerbaijani village chovdar aimroc possibly produced us 30 million gold suddenly disappearing without making payroll may 2014 mine employees officially remain vacation azerbaijani law full-time employees seek work elsewhere even though paid two years 2012 investigation radio free europe organized crime corruption reporting project occrp discovered overseas holding companies daughters azerbaijani president ilham aliyev owned interest gold mine operation created 2006 presidential decree forming consortium awarding 30-year lease environmental transparency objections parliament panama papers made possible trace elaborate network shell companies manage ownership mines 2016 occrp able establish fact daughters control mining operation aliyev awarded gold mines globex international llp londex resources s.a. willy meyris s.a. fargate mining corporation thirty percent proceeds allocated government azerbaijan 11 remaining 70 went globex 45 londex 29 willy meyris remaining 15 fargate companies registered panama according documents obtained panama registry companies one fargate mining corporation founded tagiva management ltd. tagiva services ltd. verda management ltd issued general power attorney granted favour azerbaijan-born individual mr. nasib hasanov later londex resources s.a. globex international llp fargate mining corporation willy meyris s.a. registered st. kitts nevis addresses already used registering offshore energy holding – nobel oil ltd. partner state oil company socar azerbaijan umid gas field founder nobel oil group also mr. n. hasanov 2012 investigation reporters established globex owned shell companies panama shell companies belonged president daughters swiss businessman whose name appears shell companies manage azerphone family telecommunications monopoly villagers told reporters hoped work mine paid 12 day asked intervene president problems mine causing water supply became angry believe reporters said president family stake mine following may publication report national assembly passed law making illegal report company ownership another giving former presidents first ladies lifelong legal immunity khadija ismayilova radio free europe reporter 2012 investigation subjected escalating legal public harassment threatened eventually arrested currently serving 7.5 year sentence tax evasion abuse power leaked mossack fonseca documents made possible establish daughters also owned londex majority partner gold enterprise entirely clear shut operation industry experts familiar consortium say seem experienced may rushed production according icij aliyev daughter arzu financial stakes gold rights also azerfon country largest mobile phone business shares sw holding controls nearly every operation related azerbaijan airlines azal meals airport taxis sisters brother heydar property dubai valued roughly 75 million 2010 heydar legal owner nine luxury mansions dubai purchased 44 million leaked documents show daughters leyla arzu aliyeva hold shares exaltation limited incorporated april 2015 holding uk property child child london law firm registered obtained nominee directors though jersey branch mossack claimed women political connections family azerbaijan president ilham aliyev leads well-off life thanks part financial interests various sectors nation economy wife ascendants privileged powerful family owns banks insurance construction companies television station line cosmetics well known pre-eminent charity work led construction schools hospitals country major sports complex april 7 2016 anti corruption commission bangladesh launched inquiry obtain details businesses individuals allegedly affiliated mossack fonseca allegations made thirty-two bangladeshi individuals two corporations however media outlets staking claim referenced old icij database information compiled investigation 2013 offshore leaks relatives highly placed chinese officials including seven current former senior leaders politburo communist party china named including former premier li peng daughter li xiaolin former communist party general secretary hu yaobang son hu dehua deng jiagui brother-in-law current general secretary xi jinping deng two shell companies british virgin islands xi member politburo standing committee dormant time xi became general secretary communist party paramount leader november 2012 others named include son daughter-in-law propaganda chief liu yunshan son-in-law vice-premier zhang gaoli official chinese statistics show investment british overseas territories acting tax havens much significant places 44 billion invested cayman islands 49 billion british virgin islands despite figures probably exclud ing private investments many family members ruling elite channelled money bvi figures exceed chinese investment united states united kingdom china government suppressing mention panama papers social media search engines results reportedly told news organizations delete content related panama papers leak chinese authorities consider material concerted foreign media attack china ordered internet information offices delete reports reprinted panama papers exceptions follow related content hong lei spokesman china foreign ministry responded comment groundless accusations april 5 news conference screenshot showed authorities forced websites delete content panama papers foreign websites wikileaks china digital times blocked mainland china sina weibo twitter-like social media website censors deleted content panama paper however name xi brother-in-law got weibo users tried circumvent less obvious language brother-in-law canal papers panama canal despite censorship weibo search ranking topped phrases seemingly related panama papers tax evasion document leak putin chinese entertainment magnate art collector wang zhongjun also appears documents respond request comment according tax justice network chinese investors sometimes use overseas companies take advantage incentives china offers foreign investors canadian broadcaster radio canada reported hong kong-based citic pacific mossack fonseca set manage 90 subsidiaries chinese government majority stakeholder according fiscal expert marwah rizqy professor tax law université de sherbrooke mossack fonseca hong kong office busiest says icij chinese officials wealthy figures would carry funds across border deposit channeled offshore entities hong kong invested hk 4.6 trillion £360 billion bvi – hong kong invested mainland china – received hk 4.1 trillion £300 billion bvi £20 billion placed cayman islands bermuda individually newspaper ming pao fired deputy editor keung kwok-yuen following front-page article panama papers mentioned many prominent hong kong citizens paper blamed difficult business environment previously fired another editor 2014 another leak offshore documents employees publishing blank columns scattered newspaper protest dismissal polytechnic university two offshore companies set mossack fonseca 2012 2013 one created vice-president nicholas yang wei-hsiung became minister hong kong bollywood celebrities amitabh bachchan daughter-in-law actress aishwarya rai bachchan actor ajay devgan listed papers bachchan denied connection overseas companies spokesman rai also questioned documents authenticity bachchan repeated denial response august 21 report listed director two companies participated board meetings also listed real estate developer dlf ceo kushal pal singh sameer gehlaut indiabulls group gautam adani elder brother vinod adani shares companies fell following release papers well apollo tyres also mentioned dlf said invested existing overseas companies compliance lrs scheme set 2004 reported indian tax agency apollo spokesman said family members chairman onkar kanwar reported owning offshore companies live india complied law resided gehlaut said paid full taxes made full disclosures indian politicians list include shishir bajoria west bengal anurag kejriwal former chief delhi lok satta party bajoria said owned two isle man companies one ascribed leaked documents corporate services provider first names group acknowledged erroneously providing information mossack fonseca mf records show kejriwal director three offshore companies based british virgin islands bvi holding two private foundations panama power attorney another bvi company acknowledged offshore companies said shut short period time name deceased drug kingpin iqbal mirchi also surfaced papers 500 indian citizens appear mentioned indian government ordered inquiry subsequently announced constituting special multi-agency group comprising officers investigative unit central board direct taxes foreign tax tax research division financial intelligence unit reserve bank india 600 israeli companies 850 israeli shareholders listed among israeli names found leaked documents top attorney dov weissglass bureau chief deceased prime minister ariel sharon jacob engel businessman active african mining industry idan ofer member one israel wealthiest families according haaretz weissglass name appears sole owner one four companies set business partner assaf halkin company talaville global registered british virgin islands may 2012 according haaretz seven months later shares mortgaged loan vienna bank weissglass halkin told haaretz company registered purpose receiving loan bank order invest european properties bank would allow loan corporation ... company activity reported tax authorities israel required tax said activity paid israel many leaked documents reference bank leumi primarily branch island tax jersey one customers billionaire teddy sagi made fortune developing online gambling technology england recently developed camden market commercial real estate space sagi sole shareholder least 16 mossack fonseca offshore companies mostly real estate ventures israeli businessman beny steinmetz also mossack fonseca customer 282 companies nawaz sharif second top official ruled result information disclosures panama papers supreme court disqualified office one judge said mr sharif longer eligible honest member parliament pakistan ruling party pakistan muslim league-nawaz pml-n permitted speaker national assembly select interim prime minister 2018 general election supreme court verdict announced context heightened security capital 3,000 armed police members pakistan rangers paramilitary force deployed around supreme court verdict followed months dramatic news coverage social media debates divisions falling largely along party lines hearing october 18 2017 resulted indictment sharif faced allegations corruption since 1980s panama papers corroborated federal inquiry mid-1990s name nawaz sharif younger brother punjab chief minister shebaz sharif also link in-laws shebaz sharif children nawaz sharif offshore companies mossack fonseca records tie nawaz daughter maryam nawaz brothers hussein hassan four offshore companies nescoll limited nielson holdings limited coomber group inc. hangon property holdings limited companies acquired luxury real estate london 2006–2007 real estate collateral loans 13.8 million according panama papers prime minister children say money came sale family business saudi arabia offshore companies assets disclosed family wealth statement suspicion companies meant hide launder ill-gotten wealth avoid taxes called sharif ethics question prior ruling maryam nawaz tweeted denial wrongdoing adding company/property abroad except trustee brother corporation entitles distribute assets brother hussain family/children needed leaked documents name trustee nescoll created 1993 nielson first registered 1994 two companies subscribed mossack fonseca services july 2006 mossack fonseca managing nescoll nielsen holdings coomber group three companies obtained £7 million mortgage swiss bank deutsche bank suisse sa purchased four flats avenfield house 118 park lane london hassan brother bought hangon holdings stock 2007 £5.5 million hangon bought property financed bank scotland 1 hyde park place london samina durrani mother shebaz sharif second wife ilyas mehraj brother first also figure documents habib waqas group/ilyas mehraj listed shareholder 127,735 shares haylandale limited registered july 24 2003 bahamas mehraj denied knowing anything company whether incorporated commonwealth bahamas anywhere else name haylandale ltd. rainbow limited newest three offshore companies owned samina durrani registered september 29 2010 british virgin islands bvi armani river limited registered bahamas may 16 2002 describes assets property london currently rented assets star precision limited registered bvi may 21 1997 reported cash investment portfolio also holding 1,165,238 shares orix leasing pakistan limited hussain nawaz said family wo n't hamper investigation urged one former president pervez musharraf well government april 15 announced investigation inquiry commission pakistanis named documents opposition politicians said judge retired judge investigate numerous judges recused july 28 2017 supreme court pakistan disqualified sharif holding office late benazir bhutto also mossack fonseca client 2001 firm set bvi company petroline international inc. bhutto nephew hassan ali jaffery bhutto aide head security rehman malik later became senator interior minister government yousaf raza gillani mossack fonseca deemed bhutto first company similarly named petrofine fzc politically sensitive declined accept mrs bhutto client united nations committee chaired former us federal reserve head paul volcker determined 2005 investigation abuses oil-for-food program petrofine fzc paid us 2 million iraqi government saddam hussein obtain us 115–145 million oil contracts 2006 pakistani national accountability bureau nab accused bhutto malik ali jaffery owning petrofine established since 2000 sharjah united arab emirates bhutto pakistan peoples party denied april 2006 nab court froze assets owned pakistan elsewhere bhutto husband asif ali zardari saying assets totaling 1.5 billion result corrupt practices swiss charges criminal money laundering filed 1997 still litigation tareq abbas son mahmoud abbas president palestinian authority revealed hold 1 million shares arab palestinian investment company apic offshore company associated palestinian authority partially owned authority palestine investment fund hamad bin jassim bin jaber al thani prime minister 2007 2013 2002 acquired three shell companies incorporated bahamas another british virgin islands moorage mallorca 300 million yacht named al mirqab panama papers indicate owns owned eight shell companies subsequent reporting forbes found al thani bought 700 million deutsche bank shares 2014 paramount services holdings 2015 transferred roughly half stock supreme universal holdings owned relative left office emir qatar also 2013 king salman mentioned leaks relation two companies based british virgin islands—verse development corporation incorporated 1999 inrow corporation incorporated 2002 companies took mortgages totaling us 34 million purchased properties central london role companies specified bvi company crassus limited incorporated 2004 registered yacht london named erga king salman palace riyadh vessel boasts banquet hall comfortably sleep 30 king salman described documents principal user former crown prince muhammad bin nayef also named papers irish times found link iran-contra panama papers persons one america colourful political donors farhad azima multi-billionaire adnan khashoggi employed mossack fonseca services important figures iran-contra scandal mossack fonseca files show khashoggi appeared early 1978 became president panamanian company isis overseas s.a documents reveal fonseca clients included sheikh kamal adham saudi arabia first intelligence chief 1963–79 brother-in-law king faisal named us senate committee cia “ principal liaison entire middle east mid-1960s 1979 ” adham controlled offshore companies involved b.c.c.i banking scandal ministry finance monetary authority singapore said statement singapore takes serious view tax evasion tolerate business financial centre used facilitate tax related crimes evidence wrongdoing individual entity singapore hesitate take firm action sri lankan finance minister ravi karunanayake said panel investigate sri lankan names come panama papers well 46 appear 2013 offshore leaks according daily mail since earlier leadership apparently country many large outstanding foreign loans taken administration former president mahinda rajapakse current government recently obtain us 1.5 billion imf bailout rajapakse denied diverting funds current government came power january 2016 anti-corruption platform rami makhlouf maternal cousin bashar al-assad worth estimated 5 billion syrian civil war control 60 economy subject sanctions united states european union controlled syria oil telecommunications business us treasury charged pangates company registered supplied assad government thousand tonnes aviation fuel however makhloufs able continue operate via panama shell companies registered british virgin islands subject us law – however may 9 2011 eu issued sanctions extended order council british virgin islands july 2011 mossack fonseca decided september 6 resign makhlouf companies makhlouf already cut ties bank hsbc told law firm swiss authorities frozen makhlouf accounts contact beneficial owner company since last 3 months bangkok post reported anti-money laundering office amlo seeking information foreign counterparts regarding twenty-one thai nationals reportedly included list people worldwide using panama-based law firm apparently specializing money laundering tax evasion clear amlo investigating twenty-one panama papers include least 780 names individuals based thailand another 50 companies based thailand foreigners foreign-owned companies 634 individual addresses thailand appear documents surfaced date including ceos giant companies bangkok land phatra finance investigations icij sole east asian partner commonwealth magazine taiwan found least 2,725 offshore companies registered addresses taiwan ninety taiwanese including singer actor nicky wu included papers according report released commonwealth magazine wu used firm horizon sky technology ltd. co-operate hong kong-based sun entertainment culture limited publisher concludes taiwanese companies individuals believed extensively using offshore shelters avoid evade taxes ... scouring panama papers documents mossack fonseca one main conduits time appears big taiwanese banks law firms accounting firms often use services mossack fonseca presence taiwan forty-six taiwanese brokers work mossack fonseca relatively small-scale consulting firms operating greater china taiwanese entities set shell companies panamanian law firm small unlisted companies individuals icij guardian independent reported uae president khalifa bin zayed al nahyan owns london real estate worth £1.2 billion structure thirty shell companies mossack fonseca set british virgin islands administer using manage control luxury properties london december 2015 mossack fonseca held nearly shares companies trust structures behalf president wife son daughter trust beneficiaries canadian prime minister justin trudeau denied involvement affair saying entirely completely transparent mine family finances something learned early canadians expect leaders canada revenue agency said statement current tax evasion audits include canadian clients associated law firm mossack fonseca added would communicate treaty partners obtain information may currently possession cra tax treaties 92 different countries 22 tax information exchange agreements cra begun completed 116 audits 234 planned investigations expected recoup least 11 million taxes fines fewer 10 related criminal investigations progress royal bank canada rbc denied wrongdoing associated 370+ clients referred mossack fonseca years extensive due diligence process ... rbc works within legal regulatory framework every country operate said bank spokesman ceo david mckay said bank review four decades documentation problems ceo bill downe bank montreal said canadian banks 'dramatically beefed anti-money laundering control last seven 10 years added link canadian businesses panama papers companies would originated long time ago canadian banks took action stop money laundering individuals surface leaked documents according icij partner investigation toronto star canadians tax fairness calculated legal tax avoidance corporations alone cost canadian treasury almost 8 billion canadian year calculated 2015 numbers found corporations individuals combined sent 40 billion declared assets tax havens ten popular alone held 270 billion canadian assets administration president luis guillermo solís suggested activity unveiled leaked documents suggests attempts evade taxes administration effort implement tax increases reforms met strong resistance opposition business figures leaked documents suggest mossack fonseca helped tuna export company borda azul set shell company british virgin islands order avoid costa rican taxes firm business headed hermes navarro president costa rican football federation 1999 2006 late 1990s finance ministry prosecutor office investigated borda azul export companies allegedly misusing tax credit certificates 1997 dozens companies accused using certificates fraud launder drug profits according icij investigative partners databasear seminario universidad mossack fonseca helped borda azul fabricate invoices allow report inflated costs—to reduce taxes—and inflated exports allow continue qualify tax credit certificates letter dated october 19 1998 mossack fonseca lawyer explained investigation panama city office concluded thirty costa rican law firms mentioned panama papers referring clients mossack fonseca resulting creation 360 shell companies particular gonzalo fajardo asociados founded former finance ministry official later economy minister gonzalo fajardo salas nearly two decades helped costa rican companies set 82 offshore corporations tax havens according databasear finance vice minister fernando rodríguez said costa rica push sign tax information exchange agreement panama legislators several parties trying line political consensus seek approval administration tax fraud bill form legislative commission investigate named panama papers according emilia molina cruz citizens action party opposition parties maintained country financial problems stem excess spending according finance department sums costa rica loses tax evasion equal 8 country gross domestic product deficits run 6 aristóteles núñez charge time government tax administration said people involved panama papers case still make tax declarations pay taxes investments mexican foreign investments bank accounts crime income declaring illegal investments categorized tax evasion fines 100 omitted tax payment result well three months nine years imprisonment according forbes hinojosa prominent mexicans mostly businessmen close ties government including least one member forbes billionaires list subject extensive articles published online icij investigation partners proceso aristegui noticias sunday proceso also said mexicans mentioned leaked documents included individuals linked drug cartels ken emrith member opposition united national congress unc linked bribery scandal brazil panamanian shell companies used transfer millions us dollars offshore bank accounts brazilian construction company awarded contract 2011 national infrastructure development company nidco people partnership administration build highway trinidad tt 5.2 billion highway 49 complete estimated highway cost tt 8 billion done investigators found emirth companies received 6 million nidco emirth also director pembury consultants trinidad tobago limited oas hired highway project consultant 44,800 month may 2013 oas paid pembury least tt 896,000 totals beyond date currently available emrith described low-level unc party official second mossack fonseca company pendrey associates speaking parliament attorney general faris al-rawi said leaked documents tied offshore company key players petrobras scandal brazil including convicted jose luiz pires queluz dealings swiss ag pires investigation said according icij investigative partner trinidad express emrith close associate jack warner also owns half shares proteus holding sa investment refuses discuss says responsibility confidentiality fellow shareholders express also says oas used namibian port development project camouflage 1 million payment procopio shell company santa tereza services ltd emirth president barack obama critical caribbean tax havens 2008 election campaign 2010 united states implemented foreign account tax compliance act law required financial firms around world report accounts held us citizens internal revenue service us hand refused sign common reporting standard set organisation economic co-operation development alongside vanuatu bahrain means us receives tax asset information american assets income abroad share information happens united states countries words means united states become attractive tax least 2,400 us-based clients found papers many transactions legal mossack fonseca offered advice many us clients evade us tax financial disclosure laws panama free trade agreement supported obama clinton accused enabling practices detailed within panama papers regulatory oversight however obama administration official said argument zero merit john cassidy new yorker said panama free trade agreement actually forced panama release information american regulatory authorities ownership companies partnerships trusts foundations persons citing leaked diplomatic cables fortune writer chris matthews speculated obama clinton may supported agreement opposing campaigning office quid pro quo panamanian support us efforts drug trafficking event notes true agreement abolished limits fund transfers us panama obama administration insisted two countries first sign tax information exchange agreement well facilitated exchange tax information countries president barack obama addressed overseas shell companies listed leak press conference 're breaking laws said laws poorly designed allow people 've got enough lawyers enough accountants wiggle responsibilities ordinary citizens abide although leader us mentioned panama papers obama said frankly folks america taking advantage stuff senators sherrod brown elizabeth warren requested treasury department investigate us-linked companies appeared leaks addition justice department given role financial markets former secretary state 2016 democratic presidential candidate hillary clinton condemned outrageous tax havens loopholes ... panama elsewhere pennsylvania afl–cio event clinton added behavior clearly law everyone violates law anywhere held accountable scandalous much actually legal clinton promised going scams make sure everyone pays fair share america manhattan us attorney preet bharara opened criminal investigation matters related panama papers sent letter april 3 international consortium investigative journalists icij saying office would greatly appreciate opportunity speak soon possible icij received many requests many countries icij director gerard ryle said policy turn materials new york department financial services asked 13 foreign banks including deutsche bank ag credit suisse group ag commerzbank ag abn amro group nv societe generale sa information dealings mossack fonseca banks accused wrongdoing must provide telephone logs records transactions new york branches law firm mcclatchy newspapers initially found four americans offshore shell companies named documents previously either accused convicted financial crimes fraud tax evasion three reasons suggested explain scarcity americans leak asked paucity american individuals documents digital editor süddeutsche zeitung stefan plöchinger said via twitter wait coming next plöchinger later clarified advocating jumping conclusions copies least 200 american passports – indicating owners applied banking services – discovered papers us politicians yet named leak names americans however mentioned former south african president thabo mbeki head african union panel illicit financial flows april 9 called leak welcome called african nations investigate citizens nations appear papers panel 2015 report found africa loses 50 billion year due tax evasion illicit practices 50-year losses top trillion dollars furthermore said seychelles african nation fourth mentioned tax documents minister industry mines abdeslam bouchouareb sole owner panamanian-registered offshore company known royal arrival corp since 2015 company active turkey great britain algeria managed compagnie d'etude et de conseil cec based luxembourg account swiss nbad private bank cec confirmed ownership royal arrival said managed minister inherited assets transparency algeria estimates lost 16 billion dollars offshore 2004 2014 cause concern given drop price oil accounts 95 algeria external revenue panama papers exposed link american oil company oil concessions several powerful politicians angola according leaked documents approximately fifteen shell companies funneled money ubs bank accounts elites portugal direct ties helder bataglia dos santos escom describes one largest investors angola democratic republic congo account one company markwell inc received sent 12 million 2008 2009 petroleum minister josé maria botelho de vasconcelos power attorney offshore company 2002 became petroleum minister previously employed number years executive sonangol according leaked documents denies wrongdoing icij partner le monde says seen documents show proxyholder medea investments limited founded niue 2001 moved samoa five years later company issued bearer bonds capitalization 1 million closed 2009 never previously accused corruption angola 5 billion sovereign wealth fund fundo soberano de angola fsdea promotes vehicle development prosperity angola fsdea headed josé filomeno de sousa zenu dos santos son president josé eduardo dos santos power since 1979 funded state-owned petroleum company sonangol fsdea critics say record-keeping murky seems engage nepotism cronyism ian kirby head court appeal owns seven holding companies british virgin islands said intended investment lost money 2015 congo produced 290,000 barrels oil day philia attorney denied receiving advantageous pricing said received 2.5 coraf oil denis christel sassou-nguesso son denis sassou nguesso power 32 years re-elected march disputed election daniel representative oyo member ruling parti congolais du travail congolese party labour also assistant director-general société nationale des pétroles du congo snpc general manager national refinery coraf according leaked documents mossack fonseca establish shell company british virgin islands named phoenix best finance ltd. name also appears 2002 director geneva-based philia sa alongside oil merchant jean-philippe amvame ndong denied knowledge matters according swiss non-profit berne declaration philia exclusive no-bid contract congolese oil exports coraf refinery last three years country received payment oil shipped refinery bruno itoua president advisor oil director-general snpc 2005 us federal court found diverted funds fictitious companies nonetheless became minister energy panama papers documents seen le monde reveal also held power attorney since 2004 denvest capital strategies grafin associated sa registered mossack fonseca panama british virgin islands itoua currently minister scientific research 1999 2002 kabila regime transferred ownership least 5 billion assets state-mining sector private companies control ... compensation benefit state treasury united nations investigation found us dodd-frank act supposed help bring end conflict diamonds minerals us idea public opinion would force divestment time section 1502 require divestment mandate disclosure instead disclosure requirement simply meant new business opportunities money launderers recently 2014 un found 70 percent drc gold sold dubai without problem gold continued provide important funding army armed rebel groups march 2005 dan gertler international formed new company global enterprises corporate gec global resources owned beny steinmetz former drc mines minister simon tuma-waku special adviser company formed joint copper cobalt mining venture drc agency la générale des carriers et des mines gécamines held 25 gec 75 placed isle man holding company nikanor plc ipo raised £400 million london company eventually reached market capitalization 1.5 billion initial investment 3 million steinmetz appears 282 leaked documents gertler dan gertler inc ties joseph kabila closest aide 200 presidential decree ratified agreement issued despite recommendation anti-corruption lutundula commission according panama papers kabila twin sister owns part offshore company interests congo include part mobile-phone company vodacom congo government called press conference warn journalists printing names congolese figures might appear documents kabila sister jaynet désirée kabila kyungu feruzi kalume nyembwe advisor late father former president laurent-désiré kabila directors keratsu holding limited company registered niue mossack fonseca months elder kabila assassination keratsu held 19.6 shares congolese wireless network held 49 vodacom congo lucien ebata kinshasa businessman runs orion group sa registered seychelles 2009 mossack fonseca luxembourg-based figed according panama papers ebata receives salary million dollars business volume around billion counts shell société nationale des pétroles du congo snpc among customers theory american european buyers gold africa required review supply chain report use conflict resources gold eastern congo practice requirement widely ignored investigation african network centers investigative reporting ancir found examples leaked mossack fonseca documents anonymous shell companies sourcing start drc gold winds dubai way uganda dubai 75 billion gold industry regulated light hand quasi-private dubai multi commodities centre dmcc kalotti exports 40 dubai gold bought 5.2 billion gold 2012 little paperwork according ernst young partner amjad rihan rijan said dmcc employer squashed concerns dmcc changed audit procedures ensure favorable outcome future ancir journalists obtained records showing kalotti sold scrap gold refiners including valcambi leaked documents show pamp holding mauritius signed agreement mks holding bv two shell companies described beneficial owners panama-based mountside investment hong kong-based dynamic bonus limited 2010 mks holdings owned 72 joint venture mmtc ltd. owned state india switzerland pamp joint venture supply big multinationals like apple alaa mubarak son former president hosni mubarak cited owning holding companies real estate properties london assets virgin islands-registered firm pan world investments frozen response european union order father stepped 2011 arab spring mossack fonseca fined 37,500 2013 lack due diligence alaa brother convicted last year embezzling state funds still face trial insider trading egyptian businessmen mohamed abu el-enein ahmed bahgat ashraf marwan ibrahim kamal mohamed nosseir mohamed mansour raouf ghabbour mohamed al-maghraby named leaked documents well orascom development holding company headed samih sawiris also bank alexandria banque misr banque du caire former sudanese president ahmed al-mirghani client mossack fonseca also al-mirghani lived egypt 1989 coup ended presidency active democratic unionist party orange star corporation bought long-term lease tony london neighborhood near hyde park 600,000 year al-mirghani created time death held assets worth 2.72 million every ramadan fed 500 people financed 20 pilgrimages mecca every year described billionaire seydou kane holds diplomatic passports senegal gabon mali protocol officer senegalese embassy paris waiting plane landed roissy-charles-de-gaulle november 2015 kane close associate gabonese ruling family questioned jailed nanterre ten hours anti-corruption agents connection investigation opened july 2007 january 2013 kane briefly questioned transit miami le bourget french authorities whose curiosity piqued €2.5 million cash person according senegalese daily libération money-laundering unit tracfin became interested 2006 €300,000 payment groupe marck french company specializing military uniforms anti-riot gear monaco-based entity called citp citp managed kane close friend president chief staff maixent accrombessi held paris interrogated august 2015 french officials wanted ask accrombessi contract marck gabonese ministry interior €7 million head marck philippe belin also held questioned investigation assigned also conducted so-called ill-gotten goods investigation targeted number african leaders including father predecessor ali bongo ondimba current president gabon mossack fonseca opened two holding companies kane 2013 2014 maxi gold international limited smart key ltd according paperwork traded sundries one hand gym equipment john addo kufuor son john agyekum kufuor mossack fonseca manage trust starting 2001 father took office trust held 75,000 bank account panama mother also beneficiary linked two offshore companies also registered father term inactive kojo annan son former secretary-general united nations kofi annan appears laolu saraki son late nigerian senator abubakar olusola saraki shareholders blue diamond holding management corp registered mossack fonseca british virgin islands 2002 two directors sutton energy ltd also registered british virgin islands 2002 transferred samoa 2015 annan used another shell company first registered british virgin islands transferred samoa purchase apartment london 500,000 2008–2009 beny steinmetz group resources bsgr owner beny steinmetz paid 165 million mining rights northern portion simandou mine located nzérékoré region guinea interior soon sold 51 percent rights vale 2.5 billion rio tinto previously held concession invested 450 million infrastructure site global witness says bsgr fact paid nothing rights 165 million represents bsgr self-reported investment improvements site adds either way bsgr profit exceeded national budget guinea us authorities say steinmetz paid mamadie touré 5.3 million help obtaining concession husband lansana conté president guinea shortly died according global witness offshore company belonging touré matinda received payment 2.4 million company named pentler holdings several payments promised well 5 bsgr shares simandou pentler owned 17.65 bsgr guinea guinean president alpha condé launched investigation elected 2010 separately us federal bureau investigation fbi us justice department suspecting violations foreign corrupt practices act august 2014 mossack fonseca received tax information exchange agreement tiea notice us government inquiring ownership pentler two bsgr companies administered mossack fonseca geneva office however president pentler financial management firm menachem eitan fugitive us sec facing charges 55 million ponzi scheme guinea mines minister mohamed lamine fofana said 2012 bsgr n't follow law jean-claude n'da ametchi advisor former president laurent gbagbo refused accept lost election 2010 also mentioned leaked documents european union sanctioned banker n'da ametchi 2011 helping finance gbagbo regime offshore company cadley house ltd registered seychelles bearer bonds bank account morocco n'da ametchi sent email 2011 geneva office mossack fonseca naming geneva bank pasche financial managers company september 2012 acted sole director request transfer registration abidjan neither mossack fonseca banks mentioned european sanctions eventually lifted 2012 company apparently still active 2015 according documents seen le monde currently advisor former prime minister charles konan banny lost october 2015 presidential election former deputy chief justice kalpana rawal director shareholder four holding companies active two took office husband owns another seven companies used real estate transactions britain rawal husband shareholders directors highworth management services ajay shah former director trust bank also shareholder director central bank kenya ordered shah assets auctioned repay depositors trust bank collapsed went hiding assets recovered mounir majidi personal secretary king mohammed vi designated march 2006 representative smcd limited created 2005 geneva financial advisor dextima conseils according icij smcd majidi bought aquarius w 1930s-era luxury sailboat registered morocco el boughaz belonging king smcd according icij also made loan luxembourg company logimed investissements co sarl details available following loan smcd liquidated 2013 diamond ocean enterprises mossack fonseca entity set 2005 reported purpose financial consulting namibian diamond manufacturer polisher according law firm records deutsche investment consultants asia limited mossack fonseca company set british virgin islands now-imprisoned mafioso vito palazzolo wolf-peter berthold german banker based hong kong director firm shareholders include peter von palace kolbatschenko palazzolo son berthold giovanni agusta also 2005 zacharias zacky nujoma youngest son sam nujoma set two holding companies avila investments marbella investments licensed buy cut diamonds shortly afterwards 90 stock transferred diamond ocean 2006 nujoma established ancash investments obtained seven exclusive uranium prospecting licenses palazzolo loaned company us 10 million canadian mining company announced would partner ancash uranium contracts said based decision part ancash strong international support natural earth international ltd. hong kong natural earth another deutsche investment company corrupt officials stolen 150 billion nigeria last 10 years said nigerian president muhammadu buhari said april 7 2016 added planned ask united states president barack obama help president nigerian senate bukola saraki found panama papers leak ties least four offshore companies failed declare code conduct bureau nigerian law requires wife toyin also shell companies listed name mossack fonseca documents girol properties ltd sandon development limited *landfield international developments ltd. saraki said assets holding companies belong wife family therefore required report ancir dismisses however leaked documents link firm handwritten note suggests mossack fonseca aware nominee director aliko dangote chief executive dangote group tied leaked documents four offshore companies many 13 family business associates included dangote estimated 17 billion worth currently involved construction 14 billion oil refinery lagos former delta state governor james ibori also mentioned leak ibori pleaded guilty london 2012 siphoning 75 million nigeria office 1999–2007 charges nigeria dropped nigeria following election ibori sentenced 13 years mossack fonseca registered agent four offshore entities received request 2008 information accounts british crown prosecutors family julex foundation shareholder stanhope investments company incorporated 2003 island niue funneled millions dollars could buy private jet united kingdom returned £6.8 million nigeria funds seized accounts determined belonged ibori anti-corruption taskforce olusegun obasanjo government economic financial crimes commission questioned time whether yar'adua administration refrained loath pursue members nigerian elite suspected corruption including leading financiers ruling party like ibori supported election former senate president david mark also listed owner eight shell companies leaked panama papers sikera overseas s.a. colsan enterprises limited goldwin transworld limited hartland estates limited marlin holdings limited medley holdings limited quetta properties limited centenary holdings limited portion wealth owned former chairman united bank africa uba hakeem belo-osagie domiciled trusts shell companies notorious tax havens around world government rwanda uses offshore company lease private jet senior politicians leaked documents show brigadier-general emmanuel ndahiro using london address become director british virgin islands company debden investments ltd. 1998 owner jet aircraft ndahiro close advisor president paul kagame spokesman kagame military according panama papers owner company hatari sekoko ran number real estate hotel ventures marriott kigali icij partner ouestaf.com able establish panama papers existence secret contracts dp world fze dp mamadou pouye bribery codefendant karim wade son former prime minister abdoulaye wade information available trial ouestaf confirmed financial ties corporation first time panama papers investigation wade sentenced 2015 six-year prison term cour de répression de l'enrichissement illicite crei specialized anti-corruption court wade accused illegally amassing assets 240 million childhood friend pouye sentenced five years allegedly helping denied wrongdoing united nations amnesty international said rights violated trial ouestaf investigation address legality trial conclude succeeded tracing payment pouye oversea shell company subsidiary dp wade remains member senegalese democratic party pds still pds candidate 2017 presidential election mossack fonseca documents show pouye owned three offshore companies seabury inc regory invest latvae inc. seabury seems set solely business dp world started 2008 year senegal signed contract dp world rights container terminal autonomous port dakar april 2009 wade became minister international cooperation territorial development air transport infrastructure remained father defeat macky sall 2012 election regory invest acted seabury subcontractor receiving €65,000 euros month according documents according ouestaf documents make clear crei investigators interested funds pouye monaco account know source offshore account created two contracts prove fact relationship defendants dp world investigator papa alboury ndao told court february discovered two payments 13 million subsidiary dp world fze singapore bank account belonging karim wade however bank singapore refused cooperate ndao forced drop line inquiry mossack fonseca opened several offshore companies multinationals example anglogold owner anglogold investments senegal ltd et anglogold exploration senegal ltd based british virgin islands senegalese architect pierre atepa goudiaby special advisor former president abdoulaye wade also mentioned leaked documents swiss law firm fidinam sa mossack fonseca open offshore atepa engineering corp en 2006 year goudiaby opened paris office champs-elysées icij investigation traces many levels offshore holdings multiple countries related business dealings beny steinmetz many serious findings request mossack fonseca backdate revocation power attorney mossack fonseca records show sierra leone diamond exporter octea based british virgin islands steinmetz family beneficiaries wholly owned guernsey-based bsgr resources linked bribery scandal guinea foundations switzerland liechtenstein among nysco balda bsgr 2007 one nysco bank accounts contained 27.7 million steinmetz personal fortune 6 billion supplies diamonds tiffany debeers sierra leone largest private investor yet according detailed report namibian octea subsidiary owes among debts property taxes 700,000 city koidu unpaid taxes discounted according mayor saa emerson lamina octea promised 5 profit−sharing agreement payment 1 annual profit community development fund either octea subsidiary koidu holdings obtained mine 28 million supposed deposit 2002 fighting stopped sierra leone mine previously held worked south african firm branch energy payment services parent company executive outcomes effectively ... military battalion hire rebel fighters area steinmetz since put 300 million project according reporting african network centers investigative reporting ancir company produces 60–90 sierra leone diamond exports months 2012 2015 exported us 330 million rough diamonds octea owes us 150 million unpaid loans although government records show taxes paid diamond companies none listed octea national mineral agency nma 2005 valued diamonds export using price book based 1996 figures companies also often seek minimize value diamond exports reduce taxes move profits abroad transferred subsidiary elsewhere value taxed diamonds frequently worth diamonds koidu average 330 carat roughly 50 de beers jwaneng mine botswana world biggest tiffany first pick best stones mined koidu remainder sold trade buyers according bloomberg according world bank sierra leone long time based growth forecasts success two companies one octea parent bsgr two men linked fidentia south african asset management company looted 1.2 billion rand pension funds meant provide 46,000 widows orphans mineworkers accounts mossack fonseca willing help hide money even south africa made names public former chief executive fidentia j. arthur brown sentenced 2014 concurrent 15-year sentences fbi arrested one man steven goodwin los angeles 2008 sent back south africa goodwin sentenced 10 years prison fraud money laundering graham maddock also later jailed south africa fraud khulubuse zuma nephew south african president jacob zuma links documents offshore company oil interests democratic republic congo denied wrongdoing according leaked documents president zuma also ties oil mining deal british virgin islands-based oil company caprikat limited joseph kabila president democratic republic congo drc helped caprikat obtain oil fields drc sent nephew drc run firm former president ahmed al-mirghani surfaced client mossack fonseca al-mirghani president 1986 1989 created orange star corporation british virgin islands panama firm 1995 living egypt coup ended presidency active democratic unionist party orange star corporation bought long-term lease tony london neighborhood near hyde park 600,000 year al-mirghani created time death held assets worth 2.72 million trial court prosecutor tunis ordered judicial inquiry panama papers tunisian political figures suspected hiring firm judge tunisian court specializing financial crimes assigned case tunisian assembly representatives people established parliamentary commission inquiry well newspaper inkyfada access documents reported dozen politicians former government officials lawyers implicated well leading media figure monday april 4 2016 reported former secretary-general nidaa tounes political party mohsen marzouk also coordinator new political party machrouu tounes point creating account december 2014 first presidential elections marzouk written mossack fonseca company virgin islands emphasizing desire hold funds conduct business overseas marzouk denies filed defamation complaint inkyfada forced briefly shut website following report due cyberattack attempted insert names politicians mentioned leaked documents mossack fonseca documents provide new insight confirmation previously-litigated tax case offshore company transferred registration avoid paying capital gains tax uganda documents show heritage oil gas limited hogl knew advance capital gains tax uganda planned enact hogl operating uganda planned sell half ugandan assets urgently moved registration bahamas mauritius avoid tax mauritius double taxation agreement uganda meaning hogl would pay tax one two countries mauritius capital gains tax moving heritage reduced capital gains tax zero emails clearly show reason transfer although company attorneys deny 2010 hogl sold 50 percent stake ugandan oil fields tullow uganda us 1.5 billion uganda revenue authority ura applied us 404 million capital gains tax transaction hogl refused pay four-year battle various courts ensued ugandan officials including president yoweri museveni then-ura commissioner-general allen kagina demanded payment tullow threatening renew exploration licenses expire unless deducted tax payment heritage remitted ura eventually tullow made payment deposited rest escrow pending legal resolution appeal came 2013 tullow also successfully sued hogl recover taxes paid behalf heritage gas oil subsidiary heritage oil founded conservative party donor tony buckingham given party £100,000 december 31 2008 still owned 33.1 heritage oil uganda ratio tax gross domestic product less 14 one lowest east africa arms dealer mining tycoon close links president robert mugabe operated offshore companies despite us european sanctions 2013 four years sanctions announced according leaked documents according panama papers zimplats holdings large platinum mining concern set shell company pay salaries senior managers zimplats denies knowledge company hr consultancy company still active 2015 unknown reserve bank zimbabwe may indicate externalization funds tax evasion appears salaries citizens zimbabwe performing work zimbabwe april 22 2016 australia said would create public register showing beneficial actual owners shell companies part effort stamp tax avoidance multinational corporations australian taxation office announced investigating 800 individual australian taxpayers mossack fonseca list clients cases may referred country serious financial crime task force eighty names match organized crime intelligence database leaked documents examined abc pierced veil anonymous shell companies linked sydney businessman brisbane geologist mining deals north korea rather applying sanctions australian government asx seem allowed coach horses ridden people involved forming relationship corporate relationship one primary arms manufacturers north korea said thomas clark university technology sydney david sutton director aat corporation ehg corporation held mineral licenses north korea business korean natural resources development investment corporation united nations sanctions north korea primary arms dealer main exporter goods equipment related ballistic missiles conventional weapons responsible approximately half arms exported north korea geologist louis schurmann said british billionaire kevin leech key putting deal together leaked documents also reveal involvement another briton gibraltar-based john lister according abc department foreign affairs trade aware mining deals also brought australian senate nobody ever referred matter australian federal police may 12 2016 names former prime minister australia malcolm turnbull former premier new south wales neville wran found panama papers due pair former directorship mossack fonseca-incorporated company star technology systems limited turnbull wran resigned positions 1995 prime minister denied impropriety stating star technology made profits—which regrettably—it certainly would paid tax australia media initially reported panama papers lists 500 entities created jurisdiction cook islands population 10,000 almost many singapore whose population 5.7 million winebox affair cook islands gave new zealand jurisdiction tax matters new zealand inland revenue department said working obtain details people tax residence country may involved arrangements facilitated mossack fonseca gerard ryle director international consortium investigative journalists told radio new zealand april 8 2016 new zealand well-known tax nice front criminals new zealand provides overseas investors foreign trusts look-through companies new zealand government policy request disclosure identity either settlor beneficiaries trust thus ownership remains secret consequence thus hiding assets trust-holder home jurisdictions trusts taxed new zealand trusts used acquire new zealand registered companies become vehicle trust owners exercise day day control assets new zealand-registered companies designed make profit using loans tax havens profit shifting techniques result tax free income general respectability typically associated companies registered new zealand prime minister john key responded may 7 john doe remark curiously quiet tax evasion cook islands saying whistleblower confused probably european cook islands use new zealand currency much responsibility tax cook islands taxing russia new zealand represent cook islands defence foreign policy taxation said distancing new zealand cook islands key ignored close ties two countries crucial role new zealand setting cook island taxation system mossack fonseca approached niue 1996 offered help set tax tiny south sea island law firm drafted necessary legislation permitting offshore companies operate total secrecy took care paperwork island got modest fee filing seemed like quite deal even required law provide banking paperwork russian chinese well english soon filings almost covered island year budget us government however made official noises 2001 laundering criminal proceeds chase bank blacklisted island bank new york followed suit caused inconvenience population let contract mossack fonseca expire many privacy-seekers banking world moved stay however apparently panama papers database lists nearly 10,000 companies trusts set niue population 1200 many recently created shell companies set samoa perhaps niue revised tax laws panama papers database lists 13,000 companies trusts set samoa population roughly 200,000 may 27 2015 us department justice indicted number companies individuals conspiracy corruption racketeering connection bribes kickbacks paid obtain media marketing rights fifa tournaments immediately entered guilty pleas among indicted jeffrey webb jack warner current former presidents concacaf continental confederation fifa headquartered united states charged racketeering bribery offenses others us south american sports marketing executives paid agreed pay well 150 million bribes kickbacks december 12 2014 josé hawilla owner founder traffic group brazilian sports marketing conglomerate waived indictment pleaded guilty four-count information charging racketeering conspiracy wire fraud conspiracy money laundering conspiracy obstruction justice hawilla also agreed forfeit 151 million 25 million paid time plea torneos traffic subsidiary fox international channels since 2005 investments since 2002 company involved corrupt practices acquisition rights major south american soccer tournaments many individuals mentioned panama papers connected world governing body association football fifa including former president conmebol eugenio figueredo former president uefa michel platini former secretary general fifa jérôme valcke argentine player barcelona lionel messi italy head manager metro antonio guglielmi leak also revealed extensive conflict interest member fifa ethics committee former fifa vice president eugenio figueredo swiss police searched offices uefa european football governing body naming former secretary-general gianni infantino president fifa signed television deal uefa company called cross trading fbi since accused bribery contract emerged among leaked documents infantino denied wrongdoing april 2019 icij european newspapers reported global tally payments exceeded one billion usd 1.2 billion comparison great britain recovered largest position 253 million followed denmark 237 million germany 183 million spain 164 million france 136 million australia 93 million colombia 89 million recuperated highest amount south central american countries heavily involved financial scandal investigations ongoing austria canada switzerland payments expected many countries conducting continued inspections companies private individuals revealed report I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,867	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: él_(visual_novel).él visual novel elle also known japanese adult visual novel developed elf corporation originally released june 13 1991 remake produced elf corporation retitled él released september 29 2000 green bunny produced anime original video animation titled él released two volumes 2001 series depicts survivors nuclear war gathered single tightly-monitored city december 1999 nuclear war devastates earth renders world inhospitable ensure survival humanity megaroasu plan carried terrorist organization called black widow attacks tries disrupt plan story takes place 2008 player takes role unnamed hero unknown past expert marksman heroine el miles includes ensemble minor characters advance plot game simple click adventure one ending games genre 2000 remake story exception setting refocused 2030 graphics updated included three-dimensional computer graphics script dubbed cast professional voice actors cast credits private released nuclear war triggered environmental pollution group survivors start megaro earth project city built dome protect last fragments humanity el miles sniper – policewoman defending city terrorist organization black widows el placed charge protecting parsley pop singer nearly raped black widow operatives singer finds falling love el attempts seduces el discovers fellow snipers becoming black widow operatives constantly tormented leader gimmick also unusual blackouts unexplained visions another reality end second episode whole world el miles lived actually 'created dream el man named joe last humanity disrupted parsley first release titled elle originally released june 13 1991 remake produced elf corporation retitled él released september 29 2000 original release pc-9801 software four 5 2hd floppy disks remake released windows 95 98 2000 xp cd green bunny produced anime original video animation titled él released two volumes 2001 nutech digital acquired rights él ova 2001 english release volumes 1 2 box set would follow january 2002 featuring english dub included voice talents adult actresses shelbee myne lola ova credits include kazuma kanezawa director kazuma kanezawa wrote script designs masaki kawai takeo takahashi yukio segami production arms green bunny chris beveridge reviewed english localizations series nutech digital release originally reviewed 2002 positive noting strong visuals seconds cross coloration second episode kitty media release also reviewed favorably among differences nutech digital release redubbing work release strong points ova writing execution surprise ending large cast characters resulted poor development secondary characters visuals original release hold compared newer works 2007 review increasing industry standards 1-hop neighbor's text information: dragon_knight_(video_game).dragon knight video game dragon knight ドラゴンナイト fantasy-themed eroge role-playing video game original entry dragon knight franchise originally developed published elf corporation 1989 remake created nec avenue 1995 versions released japan game adapted anime film 1991 followed dragon knight ii 1990 gameplay-wise dragon knight dungeon crawler typical era similar early wizardry games exploration combat shown first-person perspective using 2d engine combat game turn-based enemies encountered randomly similar system also used first sequel new floor mazes becomes sophisticated however helpful mini-map grid coordinates enemies getting stronger fights first game difficult unbalanced protagonist attack defend use spells items fight monsters three kingdom strawberry fields ストロベリーフィールズ place inhabited women goddess tower protected land people generations one day monstrous dragon knights corrupted evil led demon gazelbaan ゲイゼルバーン descended upon tower people strawberry fields suddenly find threatened army monsters turned goddess aquarina アクァーリナー stone captured warrior women demanding six gems source magical power goddess delivered else would kill hostages answering plea help queen luna ルナ voiced noriko hidaka young warrior traveler yamato takeru ヤマト・タケル voiced akira kamiya takes luna mother voiced rei sakuma floor tower captured females takeru rescue rapists game originally released 1989 pc88 pc98 msx followed sharp x68000 version 1990 1995 remake dragon knight graffiti pc engine developed released nec avenue two soundtracks dragon knight treasure king water chapter ドラゴンナイト～水の宝王篇～ pc engine world — dragon knight graffiti released japan datam polystar 1990 nec avenue distributed nippon columbia 1995 respectively ova anime adaptation released polystar vhs ld 1991 soft cel pictures distributed english version vhs format also re-released dvd 2003 cast included yasunori matsuno takeru yūko mizutani luna release famicom tsūshin scored pc engine remake 22 40 also giving 8 10 reader cross review information russian article square faction japanese wikipedia 1-hop neighbor's text information: nec.nec nec world fourth largest pc manufacturer 1990 nec semiconductors business unit worldwide semiconductor sales leader 1985 1990 second largest 1995 one top three 2000 one top 10 2006 remained one top 20 semiconductor sales leaders merging renesas electronics nec member sumitomo group nec 463 2017 fortune 500 list kunihiko iwadare takeshiro maeda established nippon electric limited partnership august 31 1898 using facilities bought miyoshi electrical manufacturing company iwadare acted representative partner maeda handled company sales western electric interest japanese phone market represented walter tenney carleton carleton also responsible renovation miyoshi facilities agreed partnership would reorganized joint-stock company treaty would allow july 17 1899 revised treaty japan united states went effect nippon electric company limited organized day western electric company become first japanese joint-venture foreign capital iwadare named managing director ernest clement carleton named directors maeda mototeru fujii assigned auditors iwadare maeda carleton handled overall management company started production sales maintenance telephones switches nec modernized production facilities construction mita plant 1901 mita shikokumachi completed december 1902 japanese ministry communications adopted new technology 1903 common battery switchboard supplied nec common battery switchboards powered subscriber phone eliminating need permanent magnet generator subscriber phone switchboards initially imported manufactured locally 1909 nec started exporting telephone sets china 1904 1905 iwadare visited western electric u.s. see management production control return japan discontinued oyakata system sub-contracting replaced new system managers employees direct employees company inefficiency also removed production process company paid higher salaries incentives efficiency new accounting cost controls put place time clocks installed 1899 1907 number telephone subscribers japan rose 35,000 95,000 nec entered china market 1908 implementation telegraph treaty japan china also entered korean market setting office seoul january 1908 period 1907 1912 sales rose 1.6 million yen 2 million yen expansion japanese phone service key part nec success period expansion take pause ministry communications delayed third expansion plan phone service march 1913 despite 120,000 potential telephone-subscribers waiting phone installations nec sales fell sixty percent 1912 1915 interim iwadare started importing appliances including electric fans kitchen appliances washing machines vacuum cleaners electric fans never seen japan imports intended prop company sales 1916 government resumed delayed telephone-expansion plan adding 75,000 subscribers 326,000 kilometers new toll lines thanks third expansion plan nec expanded time much rest japanese industry contracted 1919 nec started first association sumitomo engaging sumitomo densen seizosho manufacture cables part venture nec provided cable manufacturing equipment sumitomo densen rights western electrics duplex cable patents also transferred sumitomo densen great kantō earthquake struck japan 1923 140,000 people killed 3.4 million left homeless four nec factories destroyed killing 105 nec engineers workers thirteen tokyo telephone offices destroyed fire telephone telegraph service interrupted damage telephone cables response ministry communications accelerated major programs install automatic telephone switching systems enter radio broadcasting first automatic switching systems strowger-type model made automatic telephone manufacturing co. atm united kingdom nec participated installation automatic switching systems ultimately becoming general sales agent atm nec developed strowger-type automatic switching system 1924 first japan one plants almost leveled kanto earthquake mita plant chosen support expanding production new three-story steel-reinforced concrete building built starting 1925 modeled western electric hawthorne works nec started radio communications business 1924 japan first radio broadcaster radio tokyo founded 1924 started broadcasting 1925 nec imported broadcasting equipment western electric expansion radio broadcasting osaka nagoya marked emergence radio industry nec established radio research unit 1924 nec started developing electron tubes 1925 1930 manufacturing first 500 w radio transmitter provided chinese xinjing station 100 kw radio broadcasting system 1934 photo-telegraphic equipment developed nec transmitted photos accession ceremony emperor hirohito ceremony held kyoto 1928 newspapers asahi shimbun mainichi shimbun competing cover ceremony asahi shimbun using siemens device mainichi planning use french photo-telegraphic equipment end papers acquired used nec product due faster transmission rate higher picture quality 1929 nippon electric provided japan ministry communications a-type switching system first systems developed japan nippon supplied japan ministry communications nonloaded line carrier equipment long distance telephone channels 1937 world war ii described company blackest days history 1938 mita tamagawa plants placed military control direct supervision military officers 1939 nippon electric established research laboratory tamagawa plant became first japanese company successfully test microwave multiplex communications december 22 1941 enemy property control law passed nec shares owned international standard electric corporation ise itt subsidiary western electric affiliate seized capital technical relations abruptly severed munitions company law passed october 1943 placing overall control nec plants military jurisdiction ueno plant leveled military attack march 1945 fire bombings april may heavily damaged tamagawa plant reducing capacity forty percent okayama plant totally destroyed bombing attack june year end war nec production substantially reduced damage facilities material personnel shortages war production slowly returned civilian use nec re-opened major plants end january 1946 nec began transistor research development 1950 started exporting radio-broadcast equipment korea first major postwar contract 1951 nec received deming prize excellence quality control 1952 computer research development began 1954 nec produced first crossbar switching system japan installed nippon telegraph telephone public corporation currently nippon telegraph telephone corporation ntt 1956 nec began joint research development ntt electronic switching systems year nec established taiwan telecommunication company first postwar overseas joint venture 1958 completed neac-1101 neac-1102 computers year 1959 nec demonstrated first transistorized computer neac-2201 demonstrated unesco automath show paris company began integrated circuit research development 1960 1963 nec started trading american depositary receipts ten million shares sold united states nippon electric new york nec america inc. incorporated year nec supplied kdd submarine cable systems laying pacific ocean 1964 supplied short-haul 24 channel pcm carrier transmission equipment ntt 1965 nec de mexico s. a. de c. v. nec brasil s. a. nec australia pty ltd. established 1968 1969 nec supplied comsat corporation spade satellite communications system 1971 1972 switzerland ordered nec satellite communications earth station year small transportable satellite communications earth station set china shares nec common stock listed amsterdam stock exchange 1973 nec also designed automated broadcasting system japan broadcasting corporation year nec electronics europe gmbh also established 1974 acos series computer introduced new central research laboratories completed 1975 1977 japan national space development agency launched nec geostationary meteorological satellite named himawari period nec introduced concept c c integration computers communications nec america inc. opened plant dallas texas manufacture pabx telephone systems 1978 also acquired electronic arrays inc. california year start semiconductor chip production united states 1980 nec created first digital signal processor nec µpd7710 nec semiconductors uk ltd. established 1981 producing vlsis lsis nec introduced 8-bit pc-8800 series personal computer 1981 followed 16-bit pc-9800 series 1982 1983 nec stock listed basel geneva zurich switzerland exchanges nec quickly became dominant leader japanese pc industry holding 80 market share nec changed english company name nec corporation year nec information systems inc. started manufacturing computers related products united states 1984 nec also released v-series processor year 1986 nec delivered sx-2 super computer houston advanced research center woodlands texas year neax61 digital switching system went service 1987 nec technologies uk ltd. established united kingdom manufacture vcrs printers computer monitors mobile telephones europe also year nec licensed technology hudson soft video game manufacturer create video game console called pc-engine later released 1989 turbografx-16 north american market successor pc-fx released japan 1994 pc-engine achieved considerable following said nec held much stronger influence video game industry role leading semiconductor manufacturer direct video game products nec usa inc. established 1989 holding company north american operations 1983 nec brasil brazilian subsidiary nec forced nationalise corporate stock orders brazilian military government whereby shareholder control nec brasil ceded private equity group brasilinvest brazilian investment banker mário garnero since nec brasil foundation 1968 become major supplier telecommunications equipment brazilian government 1986 minister communications antônio carlos magalhães put nec brasil financial difficulties suspending government contract payments company whose main client federal government subsidiary crisis nec corporation japan sold nec brasil organizações globo onemillion us dollars us 1,000,000 shortly thereafter magalhães resumed government contracts corresponding payments nec brazil became valued 350million us dollars us 350,000,000 suspicions regarding nec-globo deal included among things unilateral breach contract globo founder roberto marinho regarding management regional television station brazilian state bahia took national stage 1992 first corruption charges impeached brazilian president fernando collor de mello organizações globo subsequently sold shares nec brazil hit all-time high state monopoly years back nec corporation 1999 following break-up privatisation brazilian state-owned telephone monopoly telebrás 1990 new head office building known super tower completed shiba tokyo additionally joint-venture agreements established manufacture market digital electronic switching systems lsis china 1993 nec asynchronous transfer mode atm switching system neax61 nippon electronic automatic exchange atm service node went service united states nec europe ltd. established holding company european operations year nec c c research laboratories nec europe ltd. opened germany 1994 nec china co ltd. established holding company chinese operations 1996 1997 nec developed 4gbit dram semiconductor group honored one first japan quality awards 1998 nec opened world advanced semiconductor r facility nec 1 personal computer vendor japan 1980s faced increasing competition fujitsu seiko epson ibm japan nevertheless early 1990s nec still largest well 50 market share japanese market competition heated later rival fujitsu started aggressively market computers industry standard x86 instead nec 1997 nec share reduced 35 nec celebrated 100th anniversary 1999 nec electronics corporation separated nec 2002 new semiconductor company nec laboratories america inc. nec labs started november 2002 merger nec research institute neci nec usa computer communications research laboratory ccrl nec built earth simulator computer esc fastest supercomputer world 2002 2004 since produced nec n343i 2006 2003 nec 20.8 market share personal computer market japan slightly ahead fujitsu 2007 nec nissan co. corp. started evaluating joint venture produce lithium ion batteries hybrid electric cars april 23 2009 renesas technology corp nec electronics corp struck basic agreement merge around april 2010 april 1 2010 nec electronics renesas technology merged forming renesas electronics set fourth largest semiconductor company according isuppli published data q3 2010 nec held 19.8 market share pc market japan january 27 2011 nec formed pc joint venture chinese pc maker lenovo fourth largest pc maker world part deal companies said statement establish new company called lenovo nec holdings b.v. registered netherlands nec receive us 175 million lenovo issuance lenovo shares lenovo unit 51 stake joint venture nec hold 49 stake february 2011 bloomberg news said joint venture would allow lenovo expand field servers nec masato yamamoto said nec would able grow china january 26 2012 nec corporation announced would cut 10,000 jobs globally due big loss nec consolidated financial statement line economic crisis europe lagged development smartphones domestic market compare apple samsung previously january 2009 nec cut 20,000 jobs mainly sluggish semiconductor liquid crystal display related businesses 2013 nec biggest pc server manufacturer japan 23.6 share august 2014 nec corporation commissioned build super-fast undersea data transmission cable linking united states japan consortium international companies consisting china mobile international china telecom global global transit google kddi singtel pipeline went online june 30 2016 april 2017 kemet corporation purchase 61 controlling interest nec tokin nec making nec tokin wholly owned subsidiary purchase complete company change name tokin corporation nec structured organization around three principal segments solutions network solutions electronic devices solutions business delivers computing solutions business enterprises government individual customers—in form software hardware related services network solutions business designs provides broadband network systems mobile wireless communications network systems mobile handsets broadcast systems nec electronic devices business includes semiconductors displays electronic components nec produces versa notebooks international market lavie series japanese markets principal subsidiaries nec include defense products include achievements nec include nec ranked consistently top four companies previous five years number u.s. patents issued averaging 1764 year nec main title sponsor davis cup competition 2002 bnp paribas took sponsorship nec 1982 2012 sponsored nec cup go tournament japan nec 1986 2003 sponsored nec shun-ei go tournament young players japan nec sponsored english football club everton 1985 1995 1995 fa cup final triumph everton final game decade-long nec sponsorship danka took sponsors nec signed deal sponsor sauber f1 team 2011 season 2014 season nec signed new deal sponsor sahara force india f1 team 2015 season april 2013 nec became umbrella sponsor pga tour latinoamérica third-tier men professional golf tour nec one sponsored v.league volleyball started works teams years came include professional players nec also used montedio yamagata football soccer j league sponsors along local companies Target text information: dragon_knight_ii.dragon knight ii dragon knight ii ドラゴンナイトii fantasy-themed eroge role-playing video game dragon knight franchise originally developed published elf corporation 1990-1991 japan first sequel original dragon knight game 1989 game erotic dungeon crawler young warrior takeru fights lift witch curse turned girls monsters following commercial critical success dragon knight ii elf followed dragon knight iii knights xentar 1991 censored remake dragon knight ii published nec avenue 1992 dragon knight ii available japanese gameplay system changed much since first dragon knight game still standard dungeon crawler first-person view perspective 2d graphics player spends time navigating dungeon-like mazes fighting enemies progress made mazes become complicated first game aid player form mini-map grid coordinates player also visit shops converse non-hostile npcs game starts one player character takeru two characters join later game battle system also undergone minor changes still features turn-based battles mostly randomly generated fights better balanced first game player attack defend use spells items deal various types female enemies berserker banshee catgirl centaur elf harpy ninja mummy werewolf fought one time enemies actually girls transformed monsters whenever player character fights one subdued enemy loses clothing later enemies revert normal self gratitude offer sex protagonist cutscene censored console versions also one boss beat end characters voice actors include taverner totani koji weaponsmith yukitoshi hori old witch hiroyuki sato apothecary witch isamu tanonaka rem lisa hatayama mei noriko namiki messiah natsuko yamada merumo mayumi horikawa cherry akiko sato orchid azusa nakao mami kaori ohara hamy minako takenouchi rika tomomi uesaka monami masami suzuki mischa mihoko fujiwara tanya yasuko kajimura nadia yuki kato bunny junko shimakata mimi yoko asada paula naomi matamura betty yumiko sakita marie mayumi seto lina mayumi shigeno eve megumi kanba nina naoko nakamura lara yasuko hirayama game narrated kaneto shiozawa vagabond youth hero first dragon knight takeru yamato wanders small town phoenix finds terrorized devoid young men phoenix ruled group powerful wicked witches destroyed all-male dragon knights three years events game woman known mesaanya arrived phoenix first appeared friendly gained villagers trust healer revealed true colors took witch tower forbade love men women next morning takeru arrival sees town changed mesaanya steals set seven evil-sealing holy scriptures takeru delivered used possesses young maiden named kate also kidnaps 28 village girls turns minions guard witch tower reluctantly takeru decides enter tower collect scriptures break curse ultimate goal takeru defeat witch supposed wait top tower also needs rescue girls one one course game takeru joined burly merchant named baan originally sent phoenix mysterious spell-casting priestess named sophia also meets rescues kate fiancé young man neighboring town went first rescue kate without combat experience disappeared eventually bewitched girls saved time find mesaanya since witch throne room empty kate also found looking takeru learns witches conquered help special-metal falcon sword genji armor capable resisting magic searching artifacts party descends hidden dungeon town graveyard baan reveals ancestor fought witches killed queen mesaanya ancestor twist ending sophia true identity revealed really disguised mesaanya along magic blast gravely wounds baan shocked takeru revealed son god legendary armor set god could use wraps around decisive duel mesaanya slain kate finally freed spell peace restored village quest completed takeru spends night kate marry leaving adventures game originally released 1990-1991 msx2 nec pc-8801 nec pc-9801 x68000 computer systems enhanced pc engine port removed sexually explicit content added voice acting new graphics developed tamtam released nec avenue 1992 among controversies first erotic game officially published video game console two soundtracks released japan nec avenue dragon knight ii fantastic remix ドラゴンナイト ii ファンタスティック・リミックス october 1991 dragon knight ii pc engine world ドラゴンナイト ii ～ｐｃエンジンワールド 1992 distributed nippon columbia like predecessor dragon knight ii commercial success game placed third msx magazine msx soft top 30 best-selling chart may 1991 even one year later remained 28th place pc engine version fifth pc engine fan chart august 1992 magazine review gave highly positive score 90 famitsu gave score 24/40 electronic gaming monthly egm reported dragon knight ii became sleeper hit japanese role-playing fans made popular fact noticeably different rpgs game opted lots women instead beasts slight characteristics monsters predicting action scantily clad women attack sequel really entice japanese market egm also included game tons interesting people meet 1993 ranking top ten hottest video game babes second place pc engine fan listed mesaanya sophia kate among sexiest female characters pc engine games takeru renamed desmond west returns hero 1991 sequel dragon knight iii titled knights xentar highly rewritten western-localized versions phoenix takeru celebrity former witch tower renamed tower takeru honor revisited sequel fully recovered baan rejoins fight demons kate romantically met takeru uses falcon sword genji armor baan marries marie one girls dragon knight ii I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,776	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: bigtable.bigtable bigtable compressed high performance proprietary data storage system built google file system chubby lock service sstable log-structured storage like leveldb google technologies may 6 2015 public version bigtable made available service bigtable also underlies google cloud datastore available part google cloud platform bigtable development began 2004 used number google applications web indexing mapreduce often used generating modifying data stored bigtable google maps google book search search history google earth blogger.com google code hosting youtube gmail google reasons developing database include scalability better control performance characteristics google spanner rdbms layered implementation bigtable paxos group two-phase commits table google f1 built using spanner replace implementation based mysql bigtable one prototypical examples wide column store maps two arbitrary string values row key column key timestamp hence three-dimensional mapping associated arbitrary byte array relational database better defined sparse distributed multi-dimensional sorted map bigtable designed scale petabyte range across hundreds thousands machines make easy add machines system automatically start taking advantage resources without reconfiguration example google copy web stored bigtable row key domain-reversed url columns describe various properties web page one particular column holding page page column several timestamped versions describing different copies web page timestamped fetched cell bigtable zero timestamped versions data another function timestamp allow versioning garbage collection expired data tables split multiple tablets – segments table split certain row keys tablet hundred megabytes gigabytes size bigtable somewhat like mapreduce worker pool thousands hundreds thousands tablet shards may served hundreds thousands bigtable servers table size threaten grow beyond specified limit tablets may compressed using algorithm bmdiff zippy compression algorithm publicly known open-sourced snappy less space-optimal variation lz77 efficient terms computing time locations gfs tablets recorded database entries multiple special tablets called meta1 tablets meta1 tablets found querying single meta0 tablet typically resides server since often queried clients location meta1 tablet answer question actual data located like gfs master server meta0 server generally bottleneck since processor time bandwidth necessary discover transmit meta1 locations minimal clients aggressively cache locations minimize queries 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_giraph.apache giraph apache giraph apache project perform graph processing big data giraph utilizes apache hadoop mapreduce implementation process graphs facebook used giraph performance improvements analyze one trillion edges using 200 machines 4 minutes giraph based paper published google graph processing system called pregel compared big graph processing libraries cassovary 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_spark.apache spark apache spark open-source distributed general-purpose cluster-computing framework spark provides interface programming entire clusters implicit data parallelism fault tolerance originally developed university california berkeley amplab spark codebase later donated apache software foundation maintained since apache spark architectural foundation resilient distributed dataset rdd read-only multiset data items distributed cluster machines maintained fault-tolerant way dataframe api released abstraction top rdd followed dataset api spark 1.x rdd primary application programming interface api spark 2.x use dataset api encouraged even though rdd api deprecated rdd technology still underlies dataset api spark rdds developed 2012 response limitations mapreduce cluster computing paradigm forces particular linear dataflow structure distributed programs mapreduce programs read input data disk map function across data reduce results map store reduction results disk spark rdds function working set distributed programs offers deliberately restricted form distributed shared memory spark facilitates implementation iterative algorithms visit data set multiple times loop interactive/exploratory data analysis i.e. repeated database-style querying data latency applications may reduced several orders magnitude compared apache hadoop mapreduce implementation among class iterative algorithms training algorithms machine learning systems formed initial impetus developing apache spark apache spark requires cluster manager distributed storage system cluster management spark supports standalone native spark cluster hadoop yarn apache mesos kubernetes distributed storage spark interface wide variety including alluxio hadoop distributed file system hdfs mapr file system mapr-fs cassandra openstack swift amazon s3 kudu lustre file system custom solution implemented spark also supports pseudo-distributed local mode usually used development testing purposes distributed storage required local file system used instead scenario spark run single machine one executor per cpu core spark core foundation overall project provides distributed task dispatching scheduling basic i/o functionalities exposed application programming interface java python scala r centered rdd abstraction java api available jvm languages also usable non-jvm languages connect jvm julia interface mirrors functional/higher-order model programming driver program invokes parallel operations map filter reduce rdd passing function spark schedules function execution parallel cluster operations additional ones joins take rdds input produce new rdds rdds immutable operations lazy fault-tolerance achieved keeping track lineage rdd sequence operations produced reconstructed case data loss rdds contain type python java scala objects besides rdd-oriented functional style programming spark provides two restricted forms shared variables broadcast variables reference read-only data needs available nodes accumulators used program reductions imperative style typical example rdd-centric functional programming following scala program computes frequencies words occurring set text files prints common ones variant takes anonymous function performs simple operation single data item pair items applies argument transform rdd new rdd spark sql component top spark core introduced data abstraction called dataframes provides support structured semi-structured data spark sql provides domain-specific language dsl manipulate dataframes scala java python also provides sql language support command-line interfaces odbc/jdbc server although dataframes lack compile-time type-checking afforded rdds spark 2.0 strongly typed dataset fully supported spark sql well spark streaming uses spark core fast scheduling capability perform streaming analytics ingests data mini-batches performs rdd transformations mini-batches data design enables set application code written batch analytics used streaming analytics thus facilitating easy implementation lambda architecture however convenience comes penalty latency equal mini-batch duration streaming data engines process event event rather mini-batches include storm streaming component flink spark streaming support built-in consume kafka flume twitter zeromq kinesis tcp/ip sockets spark 2.x separate technology based datasets called structured streaming higher-level interface also provided support streaming spark mllib distributed machine-learning framework top spark core due large part distributed memory-based spark architecture much nine times fast disk-based implementation used apache mahout according benchmarks done mllib developers alternating least squares als implementations mahout gained spark interface scales better vowpal wabbit overview spark mllib exists many common machine learning statistical algorithms implemented shipped mllib simplifies large scale machine learning pipelines including graphx distributed graph-processing framework top apache spark based rdds immutable graphs immutable thus graphx unsuitable graphs need updated let alone transactional manner like graph database graphx provides two separate apis implementation massively parallel algorithms pagerank pregel abstraction general mapreduce-style api unlike predecessor bagel formally deprecated spark 1.6 graphx full support property graphs graphs properties attached edges vertices graphx viewed spark in-memory version apache giraph utilized hadoop disk-based mapreduce like apache spark graphx initially started research project uc berkeley amplab databricks later donated apache software foundation spark project spark initially started matei zaharia uc berkeley amplab 2009 open sourced 2010 bsd license 2013 project donated apache software foundation switched license apache 2.0 february 2014 spark became top-level apache project november 2014 spark founder m. zaharia company databricks set new world record large scale sorting using spark spark excess 1000 contributors 2015 making one active projects apache software foundation one active open source big data projects given popularity platform 2014 paid programs like general assembly free fellowships like data incubator started offering customized training courses spark deployed traditional on-premises data center well cloud cloud allows organizations deploy spark without need acquire hardware specific setup expertise providers managed spark solutions enterprise strategy group esg-global.com found 43 respondents considering cloud primary deployment spark top reasons customers perceived cloud advantage spark faster time deployment better availability frequent feature/functionality updates elasticity geographic coverage costs linked actual utilization Target text information: janusgraph.janusgraph janusgraph open source distributed graph database linux foundation janusgraph available apache license 2.0 project supported ibm google hortonworks janusgraph supports various storage backends apache cassandra apache hbase google cloud bigtable oracle berkeleydb scalability janusgraph depends underlying technologies used janusgraph example using apache cassandra storage backend scaling multiple datacenters provided box janusgraph supports global graph data analytics reporting etl integration big data platforms apache spark apache giraph apache hadoop janusgraph supports geo numeric range full-text search via external index storages elasticsearch apache solr apache lucene janusgraph native integration apache tinkerpop graph stack gremlin graph query language gremlin graph server gremlin applications janusgraph fork titandb graph database developed since 2012 janusgraph available apache software license 2.0 contributions individual organisation must sign cla paper I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	1,306	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: mit/gnu_scheme.mit/gnu scheme mit/gnu scheme programming language dialect implementation language scheme type lisp produce native binary files x86 ia-32 x86-64 processor architecture supports standard r7rs mostly free open-source software released gnu general public license gpl first released developers massachusetts institute technology mit 1986 free software even free software foundation gnu gpl existed part gnu project features rich runtime software library powerful source code level debugger native code compiler built-in emacs-like editor named edwin books structure interpretation computer programs structure interpretation classical mechanics include software run mit/gnu scheme edwin built-in emacs-like editor comes mit/gnu scheme edwin normally displays codice_1 data buffer mode line mini-buffer starts emacs mode line gives information like name buffer whether buffer read-only modified unmodified 1-hop neighbor's text information: emacs_lisp.emacs lisp emacs lisp dialect lisp programming language used scripting language emacs text editor family commonly associated gnu emacs xemacs used implementing editing functionality built emacs remainder written c lisp interpreter emacs lisp also termed elisp although also older unrelated lisp dialect name users emacs commonly write emacs lisp code customize extend emacs options include customize feature gnu emacs since version 20 written emacs lisp customize provides set preferences pages allowing user set options preview effect running emacs session user saves changes customize simply writes necessary emacs lisp code user config file set special file customize uses avoid possibility altering user file emacs lisp also function scripting language much like unix bourne shell perl calling emacs batch mode way may called command line via executable file editing functions buffers movement commands available program normal mode user interface presented emacs started batch mode simply executes passed-in script exits displaying output script emacs lisp closely related maclisp later influence common lisp supports imperative functional programming methods richard stallman chose lisp extension language rewrite emacs original used text editor corrector teco extension language powerful features including ability treat functions data although common lisp standard yet formulated scheme existed time stallman rewriting gosling emacs gnu emacs chose use comparatively poor performance workstations opposed minicomputers emacs traditional home wanted develop dialect thought would easily optimized lisp dialect used emacs differs substantially modern common lisp scheme dialects used applications programming prominent characteristic emacs lisp use dynamic rather lexical scope default see function may reference local variables scope called scope defined understand logic behind emacs lisp important remember emphasis providing data structures features specific making versatile text editor implementing general-purpose programming language example emacs lisp easily read file line time—the entire file must read emacs buffer however emacs lisp provides many features navigating modifying buffer text sentence paragraph higher syntactic level defined modes follows simple example emacs extension written emacs lisp emacs editing area split separate areas called windows displaying different buffer buffer region text loaded emacs memory possibly file saved text document users press default c-x 2 key binding open new window runs emacs lisp function codice_1 normally new window appears displays buffer previous one suppose wish make display next available buffer order user writes following emacs lisp code either existing emacs lisp source file empty emacs buffer first statement codice_2 defines new function codice_3 calls codice_1 old window-splitting function tells new window display another new buffer second statement codice_5 re-binds key sequence c-x 2 new function also written using feature called advice allows user create wrappers around existing functions instead defining advantage requiring keybindings changed working wherever original function called well simpler write disadvantage making debugging complicated reason advice allowed source code gnu emacs user wishes advice feature used code reimplement code follows instructs codice_1 execute user-supplied code whenever called executing rest function advice also specified execute original function around it—literally wrapping original conditionally execute original function based results advice emacs 24.4 replaces codice_7 mechanism codice_8 claimed flexible simpler advice could reimplemented using new system changes take effect soon code evaluated necessary recompile restart emacs even rehash configuration file code saved emacs init file emacs load extension next time starts otherwise changes must reevaluated manually emacs restarted emacs lisp code stored filesystems plain text files convention filename suffix .el user init file exception often appearing .emacs despite evaluated emacs lisp code recent versions emacs recent 40-year-old program meaning roughly version released since mid-1990s also load ~/.emacs.el ~/.emacs.d/init.el additionally users may specify file load config file command line explicitly state config file loaded files loaded interpreter component emacs program reads parses functions variables storing memory available editing functions user commands functions variables freely modified redefined without restarting editor reloading config file order save time memory space much functionality emacs loads required set optional features shipped emacs implemented collection emacs code called package library example library highlighting keywords program source code library playing game tetris library implemented using one emacs lisp source files libraries define one major modes activate control function emacs developers write certain functions c. primitives also termed built-in functions subrs although primitives called lisp code modified editing c source files recompiling gnu emacs primitives available external libraries part emacs executable xemacs runtime loading primitives possible using operating system support dynamic linking functions may written primitives need access external data libraries otherwise available emacs lisp called often enough comparative speed c versus emacs lisp makes worthwhile difference however errors c code easily lead segmentation violations subtle bugs crash editor writing c code interacts correctly emacs lisp garbage collector error-prone number functions implemented primitives kept necessary minimum byte-compiling make emacs lisp code execute faster emacs contains compiler translate emacs lisp source files special representation termed bytecode emacs lisp bytecode files filename suffix .elc compared source files bytecode files load faster occupy less space disk use less memory loaded run faster bytecode still runs slowly primitives functions loaded bytecode easily modified re-loaded addition bytecode files platform-independent standard emacs lisp code distributed emacs loaded bytecode although matching source files usually provided user reference well user-supplied extensions typically byte-compiled neither large computationally intensive notably cl package implements fairly large subset common lisp emacs lisp unlike lisp implementations tail-call optimization without tail recursions eventually lead stack overflow apel library aids writing portable emacs lisp code help polysylabi platform bridge emacs lisp lisp-2 meaning function namespace separate namespace uses variables like maclisp emacs lisp uses dynamic scope offering static lexical option starting version 24 activated setting file local variable codice_9 dynamic scoping programmer declares variable within scope function available subroutines called within function originally intended optimization lexical scoping still uncommon uncertain performance asked rms implementing emacs lisp dynamically scoped exact reply lexical scope inefficient dynamic scoping also meant provide greater flexibility user customizations however dynamic scoping several disadvantages firstly easily lead bugs large programs due unintended interactions variables different functions secondly accessing variables dynamic scoping generally slower lexical scoping also codice_10 macro cl package provide effective lexical scope emacs lisp programmers cl widely used codice_10 rarely used 1-hop neighbor's text information: louis_hodes.louis hodes louis hodes june 19 1934 – june 30 2008 american mathematician computer scientist cancer researcher got phd hartley rogers thesis computability john mccarthy late 1950s early 1960s helped produce earliest implementations lisp marvin minsky early research visual pattern recognition lisp also credited idea initial implementation logic programming 1966 moved cancer-related research specifically national institutes health later national cancer institute turned interest visual pattern recognition medical imaging applications also worked efficient algorithms screening chemical compounds studying chemical carcinogenesis work models clustering chemical compounds pronounced milestone developmental therapeutics program national cancer institute revolutioniz ing selection compounds interest measuring novelty chemical structure comparing known compounds Target text information: picolisp.picolisp picolisp programming language dialect language lisp runs operating systems including linux others portable operating system interface posix compliant prominent features simplicity minimalism built one internal data type cell language level programmer use three different data types numbers symbols lists represented cells differentiated bits end cell free open-source software released mit license x11 functions accept arbitrary types numbers arguments macros needed rare cases implemented using quote function picolisp include lisp lambda function quote function changed return arguments unevaluated codice_1 first special feature intrinsic create read update delete crud functioning persistent symbols first-class citizens objects loaded database files automatically accessed written back modified applications written using class hierarchy entities relations features include prolog engine database engine database queries distributed databases inlining c language functions native c function calls child process management interprocess communication browser graphical user interface gui internationalization localization 1980s picolisp began development macintosh used commercial application development since ported dos sco unix since 1993 used mainly linux mid-1990s database functions added first versions written mix c assembly language 1999 first rewrite scratch done fully c. 2002 version released gnu general public license gnu gpl 2010 changed mit/x11 license 2009 64-bit version released another rewrite time written generic assembly turn implemented picolisp version adds support coroutines december 2010 java version named ersatz picolisp released september 2014 burger announced pilmcu project picolisp development listserv effort george orais implement picolisp hardware directly summer 2016 development pilbox picolisp box – generic android app allowing write apps pure picolisp – started still developed maintained I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	7,392	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: multiplexing.multiplexing telecommunications computer networks multiplexing sometimes contracted muxing method multiple analog digital signals combined one signal shared medium aim share scarce resource example telecommunications several telephone calls may carried using one wire multiplexing originated telegraphy 1870s widely applied communications telephony george owen squier credited development telephone carrier multiplexing 1910 multiplexed signal transmitted communication channel cable multiplexing divides capacity communication channel several logical channels one message signal data stream transferred reverse process known demultiplexing extracts original channels receiver end device performs multiplexing called multiplexer mux device performs reverse process called demultiplexer demux dmx inverse multiplexing imux opposite aim multiplexing namely break one data stream several streams transfer simultaneously several communication channels recreate original data stream computing i/o multiplexing also used refer concept processing multiple input/output events single event loop system calls like poll select unix multiple variable bit rate digital bit streams may transferred efficiently single fixed bandwidth channel means statistical multiplexing asynchronous mode time-domain multiplexing form time-division multiplexing digital bit streams transferred analog channel means code-division multiplexing techniques frequency-hopping spread spectrum fhss direct-sequence spread spectrum dsss wireless communications multiplexing also accomplished alternating polarization horizontal/vertical clockwise/counterclockwise adjacent channel satellite phased multi-antenna array combined multiple-input multiple-output communications mimo scheme wired communication space-division multiplexing also known space-division multiple access use separate point-to-point electrical conductors transmitted channel examples include analogue stereo audio cable one pair wires left channel another right channel multi-pair telephone cable switched star network telephone access network switched ethernet network mesh network wireless communication space-division multiplexing achieved multiple antenna elements forming phased array antenna examples multiple-input multiple-output mimo single-input multiple-output simo multiple-input single-output miso multiplexing ieee 802.11g wireless router k antennas makes principle possible communicate k multiplexed channels peak bit rate 54 mbit/s thus increasing total peak bit rate factor k different antennas would give different multi-path propagation echo signatures making possible digital signal processing techniques separate different signals techniques may also utilized space diversity improved robustness fading beamforming improved selectivity rather multiplexing frequency-division multiplexing fdm inherently analog technology fdm achieves combining several signals one medium sending signals several distinct frequency ranges single medium fdm signals electrical signals one common applications fdm traditional radio television broadcasting terrestrial mobile satellite stations cable television one cable reaches customer residential area service provider send multiple television channels signals simultaneously cable subscribers without interference receivers must tune appropriate frequency channel access desired signal variant technology called wavelength-division multiplexing wdm used optical communications time-division multiplexing tdm digital rare cases analog technology uses time instead space frequency separate different data streams tdm involves sequencing groups bits bytes individual input stream one way associated appropriate receiver done sufficiently quickly receiving devices detect circuit time used serve another logical communication path consider application requiring four terminals airport reach central computer terminal communicated 2400 baud rather acquire four individual circuits carry low-speed transmission airline installed pair multiplexers pair 9600 baud modems one dedicated analog communications circuit airport ticket desk back airline data center also installed web proxy servers e.g polipo use tdm http pipelining multiple http transactions onto tcp/ip connection carrier sense multiple access multidrop communication methods similar time-division multiplexing multiple data streams separated time medium signals separate origins instead combined single signal best viewed channel access methods rather form multiplexing td legacy multiplexing technology still providing backbone national fixed line telephony networks europe providing 2m/bit voice signalling ports narrow band telephone exchanges dms100 e1 2m/bit tdm port provides either 30 31 speech timeslots case ccitt7 signalling systems 30 voice channels customer connected q931 dass2 dpnss v5 cass signalling systems polarization-division multiplexing uses polarization electromagnetic radiation separate orthogonal channels practical use radio optical communications particularly 100 gbit/s per channel fiber optic transmission systems orbital angular momentum multiplexing relatively new experimental technique multiplexing multiple channels signals carried using electromagnetic radiation single path potentially used addition physical multiplexing methods greatly expand transmission capacity systems still early research phase small-scale laboratory demonstrations bandwidths 2.5 tbit/s single light path controversial subject academic community many claiming new method multiplexing rather special case space-division multiplexing code division multiplexing cdm code division multiple access cdma spread spectrum class techniques several channels simultaneously share frequency spectrum spectral bandwidth much higher bit rate symbol rate one form frequency hopping another direct sequence spread spectrum latter case channel transmits bits coded channel-specific sequence pulses called chips number chips per bit chips per symbol spreading factor coded transmission typically accomplished transmitting unique time-dependent series short pulses placed within chip times within larger bit time channels different code transmitted fiber radio channel medium asynchronously demultiplexed advantages conventional techniques variable bandwidth possible statistical multiplexing wide bandwidth allows poor signal-to-noise ratio according shannon-hartley theorem multi-path propagation wireless communication combated rake receivers significant application cdma global positioning system gps multiplexing technique may extended multiple access method channel access method example tdm time-division multiple access tdma statistical multiplexing carrier-sense multiple access csma multiple access method makes possible several transmitters connected physical medium share capacity multiplexing provided physical layer osi model multiple access also involves media access control protocol part data link layer transport layer osi model well tcp/ip model provides statistical multiplexing several application layer data flows to/from computer code-division multiplexing cdm technique channel transmits bits coded channel-specific sequence pulses coded transmission typically accomplished transmitting unique time-dependent series short pulses placed within chip times within larger bit time channels different code transmitted fiber asynchronously demultiplexed widely used multiple access techniques time-division multiple access tdma frequency-division multiple access fdma code-division multiplex techniques used access technology namely code-division multiple access cdma universal mobile telecommunications system umts standard third-generation 3g mobile communication identified itu earliest communication technology using electrical wires therefore sharing interest economies afforded multiplexing electric telegraph early experiments allowed two separate messages travel opposite directions simultaneously first using electric battery ends one end telephony customer telephone line typically ends remote concentrator box multiplexed along telephone lines neighborhood similar area multiplexed signal carried central switching office significantly fewer wires much distances customer line practically go likewise also true digital subscriber lines dsl fiber loop fitl common method multiplexing uses optical fiber backbone connects pots phone lines rest pstn also replaces dsl connecting directly ethernet wired home asynchronous transfer mode often communications protocol used cable tv long carried multiplexed television channels late 20th century began offering services telephone companies iptv also depends multiplexing video editing processing systems multiplexing refers process interleaving audio video one coherent data stream digital video transport stream normally feature container format may include metadata information subtitles audio video streams may variable bit rate software produces transport stream and/or container commonly called statistical multiplexer muxer demuxer software extracts otherwise makes available separate processing components stream container digital television systems several variable bit-rate data streams multiplexed together fixed bitrate transport stream means statistical multiplexing makes possible transfer several video audio channels simultaneously frequency channel together various services may involve several standard definition television sdtv programmes particularly dvb-t dvb-s2 isdb atsc-c one hdtv possibly single sdtv companion channel one 6 8 mhz-wide tv channel device accomplishes called statistical multiplexer several systems multiplexing results mpeg transport stream newer dvb standards dvb-s2 dvb-t2 capacity carry several hdtv channels one multiplex digital radio multiplex also known ensemble number radio stations grouped together multiplex stream digital information includes audio data communications satellites carry broadcast television networks radio networks known multiple channel per carrier mcpc multiplexing practical different sources using single transponder single channel per carrier mode used fm broadcasting analog radio media multiplexing term commonly given process adding subcarriers audio signal enters transmitter modulation occurs fact stereo multiplex signal generated using time-division multiplexing switching two left channel right channel input signals ultrasonic rate subcarrier filtering higher harmonics multiplexing sense sometimes known mpx turn also old term stereophonic fm seen stereo systems since 1960s spectroscopy term used indicate experiment performed mixture frequencies respective response unravelled afterwards using fourier transform principle computer programming may refer using single in-memory resource file handle handle multiple external resources on-disk files electrical multiplexing techniques require physical multiplexer device refer keyboard matrix charlieplexing design style high-throughput dna sequencing term used indicate artificial sequences often called barcodes indexes added link given sequence reads given sample thus allow sequencing multiple samples reaction 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_data_storage.computer data storage digvijay singh computer data storage often called storage memory technology consisting computer components recording media used retain digital data core function fundamental component computers central processing unit cpu computer manipulates data performing computations practice almost computers use storage hierarchy puts fast expensive small storage options close cpu slower larger cheaper options farther away generally fast volatile technologies lose data power referred memory slower persistent technologies referred storage even first computer designs charles babbage analytical engine percy ludgate analytical machine clearly distinguished processing memory babbage stored numbers rotations gears ludgate stored numbers displacements rods shuttles distinction extended von neumann architecture cpu consists two main parts control unit arithmetic logic unit alu former controls flow data cpu memory latter performs arithmetic logical operations data without significant amount memory computer would merely able perform fixed operations immediately output result would reconfigured change behavior acceptable devices desk calculators digital signal processors specialized devices von neumann machines differ memory store operating instructions data computers versatile need hardware reconfigured new program simply reprogrammed new in-memory instructions also tend simpler design relatively simple processor may keep state successive computations build complex procedural results modern computers von neumann machines modern digital computer represents data using binary numeral system text numbers pictures audio nearly form information converted string bits binary digits value 1 0 common unit storage byte equal 8 bits piece information handled computer device whose storage space large enough accommodate binary representation piece information simply data example complete works shakespeare 1250 pages print stored five megabytes 40 million bits one byte per character data encoded assigning bit pattern character digit multimedia object many standards exist encoding e.g. character encodings like ascii image encodings like jpeg video encodings like mpeg-4 adding bits encoded unit redundancy allows computer detect errors coded data correct based mathematical algorithms errors generally occur low probabilities due random bit value flipping physical bit fatigue loss physical bit storage ability maintain distinguishable value 0 1 due errors inter intra-computer communication random bit flip e.g. due random radiation typically corrected upon detection bit group malfunctioning physical bits always specific defective bit known group definition depends specific storage device typically automatically fenced-out taken use device replaced another functioning equivalent group device corrected bit values restored possible cyclic redundancy check crc method typically used communications storage error detection detected error retried data compression methods allow many cases database represent string bits shorter bit string compress reconstruct original string decompress needed utilizes substantially less storage tens percents many types data cost computation compress decompress needed analysis trade-off storage cost saving costs related computations possible delays data availability done deciding whether keep certain data compressed security reasons certain types data e.g. credit-card information may kept encrypted storage prevent possibility unauthorized information reconstruction chunks storage snapshots generally lower storage hierarchy lesser bandwidth greater access latency cpu traditional division storage primary secondary tertiary off-line storage also guided cost per bit contemporary usage memory usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory typically dram dynamic ram forms fast temporary storage storage consists storage devices media directly accessible cpu secondary tertiary storage typically hard disk drives optical disc drives devices slower ram non-volatile retaining contents powered historically memory called core memory main memory real storage internal memory meanwhile non-volatile storage devices referred secondary storage external memory auxiliary/peripheral storage primary storage also known main memory internal memory prime memory often referred simply memory one directly accessible cpu cpu continuously reads instructions stored executes required data actively operated also stored uniform manner historically early computers used delay lines williams tubes rotating magnetic drums primary storage 1954 unreliable methods mostly replaced magnetic core memory core memory remained dominant 1970s advances integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory become economically competitive led modern random-access memory ram small-sized light quite expensive time particular types ram used primary storage also volatile i.e lose information powered shown diagram traditionally two sub-layers primary storage besides main large-capacity ram main memory directly indirectly connected central processing unit via memory bus actually two buses diagram address bus data bus cpu firstly sends number address bus number called memory address indicates desired location data reads writes data memory cells using data bus additionally memory management unit mmu small device cpu ram recalculating actual memory address example provide abstraction virtual memory tasks ram types used primary storage volatile uninitialized start computer containing storage would source read instructions order start computer hence non-volatile primary storage containing small startup program bios used bootstrap computer read larger program non-volatile secondary storage ram start execute non-volatile technology used purpose called rom read-only memory terminology may somewhat confusing rom types also capable random access many types rom literally read updates possible however slow memory must erased large portions re-written embedded systems run programs directly rom similar programs rarely changed standard computers store non-rudimentary programs rom rather use large capacities secondary storage non-volatile well costly recently primary storage secondary storage uses refer historically called respectively secondary storage tertiary storage secondary storage also known external memory auxiliary storage differs primary storage directly accessible cpu computer usually uses input/output channels access secondary storage transfer desired data primary storage secondary storage non-volatile retaining data power shut modern computer systems typically two orders magnitude secondary storage primary storage secondary storage less expensive modern computers hard disk drives hdds solid-state drives ssds usually used secondary storage access time per byte hdds ssds typically measured milliseconds one thousandth seconds access time per byte primary storage measured nanoseconds one billionth seconds thus secondary storage significantly slower primary storage rotating optical storage devices cd dvd drives even longer access times examples secondary storage technologies include usb flash drives floppy disks magnetic tape paper tape punched cards ram disks disk read/write head hdds reaches proper placement data subsequent data track fast access reduce seek time rotational latency data transferred disks large contiguous blocks sequential block access disks orders magnitude faster random access many sophisticated paradigms developed design efficient algorithms based upon sequential block access another way reduce i/o bottleneck use multiple disks parallel order increase bandwidth primary secondary memory secondary storage often formatted according file system format provides abstraction necessary organize data files directories also providing metadata describing owner certain file access time access permissions information computer operating systems use concept virtual memory allowing utilization primary storage capacity physically available system primary memory fills system moves least-used chunks pages swap file page file secondary storage retrieving later needed lot pages moved slower secondary storage system performance degraded tertiary storage tertiary memory level secondary storage typically involves robotic mechanism mount insert dismount removable mass storage media storage device according system demands data often copied secondary storage use primarily used archiving rarely accessed information since much slower secondary storage e.g 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds primarily useful extraordinarily large data stores accessed without human operators typical examples include tape libraries optical jukeboxes computer needs read information tertiary storage first consult catalog database determine tape disc contains information next computer instruct robotic arm fetch medium place drive computer finished reading information robotic arm return medium place library tertiary storage also known nearline storage near online formal distinction online nearline offline storage example always-on spinning hard disk drives online storage spinning drives spin automatically massive arrays idle disks maid nearline storage removable media tape cartridges automatically loaded tape libraries nearline storage tape cartridges must manually loaded offline storage off-line storage computer data storage medium device control processing unit medium recorded usually secondary tertiary storage device physically removed disconnected must inserted connected human operator computer access unlike tertiary storage accessed without human interaction off-line storage used transfer information since detached medium easily physically transported additionally case disaster example fire destroys original data medium remote location probably unaffected enabling disaster recovery off-line storage increases general information security since physically inaccessible computer data confidentiality integrity affected computer-based attack techniques also information stored archival purposes rarely accessed off-line storage less expensive tertiary storage modern personal computers secondary tertiary storage media also used off-line storage optical discs flash memory devices popular much lesser extent removable hard disk drives enterprise uses magnetic tape predominant older examples floppy disks zip disks punched cards storage technologies levels storage hierarchy differentiated evaluating certain core characteristics well measuring characteristics specific particular implementation core characteristics volatility mutability accessibility addressability particular implementation storage technology characteristics worth measuring capacity performance non-volatile memory retains stored information even constantly supplied electric power suitable long-term storage information volatile memory requires constant power maintain stored information fastest memory technologies volatile ones although universal rule since primary storage required fast predominantly uses volatile memory dynamic random-access memory form volatile memory also requires stored information periodically reread rewritten refreshed otherwise would vanish static random-access memory form volatile memory similar dram exception never needs refreshed long power applied loses content power supply lost uninterruptible power supply ups used give computer brief window time move information primary volatile storage non-volatile storage batteries exhausted systems example emc symmetrix integrated batteries maintain volatile storage several minutes utilities hdparm sar used measure io performance linux full disk encryption volume virtual disk encryption andor file/folder encryption readily available storage devices hardware memory encryption available intel architecture supporting total memory encryption tme page granular memory encryption multiple keys mktme sparc m7 generation since october 2015.. commonly used data storage media semiconductor magnetic optical paper still sees limited usage fundamental storage technologies all-flash arrays afas proposed development semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits store information semiconductor memory chip may contain millions tiny transistors capacitors volatile non-volatile forms semiconductor memory exist modern computers primary storage almost exclusively consists dynamic volatile semiconductor memory dynamic random-access memory since turn century type non-volatile semiconductor memory known flash memory steadily gained share off-line storage home computers non-volatile semiconductor memory also used secondary storage various advanced electronic devices specialized computers designed early 2006 notebook desktop computer manufacturers started using flash-based solid-state drives ssds default configuration options secondary storage either addition instead traditional hdd magnetic storage uses different patterns magnetization magnetically coated surface store information magnetic storage non-volatile information accessed using one read/write heads may contain one recording transducers read/write head covers part surface head medium must moved relative another order access data modern computers magnetic storage take forms early computers magnetic storage also used optical storage typical optical disc stores information deformities surface circular disc reads information illuminating surface laser diode observing reflection optical disc storage non-volatile deformities may permanent read media formed write media reversible recordable read/write media following forms currently common use magneto-optical disc storage optical disc storage magnetic state ferromagnetic surface stores information information read optically written combining magnetic optical methods magneto-optical disc storage non-volatile sequential access slow write fast read storage used tertiary off-line storage 3d optical data storage also proposed light induced magnetization melting magnetic photoconductors also proposed high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage paper data storage typically form paper tape punched cards long used store information automatic processing particularly general-purpose computers existed information recorded punching holes paper cardboard medium read mechanically later optically determine whether particular location medium solid contained hole technologies allow people make marks paper easily read machine—these widely used tabulating votes grading standardized tests barcodes made possible object sold transported computer readable information securely attached group bits malfunction may resolved error detection correction mechanisms see storage device malfunction requires different solutions following solutions commonly used valid storage devices device mirroring typical raid designed handle single device failure raid group devices however second failure occurs raid group completely repaired first failure data lost probability single failure typically small thus probability two failures raid group time proximity much smaller approximately probability squared i.e. multiplied database tolerate even smaller probability data loss raid group replicated mirrored many cases mirroring done geographically remotely different storage array handle also recovery disasters see disaster recovery secondary tertiary storage may connect computer utilizing computer networks concept pertain primary storage shared multiple processors lesser degree large quantities individual magnetic tapes optical magneto-optical discs may stored robotic tertiary storage devices tape storage field known tape libraries optical storage field optical jukeboxes optical disk libraries per analogy smallest forms either technology containing one drive device referred autoloaders autochangers robotic-access storage devices may number slots holding individual media usually one picking robots traverse slots load media built-in drives arrangement slots picking devices affects performance important characteristics storage possible expansion options adding slots modules drives robots tape libraries may 10 100,000 slots provide terabytes petabytes near-line information optical jukeboxes somewhat smaller solutions 1,000 slots robotic storage used backups high-capacity archives imaging medical video industries hierarchical storage management known archiving strategy automatically migrating long-unused files fast hard disk storage libraries jukeboxes files needed retrieved back disk Target text information: geoplexing.geoplexing geoplexing computer science term relating duplication computer storage applications within server farm geographically diverse locations purpose fault tolerance name comes contraction geographical multiplex geoplex server clusters duplicated one geographically separate sites geoplexes active-active clusters used tandem active-passive one clusters kept hot spare data applications shared either via cloning partitioning cloning server cluster handles one applications applications data cloned servers geoplex load balancer distributes requests cloned servers partitioning hardware applications duplicated geoplex application data divided servers requests routed correct server I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	10,429	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: kernal.kernal kernal commodore name rom-resident operating system core 8-bit home computers original pet 1977 followed extended strongly related versions used successors vic-20 commodore 64 plus/4 c16 c128 commodore 8-bit machines kernal consists low-level close-to-the-hardware os routines roughly equivalent bios ibm pc compatibles contrast basic interpreter routines also located rom well higher-level device-independent i/o functionality user-callable via jump table whose central oldest part reasons backwards compatibility remains largely identical throughout whole 8-bit series kernal rom occupies last 8 kb 8-bit cpu 64 kb address space e000- ffff jump table modified point user-written routines example rewriting screen display routines display animated graphics copying character set ram use jump table new small computers time adventure international games published vic-20 cartridge example software uses kernal use jump table games memory dumped disk loaded commodore 64 run without modification kernal initially written commodore pet john feagans introduced idea separating basic routines operating system developed several people notably robert russell added many features vic-20 c64 simple yet characteristic example using kernal given following 6502 assembly language subroutine written ca65 assembler format/syntax code stub employs codice_1 routine whose address found address codice_2 65490 send text string default output device e.g. display screen kernal known kernel inside commodore since pet days 1980 robert russell misspelled word kernal notebooks commodore technical writers neil harris andy finkel collected russell notes used basis vic-20 programmer manual misspelling followed along stuck according early commodore myth reported writer/programmer jim butterfield among others word kernal acronym maybe likely backronym standing keyboard entry read network link fact makes good sense considering role berkeley softworks later used naming core routines gui os 8-bit home computers geos kernal surprisingly kernal implemented device-independent i/o api entirely dissimilar unix plan-9 nobody actually exploited far publicly known whereas one could reasonably argue everything file latter systems others could easily claim everything gpib-device former due limitations 6502 architecture time opening i/o channel requires three system calls first typically sets logical filename codice_3 system call second call codice_4 establishes gpib/ieee-488 device address communicate finally codice_5 called perform actual transaction application used codice_6 codice_7 system calls set application current input output channels respectively applications may number concurrently open files system-dependent limit e.g. c64 allows ten files opened thereafter codice_8 codice_1 prove useful actually conducting input output respectively codice_10 closes channel observe system call exists create i/o channel devices created destroyed dynamically normal circumstances likewise means exists seeking performing i/o control functions ioctl unix indeed kernal proves much closer plan-9 philosophy application would open special command channel indicated device conduct meta out-of-band transactions example delete scratch file disk user typically open resource called codice_11 device 8 9 channel 15 per established convention commodore 8-bit world channel 15 represents command channel peripherals relying message-passing techniques communicate commands results including exceptional cases example commodore basic might find software unlike following device numbers per established documentation restricted range 0,16 however limitation came specific adaptation ieee-488 protocol effect applies external peripherals relevant kernal system calls vectored programmers intercept system calls implement virtual devices address range 32,256 conceivably one load device driver binary memory patch kernal i/o vectors moment forward new virtual device could addressed far capability never publicly known utilized presumably two reasons 1 kernal provides means dynamically allocating device ids 2 kernal provides means loading relocatable binary image thus burden collisions i/o space memory space falls upon user platform compatibility across wide range machines falls upon software author nonetheless support software functions could easily implemented desired logical filename formats tends depend upon specific device addressed common device used course floppy disk system uses format similar codice_12 flag sorts directory listing indicating desire overwrite file already exists unused otherwise optional physical disk unit number 0 1 dual-drive systems 0 single-disk units like 1541 et al. defaults 0 left unspecified codice_13 resource name 16 characters length characters allowed except certain special characters codice_14 optional comma-separated list attributes flags example user wants overwrite program file called codice_15 might see filename like codice_16 used conjunction device 8 9 meanwhile filename rs-232 driver device 2 consists simply four characters encoded binary format devices keyboard device 0 cassette device 1 display interface device 3 printer device 4 5 require filenames function either assuming reasonable defaults simply needing 1-hop neighbor's text information: cylinder-head-sector.cylinder-head-sector cylinder-head-sector chs early method giving addresses physical block data hard disk drive 3d-coordinate system made vertical coordinate head horizontal radial coordinate cylinder angular coordinate sector head selects circular surface platter disk one two sides cylinder cylindrical intersection stack platters disk centered around disk spindle combined together cylinder head intersect circular line precisely circular strip physical data blocks called track sector finally selects data block track addressed viewed sort angular component chs addresses exposed instead simple linear addresses going 0 total block count disk 1 early hard drives n't come embedded disk controller would hide physical layout separate generic controller card used operating system know exact physical geometry specific drive attached controller correctly address data blocks geometry became complicated example introduction zone bit recording drive sizes grew time chs addressing method became restrictive since late 1980s hard drives begun shipping embedded disk controller good knowledge physical geometry would however report false geometry computer e.g. larger number heads actually present gain addressable space logical chs values would translated controller thus chs addressing longer corresponded physical attributes drive soon hard drive interfaces replaced chs scheme logical block addressing many tools manipulating master boot record mbr partition table still aligned partitions cylinder boundaries thus artifacts chs addressing still seen partitioning programs 2010s early 2010s disk size limitations imposed mbr became problematic guid partition table gpt designed replacement modern computers without mbr longer use notions chs addressing chs addressing process identifying individual sectors aka physical block data disk position track track determined head cylinder numbers terms explained bottom disk addressing sector smallest unit disk controllers introduce address translations map logical physical positions e.g. zone bit recording stores fewer sectors shorter inner tracks physical disk formats necessarily cylindrical sector numbers track skewed floppy disks controllers use physical sector sizes 128 256 512 1024 bytes e.g. pc/ax whereby formats 512 bytes per physical sector became dominant 1980s common physical sector size harddisks today 512 bytes hard disks 520 bytes per sector well non-ibm compatible machines 2005 seagate custom hard disks used sector sizes 1024 bytes per sector advanced format hard disks use 4096 bytes per physical sector 4kn since 2010 also able emulate 512 byte sectors 512e transitional period magneto-optical drives use sector sizes 512 1024 bytes 5.25-inch drives 512 2048 bytes 3.5-inch drives chs addressing sector numbers always start 1 sector 0 lead confusion since logical sector addressing schemes e.g. logical block addressing lba relative sector addressing dos typically start counting 0 physical disk geometries maximal sector number determined low level format disk however disk access bios ibm-pc compatible machines sector number encoded six bits resulting maximal number 111111 63 sectors per track maximum still use virtual chs geometries tracks thin concentric circular strips sectors least one head required read single track respect disk geometries terms track cylinder closely related single double sided floppy disk track common term two heads cylinder common term strictly speaking track given codice_1 combination consisting codice_2 sectors cylinder consists codice_3 sectors cylinder division data disk drive used chs addressing mode fixed block architecture disk cylinder–head–record cchhr addressing mode ckd disk concept concentric hollow cylindrical slices physical disks platters collecting respective circular tracks aligned stack platters number cylinders disk drive exactly equals number tracks single surface drive comprises track number platter spanning tracks across platter surface able store data without regard whether track bad cylinders vertically formed tracks words track 12 platter 0 plus track 12 platter 1 etc cylinder 12 forms direct access storage device dasd drum memory devices ibm 2321 data cell might give blocks addresses include cylinder address although cylinder address n't select geometric cylindrical slice device device called head reads writes data hard drive manipulating magnetic medium composes surface associated disk platter naturally platter 2 sides thus 2 surfaces data manipulated usually 2 heads per platter one per side sometimes term side substituted head since platters might separated head assemblies removable media floppy drive codice_4 addressing supported ibm-pc compatible bioses code used eight bits theoretically 256 heads counted head 0 255 codice_5 however bug versions microsoft dos/ibm pc dos including 7.10 cause operating systems crash boot encountering volumes 256 heads therefore compatible bioses use mappings 255 heads codice_6 including virtual codice_7 geometries historical oddity affect maximum disk size old bios int 13h code well old pc dos similar operating systems codice_8 mb actually codice_9 mb yields known 8 gb limit context relevant definition 8 gb 8192 mb another incorrect limit would require chs codice_10 64 sectors per track tracks cylinders counted 0 i.e. track 0 first outer-most track floppy cylindrical disks old bios code supported ten bits chs addressing 1024 cylinders codice_11 adding six bits sectors eight bits heads results 24 bits supported bios interrupt 13h subtracting disallowed sector number 0 codice_12 tracks corresponds 128 mb sector size 512 bytes codice_13 codice_14 confirms roughly 8 gb limit chs addressing starts codice_15 maximal value codice_16 codice_17 bits codice_18 24 bits limited 255 heads chs values used specify geometry disk count cylinder 0 head 0 resulting maximum codice_19 codice_20 24 bits 256 255 heads chs tuples specifying geometry actually means sectors per track virtual geometry still matches capacity disk contains codice_21 sectors larger hard disks come use cylinder become also logical disk structure standardised 16 065 sectors codice_22 chs addressing 28 bits eide ata-2 permits eight bits sectors still starting 1 i.e. sectors 1…255 four bits heads 0…15 sixteen bits cylinders 0…65535 results roughly 128 gb limit actually codice_23 sectors corresponding 130560 mb sector size 512 bytes codice_24 bits ata-2 specification also covered ralf brown interrupt list old working draft expired standard published old bios limit 1024 cylinders ata limit 16 heads combined effect codice_25 sectors i.e. 504 mb limit sector size 512 bios translation schemes known echs revised echs mitigated limitation using 128 240 instead 16 heads simultaneously reducing numbers cylinders sectors fit codice_26 echs limit 4032 mb codice_27 revised echs limit 7560 mb given total number sectors disk unix communities employ term block refer sector group sectors example linux fdisk utility version 2.25 displayed partition sizes using 1024-byte blocks clusters allocation units data various file systems fat ntfs etc data mainly consists files clusters directly affected physical virtual geometry disk i.e. cluster begin sector near end given codice_1 track end sector physically logically next codice_1 track 2002 ata-6 specification introduced optional 48 bits logical block addressing declared chs addressing obsolete still allowed implement ata-5 translations unsurprisingly chs lba translation formula given also matches last ata-5 chs translation ata-5 specification chs support mandatory 16 514 064 sectors optional larger disks ata-5 limit corresponds chs codice_30 equivalent disk capacities 16514064 16383×16×63 1032×254×63 requires 24 14+4+6 bits 16383 1 2 chs tuples mapped onto lba addresses using following formula lba address n number heads disk n maximum number sectors per track c h chs address logical sector number formula ecma-107 iso/iec 9293:1994 superseding iso 9293:1987 standards fat file systems matches exactly lba formula given logical block address logical sector number lsn synonyms formula use number cylinders requires number heads number sectors per track disk geometry chs tuple addresses different logical sector numbers depending geometry examples help visualize sequencing sectors linear lba model note cylinder head record format used count key data ckd hard disks ibm mainframes since least 1960s largely comparable cylinder head sector format used pcs save sector size fixed could vary track track based needs application contemporary use disk geometry presented mainframe emulated storage firmware longer relation physical disk geometry earlier hard drives used pc mfm rll drives divided cylinder equal number sectors chs values matched physical properties drive drive chs tuple codice_43 would 500 tracks per side platter two platters 4 heads 32 sectors per track total 32 768 000 bytes 31.25 mb ata/ide drives much efficient storing data replaced archaic mfm rll drives use zone bit recording zbr number sectors dividing track varies location groups tracks surface platter tracks nearer edge platter contain blocks data tracks close spindle physical space within given track near edge platter thus chs addressing scheme correspond directly physical geometry drives due varying number sectors per track different regions platter many drives still surplus sectors less 1 cylinder size end drive since total number sectors rarely ever ends cylinder boundary ata/ide drive set system bios configuration cylinders heads sectors exceed capacity drive bios since drive convert given chs value actual address specific hardware configuration however cause compatibility problems operating systems microsoft dos older version windows partition must start end cylinder boundary modern operating systems windows xp included may disregard rule still cause compatibility issues especially user wants perform dual booting drive microsoft follow rule internal disk partition tools since windows vista 1-hop neighbor's text information: programming_language.programming language programming language formal language comprises set instructions produce various kinds output programming languages used computer programming implement algorithms programming languages consist instructions computers programmable machines use set specific instructions rather general programming languages early ones preceded invention digital computer first probably automatic flute player described 9th century brothers musa baghdad islamic golden age since early 1800s programs used direct behavior machines jacquard looms music boxes player pianos programs machines player piano scrolls produce different behavior response different inputs conditions thousands different programming languages created created every year many programming languages written imperative form i.e. sequence operations perform languages use declarative form i.e desired result specified achieve description programming language usually split two components syntax form semantics meaning languages defined specification document example c programming language specified iso standard languages perl dominant implementation treated reference languages basic language defined standard extensions taken dominant implementation common programming language notation writing programs specifications computation algorithm authors restrict term programming language languages express possible algorithms traits often considered important constitutes programming language include markup languages like xml html troff define structured data usually considered programming languages programming languages may however share syntax markup languages computational semantics defined xslt example turing complete language entirely using xml syntax moreover latex mostly used structuring documents also contains turing complete subset term computer language sometimes used interchangeably programming language however usage terms varies among authors including exact scope one usage describes programming languages subset computer languages similarly languages used computing different goal expressing computer programs generically designated computer languages instance markup languages sometimes referred computer languages emphasize meant used programming another usage regards programming languages theoretical constructs programming abstract machines computer languages subset thereof runs physical computers finite hardware resources john c. reynolds emphasizes formal specification languages much programming languages languages intended execution also argues textual even graphical input formats affect behavior computer programming languages despite fact commonly turing-complete remarks ignorance programming language concepts reason many flaws input formats early computers colossus programmed without help stored program modifying circuitry setting banks physical controls slightly later programs could written machine language programmer writes instruction numeric form hardware execute directly example instruction add value two memory location might consist 3 numbers opcode selects add operation two memory locations programs decimal binary form read punched cards paper tape magnetic tape toggled switches front panel computer machine languages later termed first-generation programming languages 1gl next step development so-called second-generation programming languages 2gl assembly languages still closely tied instruction set architecture specific computer served make program much human-readable relieved programmer tedious error-prone address calculations first high-level programming languages third-generation programming languages 3gl written 1950s early high-level programming language designed computer plankalkül developed german z3 konrad zuse 1943 1945 however implemented 1998 2000 john mauchly short code proposed 1949 one first high-level languages ever developed electronic computer unlike machine code short code statements represented mathematical expressions understandable form however program translated machine code every time ran making process much slower running equivalent machine code university manchester alick glennie developed autocode early 1950s programming language used compiler automatically convert language machine code first code compiler developed 1952 mark 1 computer university manchester considered first compiled high-level programming language second autocode developed mark 1 r. a. brooker 1954 called mark 1 autocode brooker also developed autocode ferranti mercury 1950s conjunction university manchester version edsac 2 devised d. f. hartley university cambridge mathematical laboratory 1961 known edsac 2 autocode straight development mercury autocode adapted local circumstances noted object code optimisation source-language diagnostics advanced time contemporary separate thread development atlas autocode developed university manchester atlas 1 machine 1954 fortran invented ibm john backus first widely used high-level general purpose programming language functional implementation opposed design paper still popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers another early programming language devised grace hopper us called flow-matic developed univac remington rand period 1955 1959 hopper found business data processing customers uncomfortable mathematical notation early 1955 team wrote specification english programming language implemented prototype flow-matic compiler became publicly available early 1958 substantially complete 1959 flow-matic major influence design cobol since direct descendant aimaco actual use time increased use high-level languages introduced requirement low-level programming languages system programming languages languages varying degrees provide facilities assembly languages high-level languages used perform tasks require direct access hardware facilities still provide higher-level control structures error-checking period 1960s late 1970s brought development major language paradigms use languages spawned descendants modern programming languages count least one ancestry 1960s 1970s also saw considerable debate merits structured programming whether programming languages designed support edsger dijkstra famous 1968 letter published communications acm argued goto statements eliminated higher level programming languages 1980s years relative consolidation c++ combined object-oriented systems programming united states government standardized ada systems programming language derived pascal intended use defense contractors japan elsewhere vast sums spent investigating so-called fifth-generation languages incorporated logic programming constructs functional languages community moved standardize ml lisp rather inventing new paradigms movements elaborated upon ideas invented previous decades one important trend language design programming large-scale systems 1980s increased focus use modules large-scale organizational units code modula-2 ada ml developed notable module systems 1980s often wedded generic programming constructs rapid growth internet mid-1990s created opportunities new languages perl originally unix scripting tool first released 1987 became common dynamic websites java came used server-side programming bytecode virtual machines became popular commercial settings promise write run anywhere ucsd pascal popular time early 1980s developments fundamentally novel rather refinements many existing languages paradigms although syntax often based c family programming languages programming language evolution continues industry research current directions include security reliability verification new kinds modularity mixins delegates aspects database integration microsoft linq fourth-generation programming languages 4gl computer programming languages aim provide higher level abstraction internal computer hardware details 3gls fifth-generation programming languages 5gl programming languages based solving problems using constraints given program rather using algorithm written programmer programming languages primitive building blocks description data processes transformations applied like addition two numbers selection item collection primitives defined syntactic semantic rules describe structure meaning respectively programming language surface form known syntax programming languages purely textual use sequences text including words numbers punctuation much like written natural languages hand programming languages graphical nature using visual relationships symbols specify program syntax language describes possible combinations symbols form syntactically correct program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard-coded reference implementation since languages textual article discusses textual syntax programming language syntax usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus–naur form grammatical structure simple grammar based lisp grammar specifies following following examples well-formed token sequences grammar codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill-formed per language rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well-defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence may false following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operations semantically defined operation codice_4 meaning value complex type codice_5 defined value codice_6 null pointer type declaration first line omitted program would trigger error undefined variable p compilation however program would still syntactically correct since type declarations provide semantic information grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy syntax programming languages specified using type-2 grammar i.e. context-free grammars languages including perl lisp contain constructs allow execution parsing phase languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser make syntax analysis undecidable problem generally blur distinction parsing execution contrast lisp macro system perl codice_7 blocks may contain general computations c macros merely string replacements require code execution term semantics refers meaning languages opposed form syntax static semantics defines restrictions structure valid texts hard impossible express standard syntactic formalisms compiled languages static semantics essentially include semantic rules checked compile time examples include checking every identifier declared used languages require declarations labels arms case statement distinct many important restrictions type like checking identifiers used appropriate context e.g adding integer function name subroutine calls appropriate number type arguments enforced defining rules logic called type system forms static analyses like data flow analysis may also part static semantics newer programming languages like java c definite assignment analysis form data flow analysis part static semantics data specified machine must instructed perform operations data example semantics may define strategy expressions evaluated values manner control structures conditionally execute statements dynamic semantics also known execution semantics language defines various constructs language produce program behavior many ways defining execution semantics natural language often used specify execution semantics languages commonly used practice significant amount academic research went formal semantics programming languages allow execution semantics specified formal manner results field research seen limited application programming language design implementation outside academia type system defines programming language classifies values expressions types manipulate types interact goal type system verify usually enforce certain level correctness programs written language detecting certain incorrect operations decidable type system involves trade-off rejects many incorrect programs also prohibit correct albeit unusual programs order bypass downside number languages type loopholes usually unchecked casts may used programmer explicitly allow normally disallowed operation different types typed languages type system used type check programs number languages usually functional ones infer types relieving programmer need write type annotations formal design study type systems known type theory language typed specification every operation defines types data operation applicable example data represented codice_8 string many programming languages dividing number string meaning executed invalid operation may detected program compiled static type checking rejected compiler compilation error message may detected program running dynamic type checking resulting run-time exception many languages allow function called exception handler handle exception example always return -1 result special case typed languages single-typed languages often scripting markup languages rexx sgml one data type–—most commonly character strings used symbolic numeric data contrast untyped language assembly languages allows operation performed data generally sequences bits various lengths high-level untyped languages include bcpl tcl varieties forth practice languages considered typed type theory verifying rejecting operations modern languages offer degree typing many production languages provide means bypass subvert type system trading type-safety finer control program execution see casting static typing expressions types determined prior program executed typically compile-time example 1 2+2 integer expressions passed function expects string stored variable defined hold dates statically typed languages either manifestly typed type-inferred first case programmer must explicitly write types certain textual positions example variable declarations second case compiler infers types expressions declarations based context mainstream statically typed languages c++ c java manifestly typed complete type inference traditionally associated less mainstream languages haskell ml however many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference example c++ java c infer types certain limited cases additionally programming languages allow types automatically converted types example int used program expects float dynamic typing also called latent typing determines type-safety operations run time words types associated run-time values rather textual expressions type-inferred languages dynamically typed languages require programmer write explicit type annotations expressions among things may permit single variable refer values different types different points program execution however type errors automatically detected piece code actually executed potentially making debugging difficult lisp smalltalk perl python javascript ruby examples dynamically typed languages weak typing allows value one type treated another example treating string number occasionally useful also allow kinds program faults go undetected compile time even run time strong typing prevents program faults attempt perform operation wrong type value raises error strongly typed languages often termed type-safe safe alternative definition weakly typed refers languages perl javascript permit large number implicit type conversions javascript example expression codice_9 implicitly converts codice_10 number conversion succeeds even codice_10 codice_12 codice_13 codice_14 string letters implicit conversions often useful mask programming errors strong static generally considered orthogonal concepts usage literature differs use term strongly typed mean strongly statically typed even confusingly mean simply statically typed thus c called strongly typed weakly statically typed may seem odd professional programmers c could weakly statically typed however notice use generic pointer void* pointer allow casting pointers pointers without needing explicit cast extremely similar somehow casting array bytes kind datatype c without using explicit cast codice_15 codice_16 programming languages associated core library sometimes known 'standard library especially included part published language standard conventionally made available implementations language core libraries typically include definitions commonly used algorithms data structures mechanisms input output line language core library differs language language cases language designers may treat library separate entity language however language core library often treated part language users language specifications even require library made available implementations indeed languages designed meanings certain syntactic constructs even described without referring core library example java string literal defined instance codice_17 class similarly smalltalk anonymous function expression block constructs instance library codice_18 class conversely scheme contains multiple coherent subsets suffice construct rest language library macros language designers even bother say portions language must implemented language constructs must implemented parts library programming languages share properties natural languages related purpose vehicles communication syntactic form separate semantics showing language families related languages branching one another artificial constructs also differ fundamental ways languages evolved usage significant difference programming language fully described studied entirety since precise finite definition contrast natural languages changing meanings given users different communities constructed languages also artificial languages designed ground specific purpose lack precise complete semantic definition programming language many programming languages designed scratch altered meet new needs combined languages many eventually fallen disuse although attempts design one universal programming language serves purposes failed generally accepted filling role need diverse programming languages arises diversity contexts languages used one common trend development programming languages add ability solve problems using higher level abstraction earliest programming languages tied closely underlying hardware computer new programming languages developed features added let programmers express ideas remote simple translation underlying hardware instructions programmers less tied complexity computer programs computing less effort programmer lets write functionality per time unit natural language programming proposed way eliminate need specialized language programming however goal remains distant benefits open debate edsger w. dijkstra took position use formal language essential prevent introduction meaningless constructs dismissed natural language programming foolish alan perlis similarly dismissive idea hybrid approaches taken structured english sql language designers users must construct number artifacts govern enable practice programming important artifacts language specification implementation specification programming language artifact language users implementors use agree upon whether piece source code valid program language behavior shall programming language specification take several forms including following implementation programming language provides way write programs language execute one configurations hardware software broadly two approaches programming language implementation compilation interpretation generally possible implement language using either technique output compiler may executed hardware program called interpreter implementations make use interpreter approach distinct boundary compiling interpreting instance implementations basic compile execute source line time programs executed directly hardware usually run much faster interpreted software one technique improving performance interpreted programs just-in-time compilation virtual machine execution translates blocks bytecode going used machine code direct execution hardware although commonly used programming languages fully open specifications implementations many programming languages exist proprietary programming languages implementation available single vendor may claim proprietary language intellectual property proprietary programming languages commonly domain specific languages internal scripting languages single product proprietary languages used internally within vendor others available external users programming languages exist border proprietary open example oracle corporation asserts proprietary rights aspects java programming language microsoft c programming language open implementations parts system also common language runtime clr closed environment many proprietary languages widely used spite proprietary nature examples include matlab vbscript wolfram language languages may make transition closed open example erlang originally ericsson internal programming language thousands different programming languages created mainly computing field software commonly built 5 programming languages programming languages differ forms human expression require greater degree precision completeness using natural language communicate people human authors speakers ambiguous make small errors still expect intent understood however figuratively speaking computers exactly told understand code programmer intended write combination language definition program program inputs must fully specify external behavior occurs program executed within domain control program hand ideas algorithm communicated humans without precision required execution using pseudocode interleaves natural language code written programming language programming language provides structured mechanism defining pieces data operations transformations may carried automatically data programmer uses abstractions present language represent concepts involved computation concepts represented collection simplest elements available called primitives programming process programmers combine primitives compose new programs adapt existing ones new uses changing environment programs computer might executed batch process without human interaction user might type commands interactive session interpreter case commands simply programs whose execution chained together language run commands interpreter unix shell command-line interface without compiling called scripting language determining widely used programming language difficult since definition usage varies context one language may occupy greater number programmer hours different one lines code third may consume cpu time languages popular particular kinds applications example cobol still strong corporate data center often large mainframes fortran scientific engineering applications ada aerospace transportation military real-time embedded applications c embedded applications operating systems languages regularly used write many different kinds applications various methods measuring language popularity subject different bias measured proposed combining averaging information various internet sites stackify.com reported ten popular programming languages descending order overall popularity java c c++ python c javascript vb .net r php matlab dialect programming language data exchange language relatively small variation extension language change intrinsic nature languages scheme forth standards may considered insufficient inadequate illegitimate implementors often deviate standard making new dialect cases dialect created use domain-specific language often subset lisp world languages use basic s-expression syntax lisp-like semantics considered lisp dialects although vary wildly say racket clojure common one language several dialects become quite difficult inexperienced programmer find right documentation basic programming language many dialects explosion forth dialects led saying 've seen one forth ... 've seen one forth overarching classification scheme programming languages given programming language usually single ancestor language languages commonly arise combining elements several predecessor languages new ideas circulation time ideas originate one language diffuse throughout family related languages leap suddenly across familial gaps appear entirely different family task complicated fact languages classified along multiple axes example java object-oriented language encourages object-oriented organization concurrent language contains built-in constructs running multiple threads parallel python object-oriented scripting language broad strokes programming languages divide programming paradigms classification intended domain use general-purpose programming languages distinguished domain-specific programming languages traditionally programming languages regarded describing computation terms imperative sentences i.e issuing commands generally called imperative programming languages great deal research programming languages aimed blurring distinction program set instructions program assertion desired answer main feature declarative programming refined paradigms include procedural programming object-oriented programming functional programming logic programming languages hybrids paradigms multi-paradigmatic assembly language much paradigm direct model underlying machine architecture purpose programming languages might considered general purpose system programming languages scripting languages domain-specific languages concurrent/distributed languages combination general purpose languages designed largely educational goals programming language may also classified factors unrelated programming paradigm instance programming languages use english language keywords minority languages may classified deliberately esoteric Target text information: idedos.idedos idedos rom-based disk operating system written 6502/65816 assembly language commodore 64 128 supercpu main purpose control ata pi devices connected ide64 cartridge present like normal commodore drives additionally supports networked drives pclink built-in machine code monitor file manager c64 kernal uses vector table page 3 allow redirection common kernal file handling basic functions feature used idedos hook c64 kernal operating system divided four pages 16 kib mapped required mapping temporarily switched interrupts running increased compatibility however causes ≈40 μs latency additional ram buffers internal data also mapped either ide64 cartridge 28 kib additional ram supercpu used standard kernal memory locations page zero page two handled kernal-compatible way temporarily used memory restored routines finished beyond kernal table idedos two new calls bulk data handling read/write allows much faster data transfer rates character-based i/o native file system non-cbm style low level allow partitions greater 16 mib high-level features like 16-character filenames filetypes retained due complexity memory requirements filesystem creation consistency check part operating system unlike cbm dos cmd dos additional filesystems like iso 9660 fat abstracted internally mostly use routines handling thereby little difference noticeable user programs except features fully implemented device handling done additional device numbers assigned new devices device numbers idedos devices configurable normally range 10–14 years many programs assumed device 8 allow selecting anything else worked around temporary changing used idedos device number 8 standard devices original kernal routines used idedos devices use custom routines closely imitate results behavior kernal calls floppy devices kernal calls going vector table notably iec bus-specific calls present incompatibility programs using special features like cd-rom audio handling implemented new channel 15 commands features found floppy drives follow cmd style commands allow programs easily support wider range devices unlike intelligent external devices separate processor like 1541 cbmdos idedos runs host computer thereby disk routines block finished rules use irq loaders commonly used speed operation serial bus peripherals interrupts generally allowed idedos running disabled rare time-critical operations however system written non-reentrant like original kernal 1996 idedos born need system run ide64 1.1 card created josef souček main code tomáš přibyl file manager final cartridge monitor adaptation additional code came jan vorlíček basic extension jan hlaváček duart pclink 2000 kajtár zsolt added cdrom support new setup code lot fixes due limitations design development completely rewritten version 0.90 started kajtár zsolt ready general use 2005 meanwhile old version reached 0.898b june 2004 2009 64 kib limit system started get tight idedos 0.91 beta started refactor code gain space internal flexibility last version old idedos series built fast loader supported devices fast load switched setup case incompatibility non-1541 device 8 minimum interleave 7 fast saver supported manager uses interleave 8 pal/ntsc compatible timing custom protocol sequential access supported devices includes clock calendar ability set drive numbers screen colours auto boot floppy fast loader basic clock ti power management write retry read-ahead write cache drive settings cdrom slow option basic extension includes disk handling commands limited idedos devices adds new error messages commands used navigate around directories start programs copy/rename/delete files create directories execute plugins operate files recursive file copy added 0.898b rare cases work monitor almost exactly final cartridge monitor idedos 0.89 standard 6502 opcodes available commands current stable latest version 20100509 patch 45 notable differences 0.89 supported devices device support automatically detected disabled manually needed pal/ntsc compatible timing fast saver file manager custom protocol sequential access supported devices mostly well known standard dos wedge commands basic extension adds disk handling commands used device use cmd style commands file managers inspiration comes 0.89 though rewritten scratch goal file manager supports idedos devices also works well cmd drives monitor rewritten scratch main inspiration ccs64 emulator monitor command ideas came fc3/ar7/vice monitors goal freezer style registers including i/o editable fast machine code monitor supports illegal 6502 supercpu emulation mode opcodes commands still development notable differences 0.90 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,494	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: asynchronous_module_definition.asynchronous module definition asynchronous module definition amd specification programming language javascript defines application programming interface api defines code module dependencies loads asynchronously desired implementations amd provide following benefits addition loading multiple javascript files runtime amd implementations allow developers encapsulate code smaller logically-organized files way similar programming languages java production deployment developers concatenate minify javascript modules based amd api one file traditional javascript amd specification implemented dojo toolkit requirejs libraries 1-hop neighbor's text information: index_of_javascript-related_articles.index javascript-related articles list articles related javascript programming language 1-hop neighbor's text information: javascript.javascript javascript often abbreviated js high-level interpreted scripting language conforms ecmascript specification javascript curly-bracket syntax dynamic typing prototype-based object-orientation first-class functions alongside html css javascript one core technologies world wide web javascript enables interactive web pages essential part web applications vast majority websites use major web browsers dedicated javascript engine execute multi-paradigm language javascript supports event-driven functional imperative including object-oriented prototype-based programming styles apis working text arrays dates regular expressions dom language include i/o networking storage graphics facilities relies upon host environment embedded provide features initially implemented client-side web browsers javascript engines embedded many types host software including server-side web servers databases non-web programs word processors pdf software runtime environments make javascript available writing mobile desktop applications including desktop widgets terms vanilla javascript vanilla js refer javascript extended frameworks additional libraries scripts written vanilla js plain javascript code although similarities javascript java including language name syntax respective standard libraries two languages distinct differ greatly design javascript influenced programming languages self scheme json serialization format used store data structures files transmit across networks based javascript 1993 national center supercomputing applications ncsa unit university illinois urbana-champaign released ncsa mosaic first popular graphical web browser played important part expanding growth nascent world wide web beyond nextstep niche worldwideweb formed three years earlier 1994 company called mosaic communications founded mountain view california employed many original ncsa mosaic authors create mosaic netscape however intentionally shared code ncsa mosaic internal codename company browser mozilla portmanteau mosaic godzilla first version web browser mosaic netscape 0.9 released late 1994 within four months already taken three-quarters browser market became main web browser 1990s avoid trademark ownership problems ncsa browser subsequently renamed netscape navigator year company took name netscape communications netscape communications realized web needed become dynamic marc andreessen founder company believed html needed glue language easy use web designers part-time programmers assemble components images plugins code could written directly web page markup 1995 netscape communications recruited brendan eich goal embedding scheme programming language netscape navigator could get started netscape communications collaborated sun microsystems include sun static programming language java netscape navigator compete microsoft user adoption web technologies platforms netscape communications decided scripting language wanted create would complement java similar syntax excluded adopting languages perl python tcl scheme defend idea javascript competing proposals company needed prototype eich wrote one 10 days may 1995 although developed name mocha language officially called livescript first shipped beta releases netscape navigator 2.0 september 1995 renamed javascript deployed netscape navigator 2.0 beta 3 december final choice name caused confusion giving impression language spin-off java programming language choice characterized marketing ploy netscape give javascript cachet hot new web programming language common misconception javascript influenced earlier web page scripting language developed nombas named cmm confused later c -- created 1997 brendan eich however never heard cmm created livescript nombas pitch embedded web page scripting netscape though web page scripting new concept shown violawww web browser nombas later switched offering javascript instead cmm scriptease product part tc39 group standardized ecmascript december 1995 soon releasing javascript browsers netscape introduced implementation language server-side scripting netscape enterprise server since 1996 iis web-server supported microsoft implementation server-side javascript—jscript—in asp .net pages since mid-2000s additional server-side javascript implementations introduced node.js 2009 microsoft script technologies including vbscript jscript released 1996 jscript reverse-engineered implementation netscape javascript part internet explorer 3 jscript also available server-side scripting internet information server internet explorer 3 also included microsoft first support css various extensions html case implementation noticeably different found netscape navigator time differences made difficult designers programmers make single website work well browsers leading use best viewed netscape best viewed internet explorer logos characterized early years browser wars javascript began acquire reputation one roadblocks cross-platform standards-driven web developers took difficult task trying make sites work major browsers many could afford time release internet explorer 4 microsoft introduced concept dynamic html differences language implementations different proprietary document object models remained obstacles widespread take-up javascript web november 1996 netscape submitted javascript ecma international carve standard specification browser vendors could implement based work done netscape led official release language specification ecmascript published first edition ecma-262 standard june 1997 javascript well known implementations actionscript jscript well-known implementations ecmascript release ecmascript 2 june 1998 continued standards process cycle conforming modifications iso/iec 16262 international standard ecmascript 3 released december 1999 modern-day baseline javascript original ecmascript 4 work led waldemar horwat netscape google started 2000 microsoft initially participated implemented proposals jscript .net language time clear microsoft intention cooperating implementing proper javascript internet explorer even though competing proposal partial diverged point implementation .net server side 2003 original ecmascript 4 work mothballed next major event 2005 two major happenings javascript history first brendan eich mozilla rejoined ecma international not-for-profit member work started ecmascript xml e4x ecma-357 standard came ex-microsoft employees bea systems originally acquired crossgain led working jointly macromedia later acquired adobe systems implementing e4x actionscript 3 actionscript 3 fork original ecmascript 4 along macromedia work restarted ecmascript 4 goal standardizing actionscript 3 end adobe systems released actionscript virtual machine 2 code named tamarin open source project tamarin actionscript 3 different web javascript converge realized parties 2007 2008 alas still turmoil various players douglas crockford—then yahoo —joined forces microsoft 2007 oppose ecmascript 4 led ecmascript 3.1 effort development ecmascript 4 never completed work influenced subsequent versions happening open source developer communities set work revolutionize could done javascript community effort sparked 2005 jesse james garrett released white paper coined term ajax described set technologies javascript backbone used create web applications data loaded background avoiding need full page reloads leading dynamic applications resulted renaissance period javascript usage spearheaded open source libraries communities formed around libraries prototype jquery dojo toolkit mootools others released july 2008 disparate parties either side came together oslo led eventual agreement early 2009 rename ecmascript 3.1 ecmascript 5 drive language forward using agenda known harmony ecmascript 5 finally released december 2009 june 2011 ecmascript 5.1 released fully align third edition iso/iec 16262 international standard ecmascript 2015 released june 2015 ecmascript 2016 released june 2016 current version ecmascript 2017 released june 2017 javascript become one popular programming languages web however many professional programmers initially denigrated language due perceived target audience web authors amateurs advent ajax returned javascript spotlight brought professional programming attention result proliferation comprehensive frameworks libraries improved javascript programming practices increased usage javascript outside web browsers seen proliferation server-side javascript platforms january 2009 commonjs project founded goal specifying common standard library mainly javascript development outside browser rise single-page applications javascript-heavy sites increasingly used compile target source-to-source compilers dynamic languages static languages javascript trademark oracle corporation united states used license technology invented implemented netscape communications current entities mozilla foundation following features common conforming ecmascript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise popular modern web browsers support javascript built-in interpreters javascript supports much structured programming syntax c e.g. codice_1 statements codice_2 loops codice_3 statements codice_4 loops etc. one partial exception scoping javascript originally function scoping codice_5 ecmascript 2015 added keywords codice_6 codice_7 block scoping meaning javascript function block scoping like c javascript makes distinction expressions statements one syntactic difference c automatic semicolon insertion allows semicolons would normally terminate statements omitted javascript almost entirely object-based javascript object associative array augmented prototype see string key provides name object property two syntactical ways specify name dot notation codice_9 bracket notation codice_10 property may added rebound deleted run-time properties object property belongs object prototype inheritance chain enumerated using codice_11 loop javascript small number built-in objects including codice_12 codice_13 function first-class function considered object function may properties methods codice_23 codice_24 nested function function defined within another function created time outer function invoked addition nested function forms lexical closure lexical scope outer function including constant local variable argument value becomes part internal state inner function object even execution outer function concludes javascript also supports anonymous functions javascript supports implicit explicit delegation javascript officially managed mozilla foundation new language features added periodically however javascript engines support new features variables javascript defined using either codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 keywords var x // declares variable x assigns special value undefined confused undefined value var 2 // declares variable assigns value 2 var z hello world // declares variable z assigns string containing hello world note comments example preceded two forward slashes built-in input/output functionality javascript run-time environment provides ecmascript specification edition 5.1 mentions indeed provisions specification input external data output computed results however runtime environments codice_38 object used print output minimalist hello world program javascript console.log hello world simple recursive function function factorial n factorial 3 // returns 6 anonymous function lambda function counter var closure counter closure // returns 1 closure // returns 2 closure // returns 3 example shows javascript function closures capture non-local variables reference arrow functions first introduced 6th edition ecmascript 2015 shorten syntax writing functions javascript arrow functions anonymous nature variable needed refer order invoke creation example arrow function // arrow functions let us omit function keyword long_example // points anonymous function value const long_example input1 input2 // arrow functions also let us automatically return expression right // arrow input 5 omitting braces return keyword const short_example input input 5 long_example 2 3 // prints hello world returns 5. short_example 2 // returns 7 javascript objects created way functions known function object object example function ball r var myball new ball 5 // creates new instance ball object radius 5 myball.show // instance ball object show function performed variadic function demonstration codice_30 special variable function sum sum 1 2 // returns 3 sum 1 2 3 // returns 6 immediately-invoked function expressions often used create modules ecmascript 2015 built-in module construct language modules allow gathering properties methods namespace making private var counter function // module counter.get // shows 0 counter.set 6 counter.increment // shows 7 counter.increment // shows 8 exporting importing modules javascript export example /* mymodule.js / // function remains private exported let sum b // export variables export var name 'alice export let age 23 // export named functions export function add num1 num2 // export class export class multiplication import example // import one property import add './mymodule.js console.log add 1 2 // 3 // import multiple properties import name age './mymodule.js console.log name age // alice 23 // import properties module import './module.js' console.log name age // alice 23 console.log add 1,2 // 3 sample code displays various javascript features / finds lowest common multiple lcm two numbers */ function lcmcalculator x // constructor function // prototype object instances created constructor // constructor prototype property lcmcalculator.prototype // object literal // define generic output function implementation works web browsers function output x // note array map foreach defined javascript 1.6 // used demonstrate javascript inherent functional nature .map function pair // array literal mapping function function printresult obj following output displayed browser window lcmcalculator 28 b 56 gcd 28 lcm 56 lcmcalculator 21 b 56 gcd 7 lcm 168 lcmcalculator 25 b 55 gcd 5 lcm 275 lcmcalculator 22 b 58 gcd 2 lcm 638 94.5 10 million popular web pages used javascript common use javascript add client-side behavior html pages also known dynamic html dhtml scripts embedded included html pages interact document object model dom page simple examples usage javascript code run locally user browser rather remote server increasing application overall responsiveness user actions javascript code also detect user actions html alone individual keystrokes applications gmail take advantage much user-interface logic written javascript javascript dispatches requests information content e-mail message server wider trend ajax programming similarly exploits strength javascript engine also known javascript interpreter javascript implementation interpreter interprets javascript source code executes script accordingly first javascript engine created brendan eich netscape netscape navigator web browser engine code-named spidermonkey implemented c. since updated javascript 1.5 conform ecmascript 3 rhino engine created primarily norris boyd formerly netscape google javascript implementation java rhino like spidermonkey ecmascript 3 compliant web browser common host environment javascript however web browser execute javascript code example text-based browsers javascript engines users browsers may disable scripts preference extension web browser typically creates host objects represent dom javascript web server another common host environment javascript web server would typically expose host objects representing http request response objects javascript program could interrogate manipulate dynamically generate web pages javascript language popular browsers share support inadvertently become target language frameworks languages increasing speed javascript engines made language feasible compilation target despite performance limitations inherent dynamic nature minimal example standards-conforming web page containing javascript using html 5 syntax dom doctype html html /html javascript runs widely varying environments important part testing debugging test verify javascript works across multiple browsers dom interfaces officially defined w3c standardization effort separate javascript implementation dom interfaces differ web browsers javascript authors deal differences writing standards-compliant code executed correctly browsers failing write code behaves differently absence certain browser features authors may also find practical detect browser running two browsers may implement feature differing behavior libraries toolkits take browser differences account also useful programmers furthermore scripts may work users example user may support users web authors try create pages degrade gracefully user agents browsers support page javascript particular page remain usable albeit without extra features javascript would added sites use html codice_40 tag contains alt content js disabled alternative approach many find preferable first author content using basic technologies work browsers enhance content users javascript enabled javascript dom provide potential malicious authors deliver scripts run client computer via web browser authors minimize risk using two restrictions first scripts run sandbox perform web-related actions general-purpose programming tasks like creating files second scripts constrained same-origin policy scripts one web site access information usernames passwords cookies sent another site javascript-related security bugs breaches either origin policy sandbox subsets general javascript—adsafe secure ecmascript ses —that provide greater levels security especially code created third parties advertisements caja another project safe embedding isolation third-party javascript html content security policy main intended method ensuring trusted code executed web page common javascript-related security problem cross-site scripting xss violation same-origin policy xss vulnerabilities occur attacker able cause target web site online banking website include malicious script webpage presented victim script example access banking application privileges victim potentially disclosing secret information transferring money without victim authorization solution xss vulnerabilities use html escaping whenever displaying untrusted data browsers include partial protection reflected xss attacks attacker provides url including malicious script however even users browsers vulnerable xss attacks malicious code stored database correct design web applications server side fully prevent xss xss vulnerabilities also occur implementation mistakes browser authors another cross-site vulnerability cross-site request forgery csrf csrf code attacker site tricks victim browser taking actions user intend target site like transferring money bank target sites rely solely cookies request authentication requests originating code attacker site carry valid login credentials initiating user general solution csrf require authentication value hidden form field cookies authenticate request might lasting effects checking http referrer header also help javascript hijacking type csrf attack codice_29 tag attacker site exploits page victim site returns private information json javascript possible solutions include developers client-server applications must recognize untrusted clients may control attackers application author assume javascript code run intended secret embedded code could extracted determined adversary implications package management systems npm bower popular javascript developers systems allow developer easily manage program dependencies upon developer program libraries developers trust maintainers libraries keep secure date always case vulnerability emerged blind trust relied-upon libraries new releases cause bugs vulnerabilities appear programs rely upon libraries inversely library go unpatched known vulnerabilities wild study done looking sample 133k websites researchers found 37 websites included library at-least one known vulnerability median lag oldest library version used website newest available version library 1,177 days alexa development libraries still active use ceased years ago another possibility maintainer library may remove library entirely occurred march 2016 azer koçulu removed repository npm caused tens thousands programs websites depending upon libraries break javascript provides interface wide range browser capabilities may flaws buffer overflows flaws allow attackers write scripts would run code wish user system code means limited another javascript application example buffer overrun exploit allow attacker gain access operating system api superuser privileges flaws affected major browsers including firefox internet explorer safari plugins video players adobe flash wide range activex controls enabled default microsoft internet explorer may also flaws exploitable via javascript flaws exploited past windows vista microsoft attempted contain risks bugs buffer overflows running internet explorer process limited privileges google chrome similarly confines page renderers sandbox web browsers capable running javascript outside sandbox privileges necessary example create delete files privileges intended granted code web incorrectly granting privileges javascript web played role vulnerabilities internet explorer firefox windows xp service pack 2 microsoft demoted jscript privileges internet explorer microsoft windows allows javascript source files computer hard drive launched general-purpose non-sandboxed programs see windows script host makes javascript like vbscript theoretically viable vector trojan horse although javascript trojan horses uncommon practice 2015 javascript-based proof-of-concept implementation rowhammer attack described paper security researchers 2017 javascript-based attack via browser demonstrated could bypass aslr called aslr⊕cache anc addition web browsers servers javascript interpreters embedded number tools applications provides object model provides access host environment core javascript language remains mostly application within javascript access debugger becomes invaluable developing large non-trivial programs implementation differences various browsers particularly within dom useful access debugger browsers web application targets script debuggers integrated within many mainstream browsers internet explorer firefox safari google chrome opera node.js addition native internet explorer developer tools three debuggers available internet explorer microsoft visual studio features three closely followed microsoft script editor component microsoft office finally free microsoft script debugger free microsoft visual web developer express provides limited version javascript debugging functionality microsoft visual studio comparison internet explorer firefox comprehensive set developer tools includes debugger well old versions firefox without tools used firefox addon called firebug older venkman debugger webkit web inspector includes javascript debugger used safari modified version called blink devtools used google chrome node.js node inspector interactive debugger integrates blink devtools opera includes set tools called dragonfly addition native computer software online javascript integrated development environment ides debugging aids written javascript built run web example program jslint developed douglas crockford written extensively language jslint scans javascript code conformance set standards guidelines many libraries javascript three.js provide links demonstration code edited users demonstration codes also used pedagogical tool institutions khan academy allow students experience writing code environment see output programs without needing setup beyond web browser javascript increased usage web development warrants considerations performance frontend code inherited many responsibilities previously handled backend mobile devices particular may encounter problems rendering poorly optimized frontend code library benchmarks benchmark.js benchmarking library supports high-resolution timers returns statistically significant results another tool jsben.ch online javascript benchmarking tool code snippets tested javascript initially developed 1996 use netscape navigator web browser year microsoft released implementation internet explorer implementation called jscript due trademark issues 1997 first standardized version language released name ecmascript first edition ecma-262 standard explicit versioning opt-in language features mozilla-specific removed later firefox versions least firefox 59 firefox 4 last version referred explicit javascript version 1.8.5 new editions ecma-262 standard javascript language features often mentioned initial definition ecma-262 editions following table explicitly versioned javascript versions based information multiple sources javascript widely supported client-side language run within web browser become intermediate language languages also called transpilers target included newly created languages ports existing languages include javascript unusual limitations – explicit integer type double-precision binary floating point – languages compile javascript take care use integer-converting shift bitwise logical operators may slightly different behavior environments common misconception javascript similar closely related java true c-like syntax c language immediate common ancestor language also typically sandboxed used inside browser javascript designed java syntax standard library mind particular java keywords reserved original javascript javascript standard library follows java naming conventions javascript objects based classes java 1.0 similarities end java javascript first appeared 1995 java developed james gosling sun microsystems javascript brendan eich netscape communications differences two languages prominent similarities java static typing javascript typing dynamic java loaded compiled bytecode javascript loaded human-readable source code java objects class-based javascript prototype-based finally java support functional programming java 8 javascript done beginning influenced scheme starting 2017 web browsers began supporting webassembly technology standardized w3c webassembly standard specifies binary format produced compiler toolchain llvm execute browser near native speed webassembly allows programming languages c c++ c java used well javascript author client-side code world wide web Target text information: libscore.libscore libscore web-based tool scans one-million popular websites collect statistics javascript library usage collects data jquery plugins javascript variables produced non-jquery plugins javascript libraries loaded via requirejs libscore provides tools intended help developers technical analysts compare relative popularity web frameworks third-party web tools libscore developed via co-sponsorship stripe payments processor digitalocean hosting infrastructure provider libscore founder julian shapiro created project 2014 web development grant awarded stripe major payments processing company developing libscore brokered partnership digitalocean participate project second final sponsor stripe provides legal resources covers cost libscore development digitalocean lends technical resources perform monthly crawling may 2015 libscore nominated net award competing 1,000 submissions june 2015 libscore 2.0 released introduced ability compare popularity libraries time also provided comparative graphing comparing library growth trends one another auto-suggest make library searching easier libscore scans top million sites web determine third-party javascript libraries installed site developers use data determine libraries trending popularity libraries use popular sites libraries market penetrations compare data helps developers perform competitive analysis make informed decisions choosing libraries work site libscore scans runs heuristics determine window variables produced third-party javascript libraries addition catalogues presence external javascript scripts thereafter via libscore homepage users search aggregated data order libscore also provides monthly statistics top libraries scripts sites addition regularly publishing charts showcasing library adoption percentages also libscore api provides developers programmatic access libscore monthly data I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	5,592	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: dual_in-line_package.dual in-line package microelectronics dual in-line package dip dil dual in-line pin package dipp electronic component package rectangular housing two parallel rows electrical connecting pins package may through-hole mounted printed circuit board pcb inserted socket dual-inline format invented forbes rex rice bryant rogers fairchild r 1964 restricted number leads available circular transistor-style packages became limitation use integrated circuits increasingly complex circuits required signal power supply leads observed rent rule eventually microprocessors similar complex devices required leads could put dip package leading development higher-density chip carriers furthermore square rectangular packages made easier route printed-circuit traces beneath packages dip usually referred dip n n total number pins example microcircuit package two rows seven vertical leads would dip14 photograph upper right shows three dip14 ics common packages three many 64 leads many analog digital integrated circuit types available dip packages arrays transistors switches light emitting diodes resistors dip plugs ribbon cables used standard ic sockets dip packages usually made opaque molded epoxy plastic pressed around tin- silver- gold-plated lead frame supports device die provides connection pins types ic made ceramic dip packages high temperature high reliability required device optical window interior package dip packages secured pcb inserting pins holes board soldering place replacement parts necessary test fixtures programmable devices must removed changes dip socket used sockets include zero insertion force mechanism variations dip package include single row pins e.g resistor array possibly including heat sink tab place second row pins types four rows pins two rows staggered side package dip packages mostly displaced surface-mount package types avoid expense drilling holes pcb allow higher density interconnections dips commonly used integrated circuits ics devices dip packages include resistor networks dip switches led segmented bargraph displays electromechanical relays dip connector plugs ribbon cables common computers electronic equipment dallas semiconductor manufactured integrated dip real-time clock rtc modules contained ic chip non-replaceable 10-year lithium battery dip header blocks discrete components could soldered used groups components needed easily removed configuration changes optional features calibration original dual-in-line package invented bryant buck rogers 1964 working fairchild semiconductor first devices 14 pins looked much like today rectangular shape allowed integrated circuits packaged densely previous round packages package well-suited automated assembly equipment pcb could populated scores hundreds ics components circuit board could soldered one time wave soldering machine passed automated testing machines little human labor required dip packages still large respect integrated circuits within end 20th century surface-mount packages allowed reduction size weight systems dip chips still popular circuit prototyping breadboard easily inserted utilized dips mainstream microelectronics industry 1970s 1980s use declined first decade 21st century due emerging new surface-mount technology smt packages plastic leaded chip carrier plcc small-outline integrated circuit soic though dips continued extensive use 1990s still continue used substantially year 2011 passes modern chips available surface-mount package types number companies sell various prototyping adapters allow smt devices used like dip devices through-hole breadboards soldered prototyping boards stripboard perfboard smt pose quite problem least inconvenience prototyping general characteristics smt advantages mass production difficulties prototyping programmable devices like eproms gals dips remained popular many years due easy handling external programming circuitry i.e. dip devices could simply plugged socket programming device however in-system programming isp technology state art advantage dips rapidly losing importance well 1990s devices fewer 20 leads manufactured dip format addition newer formats since 2000 newer devices often unavailable dip format dips mounted either through-hole soldering sockets sockets allow easy replacement device eliminates risk damage overheating soldering generally sockets used high-value large ics cost much socket devices would frequently inserted removed test equipment eprom programmers zero insertion force socket would used dips also used breadboards temporary mounting arrangement education design development device testing hobbyists one-off construction permanent prototyping use point-to-point wiring dips appearance physically inverted part method inspires informal term dead bug style method body housing dip containing ic chip usually made molded plastic ceramic hermetic nature ceramic housing preferred extremely high reliability devices however vast majority dips manufactured via thermoset molding process epoxy mold compound heated transferred pressure encapsulate device typical cure cycles resins less 2 minutes single cycle may produce hundreds devices leads emerge longer sides package along seam parallel top bottom planes package bent downward approximately 90 degrees slightly less leaving angled slightly outward centerline package body soic smt package resembles typical dip appears essentially notwithstanding size scale except bent leads bent upward equal angle become parallel bottom plane package ceramic cerdip packages epoxy grout used hermetically seal two halves together providing air moisture tight seal protect ic die inside plastic dip pdip packages usually sealed fusing cementing plastic halves around leads high degree hermeticity achieved plastic usually somewhat porous moisture process ensure good microscopic seal leads plastic points around perimeter however contaminants usually still kept well enough device operate reliably decades reasonable care controlled environment inside package lower half leads embedded center package rectangular space chamber void ic die cemented leads package extend diagonally inside package positions emergence along periphery points along rectangular perimeter surrounding die tapering go become fine contacts die ultra-fine bond wires barely visible naked human eye welded die periphery contacts bond pads die connecting one lead bond pad making final connection microcircuits external dip leads bond wires usually taut loop upward slightly allow slack thermal expansion contraction materials single bond wire breaks detaches entire ic may become useless top package covers delicate assemblage without crushing bond wires protecting contamination foreign materials usually company logo alphanumeric codes sometimes words printed top package identify manufacturer type made usually year week number sometimes made proprietary information perhaps revision numbers manufacturing plant codes stepping id codes necessity laying leads basically radial pattern single plane die perimeter two rows periphery package main reason dip packages higher lead counts must wider spacing lead rows effectively limits number leads practical dip package may even small die many bond pads e.g chip 15 inverters requiring 32 leads wider dip would still required accommodate radiating leads internally one reasons four-sided multiple rowed packages pgas introduced around early 1980s large dip package dip64 used motorola 68000 cpu long leads inside package pins die making package unsuitable high speed devices types dip devices built differently molded plastic housings straight leads leads extend directly bottom package led displays particularly housing usually hollow plastic box bottom/back open filled around contained electronic components hard translucent epoxy material leads emerge others dip switches composed two plastic housing parts snapped welded glued together around set contacts tiny mechanical parts leads emerging molded-in holes notches plastic several dip variants ics exist mostly distinguished packaging material eproms sold ceramic dips manufactured circular window clear quartz chip die allow part erased ultraviolet light often chips also sold less expensive windowless pdip cerdip packages one-time programmable otp versions windowed windowless packages also used microcontrollers devices containing eprom memory windowed cerdip-packaged eproms used bios rom many early ibm pc clones adhesive label covering window prevent inadvertent erasure exposure ambient light molded plastic dips much lower cost ceramic packages one 1979 study showed plastic 14 pin dip cost around us 0.63 ceramic package cost us 0.82 single in-line pin package sip sipp one row connecting pins popular dip used packaging ram chips multiple resistors common pin compared dips typical maximum i/o count 64 sips typical maximum i/o count 24 lower package costs one variant single in-line package uses part lead frame heat sink tab multi-leaded power package useful applications audio power amplifiers example rockwell used quad in-line package 42 leads formed staggered rows pps-4 microprocessor family introduced 1973 microprocessors microcontrollers higher lead counts early 1990s qip sometimes called qil package dimensions dil package leads side bent alternating zigzag configuration fit four lines solder pads instead two dil qil design increased spacing solder pads without increasing package size two reasons qil packaged ics added heatsinking tabs ha1306 intel 3m developed ceramic leadless quad in-line package quip introduced 1979 boost microprocessor density economy ceramic leadless quip designed surface-mount use requires socket used intel iapx 432 microprocessor chip set zilog z8-02 external-rom prototyping version z8 microcontroller commonly found dip packages conform jedec standards use inter-lead spacing lead pitch jedec ms-001ba row spacing varies depending lead counts 0.3 7.62 mm jedec ms-001 0.6 inch 15.24 mm jedec ms-011 common less common standardized row spacings include 0.4 inch 10.16 mm jedec ms-010 0.9 inch 22.86 mm well row spacing 0.3 inch 0.6 inch 0.75 inch 0.07 inch 1.778 mm lead pitch former soviet union eastern bloc countries used similar packages metric pin-to-pin spacing 2.5 mm rather number leads always even 0.3 inch spacing typical lead counts 8 14 16 18 28 less common 4 6 20 24 lead counts even number leads dips unused connected nc leads internal chip duplicated e.g two ground pins 0.6 inch spacing typical lead counts 24 28 32 40 less common 36 48 52 64 lead counts microprocessors motorola 68000 zilog z180 used lead counts high 64 typically maximum number leads dip package shown diagram leads numbered consecutively pin 1 identifying notch package top pin 1 top left corner device sometimes pin 1 identified indent paint dot mark example 14-lead dip notch top left leads numbered 1 7 top bottom right row leads numbered 8 14 bottom top dip devices segmented led displays relays replace leads heat sink fin skip leads remaining leads numbered positions leads addition providing human visual identification orientation package notch allows automated chip-insertion machinery confirm correct orientation chip mechanical sensing soic small outline ic surface-mount package currently popular particularly consumer electronics personal computers essentially shrunk version standard ic pdip fundamental difference makes smt device second bend leads flatten parallel bottom plane plastic housing soj small outline j-lead smt packages sop small outline package names considered relatives dip original ancestor soic packages tend half pitch dip sop half fourth dip 0.1 /2.54 mm 0.05 /1.27 mm 0.025 /0.635 mm respectively pin grid array pga packages may considered evolved dip pgas pin centers dips popular microprocessors early mid-1980s 1990s owners personal computers containing intel 80286 p5 pentium processors may familiar pga packages often inserted zif sockets motherboards similarity pga socket may physically compatible dip devices though converse rarely true 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm 1-hop neighbor's text information: field-programmable_gate_array.field-programmable gate array field-programmable gate array fpga integrated circuit designed configured customer designer manufacturinghence term field-programmable fpga configuration generally specified using hardware description language hdl similar used application-specific integrated circuit asic circuit diagrams previously used specify configuration increasingly rare due advent electronic design automation tools fpgas contain array programmable logic blocks hierarchy reconfigurable interconnects allow blocks wired together like many logic gates inter-wired different configurations logic blocks configured perform complex combinational functions merely simple logic gates like xor fpgas logic blocks also include memory elements may simple flip-flops complete blocks memory many fpgas reprogrammed implement different logic functions allowing flexible reconfigurable computing performed computer software contemporary field-programmable gate arrays fpgas large resources logic gates ram blocks implement complex digital computations fpga designs employ fast i/o rates bidirectional data buses becomes challenge verify correct timing valid data within setup time hold time floor planning enables resource allocation within fpgas meet time constraints fpgas used implement logical function asic perform ability update functionality shipping partial re-configuration portion design low non-recurring engineering costs relative asic design notwithstanding generally higher unit cost offer advantages many applications fpgas analog features addition digital functions common analog feature programmable slew rate output pin allowing engineer set low rates lightly loaded pins would otherwise ring couple unacceptably set higher rates heavily loaded pins high-speed channels would otherwise run slowly also common quartz-crystal oscillators on-chip resistance-capacitance oscillators phase-locked loops embedded voltage-controlled oscillators used clock generation management high-speed serializer-deserializer serdes transmit clocks receiver clock recovery fairly common differential comparators input pins designed connected differential signaling channels mixed signal fpgas integrated peripheral analog-to-digital converters adcs digital-to-analog converters dacs analog signal conditioning blocks allowing operate system-on-a-chip soc devices blur line fpga carries digital ones zeros internal programmable interconnect fabric field-programmable analog array fpaa carries analog values internal programmable interconnect fabric fpga industry sprouted programmable read-only memory prom programmable logic devices plds proms plds option programmed batches factory field field-programmable however programmable logic hard-wired logic gates altera founded 1983 delivered industry first reprogrammable logic device 1984 – ep300 – featured quartz window package allowed users shine ultra-violet lamp die erase eprom cells held device configuration december 2015 intel acquired altera xilinx co-founders ross freeman bernard vonderschmitt invented first commercially viable field-programmable gate array 1985 – xc2064 xc2064 programmable gates programmable interconnects gates beginnings new technology market xc2064 64 configurable logic blocks clbs two three-input lookup tables luts 20 years later freeman entered national inventors hall fame invention 1987 naval surface warfare center funded experiment proposed steve casselman develop computer would implement 600,000 reprogrammable gates casselman successful patent related system issued 1992 altera xilinx continued unchallenged quickly grew 1985 mid-1990s competitors sprouted eroding significant market share 1993 actel microsemi serving 18 percent market 2013 altera 31 percent actel 10 percent xilinx 36 percent together represented approximately 77 percent fpga market 1990s period rapid growth fpgas circuit sophistication volume production early 1990s fpgas primarily used telecommunications networking end decade fpgas found way consumer automotive industrial applications companies like microsoft started use fpgas accelerate high-performance computationally intensive systems like data centers operate bing search engine due performance per watt advantage fpgas deliver microsoft began using fpgas accelerate bing 2014 2018 began deploying fpgas across data center workloads azure cloud computing platform 2012 coarse-grained architectural approach taken step combining logic blocks interconnects traditional fpgas embedded microprocessors related peripherals form complete system programmable chip work mirrors architecture created ron perlof hana potash burroughs advanced systems group 1982 combined reconfigurable cpu architecture single chip called sb24 examples hybrid technologies found xilinx zynq-7000 programmable soc includes 1.0 ghz dual-core arm cortex-a9 mpcore processor embedded within fpga logic fabric altera arria v fpga includes 800 mhz dual-core arm cortex-a9 mpcore atmel fpslic another device uses avr processor combination atmel programmable logic architecture microsemi smartfusion devices incorporate arm cortex-m3 hard processor core 512 kb flash 64 kb ram analog peripherals multi-channel analog-to-digital converters digital-to-analog converters flash memory-based fpga fabric alternate approach using hard-macro processors make use soft processor ip cores implemented within fpga logic nios ii microblaze mico32 examples popular softcore processors many modern fpgas programmed run time led idea reconfigurable computing reconfigurable systems – cpus reconfigure suit task hand additionally new non-fpga architectures beginning emerge software-configurable microprocessors stretch s5000 adopt hybrid approach providing array processor cores fpga-like programmable cores chip design start new custom design implementation fpga historically fpgas slower less energy efficient generally achieved less functionality fixed asic counterparts older study showed designs implemented fpgas need average 40 times much area draw 12 times much dynamic power run one third speed corresponding asic implementations recently fpgas xilinx virtex-7 altera stratix 5 come rival corresponding asic assp application-specific standard part standalone usb interface chip solutions providing significantly reduced power usage increased speed lower materials cost minimal implementation real-estate increased possibilities re-configuration 'on-the-fly design included 6 10 asics achieved using one fpga advantages fpgas include ability re-program already deployed i.e field fix bugs often include shorter time market lower non-recurring engineering costs vendors also take middle road via fpga prototyping developing prototype hardware fpgas manufacture final version asic longer modified design committed xilinx claimed several market technology dynamics changing asic/fpga paradigm february 2009 trends make fpgas better alternative asics larger number higher-volume applications historically used company attributes growing number fpga design starts see fpgas capability partial re-configuration lets one portion device re-programmed portions continue running primary differences complex programmable logic devices cplds fpgas architectural cpld comparatively restrictive structure consisting one programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding relatively small number clocked registers result cplds less flexible advantage predictable timing delays fpga architectures hand dominated interconnect makes far flexible terms range designs practical implementation also far complex design least requiring complex electronic design automation eda software practice distinction fpgas cplds often one size fpgas usually much larger terms resources cplds typically fpgas contain complex embedded functions adders multipliers memory serializer/deserializers another common distinction cplds contain embedded flash memory store configuration fpgas usually require external non-volatile memory always design requires simple instant-on logic already configured power-up cplds generally preferred applications fpgas generally preferred sometimes cplds fpgas used single system design designs cplds generally perform glue logic functions responsible “ booting ” fpga well controlling reset boot sequence complete circuit board therefore depending application may judicious use fpgas cplds single design fpgas advantages disadvantages compared asics secure microprocessors concerning hardware security fpgas flexibility makes malicious modifications fabrication lower risk previously many fpgas design bitstream exposed fpga loads external memory typically every power-on major fpga vendors offer spectrum security solutions designers bitstream encryption authentication example altera xilinx offer aes encryption 256-bit bitstreams stored external flash memory fpgas store configuration internally nonvolatile flash memory microsemi proasic 3 lattice xp2 programmable devices expose bitstream need encryption addition flash memory lookup table provides single event upset protection space applications customers wanting higher guarantee tamper resistance use write-once antifuse fpgas vendors microsemi stratix 10 fpgas socs altera introduced secure device manager physically uncloneable functions provide high levels protection physical attacks 2012 researchers sergei skorobogatov christopher woods demonstrated fpgas vulnerable hostile intent discovered critical backdoor vulnerability manufactured silicon part actel/microsemi proasic 3 making vulnerable many levels reprogramming crypto access keys accessing unencrypted bitstream modifying low-level silicon features extracting configuration data fpga used solve problem computable trivially proven fact fpgas used implement soft microprocessor xilinx microblaze altera nios ii advantage lies significantly faster applications parallel nature optimality terms number gates used certain processes fpgas originally began competitors cplds implement glue logic printed circuit boards size capabilities speed increased fpgas took additional functions point marketed full systems chips socs particularly introduction dedicated multipliers fpga architectures late 1990s applications traditionally sole reserve digital signal processor hardware dsps began incorporate fpgas instead another trend use fpgas hardware acceleration one use fpga accelerate certain parts algorithm share part computation fpga generic processor search engine bing noted adopting fpga acceleration search algorithm 2014. fpgas seeing increased use ai accelerators including microsoft so-termed project catapult accelerating artificial neural networks machine learning applications traditionally fpgas reserved specific vertical applications volume production small low-volume applications premium companies pay hardware cost per unit programmable chip affordable development resources spent creating asic new cost performance dynamics broadened range viable applications common fpga architecture consists array logic blocks i/o pads routing channels generally routing channels width number wires multiple i/o pads may fit height one row width one column array application circuit must mapped fpga adequate resources number clbs/labs i/os required easily determined design number routing tracks needed may vary considerably even among designs amount logic example crossbar switch requires much routing systolic array gate count since unused routing tracks increase cost decrease performance part without providing benefit fpga manufacturers try provide enough tracks designs fit terms lookup tables luts i/os routed determined estimates derived rent rule experiments existing designs network-on-chip architectures routing interconnection developed general logic block consists logical cells called alm le slice etc. typical cell consists 4-input lut full adder fa d-type flip-flop shown luts figure split two 3-input luts normal mode combined 4-input lut left multiplexer mux arithmetic mode outputs fed adder selection mode programmed middle mux output either synchronous asynchronous depending programming mux right figure example practice entire parts adder stored functions luts order save space modern fpga families expand upon capabilities include higher level functionality fixed silicon common functions embedded circuit reduces area required gives functions increased speed compared building logical primitives examples include multipliers generic dsp blocks embedded processors high speed i/o logic embedded memories higher-end fpgas contain high speed multi-gigabit transceivers hard ip cores processor cores ethernet medium access control units pci/pci express controllers external memory controllers cores exist alongside programmable fabric built transistors instead luts asic-level performance power consumption without consuming significant amount fabric resources leaving fabric free application-specific logic multi-gigabit transceivers also contain high performance analog input output circuitry along high-speed serializers deserializers components built luts higher-level physical layer phy functionality line coding may may implemented alongside serializers deserializers hard logic depending fpga circuitry built inside fpga synchronous circuitry requires clock signal fpgas contain dedicated global regional routing networks clock reset delivered minimal skew also fpgas generally contain analog phase-locked loop and/or delay-locked loop components synthesize new clock frequencies well attenuate jitter complex designs use multiple clocks different frequency phase relationships forming separate clock domains clock signals generated locally oscillator recovered high speed serial data stream care must taken building clock domain crossing circuitry avoid metastability fpgas generally contain block rams capable working dual port rams different clocks aiding construction building fifos dual port buffers connect differing clock domains shrink size power consumption fpgas vendors tabula xilinx introduced 3d stacked architectures following introduction 28 nm 7-series fpgas xilinx said several highest-density parts fpga product lines constructed using multiple dies one package employing technology developed 3d construction stacked-die assemblies xilinx approach stacks several three four active fpga dies side-by-side silicon interposer – single piece silicon carries passive interconnect multi-die construction also allows different parts fpga created different process technologies process requirements different fpga fabric high speed 28 gbit/s serial transceivers fpga built way called heterogeneous fpga altera heterogeneous approach involves using single monolithic fpga die connecting die/technologies fpga using intel embedded multi-die interconnect bridge emib technology labview define behavior fpga user provides design hardware description language hdl schematic design hdl form suited work large structures possible specify high-level functional behavior rather drawing every piece hand however schematic entry allow easier visualization design component modules using electronic design automation tool technology-mapped netlist generated netlist fit actual fpga architecture using process called place-and-route usually performed fpga company proprietary place-and-route software user validate map place route results via timing analysis simulation verification validation methodologies design validation process complete binary file generated typically using fpga vendor proprietary software used re- configure fpga file transferred fpga/cpld via serial interface jtag external memory device like eeprom common hdls vhdl verilog well extensions systemverilog however attempt reduce complexity designing hdls compared equivalent assembly languages moves raise abstraction level introduction alternative languages national instruments labview graphical programming language sometimes referred g fpga add-in module available target program fpga hardware simplify design complex systems fpgas exist libraries predefined complex functions circuits tested optimized speed design process predefined circuits commonly called intellectual property ip cores available fpga vendors third-party ip suppliers rarely free typically released proprietary licenses predefined circuits available developer communities opencores typically released free open source licenses gpl bsd similar license sources designs known open-source hardware typical design flow fpga application developer simulate design multiple stages throughout design process initially rtl description vhdl verilog simulated creating test benches simulate system observe results synthesis engine mapped design netlist netlist translated gate-level description simulation repeated confirm synthesis proceeded without errors finally design laid fpga point propagation delays added simulation run values back-annotated onto netlist recently opencl open computing language used programmers take advantage performance power efficiencies fpgas provide opencl allows programmers develop code c programming language target fpga functions opencl kernels using opencl constructs information see high-level synthesis c hdl 2016 long-time industry rivals xilinx altera intel subsidiary fpga market leaders time controlled nearly 90 percent market xilinx altera provide proprietary electronic design automation software windows linux ise/vivado quartus enables engineers design analyze simulate synthesize compile designs manufacturers include march 2010 tabula announced fpga technology uses time-multiplexed logic interconnect claims potential cost savings high-density applications march 24 2015 tabula officially shut june 1 2015 intel announced would acquire altera approximately 16.7 billion completed acquisition december 30 2015 Target text information: rent's_rule.rent rule rent rule pertains organization computing logic specifically relationship number external signal connections logic block i.e. number pins number logic gates logic block applied circuits ranging small digital circuits mainframe computers 1960s e. f. rent ibm employee found remarkable trend number pins terminals boundaries integrated circuit designs ibm number internal components g logic gates standard cells log–log plot datapoints straight line implying power-law relation formula_1 p constants p 1.0 generally 0.5 p 0.8 rent findings ibm-internal memoranda published ibm journal research development 2005 relation described 1971 landman russo performed hierarchical circuit partitioning way hierarchical level top-down least number interconnections cut partition circuit less equal parts partitioning step noted number terminals number components partition partitioned sub-partitions found power-law rule applied resulting versus g plot named rent rule rent rule empirical result based observations existing designs therefore less applicable analysis non-traditional circuit architectures however provides useful framework compare similar architectures christie stroobandt later derived rent rule theoretically homogeneous systems pointed amount optimization achieved placement reflected parameter formula_2 rent exponent also depends circuit topology particular values formula_3 correspond greater fraction short interconnects constant formula_4 rent rule viewed average number terminals required single logic block since formula_5 formula_6 random arrangement logic blocks typically formula_7 larger values impossible since maximal number terminals region containing g logic components homogeneous system given formula_8 lower bounds p depend interconnection topology since generally impossible make wires short lower bound formula_9 often called intrinsic rent exponent notion first introduced hagen et al used characterize optimal placements also measure interconnection complexity circuit higher intrinsic rent exponent values correspond higher topological complexity one extreme example formula_10 long chain logic blocks clique formula_7 realistic 2d circuits formula_9 ranges 0.5 highly-regular circuits sram 0.75 random logic system performance analysis tools bacpac typically use rent rule calculate expected wiring lengths wiring demands estimate rent exponent one use top-down partitioning used min-cut placement every partition count number terminals connected partition compare number logic blocks partition rent exponent found fitting datapoints log–log plot resulting exponent p optimally partitioned circuits formula_13 longer case practical heuristic partitioning approaches partitioning-based placement algorithms formula_14 landman russo found deviation rent rule near far end i.e. partitions large number blocks known region ii rent rule similar deviation also exists small partitions found stroobandt called region iii another ibm employee donath discovered rent rule used estimate average wirelength wirelength distribution vlsi chips motivated system level interconnect prediction workshop founded 1999 entire community working wirelength prediction see survey stroobandt resulting wirelength estimates improved significantly since used technology exploration use rent rule allows perform estimates priori i.e. actual placement thus predict properties future technologies clock frequencies number routing layers needed area power based limited information future circuits technologies comprehensive overview work based rent rule published stroobandt I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	10,230	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_installer.windows installer windows installer previously known microsoft installer codename darwin software component application programming interface api microsoft windows used installation maintenance removal software installation information optionally files packaged installation packages loosely relational databases structured com structured storages commonly known msi files default filename extensions windows installer contains significant changes predecessor setup api new features include gui framework automatic generation uninstallation sequence windows installer positioned alternative stand-alone executable installer frameworks older versions installshield nsis introduction windows store microsoft encouraged third parties use windows installer basis installation frameworks synchronize correctly installers keep internal database installed products consistent important features rollback versioning depend consistent internal database reliable operation furthermore windows installer facilitates principle least privilege performing software installations proxy unprivileged users package describes installation one full products universally identified guid product made components grouped features windows installer handle dependencies products single installed working program set programs product product identified unique guid productcode property providing authoritative identity throughout world guid combination version number productversion property allows release management product files registry keys package includes package logic metadata relates package executes running example changing exe file product may require productcode productversion changed release management however merely changing adding launch condition product remaining exactly previous version would still require packagecode change release management msi file feature hierarchical group components feature may contain number components sub-features smaller packages consist single feature complex installers may display custom setup dialog box user select features install remove package author defines product features word processor example might place program core file one feature program help files optional spelling checker stationery modules additional features component basic unit product component treated windows installer unit installer install part component components contain program files folders com components registry keys shortcuts user directly interact components components identified globally guids thus component shared among several features package multiple packages ideally use merge modules key path specific file registry key odbc data source package author specifies critical given component file common type key path term key file commonly used component contain one key path component explicit key path component destination folder taken key path msi-based program launched windows installer checks existence key paths mismatch current system state value specified msi package e.g. key file missing related feature re-installed process known self-healing self-repair two components use key path user interface phase typically queries target system displays installation wizard enables user change various options affect installation however user interface sequence make changes system following reasons user clicks install button typical msi installation wizard installation proceeds execute phase software components actually installed execute phase makes system changes display user interface elements execute phase happens two steps installation operations transactional words operation windows installer performs generates equivalent undo operation would revert change made system case script action fails deferred execution operation cancelled user actions performed point rolled back restoring system original state standard windows installer actions automatically write information rollback script package authors create custom actions change target system also create corresponding rollback actions well uninstall actions uninstallation-rollback actions design feature applied correctly mechanism also roll back failed uninstall application good working state windows installer advertise product rather actually install product appear installed user actually installed run first time triggering entry point means start menu shortcut opening document product configured handle invoking advertised com class package advertised administrator using group policy deployment mechanism running msiexec executable /jm per-machine advertisement /ju per-user advertisement switch msi packages authored installshield may prevent use native msi features user must administrator privileges complete advertised installation similar advertising installs feature soon user tries use administrative installation creates uncompressed source image product typically used installing running application network location administrative installation typical installation create shortcuts register com servers create add remove programs entry often administrative installation enables user install product way features run uncompressed installation source administrative installations also useful creating windows installer patch requires uncompressed images earlier current versions product order compute binary file differences administrative installation performed running msiexec executable /a switch developer installer package may write code serve purpose delivered dll exe vbscript javascript executed installation sequences including user clicks button user interface installexecutesequence custom actions typically validate product license keys initialize complex services developers normally provide inverse custom actions use uninstall msiexec provides way break loading specified custom action dll invoking action windows installer package may contain another package installed time ideally provided .msm file component may also separate executable program unpacked installer package installexecutesequence run immediately file optionally deleted end installexecutesequence ideal using older installers .msm file component called microsoft merge module utilized single integrate common components contains images tables relevant information regarding common components ready-made merge modules supplied visual studio downloaded alternative sources windows installer 4.0 shipped windows vista incorporates capabilities take advantage user account control feature application install without elevated privileges msi package marked thus allowing install without prompting user administrator credentials windows installer also works conjunction restart manager installing updating application system component full user interface mode user displayed list affected applications shut restarted files updated installer actions running silent mode perform application restarts automatically system services tray applications also restarted manner creating installer package new application trivial necessary specify files must installed registry keys non-standard operations done using custom actions typically developed dlls number commercial freeware products assist creating msi packages including visual studio vs 2010 installshield wix varying degrees user interface behavior may configured use less common situations unattended installation prepared installer package compiled reading instructions files developer local machine creating .msi file user interface dialog boxes presented start installation changed configured setup engineer developing new installer limited language buttons text fields labels arranged sequence dialogue boxes installer package capable running without ui called unattended installation microsoft provides set internal consistency evaluators ice used detect potential problems msi database ice rules combined cub files stripped-down msi files containing custom actions test target msi database contents validation warnings errors ice validation performed platform sdk tools orca msival2 validation tools ship various authoring environments example ice rules addressing ice validation warnings errors important step release process october 2018 microsoft released msix packaging tool successor msi 1-hop neighbor's text information: mac_address.mac address media access control address mac address device unique identifier assigned network interface controller nic communications within network segment used network address ieee 802 network technologies including ethernet wi-fi bluetooth within open systems interconnection osi model mac addresses used medium access control protocol sublayer data link layer typically represented mac addresses recognizable six groups two hexadecimal digits separated hyphens colons separator see notational conventions mac address may referred burned-in address also known ethernet hardware address hardware address physical address confused memory physical address network node multiple nics must unique mac address sophisticated network equipment multilayer switch router may require one permanently assigned mac addresses mac addresses often assigned manufacturer network interface cards stored hardware card read-only memory firmware mechanism mac address typically includes manufacturer organizationally unique identifier oui mac addresses formed according principles two numbering spaces based extended unique identifiers eui managed institute electrical electronics engineers ieee eui-48 replaces obsolete term mac-48 eui-64 original ieee 802 mac address comes original xerox network systems ethernet addressing scheme 48-bit address space contains potentially 2 281,474,976,710,656 possible mac addresses ieee manages allocation mac addresses originally known mac-48 refers eui-48 identifiers ieee target lifetime 100 years 2080 applications using eui-48 space restricts applications accordingly ieee encourages adoption plentiful eui-64 non-ethernet applications distinction eui-48 mac-48 identifiers name application mac-48 used address hardware interfaces within existing 802-based networking applications eui-48 used 802-based networking also used identify devices software example bluetooth ieee considers mac-48 obsolete term eui-48 used cases addition eui-64 numbering system originally encompassed mac-48 eui-48 identifiers simple translation mechanism translations since deprecated individual address block iab inactive registry activity replaced ma-s ma-s previously named oui-36 registry product january 1 2014 iab uses oui ma-l ma-l registry previously named oui registry term oui still use calling registry belonging ieee registration authority concatenated 12 additional ieee-provided bits total 36 bits leaving 12 bits iab owner assign 4096 individual devices iab ideal organizations requiring 4096 unique 48-bit numbers eui-48 unlike oui allows assignee assign values various different number spaces example eui-48 eui-64 various context-dependent identifier number spaces individual address block could used assign eui-48 identifiers potential uses based oui iabs allocated reserved remain property ieee registration authority also noted 2007 september 2012 oui value 00:50 c2 used iab assignments september 2012 value 40 d8:55 used owners already assigned iab may continue use assignment another registry called ma-m mac addresses medium ma-m assignment block provides 2 eui-48 identifiers 2 eui-64 identifiers means first 28 bits ieee assigned bits first 24-bits assigned ma-m block oui assigned ieee reassigned addresses either universally administered addresses uaa locally administered addresses laa universally administered address uniquely assigned device manufacturer first three octets transmission order identify organization issued identifier known organizationally unique identifier oui remainder address three octets eui-48 five eui-64 assigned organization nearly manner please subject constraint uniqueness locally administered address assigned device network administrator overriding burned-in address universally administered locally administered addresses distinguished setting second-least-significant bit first octet address bit also referred u/l bit short universal/local identifies address administered bit 0 address universally administered 1 address locally administered example address first octet 06 hex binary form 00000110 second-least-significant bit 1 therefore locally administered address another example uses locally administered addresses decnet protocol mac address ethernet interface changed decnet software reflects decnet network address xx.yy host eliminates need address resolution protocol since mac address decnet host simply determined least significant bit address first octet 0 zero frame meant reach one receiving nic type transmission called unicast unicast frame transmitted nodes within collision domain modern wired setting collision domain usually length ethernet cable two network cards wireless setting collision domain receivers detect given wireless signal switch know port leads given mac address switch forward unicast frame ports except originating port action known unicast flood node matching hardware mac address accept frame network frames non-matching mac-addresses ignored unless device promiscuous mode least significant bit first octet set 1 frame still sent however nics choose accept based criteria matching mac address example based configurable list accepted multicast mac addresses called multicast addressing ieee built several special address types allow one network interface card addressed one time examples group addresses opposed individual addresses least significant bit first octet mac address distinguishes individual addresses group addresses bit set 0 individual addresses set 1 group addresses group addresses like individual addresses universally administered locally administered following network technologies use eui-48 identifier format every device connects ieee 802 network ethernet wifi eui-48 address common networked consumer devices pcs smartphones tablet computers use eui-48 addresses eui-64 identifiers used broadcast networks ethernet mac address expected uniquely identify node segment allows frames marked specific hosts thus forms basis link layer osi layer 2 networking upon upper layer protocols rely produce complex functioning networks many network interfaces support changing mac address unix-like systems command utility ifconfig may used remove add link address aliases instance active ifconfig directive may used netbsd specify attached addresses activate hence various configuration scripts utilities permit randomization mac address time booting establishing network connection changing mac addresses necessary network virtualization mac spoofing practiced exploiting security vulnerabilities computer system modern operating systems apple ios android especially mobile devices designed randomize assignment mac address network interface scanning wireless access points avert tracking systems internet protocol ip networks mac address interface corresponding ip address may queried address resolution protocol arp ipv4 neighbor discovery protocol ndp ipv6 relating osi layer 3 addresses layer 2 addresses according edward snowden us national security agency system tracks movements mobile devices city monitoring mac addresses avert practice apple started using random mac addresses ios devices scanning networks vendors followed quickly mac address randomization scanning added android starting version 6.0 windows 10 linux kernel 3.18 actual implementations mac address randomization technique vary largely different devices moreover various flaws shortcomings implementations may allow attacker track device even mac address changed instance probe requests elements timing random mac addresses used researchers confirmed possible link real identity particular wireless mac address using wireless access points ssid-hidden mode network cloaking mobile wireless device may disclose mac address traveling even mac addresses associated ssids device already connected configured send part probe request packets alternative modes prevent include configuring access points either beacon-broadcasting mode probe-response ssid mode modes probe requests may unnecessary sent broadcast mode without disclosing identity previously-known networks standard ieee 802 format printing eui-48 addresses human-friendly form six groups two hexadecimal digits separated hyphens transmission order e.g form also commonly used eui-64 e.g conventions include six groups two hexadecimal digits separated colons e.g three groups four hexadecimal digits separated dots e.g transmission order standard notation also called canonical format mac addresses written transmission order least significant bit byte transmitted first used output codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 commands example however since ieee 802.3 ethernet ieee 802.4 token bus send bytes octets wire left-to-right least significant bit byte first ieee 802.5 token ring ieee 802.6 fddi send bytes wire significant bit first confusion may arise address latter scenario represented bits reversed canonical representation example address canonical form would transmitted wire bits codice_4 standard transmission order least significant bit first token ring networks would transmitted bits codice_5 most-significant-bit first order latter might incorrectly displayed referred bit-reversed order non-canonical form msb format ibm format token ring format explained 1-hop neighbor's text information: ping_(networking_utility).ping networking utility ping computer network administration software utility used test reachability host internet protocol ip network available virtually operating systems networking capability including embedded network administration software ping measures round-trip time messages sent originating host destination computer echoed back source name comes active sonar terminology sends pulse sound listens echo detect objects water ping operates sending internet control message protocol icmp echo request packets target host waiting icmp echo reply program reports errors packet loss statistical summary results typically including minimum maximum mean round-trip times standard deviation mean command-line options ping utility output vary numerous implementations options may include size payload count tests limits number network hops ttl probes traverse interval requests many systems provide companion utility ping6 testing internet protocol version 6 ipv6 networks implement icmpv6 ping utility written mike muuss december 1983 employment ballistic research laboratory us army research laboratory created tool troubleshoot problems ip network mike muuss inspired remark david mills using icmp echo packets ip network diagnosis measurements author named sound sonar makes since methodology analogous sonar echo location first released version public domain software subsequent versions licensed bsd license ping first included 4.3bsd freedos version developed erick engelke licensed gpl tim crawford developed reactos version licensed mit license rfc 1122 prescribes host must process icmp echo requests issue echo replies return following output running ping linux sending five probes target host www.example.com output lists probe message results obtained finally lists statistics entire test example shortest round trip time 9.674 ms average 10.968 ms maximum value 11.726 ms measurement standard deviation 0.748 ms cases response target host implementations display either nothing periodically print notifications timing possible ping results indicating problem include following case error target host intermediate router sends back icmp error message example host unreachable ttl exceeded transit addition messages include first eight bytes original message case header icmp echo request including quench value ping utility match responses originating queries generic composition icmp packet echo request ping icmp/icmp6 message identifier sequence number used client match reply request caused reply practice linux systems use unique identifier every ping process sequence number increasing number within process windows uses fixed identifier varies windows versions sequence number reset boot time echo reply icmp message generated response echo request mandatory hosts must include exact payload received request payload packet generally filled ascii characters output tcpdump utility shows last 32 bytes following example eight-byte icmp header starting payload may include timestamp indicating time transmission sequence number found example allows ping compute round trip time stateless manner without needing record time transmission packet payload may also include magic packet wake-on-lan protocol minimum payload case longer shown echo request typically receive reply host sleeping hibernation state host still wakes sleep state interface configured accept wakeup requests host already active configured allow replies incoming icmp echo request packets returned reply include payload may used detect remote host effectively woken repeating new request delay allow host resume network services host sleeping low power active state single request wakes host enough allow echo reply service reply instantly service enabled host need completely wake devices may return low power mode short delay configuration may used avoid host enter hibernation state much longer wake delay time passed low power active mode conduct denial-of-service attack attacker may send ping requests fast possible possibly overwhelming victim icmp echo requests technique called ping flood ping requests multiple addresses ping sweeps may used obtain list hosts network Target text information: emco_software.emco software emco software development company founded 2001 headquartered reykjavik iceland develops network management software used automation remote administration network audit remote software deployment network monitoring permissions audit power management tasks corporate networks addition commercial products company also offers set freeware utilities system management network administration emco provides commercial solutions freeware tools automation network administration tasks remote management windows computers company products implemented windows desktop applications graphical user interface designed installed servers administrator desktops used centralized network management staff working applications must administrative access network computers order manage remotely emco products rely microsoft network infrastructure perform remote management operations thus allowing management computers within local network remote management access computers via internet provided company offers multiple freeware tools utilities used automation several typical network management tasks system problems troubleshooting free network applications designed network administrators need collect information perform certain operations remote computers free system utilities used administration staff individual users resolve number problems personal computers company offers freeware commercial tools used monitor state network hosts devices company offers two types remote deployment solutions types allow installing uninstalling applications windows computers across local network use different deployment approaches functional differences I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	9,721	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: hp_converged_systems.hp converged systems hp convergedsystem portfolio system-based products hewlett-packard hp integrates preconfigured components systems virtualization cloud computing big data collaboration converged management client virtualization composed servers storage networking integrated software services systems designed address cost complexity data center operations maintenance pulling components together single resource pool easier manage faster deploy previously would take three six months time order get system running reportedly takes 20 days hp convergedsystem hp convergedsystem uses common converged infrastructure architecture common foundation used hp server storage networking products hp converged infrastructure pools resources shared across different applications managed standardized management platform security software convergence server storage networking help user organizations save investment equipment maintenance management hp converged systems includes hp convergedsystem virtualization developing managing virtualized environments hp cloudsystem building managing cloud computing services across private public hybrid clouds hp convergedsystem big data loading analyzing managing vast quantities data hp convergedsystem collaboration configuration deployment microsoft unified communications software hp oneview converged infrastructure management hp convergedsystem client virtualization running virtual desktop infrastructure hp cloudsystem integrated cloud infrastructure delivering private public hybrid cloud services integrates hp cloud software hp servers storage networking technologies single system hp oneview converged infrastructure management product provides unified interface lets users automate formerly labor-intensive manual data center management maintenance tasks part software-defined data center hp convergedsystem virtualization consists series integrated server storage networking infrastructures offer scalability modular virtualization systems support 50 1,000 virtual machines hp convergedsystem 300 designed support 50 300 virtual machines comes configured hp proliant servers hp convergedsystem 700 designed larger enterprise installations 100 1,000 virtual machines comes configured hp bladesystem servers models customers choose vmware microsoft virtualization environments customers 700 model also install virtualization software models managed single console reported hp convergedsystem virtualization performs twice fast costs 25 percent less competing systems hp cloudsystem used enterprises service providers build manage private public hybrid cloud services system includes consumer-style user interface streamlined management tools based hp converged infrastructure hp cloudsystem modular infrastructure hp cloud service automation software cloudsystem integrates servers storage networking security management automate application infrastructure lifecycle service delivery via private hybrid clouds hp cloudsystem component hp converged cloud combines software cloud services unified set packages single unified architecture hp cloudsystem built hp cloud os features openstack technology enables users choose multiple hypervisors operating systems including microsoft vmware hp cloudsystem automatically shift workloads external clouds busy periods based pre-defined business policies supported public clouds include arsys sfr well amazon web services microsoft windows azure function commonly known cloud bursting hp cloudsystem lifecycle management tools automate process application provisioning customization configuration patch management retirement hp cloudsystem foundation features core components additional management capabilities simplified installation included hp cloudsystem enterprise hp convergedsystem big data provides workload-specific single-purpose systems support tasks performance critical data analytics data warehousing business applications software applications pre-integrated designed integrated hardware networking storage components hp convergedsystem 300 vertica designed businesses run hp vertica data analytics solution system works cloudera hortonworks mapr versions apache hadoop reported system operate 50 1,000 times faster competitors ’ data warehouse offerings hp convergedsystem 300 microsoft analytics platform system aps includes sql server parallel data warehouse pdw configured hdinsight hadoop nodes possible run polybase queries sql server pdw cloudera apache hortonworks hdp nodes hp convergedsystem 500 sap hana operates sap hana in-memory data management platform data analytics data warehousing reported system process data analytics twice fast competing systems sap hana hp convergedsystem 500 sap hana includes convergedsystem 500 hardware hp serviceguard sap hana data management tool protects unscheduled downtime providing capability automatic failover hp convergedsystem 500 sap hana enables users run data analytics enterprise resource planning erp workload-based system reported data analytics processes used take days weeks run accessed real-time hp convergedsystem 900 sap hana designed manage analyze large varied data sets reported hp convergedsystem 900 sap hana capable supplying 12 terabytes data one memory pool hp convergedsystem collaboration integrates hardware software services provide unified communications specific platforms pre-supplied workload configurations include hp collaboration solutions microsoft sharepoint server include hp sharepoint business decision business intelligence combines hp proliant gen8 servers sharepoint 2013 sql server ’ power view reported system takes less hour install launch hp convergedsystems solutions microsoft exchange server designed users deploy business email system modular simplified manner hp converged systems solutions microsoft lync server streamlines deployment microsoft lync communications voice instant messaging video includes reference architecture small medium enterprises hp oneview converged infrastructure management enables data center administrators perform automated lifecycle management hp servers part software-defined data center unlike legacy converged infrastructure management software focuses managing devices hp oneview designed help administrators enable tasks administrators view resources relationships visual map use representational state transfer rest application programming interface api automate system management tasks hp oneview interface modeled consumer applications efficiently manage hp bladesystem hp proliant generation 7 8 servers support hp moonshot arm servers planned reported hp oneview ’ deep knowledge servers hp virtual connect virtualization technology administrators deploy 16-node computer cluster 12 times faster could using manual operations administrators also use hp oneview provision maintain firmware across hp bladesystem enclosures servers virtual connect modules well manage virtual lan vlan network edge hp oneview plug-in vmware vcenter virtualization console enables administrators work directly vcenter console operations vmware vsphere hosts clusters managed automated reducing number steps takes carry tasks like setting new cluster hp convergedsystem 100 hosted desktops works software-defined hp moonshot m700 microserver systems includes software hardware services provide users environment running virtual desktops user gets dedicated cpu gpu removes need hypervisor according published reports moonshot server consumes 63 percent less power competing systems lower total cost ownership 44 percent compared standard desktop computer systems built joint effort amd citrix system reported provide graphics six times faster competing products client virtualization also provides way users securely access business applications data mobile devices 1-hop neighbor's text information: middleware.middleware middleware computer software provides services software applications beyond available operating system described software glue middleware makes easier software developers implement communication input/output focus specific purpose application gained popularity 1980s solution problem link newer applications older legacy systems although term use since 1968 term commonly used software enables communication management data distributed applications ietf workshop 2000 defined middleware services found transport i.e tcp/ip layer set services application environment i.e application-level apis specific sense middleware described dash client-server -to- peer-to-peer middleware includes web servers application servers content management systems similar tools support application development delivery objectweb defines middleware software layer lies operating system applications side distributed computing system network services regarded middleware include enterprise application integration data integration message oriented middleware mom object request brokers orbs enterprise service bus esb database access services often characterised middleware language specific implementations support heterogeneous features related communication features examples database-oriented middleware include odbc jdbc transaction processing monitors distributed computing system middleware loosely divided two categories—those provide human-time services web request servicing perform machine-time latter middleware somewhat standardized service availability forum commonly used complex embedded systems within telecom defense aerospace industries term middleware used contexts well middleware sometimes used similar sense software driver abstraction layer hides detail hardware devices software application 1-hop neighbor's text information: database.database database organized collection data generally stored accessed electronically computer system databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques database management system dbms software interacts end users applications database capture analyze data dbms software additionally encompasses core facilities provided administer database sum total database dbms associated applications referred database system often term database also used loosely refer dbms database system application associated database computer scientists may classify database-management systems according database models support relational databases became dominant 1980s model data rows columns series tables vast majority use sql writing querying data 2000s non-relational databases became popular referred nosql use different query languages formally database refers set related data way organized access data usually provided database management system dbms consisting integrated set computer software allows users interact one databases provides access data contained database although restrictions may exist limit access particular data dbms provides various functions allow entry storage retrieval large quantities information provides ways manage information organized close relationship term database often used casually refer database dbms used manipulate outside world professional information technology term database often used refer collection related data spreadsheet card index size usage requirements typically necessitate use database management system existing dbmss provide various functions allow management database data classified four main functional groups database dbms conform principles particular database model database system refers collectively database model database management system database physically database servers dedicated computers hold actual databases run dbms related software database servers usually multiprocessor computers generous memory raid disk arrays used stable storage raid used recovery data disks fail hardware database accelerators connected one servers via high-speed channel also used large volume transaction processing environments dbmss found heart database applications dbmss may built around custom multitasking kernel built-in networking support modern dbmss typically rely standard operating system provide functions since dbmss comprise significant market computer storage vendors often take account dbms requirements development plans databases dbmss categorized according database model support relational xml type computer run server cluster mobile phone query language used access database sql xquery internal engineering affects performance scalability resilience security sizes capabilities performance databases respective dbmss grown orders magnitude performance increases enabled technology progress areas processors computer memory computer storage computer networks development database technology divided three eras based data model structure navigational sql/relational post-relational two main early navigational data models hierarchical model codasyl model network model relational model first proposed 1970 edgar f. codd departed tradition insisting applications search data content rather following links relational model employs sets ledger-style tables used different type entity mid-1980s computing hardware become powerful enough allow wide deployment relational systems dbmss plus applications early 1990s however relational systems dominated large-scale data processing applications remain dominant ibm db2 oracle mysql microsoft sql server searched dbms dominant database language standardised sql relational model influenced database languages data models object databases developed 1980s overcome inconvenience object-relational impedance mismatch led coining term post-relational also development hybrid object-relational databases next generation post-relational databases late 2000s became known nosql databases introducing fast key-value stores document-oriented databases competing next generation known newsql databases attempted new implementations retained relational/sql model aiming match high performance nosql compared commercially available relational dbmss introduction term database coincided availability direct-access storage disks drums mid-1960s onwards term represented contrast tape-based systems past allowing shared interactive use rather daily batch processing oxford english dictionary cites 1962 report system development corporation california first use term data-base specific technical sense computers grew speed capability number general-purpose database systems emerged mid-1960s number systems come commercial use interest standard began grow charles bachman author one product integrated data store ids founded database task group within codasyl group responsible creation standardization cobol 1971 database task group delivered standard generally became known codasyl approach soon number commercial products based approach entered market codasyl approach relied manual navigation linked data set formed large network applications could find records one three methods later systems added b-trees provide alternate access paths many codasyl databases also added straightforward query language however final tally codasyl complex required significant training effort produce useful applications ibm also dbms 1966 known information management system ims ims development software written apollo program system/360 ims generally similar concept codasyl used strict hierarchy model data navigation instead codasyl network model concepts later became known navigational databases due way data accessed bachman 1973 turing award presentation programmer navigator ims classified ibm hierarchical database idms cincom systems total database classified network databases ims remains use edgar codd worked ibm san jose california one offshoot offices primarily involved development hard disk systems unhappy navigational model codasyl approach notably lack search facility 1970 wrote number papers outlined new approach database construction eventually culminated groundbreaking relational model data large shared data banks paper described new system storing working large databases instead records stored sort linked list free-form records codasyl codd idea use table fixed-length records table used different type entity linked-list system would inefficient storing sparse databases data one record could left empty relational model solved splitting data series normalized tables relations optional elements moved main table would take room needed data may freely inserted deleted edited tables dbms whatever maintenance needed present table view application/user relational model also allowed content database evolve without constant rewriting links pointers relational part comes entities referencing entities known one-to-many relationship like traditional hierarchical model many-to-many relationship like navigational network model thus relational model express hierarchical navigational models well native tabular model allowing pure combined modeling terms three models application requires instance common use database system track information users name login information various addresses phone numbers navigational approach data would placed single record unused items would simply placed database relational approach data would normalized user table address table phone number table instance records would created optional tables address phone numbers actually provided linking information back together key system relational model bit information used key uniquely defining particular record information collected user information stored optional tables would found searching key instance login name user unique addresses phone numbers user would recorded login name key simple re-linking related data back single collection something traditional computer languages designed navigational approach would require programs loop order collect records relational approach would require loops collect information one record codd suggestions set-oriented language would later spawn ubiquitous sql using branch mathematics known tuple calculus demonstrated system could support operations normal databases inserting updating etc well providing simple system finding returning sets data single operation codd paper picked two people berkeley eugene wong michael stonebraker started project known ingres using funding already allocated geographical database project student programmers produce code beginning 1973 ingres delivered first test products generally ready widespread use 1979 ingres similar system r number ways including use language data access known quel time ingres moved emerging sql standard ibm one test implementation relational model prtv production one business system 12 discontinued honeywell wrote mrds multics two new implementations alphora dataphor rel dbms implementations usually called relational actually sql dbmss 1970 university michigan began development micro information management system based d.l childs set-theoretic data model micro used manage large data sets us department labor u.s. environmental protection agency researchers university alberta university michigan wayne state university ran ibm mainframe computers using michigan terminal system system remained production 1998 1970s 1980s attempts made build database systems integrated hardware software underlying philosophy integration would provide higher performance lower cost examples ibm system/38 early offering teradata britton lee inc. database machine another approach hardware support database management icl cafs accelerator hardware disk controller programmable search capabilities long term efforts generally unsuccessful specialized database machines could keep pace rapid development progress general-purpose computers thus database systems nowadays software systems running general-purpose hardware using general-purpose computer data storage however idea still pursued certain applications companies like netezza oracle exadata ibm started working prototype system loosely based codd concepts system r early 1970s first version ready 1974/5 work started multi-table systems data could split data record optional stored single large chunk subsequent multi-user versions tested customers 1978 1979 time standardized query language – sql – added codd ideas establishing workable superior codasyl pushing ibm develop true production version system r known sql/ds later database 2 db2 larry ellison oracle database simply oracle started different chain based ibm papers system r. though oracle v1 implementations completed 1978 n't oracle version 2 ellison beat ibm market 1979 stonebraker went apply lessons ingres develop new database postgres known postgresql postgresql often used global mission critical applications .org .info domain name registries use primary data store many large companies financial institutions sweden codd paper also read mimer sql developed mid-1970s uppsala university 1984 project consolidated independent enterprise another data model entity–relationship model emerged 1976 gained popularity database design emphasized familiar description earlier relational model later entity–relationship constructs retrofitted data modeling construct relational model difference two become irrelevant 1980s ushered age desktop computing new computers empowered users spreadsheets like lotus 1-2-3 database software like dbase dbase product lightweight easy computer user understand box c. wayne ratliff creator dbase stated dbase different programs like basic c fortran cobol lot dirty work already done data manipulation done dbase instead user user concentrate rather mess dirty details opening reading closing files managing space allocation dbase one top selling software titles 1980s early 1990s 1990s along rise object-oriented programming saw growth data various databases handled programmers designers began treat data databases objects say person data database person attributes address phone number age considered belong person instead extraneous data allows relations data relations objects attributes individual fields term object-relational impedance mismatch described inconvenience translating programmed objects database tables object databases object-relational databases attempt solve problem providing object-oriented language sometimes extensions sql programmers use alternative purely relational sql programming side libraries known object-relational mappings orms attempt solve problem xml databases type structured document-oriented database allows querying based xml document attributes xml databases mostly used applications data conveniently viewed collection documents structure vary flexible highly rigid examples include scientific articles patents tax filings personnel records nosql databases often fast require fixed table schemas avoid join operations storing denormalized data designed scale horizontally recent years strong demand massively distributed databases high partition tolerance according cap theorem impossible distributed system simultaneously provide consistency availability partition tolerance guarantees distributed system satisfy two guarantees time three reason many nosql databases using called eventual consistency provide availability partition tolerance guarantees reduced level data consistency newsql class modern relational databases aims provide scalable performance nosql systems online transaction processing read-write workloads still using sql maintaining acid guarantees traditional database system databases used support internal operations organizations underpin online interactions customers suppliers see enterprise software databases used hold administrative information specialized data engineering data economic models examples include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems many content management systems store websites collections webpages database one way classify databases involves type contents example bibliographic document-text statistical multimedia objects another way application area example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing insurance third way technical aspect database structure interface type section lists adjectives used characterize different kinds databases connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database dbms acronym sometime extended indicated underlying database model rdbms relational oodbms ordbms object orientated model ordbms object-relational extensions indicate characteristic ddbms distributed database management systems functionality provided dbms vary enormously core functionality storage retrieval update data codd proposed following functions services fully-fledged general purpose dbms provide also generally expected dbms provide set utilities purposes may necessary administer database effectively including import export monitoring defragmentation analysis utilities core part dbms interacting database application interface sometimes referred database engine often dbmss configuration parameters statically dynamically tuned example maximum amount main memory server database use trend minimise amount manual configuration cases embedded databases need target zero-administration paramount large major enterprise dbmss tended increase size functionality involved thousands human years development effort lifetime early multi-user dbms typically allowed application reside computer access via terminals terminal emulation software client–server architecture development application resided client desktop database server allowing processing distributed evolved multitier architecture incorporating application servers web servers end user interface via web browser database directly connected adjacent tier general-purpose dbms provide public application programming interfaces api optionally processor database languages sql allow applications written interact database special purpose dbms may use private api specifically customised linked single application example email system performing many functions general-purpose dbms message insertion message deletion attachment handling blocklist lookup associating messages email address forth however functions limited required handle email external interaction database via application program interfaces dbms range database tool allows users execute sql queries textually graphically web site happens use database store search information programmer code interactions database sometimes referred datasource via application program interface api via database language particular api language chosen need supported dbms possible indirectly via pre-processor bridging api api aim database independent odbc commonly known example common api include jdbc ado.net database languages special-purpose languages allow one following tasks sometimes distinguished sublanguages database languages specific particular data model notable examples include database language may also incorporate features like database storage container physical materialization database comprises internal physical level database architecture also contains information needed e.g. metadata data data internal data structures reconstruct conceptual level external level internal level needed putting data permanent storage generally responsibility database engine a.k.a storage engine though typically accessed dbms underlying operating system often using operating systems file systems intermediates storage layout storage properties configuration setting extremely important efficient operation dbms thus closely maintained database administrators dbms operation always database residing several types storage e.g. memory external storage database data additional needed information possibly large amounts coded bits data typically reside storage structures look completely different way data look conceptual external levels ways attempt optimize best possible levels reconstruction needed users programs well computing additional types needed information data e.g. querying database dbmss support specifying character encoding used store data multiple encodings used database various low-level database storage structures used storage engine serialize data model written medium choice techniques indexing may used improve performance conventional storage row-oriented also column-oriented correlation databases often storage redundancy employed increase performance common example storing materialized views consist frequently needed external views query results storing views saves expensive computing time needed downsides materialized views overhead incurred updating keep synchronized original updated database data cost storage redundancy occasionally database employs storage redundancy database objects replication one copies increase data availability improve performance simultaneous multiple end-user accesses database object provide resiliency case partial failure distributed database updates replicated object need synchronized across object copies many cases entire database replicated database security deals various aspects protecting database content owners users ranges protection intentional unauthorized database uses unintentional database accesses unauthorized entities e.g. person computer program database access control deals controlling person certain computer program allowed access information database information may comprise specific database objects e.g. record types specific records data structures certain computations certain objects e.g. query types specific queries using specific access paths former e.g. using specific indexes data structures access information database access controls set special authorized database owner personnel uses dedicated protected security dbms interfaces may managed directly individual basis assignment individuals privileges groups elaborate models assignment individuals groups roles granted entitlements data security prevents unauthorized users viewing updating database using passwords users allowed access entire database subsets called subschemas example employee database contain data individual employee one group users may authorized view payroll data others allowed access work history medical data dbms provides way interactively enter update database well interrogate capability allows managing personal databases data security general deals protecting specific chunks data physically i.e. corruption destruction removal e.g. see physical security interpretation parts meaningful information e.g. looking strings bits comprise concluding specific valid credit-card numbers e.g. see data encryption change access logging records accessed attributes changed changed logging services allow forensic database audit later keeping record access occurrences changes sometimes application-level code used record changes rather leaving database monitoring set attempt detect security breaches database transactions used introduce level fault tolerance data integrity recovery crash database transaction unit work typically encapsulating number operations database e.g. reading database object writing acquiring lock etc abstraction supported database also systems transaction well defined boundaries terms program/code executions included transaction determined transaction programmer via special transaction commands acronym acid describes ideal properties database transaction atomicity consistency isolation durability database built one dbms portable another dbms i.e. dbms run however situations desirable migrate database one dbms another reasons primarily economical different dbmss may different total costs ownership tcos functional operational different dbmss may different capabilities migration involves database transformation one dbms type another transformation maintain possible database related application i.e. related application programs intact thus database conceptual external architectural levels maintained transformation may desired also aspects architecture internal level maintained complex large database migration may complicated costly one-time project factored decision migrate spite fact tools may exist help migration specific dbmss typically dbms vendor provides tools help importing databases popular dbmss designing database application next stage building database typically appropriate general-purpose dbms selected used purpose dbms provides needed user interfaces used database administrators define needed application data structures within dbms respective data model user interfaces used select needed dbms parameters like security related storage allocation parameters etc. database ready data structures needed components defined typically populated initial application data database initialization typically distinct project many cases using specialized dbms interfaces support bulk insertion making operational cases database becomes operational empty application data data accumulated operation database created initialised populated needs maintained various database parameters may need changing database may need tuned tuning better performance application data structures may changed added new related application programs may written add application functionality etc sometimes desired bring database back previous state many reasons e.g. cases database found corrupted due software error updated erroneous data achieve backup operation done occasionally continuously desired database state i.e. values data embedding database data structures kept within dedicated backup files many techniques exist effectively decided database administrator bring database back state e.g. specifying state desired point time database state files used restore state static analysis techniques software verification applied also scenario query languages particular *abstract interpretation framework extended field query languages relational databases way support sound approximation techniques semantics query languages tuned according suitable abstractions concrete domain data abstraction relational database system many interesting applications particular security purposes fine grained access control watermarking etc dbms features might include increasingly calls single system incorporates core functionalities build test deployment framework database management source control borrowing developments software industry market offerings devops database first task database designer produce conceptual data model reflects structure information held database common approach develop entity-relationship model often aid drawing tools another popular approach unified modeling language successful data model accurately reflect possible state external world modeled example people one phone number allow information captured designing good conceptual data model requires good understanding application domain typically involves asking deep questions things interest organization like customer also supplier product sold two different forms packaging product different products plane flies new york dubai via frankfurt one flight two maybe even three answers questions establish definitions terminology used entities customers products flights flight segments relationships attributes producing conceptual data model sometimes involves input business processes analysis workflow organization help establish information needed database left example help deciding whether database needs hold historic data well current data produced conceptual data model users happy next stage translate schema implements relevant data structures within database process often called logical database design output logical data model expressed form schema whereas conceptual data model theory least independent choice database technology logical data model expressed terms particular database model supported chosen dbms terms data model database model often used interchangeably article use data model design specific database database model modeling notation used express design popular database model general-purpose databases relational model precisely relational model represented sql language process creating logical database design using model uses methodical approach known normalization goal normalization ensure elementary fact recorded one place insertions updates deletions automatically maintain consistency final stage database design make decisions affect performance scalability recovery security like depend particular dbms often called physical database design output physical data model key goal stage data independence meaning decisions made performance optimization purposes invisible end-users applications two types data independence physical data independence logical data independence physical design driven mainly performance requirements requires good knowledge expected workload access patterns deep understanding features offered chosen dbms another aspect physical database design security involves defining access control database objects well defining security levels methods data database model type data model determines logical structure database fundamentally determines manner data stored organized manipulated popular example database model relational model sql approximation relational uses table-based format common logical data models databases include object-relational database combines two related structures physical data models include models include specialized models optimized particular types data database management system provides three views database data typically one conceptual logical physical internal view data number different external views allows users see database information business-related way rather technical processing viewpoint example financial department company needs payment details employees part company expenses need details employees interest human resources department thus different departments need different views company database three-level database architecture relates concept data independence one major initial driving forces relational model idea changes made certain level affect view higher level example changes internal level affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces reduces impact making physical changes improve performance conceptual view provides level indirection internal external one hand provides common view database independent different external view structures hand abstracts away details data stored managed internal level principle every level even every external view presented different data model practice usually given dbms uses data model external conceptual levels e.g. relational model internal level hidden inside dbms depends implementation requires different level detail uses types data structure types separating external conceptual internal levels major feature relational database model implementations dominate 21st century databases database technology active research topic since 1960s academia research development groups companies example ibm research research activity includes theory development prototypes notable research topics included models atomic transaction concept related concurrency control techniques query languages query optimization methods raid database research area several dedicated academic journals example acm transactions database systems -tods data knowledge engineering -dke annual conferences e.g. acm sigmod acm pods vldb ieee icde Target text information: hp_cloud_service_automation_software.hp cloud service automation software hp cloud service automation hp csa cloud management software hewlett-packard used companies government agencies automate management cloud-based it-as-a-service order provision retirement hp cloud service automation orchestrates provisioning deployment complex services databases middleware packaged applications i.e. erp exchange software speeds deployment application-based services across hybrid cloud delivery platforms traditional environments software part broad portfolio hp enterprise management software products aimed helping companies manage lifecycle deployment usage cloud computing whether public private clouds according national institute standards technology information technology laboratory “ cloud computing model enabling convenient on-demand network access shared pool configurable computing resources e.g. networks servers storage applications services rapidly provisioned released minimal management effort service provider interaction. ” many organizations adopting cloud computing allows access applications resources services internet “ as-needed ” “ per usage ” basis cost agility advantages department according january 2011 unisys poll nearly half u.s. companies consider cloud computing top priority cloud computing save departments money increase flexibility present challenges challenges include extra effort increased difficulty department complexity associated deployment ongoing management cloud infrastructure applications automation proper management important departments deploy cloud computing services challenges according international data corporation idc use distributed server/workload automation tools help lower capital power cooling costs tracking reclaiming virtual machines making staff efficient standardizing streamlining manual processes speed process provisioning resources enabling business users ability self-provision predefined resource function hp cloud service automation accelerate speed deployment application-based services across hybrid cloud delivery environment traditionally staff required patch update physical servers manually using hp cloud service automation organizations update thousands servers automatically hp cloud service automation allows departments move manage applications among in-house private cloud systems external public clouds traditional systems hp cloud service automation software also designed deliver unified security governance compliance across applications well physical virtual infrastructures software automates key processes one consistent approach resource management hp cloud service automation also allows departments dynamically monitor provision server storage network elements well applications meet needs current upcoming workloads addition solution allows automatically grow shrink allocated resources order meet quality service targets hp cloud service automation software component hp virtualsystem series integrated server storage networking infrastructures hp citrix hp-ux microsoft vmware virtual environments hp virtualsystem part hp converged systems portfolio system-based products use converged infrastructure specific workloads hp cloud service automation software also included hp cloudsystem cloud infrastructure hp combines storage servers networking software organizations build complete private public hybrid cloud computing environments may 2013 hp packaged version 10 hp operations orchestration version 10 hp server automation version 10 hp database middleware automation hp cloud service automation 3.2 single integrated package hp cloud service automation also available standalone software solution hp cloud service automation works hp operations orchestration hp server automation provide lifecycle automation hp operations orchestration integrated set software services helps automate distributed systems heterogeneous computing environments user organizations use hp oo link together separate applications create workflow across hp server automation used manage physical virtual servers lifecycle management platform according hp hp sa helps reduce administrator-to-server ratio 60 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	1,663	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: gauss_(software).gauss software gauss matrix programming language mathematics statistics developed marketed aptech systems primary purpose solution numerical problems statistics econometrics time-series optimization 2d- 3d-visualization first published 1984 ms-dos currently also available linux macos windows range toolboxes available gauss additional cost see https //www.aptech.com/products/gauss-applications/ complete listing products 1-hop neighbor's text information: red_hat.red hat red hat inc. american multinational software company providing open-source software products enterprise community founded 1993 red hat corporate headquarters raleigh north carolina offices worldwide became subsidiary ibm july 9 2019 red hat become associated large extent enterprise operating system red hat enterprise linux acquisition open-source enterprise middleware vendor jboss red hat also offers red hat virtualization rhv enterprise virtualization product red hat provides storage operating system platforms middleware applications management products support training consulting services red hat creates maintains contributes many free software projects acquired several proprietary software product codebases corporate mergers acquisitions released software open-source licenses red hat second largest corporate contributor linux kernel version 4.14 intel october 28 2018 ibm announced intent acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition closed july 9 2019 1993 bob young incorporated acc corporation catalog business sold linux unix software accessories 1994 marc ewing created linux distribution named red hat linux ewing worn red cornell university lacrosse hat given grandfather attending carnegie mellon university ewing released software october became known halloween release young bought ewing business 1995 two merged become red hat software young serving chief executive officer ceo red hat went public august 11 1999 achieving eighth-biggest first-day gain history wall street matthew szulik succeeded bob young ceo december year bob young went found online print demand self-publishing company lulu 2002 november 15 1999 red hat acquired cygnus solutions cygnus provided commercial support free software housed maintainers gnu software products gnu debugger gnu binutils one founders cygnus michael tiemann became chief technical officer red hat vice president open-source affairs later red hat acquired wirespeed c2net hell kitchen systems february 2000 infoworld awarded red hat fourth consecutive operating system product year award red hat linux 6.1 red hat acquired planning technologies inc 2001 aol iplanet directory certificate-server software 2004 red hat moved headquarters durham north carolina state university centennial campus raleigh north carolina february 2002 following month red hat introduced red hat linux advanced server later renamed red hat enterprise linux rhel dell ibm hp oracle corporation announced support platform december 2005 cio insight magazine conducted annual vendor value survey red hat ranked 1 value second year row red hat stock became part nasdaq-100 december 19 2005 red hat acquired open-source middleware provider jboss june 5 2006 jboss became division red hat september 18 2006 red hat released red hat application stack integrated jboss technology certified well-known software vendors december 12 2006 red hat stock moved trading nasdaq rhat new york stock exchange rht 2007 red hat acquired metamatrix made agreement exadel distribute software march 15 2007 red hat released red hat enterprise linux 5 june acquired mobicents march 13 2008 red hat acquired amentra provider systems integration services service-oriented architecture business process management systems development enterprise data services july 27 2009 red hat replaced cit group standard poor 500 stock index diversified index 500 leading companies u.s. economy reported major milestone linux december 15 2009 reported red hat pay settle class action lawsuit related restatement financial results july 2004 suit pending u.s. district court eastern district north carolina red hat reached proposed settlement agreement recorded one-time charge quarter ended nov. 30 january 10 2011 red hat announced would expand headquarters two phases adding 540 employees raleigh operation investing state north carolina offering incentives second phase involves expansion new technologies software virtualization technology cloud offerings august 25 2011 red hat announced would move 600 employees n.c. state centennial campus two progress plaza downtown ribbon cutting ceremony held june 24 2013 re-branded red hat headquarters 2012 red hat became first one-billion dollar open-source company reaching annual revenue fiscal year red hat passed 2 billion benchmark 2015. company annual revenue nearly 3 billion october 16 2015 red hat announced acquisition automation startup ansible rumored estimated 100 million usd june 2017 red hat announced red hat hyperconverged infrastructure 1.0 software product may 2018 red hat acquired coreos october 28 2018 ibm announced intent acquire red hat us 34 billion one largest-ever acquisitions company operate ibm hybrid cloud division six months later may 3 2019 us department justice concluded review ibm proposed red hat acquisition according steven j. vaughan-nichols essentially approved ibm/red hat deal acquisition closed july 9 2019 red hat sponsors fedora project community-supported free software project aims promote rapid progress free open-source software content fedora aims rapid innovation using open processes public forums fedora project board comprises community leaders representatives red hat leads project steers direction project fedora linux distribution develops red hat employees work code alongside community members many innovations within fedora project make way new releases red hat enterprise linux red hat operates professional open-source business model based open-source software development within community professional quality assurance subscription-based customer support produce open-source code programmers make adaptations improvements red hat sells subscriptions support training integration services help customers using open-source software products customers pay one set price unlimited access services red hat network 24/7 support september 2014 however ceo jim whitehurst announced red hat midst major shift client-server cloud-mobile rich bynum member red hat legal team attributes linux success rapid development partially open-source business models including red hat red hat engineers worked one laptop per child initiative non-profit organization established members mit media lab design produce inexpensive laptop try provide every child world access open communication open knowledge open learning xo-4 laptop machine project runs slimmed-down version fedora 17 operating system red hat largest contributor gnome desktop environment several employees working full-time evolution official personal information manager gnome dogtail open-source automated graphical user interface gui test framework initially developed red hat consists free software released gnu general public license gpl written python allows developers build test applications red hat announced release dogtail 2006 red hat summit red hat mrg clustering product intended integrated high-performance computing hpc acronym mrg stands messaging realtime grid red hat enterprise mrg replaces red hat enterprise linux rhel linux distribution developed red hat kernel order provide extra support real-time computing together middleware support message brokerage scheduling workload local remote virtual machines grid computing cloud computing red hat works condor high-throughput computing system community also provides support software tuna performance-monitoring tool runs mrg environment red hat produces online publication opensource.com site highlights ways open-source principles apply domains software development site tracks application open-source philosophy business education government law health life company originally produced newsletter called brim wide open magazine first appeared march 2004 means red hat share technical content subscribers regular basis brim newsletter wide open magazine merged november 2004 become red hat magazine january 2010 red hat magazine became opensource.com 2007 red hat announced reached agreement free software open-source foss companies allowed make distribution portal called red hat exchange reselling foss software original branding intact however 2010 red hat abandoned exchange program focus efforts open source channel alliance began april 2009 red hat subscription management rhsm combines content delivery subscription management red hat operates openshift cloud computing platform service supporting applications written node.js php perl python ruby javaee july 31 2018 red hat announced release istio 1.0 microservices management program used tandem kubernetes platform software purports provide traffic management service identity security policy enforcement telemetry services order streamline kubernetes use various fedora-based operating systems red hat brian redbeard harring described istio aiming control plane similar kubernetes control plane configuring series proxy servers get injected application components red hat markets version openstack helps manage data center manner cloud computing red hat cloudforms provides management virtual machines instances containers based vmware vsphere red hat virtualization microsoft hyper-v openstack amazon ec2 google cloud platform microsoft azure red hat openshift cloudforms based manageiq project red hat open sourced code manageiq acquisition manageiq 2012 red hat contributes several software developers work libreoffice free open-source office suite red hat employees working full-time free open-source software projects red hat products two full-time employees working free software radeon david airlie jerome glisse one full-time employee working free software nouveau graphic drivers another project aerogear open-source project brings security development expertise cross-platform enterprise mobile development red hat also organises open source day events multiple partners show open-source technologies subscribers access red hat major products acquisitions red hat programmers produced software programming-tools utilities supplement standard unix linux software red hat products found way specifically red hat operating environments via open-source channels wider community utilities include red hat website lists organization major involvements free open-source software projects community projects aegis red hat include 2000 red hat created subsidiary red hat india deliver red hat software support services indian customers colin tenwick vice president general manager red hat emea said red hat india opened response rapid adoption red hat linux subcontinent demand open-source solutions indian markets rising red hat wants play major role region red hat india worked local companies enable adoption open-source technology government education 2006 red hat india distribution network 70 channel partners spanning 27 cities across india red hat india channel partners included markcraft solutions ashtech infotech pvt ltd efensys technologies embee software allied digital services softcell technologies distributors include integra micro systems ingram micro red hat first major acquisition involved delix computer gmbh-linux div linux-based operating-system division delix computer german computer company july 30 1999 red hat acquired cygnus solutions company provided commercial support free software january 11 2000 – company largest acquisition michael tiemann co-founder cygnus served chief technical officer red hat acquisition red hat made acquisitions 2000 five cygnus solutions bluecurve wirespeed communications hell kitchen systems c2net june 5 2006 red hat acquired open-source middleware provider jboss integrated division red hat december 14 1998 red hat made first divestment intel netscape acquired undisclosed minority stakes company next year march 9 1999 compaq ibm dell novell acquired undisclosed minority stakes red hat 1-hop neighbor's text information: pdf.pdf portable document format pdf redundantly pdf format file format developed adobe 1990s present documents including text formatting images manner independent application software hardware operating systems based postscript language pdf file encapsulates complete description fixed-layout flat document including text fonts vector graphics raster images information needed display pdf standardized iso 32000 2008 longer requires royalties implementation today pdf files may contain variety content besides flat text graphics including logical structuring elements interactive elements annotations form-fields layers rich media including video content three dimensional objects using u3d prc various data formats pdf specification also provides encryption digital signatures file attachments metadata enable workflows requiring features adobe systems made pdf specification available free charge 1993 early years pdf popular mainly desktop publishing workflows competed variety formats djvu envoy common ground digital paper farallon replica even adobe postscript format pdf proprietary format controlled adobe released open standard july 1 2008 published international organization standardization iso 32000-1:2008 time control specification passed iso committee volunteer industry experts 2008 adobe published public patent license iso 32000-1 granting royalty-free rights patents owned adobe necessary make use sell distribute pdf compliant implementations pdf 1.7 sixth edition pdf specification became iso 32000-1 includes proprietary technologies defined adobe adobe xml forms architecture xfa javascript extension acrobat referenced iso 32000-1 normative indispensable full implementation iso 32000-1 specification proprietary technologies standardized specification published adobe ’ website many also supported popular third-party implementations pdf july 28 2017 iso 32000-2:2017 pdf 2.0 published iso 32000-2 include proprietary technologies normative references pdf combines three technologies postscript page description language run interpreter generate image process requiring many resources handle graphics standard features programming languages codice_1 codice_2 commands pdf largely based postscript simplified remove flow control features like graphics commands codice_3 remain often postscript-like pdf code generated source postscript file graphics commands output postscript code collected tokenized files graphics fonts document refers also collected everything compressed single file therefore entire postscript world fonts layout measurements remains intact document format pdf several advantages postscript pdf file 7-bit ascii file except certain elements may binary content pdf file starts header containing magic number version format codice_4 format subset cos carousel object structure format cos tree file consists primarily objects eight types furthermore may comments introduced percent sign codice_9 comments may contain 8-bit characters objects may either direct embedded another object indirect indirect objects numbered object number generation number defined codice_10 codice_11 keywords index table also called cross-reference table marked codice_12 keyword follows main body gives byte offset indirect object start file design allows efficient random access objects file also allows small changes made without rewriting entire file incremental update beginning pdf version 1.5 indirect objects may also located special streams known object streams technique reduces size files large numbers small indirect objects especially useful tagged pdf end pdf file trailer introduced codice_13 keyword contains dictionary contains two layouts pdf files non-linear optimized linear optimized non-linear pdf files consume less disk space linear counterparts though slower access portions data required assemble pages document scattered throughout pdf file linear pdf files also called optimized web optimized pdf files constructed manner enables read web browser plugin without waiting entire file download since written disk linear page order fashion pdf files may optimized using adobe acrobat software qpdf basic design graphics represented pdf similar postscript except use transparency added pdf 1.4 pdf graphics use device-independent cartesian coordinate system describe surface page pdf page description use matrix scale rotate skew graphical elements key concept pdf graphics state collection graphical parameters may changed saved restored page description pdf version 1.6 24 graphics state properties important postscript vector graphics pdf constructed paths paths usually composed lines cubic bézier curves also constructed outlines text unlike postscript pdf allow single path mix text outlines lines curves paths stroked filled clipping strokes fills use color set graphics state including patterns pdf supports several types patterns simplest tiling pattern piece artwork specified drawn repeatedly may colored tiling pattern colors specified pattern object uncolored tiling pattern defers color specification time pattern drawn beginning pdf 1.3 also shading pattern draws continuously varying colors seven types shading pattern simplest axial shade type 2 radial shade type 3 raster images pdf called image xobjects represented dictionaries associated stream dictionary describes properties image stream contains image data less commonly raster image may embedded directly page description inline image images typically filtered compression purposes image filters supported pdf include general purpose filters normally image content pdf embedded file pdf allows image data stored external files use external streams alternate images standardized subsets pdf including pdf/a pdf/x prohibit features text pdf represented text elements page content streams text element specifies characters drawn certain positions characters specified using encoding selected font resource font object pdf description digital typeface may either describe characteristics typeface may include embedded font file latter case called embedded font former called unembedded font font files may embedded based widely used standard digital font formats type 1 compressed variant cff truetype beginning pdf 1.6 opentype additionally pdf supports type 3 variant components font described pdf graphic operators fourteen typefaces known standard 14 fonts special significance pdf documents fonts sometimes called base fourteen fonts fonts suitable substitute fonts metrics available pdf readers guaranteed available reader may display correctly system installed fonts may substituted embedded pdf within text strings characters shown using character codes integers map glyphs current font using encoding number predefined encodings including winansi macroman large number encodings east asian languages font built-in encoding although winansi macroman encodings derived historical properties windows macintosh operating systems fonts using encodings work equally well platform pdf specify predefined encoding use font built-in encoding provide lookup table differences predefined built-in encoding recommended truetype fonts encoding mechanisms pdf designed type 1 fonts rules applying truetype fonts complex large fonts fonts non-standard glyphs special encodings identity-h horizontal writing identity-v vertical used fonts necessary provide tounicode table semantic information characters preserved original imaging model pdf like postscript opaque object drawn page completely replaced anything previously marked location pdf 1.4 imaging model extended allow transparency transparency used new objects interact previously marked objects produce blending effects addition transparency pdf done means new extensions designed ignored products written pdf 1.3 earlier specifications result files use small amount transparency might view acceptably older viewers files making extensive use transparency could viewed incorrectly older viewer without warning transparency extensions based key concepts transparency groups blending modes shape alpha model closely aligned features adobe illustrator version 9 blend modes based used adobe photoshop time pdf 1.4 specification published formulas calculating blend modes kept secret adobe since published concept transparency group pdf specification independent existing notions group layer applications adobe illustrator groupings reflect logical relationships among objects meaningful editing objects part imaging model pdf files may contain interactive elements annotations form fields video 3d rich media rich media pdf pdf file including interactive content embedded linked within file interactive forms mechanism add forms pdf file format pdf currently supports two different methods integrating data pdf forms formats today coexist pdf specification acroforms introduced pdf 1.2 format acroforms permit using objects e.g text boxes radio buttons etc code e.g javascript alongside standard pdf action types interactive forms acroforms support submitting resetting importing data submit action transmits names values selected interactive form fields specified uniform resource locator url interactive form field names values may submitted following formats depending settings action ’ exportformat submitpdf xfdf flags acroforms keep form field values external stand-alone files containing key value pairs external files may use forms data format fdf xml forms data format xfdf files usage rights ur signatures define rights import form data files fdf xfdf text csv/tsv formats export form data files fdf xfdf formats forms data format fdf based pdf uses syntax essentially file structure much simpler pdf since body fdf document consists one required object forms data format defined pdf specification since pdf 1.2 forms data format used submitting form data server receiving response incorporating interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form xml forms data format xfdf xml version forms data format xfdf implements subset fdf containing forms annotations xfdf equivalents entries fdf dictionary – status encoding javascript pages keys embeddedfdfs differences target addition xfdf allow spawning addition new pages based given data done using fdf file xfdf specification referenced included pdf 1.5 specification later versions described separately xml forms data format specification pdf 1.4 specification allowed form submissions xml format replaced submissions xfdf format pdf 1.5 specification xfdf conforms xml standard december 2016 xfdf 3.0 iso/iec standard formal name iso 19444-1:2016 – document management – xml forms data format – part 1 use iso 32000-2 xfdf 3.0 standard normative reference iso 32000-2 xfdf used way fdf e.g. form data submitted server modifications made sent back new form data imported interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form pdf 1.5 adobe systems introduced proprietary format forms adobe xml forms architecture xfa adobe xfa forms compatible iso 32000 acroforms feature pdf processors handle xfa content xfa specification referenced iso 32000-1 pdf 1.7 external proprietary specification entirely deprecated pdf iso 32000-2 pdf 2.0 tagged pdf see clause 14.8 iso 32000 includes document structure semantics information enable reliable text extraction accessibility technically speaking tagged pdf stylized use format builds logical structure framework introduced pdf 1.3 tagged pdf defines set standard structure types attributes allow page content text graphics images extracted reused purposes tagged pdf required situations pdf file intended print since feature optional since rules tagged pdf relatively vague iso 32000-1 support tagged pdf amongst consuming devices including assistive technology uneven time iso 32000-2 however includes improved discussion tagged pdf anticipated facilitate iso-standardized subset pdf specifically targeted accessibility pdf/ua first published 2012 introduction pdf version 1.5 2003 came concept layers layers formally known optional content groups ocgs refer sections content pdf document selectively viewed hidden document authors consumers capability useful cad drawings layered artwork maps multi-language documents etc basically consists optional content properties dictionary added document root dictionary contains array optional content groups ocgs describing set information may individually displayed suppressed plus set optional content configuration dictionaries give status displayed suppressed given ocgs pdf file may encrypted security digitally signed authentication however since sha-1 collision discovered making use pdf format digital signatures using sha-1 shown insecure standard security provided acrobat pdf consists two different methods two different passwords user password encrypts file prevents opening owner password specifies operations restricted even document decrypted include modifying printing copying text graphics document adding modifying text notes acroform fields user password encrypts file owner password instead relying client software respect restrictions owner password easily removed software including free online services thus use restrictions document author places pdf document secure assured file distributed warning displayed applying restrictions using adobe acrobat software create edit pdf files even without removing password freeware open source pdf readers ignore permission protections allow user print make copy excerpts text document limited password protection number commercial solutions offer robust means information rights management restrict document access also reliably enforce permissions ways standard security handler beginning pdf 1.5 usage rights ur signatures used enable additional interactive features available default particular pdf viewer application signature used validate permissions granted bona fide granting authority example used allow user example adobe systems grants permissions enable additional features adobe reader using public-key cryptography adobe reader verifies signature uses certificate adobe-authorized certificate authority pdf application use mechanism purposes pdf files file attachments processors may access open save local filesystem pdf files contain two types metadata first document information dictionary set key/value fields author title subject creation update dates stored optional info trailer file small set fields defined extended additional text values required method deprecated pdf 2.0 pdf 1.4 support added metadata streams using extensible metadata platform xmp add xml standards-based extensible metadata used file formats allows metadata attached stream document information embedded illustrations well whole document attaching document catalog using extensible schema pdfs may encrypted password needed view edit contents pdf 2.0 defines 256-bit aes encryption standard pdf 2.0 files pdf reference also defines ways third parties define encryption systems pdf pdf files may digitally signed complete details implementing digital signatures pdf provided iso 32000-2 pdf files may also contain embedded drm restrictions provide controls limit copying editing printing restrictions depend reader software obey security provide limited pdf documents contain display settings including page display layout zoom level adobe reader uses settings override user default settings opening document free adobe reader remove settings anyone may create applications read write pdf files without pay royalties adobe systems adobe holds patents pdf licenses royalty-free use developing software complying pdf specification pdf files created specifically accessible disabled people pdf file formats use include tags text equivalents captions audio descriptions software automatically produce tagged pdfs feature always enabled default leading screen readers including jaws window-eyes hal kurzweil 1000 3000 read tagged pdf moreover tagged pdfs re-flowed magnified readers visual impairments adding tags older pdfs generated scanned documents present challenges one significant challenges pdf accessibility pdf documents three distinct views depending document creation inconsistent three views physical view ii tags view iii content view physical view displayed printed people consider pdf document tags view screen readers assistive technologies use deliver high-quality navigation reading experience users disabilities content view based physical order objects within pdf content stream may displayed software fully support tags view reflow feature adobe reader pdf/ua international standard accessible pdf based iso 32000-1 first published iso 14289-1 2012 establishes normative language accessible pdf technology pdf attachments carrying viruses first discovered 2001 virus named outlook.pdfworm peachy uses microsoft outlook send attachment adobe pdf file activated adobe acrobat acrobat reader time time new vulnerabilities discovered various versions adobe reader prompting company issue security fixes pdf readers also susceptible one aggravating factor pdf reader configured start automatically web page embedded pdf file providing vector attack malicious web page contains infected pdf file takes advantage vulnerability pdf reader system may compromised even browser secure vulnerabilities result pdf standard allowing pdf documents scripted javascript disabling javascript execution pdf reader help mitigate future exploits although protect exploits parts pdf viewing software security experts say javascript essential pdf reader security benefit comes disabling javascript outweighs compatibility issues caused one way avoiding pdf file exploits local web service convert files another format viewing march 30 2010 security researcher didier stevens reported adobe reader foxit reader exploit runs malicious executable user allows launch asked pdf file often combination vector graphics text bitmap graphics basic types content pdf later pdf revisions pdf document also support links inside document web page forms javascript initially available plugin acrobat 3.0 types embedded contents handled using plug-ins pdf 1.6 supports interactive 3d documents embedded pdf – 3d drawings embedded using u3d prc various data formats two pdf files look similar computer screen may different sizes example high resolution raster image takes space low resolution one typically higher resolution needed printing documents displaying screen things may increase size file embedding full fonts especially asiatic scripts storing text graphics pdf viewers generally provided free charge many versions available variety sources many software options creating pdfs including pdf printing capabilities built macos ios linux distributions libreoffice microsoft office 2007 updated sp2 later wordperfect 9 scribus numerous pdf print drivers microsoft windows pdftex typesetting system docbook pdf tools applications developed around ghostscript adobe acrobat well adobe indesign adobe framemaker adobe illustrator adobe photoshop google online office suite google docs also allows uploading saving pdf raster image processors rips used convert pdf files raster format suitable imaging onto paper media printers digital production presses prepress process known rasterisation rips capable processing pdf directly include adobe pdf print engine adobe systems jaws harlequin rip global graphics documents saved pdf portable document format portable document format archiving forms data format printable document could converted back forth many formats etc companies adobe acrobat provide sdk libraries developers add create pdf features software besides adobe pdf library companies pdftron systems apache pdfbox foxit software provide similar sdks adobe acrobat one example proprietary software allows user annotate highlight add notes already created pdf files one unix application available free software gnu general public license pdfedit freeware foxit reader available microsoft windows macos linux allows annotating documents tracker software pdf-xchange viewer allows annotations markups without restrictions freeware alternative apple macos integrated pdf viewer preview also enable annotations open source software skim latter supporting interaction latex synctex pdfsync integration bibdesk reference management software freeware qiqqa create annotation report summarizes annotations notes one made across library pdfs also web annotation systems support annotation pdf documents formats cases pdfs expected functionality paper documents ink annotation required examples pdf software online services including scribd viewing storing pdfvue online editing thinkfree zamzar conversion 1993 jaws raster image processor global graphics became first shipping prepress rip interpreted pdf natively without conversion another format company released upgrade harlequin rip capability 1997 agfa-gevaert introduced shipped apogee first prepress workflow system based pdf 1997 many commercial offset printers accepted submission press-ready pdf files print source specifically pdf/x-1a subset variations submission press-ready pdf files replacement problematic need receiving collected native working files pdf selected native metafile format mac os x replacing pict format earlier classic mac os imaging model quartz graphics layer based model common display postscript pdf leading nickname display pdf preview application display pdf files version 2.0 later safari web browser system-level support pdf allows mac os x applications create pdf documents automatically provided support os-standard printing architecture files exported pdf 1.3 format according file header taking screenshot mac os x versions 10.0 10.3 image also captured pdf later versions save screen captures png file though behaviour set back pdf desired 2006 pdf widely accepted standard print job format open source development labs printing summit supported print job format common unix printing system desktop application projects gnome kde firefox thunderbird libreoffice openoffice switched emit print jobs pdf desktop printers also support direct pdf printing interpret pdf data without external help currently pdf capable printers also support postscript postscript printers support direct pdf printing free software foundation thought one high priority projects developing free high-quality fully functional set libraries programs implement pdf file format associated technologies iso 32000 standard 2011 however gnu pdf project removed list high priority projects due maturation poppler library enjoyed wider use applications evince gnome desktop environment poppler based xpdf code base also commercial development libraries available listed list pdf software apache pdfbox project apache software foundation open source java library working pdf documents pdfbox licensed apache license Target text information: spss.spss spss statistics software package used interactive batched statistical analysis long produced spss inc. acquired ibm 2009 current versions 2015 named ibm spss statistics software name originally stood statistical package social sciences spss reflecting original market although software popular fields well including health sciences marketing research hub published full-length freely accessible spss video tutorial playlist spss widely used program statistical analysis social science also used market researchers health researchers survey companies government education researchers marketing organizations data miners others original spss manual nie bent hull 1970 described one sociology influential books allowing ordinary researchers statistical analysis addition statistical analysis data management case selection file reshaping creating derived data data documentation metadata dictionary stored datafile features base software statistics included base software many features spss statistics accessible via pull-down menus programmed proprietary 4gl command syntax language command syntax programming benefits reproducible output simplifying repetitive tasks handling complex data manipulations analyses additionally complex applications programmed syntax accessible menu structure pull-down menu interface also generates command syntax displayed output although default settings changed make syntax visible user also pasted syntax file using paste button present menu programs run interactively unattended using supplied production job facility additionally macro language used write command language subroutines python programmability extension access information data dictionary data dynamically build command syntax programs python programmability extension introduced spss 14 replaced less functional sax basic scripts purposes although saxbasic remains available addition python extension allows spss run statistics free software package r. version 14 onwards spss driven externally python vb.net program using supplied plug-ins version 20 onwards two scripting facilities well many scripts included installation media normally installed default spss statistics places constraints internal file structure data types data processing matching files together considerably simplify programming spss datasets two-dimensional table structure rows typically represent cases individuals households columns represent measurements age sex household income two data types defined numeric text string data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case file dataset files matched one-to-one one-to-many many-to-many addition cases-by-variables structure processing separate matrix session one process data matrices using matrix linear algebra operations graphical user interface two views toggled clicking one two tabs bottom left spss statistics window 'data view shows spreadsheet view cases rows variables columns unlike spreadsheets data cells contain numbers text formulas stored cells 'variable view displays metadata dictionary row represents variable shows variable name variable label value label print width measurement type variety characteristics cells views manually edited defining file structure allowing data entry without using command syntax may sufficient small datasets larger datasets statistical surveys often created data entry software entered computer-assisted personal interviewing scanning using optical character recognition optical mark recognition software direct capture online questionnaires datasets read spss spss statistics read write data ascii text files including hierarchical files statistics packages spreadsheets databases spss statistics read write external relational database tables via odbc sql statistical output proprietary file format *.spv file supporting pivot tables addition in-package viewer stand-alone reader downloaded proprietary output exported text microsoft word pdf excel formats alternatively output captured data using oms command text tab-delimited text pdf xls html xml spss dataset variety graphic image formats jpeg png bmp emf several variants spss statistics exist spss statistics gradpacks highly discounted versions sold students spss statistics server version spss statistics client/server architecture add-on packages enhance base software additional features examples include complex samples adjust clustered stratified samples custom tables create publication-ready tables spss statistics available either annual monthly subscription license spss statistics launched version 25 aug 08 2017 spss v25 adds new advanced statistics random effects solution results genlinmixed robust standard errors glm/unianova profile plots error bars within advanced statistics custom tables add-on v25 also includes new bayesian statistics capabilities method statistical inference publication ready charts powerful new charting capabilities including new default templates ability share microsoft office applications software released first version 1968 statistical package social sciences spss developed norman h. nie dale h. bent c. hadlai hull principals incorporated spss inc. 1975 early versions spss statistics written fortran designed batch processing mainframes including example ibm icl versions originally using punched cards data program input processing run read command file spss commands either raw input file fixed format data single record type 'getfile data saved previous run save precious computer time 'edit run could done check command syntax without analysing data version 10 spss-x 1983 data files could contain multiple record types prior spss 16.0 different versions spss available windows mac os x unix spss statistics version 13.0 mac os x compatible intel-based macintosh computers due rosetta emulation software causing errors calculations spss statistics 15.0 windows needed downloadable hotfix installed order compatible windows vista version 16.0 version runs windows mac linux graphical user interface written java mac os version provided universal binary making fully compatible powerpc intel-based mac hardware spss inc announced july 28 2009 acquired ibm us 1.2 billion dispute ownership name spss 2009 2010 product referred pasw predictive analytics software january 2010 became spss ibm company complete transfer business ibm done october 1 2010 date spss ibm company ceased exist ibm spss fully integrated ibm corporation one brands ibm software group business analytics portfolio together ibm algorithmics ibm cognos ibm openpages companion software ibm spss family used data mining text analytics ibm spss modeler realtime credit scoring services ibm spss collaboration deployment services spss data collection spss dimensions sold 2015 unicom systems inc. division unicom global merged integrated software suite unicom intelligence survey design survey deployment data collection data management reporting ida interactive data analysis software package originated formerly national opinion research center norc university chicago initially offered hp-2000 somewhat later ownership spss also available dec decsystem-20 scss software product intended online use ibm mainframes although c conversational also represented distinction regarding data stored used column-oriented rather row-oriented internal database gave good interactive response time spss conversational statistical system scss whose strong point spss cross-tabulation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,450	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: software_lockout.software lockout multiprocessor computer systems software lockout issue performance degradation due idle wait times spent cpus kernel-level critical sections software lockout major cause scalability degradation multiprocessor system posing limit maximum useful number processors mitigate phenomenon kernel must designed critical sections short possible therefore decomposing data structure smaller substructures multiprocessor systems processor schedules controls therefore supervisor processor kernel data structures globally shared sections code access shared data structures critical sections design choice made improve scaling reliability modularity examples kernel data structure ready list communication channels conflict happens one processor trying access resource memory portion time prevent critical races inconsistency one processor cpu given time allowed access particular data structure memory portion cpus trying access time locked-out waiting idle status three cases distinguished idle wait either necessary convenient convenient idle wait necessary access ready list low level scheduling operation idle wait necessary convenient case critical section synchronization/ipc operations require less time context switch executing another process avoid idle wait idle wait instead convenient case kernel critical section device management present monolithic kernels microkernel instead falls first two cases multiprocessor system conflicts kernel-level conflicts due access kernel level critical sections thus idle wait periods generated major impact performance degradation idle wait time increases average number idle processors thus decreases scalability relative efficiency taking parameters average time interval spent processor kernel level critical sections l time locked state average time interval spent processor tasks outside critical sections e ratio l/e crucial evaluating software lockout typical values l/e range 0.01 0.1 system l/e ratio 0.05 instance 15 cpus expected average 1 cpu always idle 21 cpus 2.8 idle 40 cpus 19 idle 41 cpus 20 idle therefore adding 40 cpus system would useless general l/e value threshold maximum number useful cpus reduce performance degradation software lockout reasonable levels l/e 0.05 0.1 kernel and/or operating system must designed accordingly conceptually valid solution decompose kernel data structure smaller independent substructures shorter elaboration time allows one cpu access original data structure many uniprocessor systems hierarchical protection domains estimated spend 50 time performing supervisor mode operations systems adapted multiprocessing setting lock access supervisor state l/e would easily greater 1 resulting system throughput uniprocessor despite number cpus 1-hop neighbor's text information: application_checkpointing.application checkpointing checkpointing technique add fault tolerance computing systems basically consists saving snapshot application state restart point case failure particularly important long running applications executed failure-prone computing systems distributed computing checkpointing technique helps tolerate failures otherwise would force long-running application restart beginning basic way implement checkpointing stop application copy required data memory reliable storage e.g. parallel file system continue execution case failure application restarts need start scratch rather read latest state checkpoint stable storage execute two main approaches checkpointing systems coordinated checkpointing uncoordinated checkpointing coordinated checkpointing approach processes must ensure checkpoints consistent usually achieved kind two-phase commit protocol algorithm uncoordinated checkpointing process checkpoints state independently must stressed simply forcing processes checkpoint state fixed time intervals sufficient ensure global consistency need establishing consistent state i.e. missing messages duplicated messages may force processes roll back checkpoints turn may cause processes roll back even earlier checkpoints extreme case may mean consistent state found initial state so-called domino effect one original common means application checkpointing save state feature interactive applications user application could save state variables data storage medium time using either continue working exit application later time restart application restore saved state implemented save command menu option application many cases became standard practice ask user unsaved work exiting application wanted save work sort functionality became extremely important usability applications particular work could completed one sitting playing video game expected take dozens hours writing book long document amounting hundreds thousands pages work done long period time data entry document rows spreadsheet problem save state requires operator program request save non-interactive programs including automated batch processed workloads ability checkpoint applications also automated batch applications began handle tens hundreds thousands transactions transaction might process one record one file several different files need application restartable point without need rerun entire job scratch became imperative thus checkpoint/restart capability born number transactions processed snapshot checkpoint state application could taken point application failed next checkpoint could restarted giving checkpoint information last place transaction file transaction successfully completed application could restart point checkpointing would tend expensive generally done every record reasonable compromise cost checkpoint vs. value computer time needed reprocess batch records thus number records processed checkpoint might range 25 200 depending cost factors relative complexity application resources needed successfully restart application fti library aims provide computational scientists easy way perform checkpoint/restart scalable fashion fti leverages local storage plus multiple replications erasures techniques provide several levels reliability performance fti provides application-level checkpointing allows users select data needs protected order improve efficiency avoid space time energy waste offers direct data interface users need deal files and/or directory names metadata managed fti transparent fashion user desired users dedicate one process per node overlap fault tolerance workload scientific computation post-checkpoint tasks executed asynchronously future technologies group lawrence national laboratories developing hybrid kernel/user implementation checkpoint/restart called blcr goal provide robust production quality implementation checkpoints wide range applications without requiring changes made application code blcr focuses checkpointing parallel applications communicate mpi compatibility software suite produced scidac scalable systems software isic work broken 4 main areas checkpoint/restart linux cr checkpointable mpi libraries resource management interface checkpoint/restart development process management interfaces dmtcp distributed multithreaded checkpointing tool transparently checkpointing state arbitrary group programs spread across many machines connected sockets modify user program operating system among applications supported dmtcp open mpi python perl many programming languages shell scripting languages use tightvnc also checkpoint restart x window applications long use extensions e.g opengl video among linux features supported dmtcp open file descriptors pipes sockets signal handlers process id thread id virtualization ensure old pids tids continue work upon restart ptys fifos process group ids session ids terminal attributes mmap/mprotect including mmap-based shared memory dmtcp supports ofed api infiniband experimental basis recent protocols perform collaborative checkpointing storing fragments checkpoint nearby nodes helpful avoids cost storing parallel file system often becomes bottleneck large-scale systems uses storage closer found use particularly large-scale supercomputing clusters challenge ensure checkpoint needed recovering failure nearby nodes fragments checkpoints available docker underlying technology contain checkpoint restore mechanism criu user space checkpoint library mementos software system transform general-purpose tasks interruptible program platforms frequent power outages designed batteryless embedded devices rfid tags smart cards rely harvesting energy ambient background mementos frequently senses available energy system decides checkpoint program continue computation case checkpointing data stored non-volatile memory energy become sufficient reboot data retrieved memory program continues stored state mementos implemented msp430 family microcontrollers mementos named christopher nolan memento idetic set automatic tools helps application-specific integrated circuit asic developers automatically embed checkpoints designs targets high-level synthesis tools adds checkpoints register-transfer level verilog code uses dynamic programming approach locate low overhead points state machine design since checkpointing hardware level involves sending data dependent registers non-volatile memory optimum points required minimum number registers store idetic deployed evaluated energy harvesting rfid tag device 1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c Target text information: message_passing_in_computer_clusters.message passing computer clusters message passing inherent element computer clusters computer clusters ranging homemade beowulfs fastest supercomputers world rely message passing coordinate activities many nodes encompass message passing computer clusters built commodity servers switches used virtually every internet service recently use computer clusters one thousand nodes spreading number nodes cluster increases rapid growth complexity communication subsystem makes message passing delays interconnect serious performance issue execution parallel programs specific tools may used simulate visualize understand performance message passing computer clusters large computer cluster assembled trace-based simulator use small number nodes help predict performance message passing larger configurations following test runs small number nodes simulator reads execution message transfer log files simulates performance messaging subsystem many messages exchanged much larger number nodes historically two typical approaches communication cluster nodes pvm parallel virtual machine mpi message passing interface however mpi emerged de facto standard message passing computer clusters pvm predates mpi developed oak ridge national laboratory around 1989 provides set software libraries allow computing node act parallel virtual machine provides run-time environment message-passing task resource management fault notification must directly installed every cluster node pvm used user programs written c c++ fortran etc unlike pvm concrete implementation mpi specification rather specific set libraries specification emerged early 1990 discussions 40 organizations initial effort supported arpa national science foundation design mpi drew various features available commercial systems time mpi specifications gave rise specific implementations mpi implementations typically use tcp/ip socket connections mpi widely available communications model enables parallel programs written languages c fortran python etc mpi specification implemented systems mpich open mpi computer clusters use number strategies dealing distribution processing multiple nodes resulting communication overhead computer clusters tianhe-i use different processors message passing used performing computations tiahnhe-i uses two thousand feiteng-1000 processors enhance operation proprietary message passing system computations performed xeon nvidia tesla processors one approach reducing communication overhead use local neighborhoods also called locales specific tasks computational tasks assigned specific neighborhoods cluster increase efficiency using processors closer however given many cases actual topology computer cluster nodes interconnections may known application developers attempting fine tune performance application program level quite difficult given mpi emerged de facto standard computer clusters increase number cluster nodes resulted continued research improve efficiency scalability mpi libraries efforts included research reduce memory footprint mpi libraries earliest days mpi provided facilities performance profiling via pmpi profiling system use pmipi- prefix allows observation entry exit points messages however given high level nature profile type information provides glimpse real behavior communication system need information resulted development mpi-peruse system peruse provides detailed profile enabling applications gain access state-changes within mpi-library achieved registering callbacks peruse invoking triggers message events take place peruse work paraver visualization system paraver two components trace component visual component analyze traces statistics related specific events etc large scale often supercomputer level parallel system developed essential able experiment multiple configurations simulate performance number approaches modeling message passing efficiency scenario ranging analytical models trace-based simulation approaches rely use test environments based artificial communications perform synthetic tests message passing performance systems bigsim provide facilities allowing simulation performance various node topologies message passing scheduling strategies analytical level necessary model communication time term set subcomponents startup latency asymptotic bandwidth number processors well known model hockney model simply relies point point communication using l r message size l startup latency r asymptotic bandwidth mb/s xu hwang generalized hockney model include number processors latency asymptotic bandwidth functions number processors gunawan cai generalized introducing cache size separated messages based sizes obtaining two separate models one messages cache size one specific tools may used simulate understand performance message passing computer clusters instance clustersim uses java-based visual environment discrete-event simulation approach computed nodes network topology visually modeled jobs duration complexity represented specific probability distributions allowing various parallel job scheduling algorithms proposed experimented communication overhead mpi message passing thus simulated better understood context large-scale parallel job execution simulation tools include mpi-sim bigsim mpi-sim execution-driven simulator requires c c++ programs operate clustersim hand uses hybrid higher-level modeling system independent programming language used program execution unlike mpi-sim bigsim trace-driven system simulates based logs executions saved files separate emulator program bigsim includes emulator simulator emulator executes applications small number nodes stores results simulator use simulate activities much larger number nodes emulator stores information sequential execution blocks sebs multiple processors log files seb recording messages sent sources destinations dependencies timings etc simulator reads log files simulates may star additional messages also stored sebs simulator thus provide view performance large applications based execution traces provided emulator much smaller number nodes entire machine available configured I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	11,618	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: cross-platform_software.cross-platform software computing cross-platform software also multi-platform software platform-independent software computer software implemented multiple computing platforms cross-platform software may divided two types one requires individual building compilation platform supports one directly run platform without special preparation e.g. software written interpreted language pre-compiled portable bytecode interpreters run-time packages common standard components platforms example cross-platform application may run microsoft windows linux macos cross-platform programs may run many existing platforms two platforms cross-platform frameworks qt flutter nativescript xamarin phonegap ionic react native exist aid cross-platform development platform refer type processor cpu hardware given operating system application runs type operating system computer combination type hardware type operating system running example common platform microsoft windows running x86 architecture well-known desktop computer platforms include linux/unix macos cross-platform however many devices smartphones also effectively computer platforms less commonly thought way application software written depend features particular platform—either hardware operating system virtual machine runs java platform virtual machine platform runs many operating systems hardware types common platform software written hardware platform refer instruction set architecture example x86 architecture variants ia-32 x86-64 machines often run one version microsoft windows though run operating systems well including linux openbsd netbsd macos freebsd 32-bit arm architectures newer 64-bit version common smartphones tablet computers run android ios mobile operating systems software platforms either operating system programming environment though commonly combination notable exception java uses operating system independent virtual machine compiled code known world java bytecode examples software platforms previously noted java platform exception general rule operating system software platform java language typically compiles virtual machine virtual cpu runs code written language enables executable binary run systems implement java virtual machine jvm java programs executed natively using java processor n't common mostly used embedded systems java code running jvm access os-related services like disk i/o network access appropriate privileges granted jvm makes system calls behalf java application setup allows users decide appropriate protection level depending acl example disk network access usually enabled desktop applications browser-based applets jni also used enable access operating system specific functions currently java standard edition programs run microsoft windows macos several unix-like operating systems several non-unix-like operating systems like embedded systems mobile applications browser plugins used windows mac based devices android built-in support java also subsets java java card java platform micro edition designed resource-constrained devices piece software considered cross-platform must able function one computer architecture operating system developing program time-consuming task different operating systems different application programming interfaces api example linux uses different api application software windows software written particular operating system automatically work architectures operating system supports one example august 2006 openoffice.org natively run amd64 intel 64 lines processors implementing x86-64 standards computers since changed openoffice.org suite software “ mostly ” ported 64-bit systems also means program written popular programming language c c++ mean run operating systems support programming language—or even operating system different architecture web applications typically described cross-platform ideally accessible various web browsers within different operating systems applications generally employ client–server system architecture vary widely complexity functionality wide variability significantly complicates goal cross-platform capability routinely odds goal advanced functionality basic web applications perform processing stateless server pass result client web browser user interaction application consists simple exchanges data requests server responses types applications norm early phases world wide web application development applications follow simple transaction model identical serving static web pages today still relatively common especially cross-platform compatibility simplicity deemed critical advanced functionalities prominent examples advanced web applications include web interface gmail a9.com google maps website live search service bing microsoft advanced applications routinely depend additional features found recent versions popular web browsers dependencies include ajax javascript dynamic html svg components rich internet applications older versions popular web browsers tend lack support certain features competing interests cross-platform compatibility advanced functionality numerous alternative web application design strategies emerged strategies include graceful degradation attempts provide similar functionality users platforms diminishing functionality least common denominator limited client browsers example user attempting use limited-feature browser access gmail may notice gmail switches basic mode reduced functionality differs cross-platform techniques attempt provide equivalent functionality adequate functionality across platforms multiple codebase applications maintain distinct codebases different hardware os platforms equivalent functionality obviously requires duplication effort maintaining code worthwhile amount platform-specific code high strategy relies one codebase may compiled multiple platform-specific formats one technique conditional compilation technique code common platforms repeated blocks code relevant certain platforms made conditional interpreted compiled needed another technique separation functionality disables functionality supported client browsers operating systems still delivering complete application user see also separation concerns technique used web development interpreted code scripting languages query platform running execute different blocks conditionally third-party libraries attempt simplify cross-platform capability hiding complexities client differentiation behind single unified api responsive web design rwd web design approach aimed crafting visual layout sites provide optimal viewing experience—easy reading navigation minimum resizing panning scrolling—across wide range devices mobile phones desktop computer monitors little platform-specific code used technique one complicated aspect cross-platform web application design need software testing addition complications mentioned previously additional restriction web browsers prohibit installation different versions browser operating system although several development approaches companies use target multiple platforms result software requires substantial manual effort testing maintenance across supported platforms techniques full virtualization sometimes used workaround problem using tools page object model cross platform tests scripted way one test case usable multiple versions app long different versions similar user interfaces versions tested one time one test case web applications becoming increasingly popular many computer users still use traditional application software rely client/web-server architecture distinction traditional web applications always clear features installation methods architectures web traditional applications overlap blur distinction nevertheless simplifying distinction common useful generalization traditionally modern computing application software distributed end-users binary file especially executable files executables support operating system computer architecture built for—which means making single cross-platform executable would something massive task generally replaced offering selection executables platforms supported software distributed binary executable software written c c++ programmer must build software different operating system computer architecture i.e must use toolset translates—transcompiles—a single codebase multiple binary executables example firefox open-source web browser available windows macos powerpc x86 apple inc. calls universal binary linux bsd multiple computer architectures four platforms case windows macos linux bsd separate executable distributions although come source code use different toolsets perform different builds may sufficient achieve variety working executables different platforms case software engineer must port i.e amend code suitable new computer architecture operating system example program firefox already runs windows x86 family modified re-built run linux x86 potentially architectures well multiple versions code may stored separate codebases merged one codebase conditional compilation see note porting must accompanied cross-platform building reverse case alternative porting cross-platform virtualization allows applications compiled one cpu operating system run system different cpu and/or operating system without modification source code binaries example apple rosetta built intel-based macintosh computers runs applications compiled previous generation macs used powerpc cpus another example ibm powervm lx86 allows linux/x86 applications run unmodified linux/power operating system script considered cross-platform interpreter available multiple platforms script uses facilities provided language script written python unix-like system likely run little modification windows python also runs windows also one implementation python run scripts e.g. ironpython .net framework goes many open-source programming languages available scripting languages unlike binary executable files script used computers software interpret script script generally stored plain text text file may issues however type new line character sits lines generally however little work done make script written one system run another quite popular cross-platform scripting interpreted languages cross-platform multi-platform term also apply video games released range video game consoles specialized computers dedicated task playing games examples cross-platform video games include miner 2049er fifa video game series nhl series minecraft released across variety gaming platforms wii playstation 3 xbox 360 personal computers pcs mobile devices characteristics particular system may lengthen time taken implement video game across multiple platforms video game may initially released platforms later released remaining platforms typically situation occurs new gaming system released video game developers need acquaint hardware software associated new console games may become cross-platform licensing agreements developers video game console manufacturers limit development game one particular console example disney could create game intention release latest nintendo sony game consoles disney license game sony first disney may exchange required release game solely sony ’ console short time indefinitely—effectively prohibiting cross-platform release duration several developers implemented means play games online using different platforms psyonix epic games microsoft valve corporation possess technology allows xbox 360 playstation 3 gamers play pc gamers leaving decision platform use consumers first game allow level interactivity pc console games quake 3 games feature cross-platform online play include rocket league street fighter v killer instinct paragon fable fortune minecraft better together update windows 10 vr editions pocket edition xbox one cross-platform programming practice actively writing software work one platform different ways approaching problem writing cross-platform application program one approach simply create multiple versions program different source trees —in words microsoft windows version program might one set source code files macintosh version might another foss *nix system might another straightforward approach problem potential considerably expensive development cost development time especially corporate entities idea behind create two different programs ability behave similarly also possible means developing cross-platform application result problems bug tracking fixing two different source trees would different programmers thus different defects version another approach used depend pre-existing software hides differences platforms—called abstraction platform—such program unaware platform running could said programs platform agnostic programs run java virtual machine jvm built fashion applications mix various methods cross-platform programming create final application example firefox web browser uses abstraction build lower-level components separate source subtrees implementing platform-specific features like gui implementation one scripting language help facilitate ease portability firefox implements xul css javascript extending browser addition classic netscape-style browser plugins much browser written xul css javascript well number tools available help facilitate process cross-platform programming certain issues associated cross-platform development include 1-hop neighbor's text information: alf_(proof_assistant).alf proof assistant alf another logical framework structure editor monomorphic martin-löf type theory developed chalmers university predecessor alfa agda cayenne coq proof assistants dependently typed programming languages first language support inductive families dependent pattern matching 1-hop neighbor's text information: intuitionistic_type_theory.intuitionistic type theory intuitionistic type theory also known constructive type theory martin-löf type theory type theory alternative foundation mathematics intuitionistic type theory created per martin-löf swedish mathematician philosopher first published 1972 multiple versions type theory martin-löf proposed intensional extensional variants theory early impredicative versions shown inconsistent girard paradox gave way predicative versions however versions keep core design constructive logic using dependent types martin-löf designed type theory principles mathematical constructivism constructivism requires existence proof contain witness proof exists prime greater 1000 must identify specific number prime greater 1000 intuitionistic type theory accomplished design goal internalizing bhk interpretation interesting consequence proofs become mathematical objects examined compared manipulated intuitionistic type theory type constructors built follow one-to-one correspondence logical connectives example logical connective called implication formula_1 corresponds type function formula_2 correspondence called curry–howard isomorphism previous type theories also followed isomorphism martin-löf first extend predicate logic introducing dependent types intuitionistic type theory 3 finite types composed using 5 different type constructors unlike set theories type theories built top logic like frege feature type theory double duty feature math logic unfamiliar type theory know set theory quick summary types contain terms like sets contain elements terms belong one one type terms like formula_3 formula_4 compute reduce canonical terms like 4 see article type theory 3 finite types 0 type contains 0 terms 1 type contains 1 canonical term 2 type contains 2 canonical terms 0 type contains 0 terms also called empty type used represent anything exist also written formula_5 represents anything unprovable proof exist result negation defined function formula_6 likewise 1 type contains 1 canonical term represents existence also called unit type often represents propositions proven therefore sometimes written formula_7 finally 2 type contains 2 canonical terms represents definite choice two values used boolean values propositions propositions considered 1 type may proven never proof 0 type may proven either way law excluded middle hold propositions intuitionistic type theory σ-types contain ordered pairs typical ordered pair 2-tuple types σ-type describe cartesian product formula_8 two types formula_9 formula_10 logically ordered pair would hold proof formula_9 proof formula_10 one may see type written formula_13 σ-types powerful typical ordered pair types dependent typing ordered pair type second term depend value first term example first term pair might natural number second term type might vector length equal first term type would written using set-theory terminology similar indexed disjoint unions sets case usual ordered pairs type second term depend value first term thus type describing cartesian product formula_15 written important note value first term formula_17 depended type second term formula_18 obviously σ-types used build longer dependently-typed tuples used mathematics records structs used programming languages example dependently-typed 3-tuple two integers proof first integer smaller second integer described type dependent typing allows σ-types serve role existential quantifier statement exists formula_17 type formula_21 formula_22 proven becomes type ordered pairs first item value formula_17 type formula_21 second item proof formula_22 notice type second item proofs formula_22 depends value first part ordered pair formula_17 type would π-types contain functions typical function types consist input type output type powerful typical function types however return type depend input value functions type theory different set theory set theory look argument value set ordered pairs type theory argument substituted term computation reduction applied term example type function given natural number formula_17 returns vector containing formula_17 real numbers written output type depend input value function type often simply written formula_32 thus formula_33 type functions natural numbers real numbers π-types correspond logical implication logical proposition formula_1 corresponds type formula_2 containing functions take proofs-of-a return proofs-of-b type could written consistently π-types also used logic universal quantification statement every formula_17 type formula_21 formula_22 proven becomes function formula_17 type formula_21 proofs formula_22 thus given value formula_17 function generates proof formula_44 holds value type would =-types created two terms given two terms like formula_3 formula_47 create new type formula_48 terms new type represent proofs pair reduce canonical term thus since formula_3 formula_4 compute canonical term formula_51 term type formula_48 intuitionistic type theory single way make terms =-types reflexivity possible create =-types formula_54 terms reduce canonical term unable create terms new type fact able create term formula_54 could create term formula_5 putting function would generating function type formula_57 since formula_58 intuitionistic type theory defines negation would formula_59 finally formula_60 equality proofs area active research proof theory led development homotopy type theory type theories inductive types allow creation complex self-referential types example linked list natural numbers either empty list pair natural number another linked list inductive types used define unbounded mathematical structures like trees graphs etc.. fact natural numbers type may defined inductive type either formula_61 successor another natural number inductive types define new constants zero formula_62 successor function formula_63 since formula_64 definition evaluated using substitution terms like formula_65 formula_66 become canonical terms natural numbers proofs inductive types made possible induction new inductive type comes inductive rule prove predicate formula_44 every natural number use following rule inductive types intuitionistic type theory defined terms w-types type well-founded trees later work type theory generated coinductive types induction-recursion induction-induction working types obscure kinds self-referentiality higher inductive types allow equality defined terms universe types allow proofs written types created type constructors every term universe type formula_69 mapped type created combination formula_70 inductive type constructor however avoid paradoxes term formula_69 maps formula_69 write proofs small types formula_69 must use formula_74 contain term formula_69 formula_74 similarly formula_77 predicative hierarchy universes quantify proof fixed constant formula_78 universes use formula_79 universe types tricky feature type theories martin-löf original type theory changed account girard paradox later research covered topics super universes mahlo universes impredicative universes formal definition intuitionistic type theory written using judgements example statement formula_9 type formula_10 type formula_82 type judgements type ... ... expression formula_82 judgement type defined second level type theory confusing particularly comes equality judgement term equality might say formula_84 statement two terms reduce canonical term also judgement type equality say formula_85 means every element formula_9 element type formula_10 vice versa type level type formula_84 contains terms proof formula_51 formula_3 reduce value obviously terms type generated using term-equality judgement lastly english-language level equality use word four symbol formula_51 refer canonical term formula_92 synonyms like called definitionally equal martin-löf description judgements based discussion nordström petersson smith formal theory works types objects type declared object exists type objects equal types equal type depends object another type declared removed substitution object depends object another type done two ways object abstracted written removed substitution object-depending-on-object also declared constant part recursive type example recursive type formula_64 constant object-depending-on-object associated abstraction constants like formula_64 removed defining equality relationship addition defined using equality using pattern matching handle recursive aspect formula_64 formula_64 manipulated opaque constant internal structure substitution objects types relations used express formulae theory following styles judgements used create new objects types relations existing ones convention type represents types called formula_114 formula_115 since formula_114 type member objects dependent type formula_117 maps object corresponding type texts formula_117 never written context statement reader almost always tell whether formula_9 refers type whether refers object formula_114 corresponds type complete foundation theory everything else derived implement logic proposition given type objects types represent different possible ways prove proposition obviously proof proposition type objects operators like work propositions introduce new types new objects formula_121 type depends type formula_9 type formula_10 objects dependent type defined exist every pair objects formula_9 formula_10 obviously formula_9 formula_10 proof empty type new type representing formula_128 also empty done types booleans natural numbers etc operators using language category theory r. a. g. seely introduced notion locally cartesian closed category lccc basic model type theory refined hofmann dybjer categories families categories attributes based earlier work cartmell category families category c contexts objects contexts context morphisms substitutions together functor c → fam set fam set category families sets objects pairs index set function b x → morphisms pairs functions f → g x → x b g f b words f maps b b functor assigns context g set types set terms axioms functor require play harmoniously substitution substitution usually written form af af type term f substitution g category c must contain terminal object empty context final object form product called comprehension context extension right element type context left element g context object final among contexts mappings p → g q tm ap logical framework martin-löf takes form closure conditions context dependent sets types terms type called set set type types closed forms dependent sum product forth theory predicative set theory expresses closure conditions types sets elements closed operations reflect dependent sum product various forms inductive definition fundamental distinction extensional vs intensional type theory extensional type theory definitional i.e. computational equality distinguished propositional equality requires proof consequence type checking becomes undecidable extensional type theory programs theory might terminate example theory allows one give type y-combinator detailed example found nordstöm petersson programming martin-löf type theory however n't prevent extensional type theory basis practical tool example nuprl based extensional type theory practical standpoint difference program n't terminate program takes million years terminate contrast intensional type theory type checking decidable representation standard mathematical concepts somewhat cumbersome since intensional reasoning requires using setoids similar constructions many common mathematical objects hard work ca n't represented without example integer numbers rational numbers real numbers integers rational numbers represented without setoids representation n't easy work cauchy real numbers ca n't represented without homotopy type theory works resolving problem allows one define higher inductive types define first order constructors values points higher order constructors i.e equalities elements paths equalities equalities homotopies ad infinitum different forms type theory implemented formal systems underlying number proof assistants many based per martin-löf ideas many added features axioms different philosophical background instance nuprl system based computational type theory coq based calculus co inductive constructions dependent types also feature design programming languages ats cayenne epigram agda idris per martin-löf constructed several type theories published various times much later preprints description became accessible specialists among others jean-yves girard giovanni sambin list attempts list theories described printed form sketch key features distinguished theories dependent products dependent sums disjoint unions finite types natural numbers theories reduction rules include η-reduction either dependent products dependent sums except mltt79 η-reduction dependent products added mltt71 first type theories created per martin-löf appeared preprint 1971 one universe universe name i.e type theory called today type type jean-yves girard shown system inconsistent preprint never published mltt72 presented 1972 preprint published theory one universe v identity types universe predicative sense dependent product family objects v object v example v assumed v. universe à la russell i.e. one would write directly t∈v t∈t martin-löf uses sign ∈ instead modern without additional constructor el mltt73 first definition type theory per martin-löf published presented logic colloquium 73 published 1975 identity types calls propositions since real distinction propositions rest types introduced meaning unclear later acquires name j-eliminator yet without name see pp 94–95 theory infinite sequence universes v ... v ... universes predicative a-la russell non-cumulative fact corollary 3.10 p. 115 says a∈v b∈v b convertible m=n means example would difficult formulate univalence theory—there contractible types v unclear declare equal since identity types connecting v v i≠j mltt79 presented 1979 published 1982 paper martin-löf introduced four basic types judgement dependent type theory since became fundamental study meta-theory systems also introduced contexts separate concept see p. 161 identity types j-eliminator already appeared mltt73 name also rule makes theory extensional p. 169 w-types infinite sequence predicative universes cumulative bibliopolis discussion type theory bibliopolis book 1984 somewhat open-ended seem represent particular set choices specific type theory associated Target text information: epigram_(programming_language).epigram programming language epigram functional programming language dependent types epigram also refers ide usually packaged language epigram type system strong enough express program specifications goal support smooth transition ordinary programming integrated programs proofs whose correctness checked certified compiler epigram exploits propositions types principle based intuitionistic type theory epigram prototype implemented conor mcbride based joint work james mckinna development continued epigram group nottingham durham st andrews royal holloway uk current experimental implementation epigram system freely available together user manual tutorial background material system used linux windows mac os x currently unmaintained version 2 intended implement observational type theory never officially released however exists github mirror last updated 2012 design epigram epigram 2 inspired development systems agda idris coq epigram uses two-dimensional natural deduction style syntax latex version ascii version examples epigram tutorial following declaration defines natural numbers declaration says codice_1 type kind codice_2 i.e. simple type two constructors codice_3 codice_4 constructor codice_4 takes single codice_1 argument returns codice_1 equivalent haskell declaration codice_8 latex code displayed formula_1 horizontal-line notation read assuming top true infer bottom true example assuming codice_9 type codice_1 codice_11 type codice_1 nothing top bottom statement always true codice_3 type codice_1 cases formula_2 formula_3 formula_4 ... ascii ... ascii epigram essentially typed lambda calculus generalized algebraic data type extensions except two extensions first types first-class entities type formula_5 types arbitrary expressions type formula_5 type equivalence defined terms types normal forms second dependent function type instead formula_7 formula_8 formula_9 bound formula_10 value function argument type formula_11 eventually takes full dependent types implemented epigram powerful abstraction unlike dependent ml value depended upon may valid type sample new formal specification capabilities dependent types bring may found epigram tutorial I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,641	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs Target text information: nebula_(computing_platform).nebula computing platform nebula federal cloud computing platform originated nasa ames research center moffett field california nebula project run acits 2 contract originally held perot systems nebula hosted many advanced research projects one application open sourced nasa developed nebula project 'nova became one two founding projects openstack project ames internet exchange aix formerly mae-west one original nodes internet major peering location tier 1 isps well home e root name servers aix provides connectivity nebula cloud enabling 10gige connections nisn nebula-project uses variety free open-source software I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	3,627	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: shell_script.shell script shell script computer program designed run unix shell command-line interpreter various dialects shell scripts considered scripting languages typical operations performed shell scripts include file manipulation program execution printing text script sets environment runs program necessary cleanup logging etc called wrapper term also used generally mean automated mode running operating system shell specific operating systems called things batch files msdos-win95 stream os/2 command procedures vms shell scripts windows nt stream third-party derivatives like 4nt—article cmd.exe mainframe operating systems associated number terms typical unix/linux/posix-compliant installation includes kornshell codice_1 several possible versions ksh88 korn shell '93 others oldest shell still common use bourne shell codice_2 unix systems invariably also include c shell codice_3 bash codice_4 remote shell codice_5 secure shell codice_6 ssl telnet connections shell main component tcl/tk installation usually called codice_7 wish gui-based tcl/tk shell c tcl shells syntax quite similar said programming languages korn shells bash developments bourne shell based algol language elements number others added well hand various shells plus tools like awk sed grep basic lisp c forth contributed perl programming language shells available machine available download and/or purchase include almquist shell codice_8 powershell codice_9 z shell codice_10 particularly common enhanced kornshell tenex c shell codice_11 perl-like shell codice_12 related programs shells based python ruby c java perl pascal rexx c various forms also widely available another somewhat common shell osh whose manual page states enhanced backward-compatible port standard command interpreter sixth edition unix windows-unix interoperability software mks toolkit cygwin uwin interix others make shells unix programming available windows systems providing functionality way signals inter-process communication system calls apis hamilton c shell windows shell similar unix c shell microsoft distributes windows services unix use nt-based operating systems particular posix environmental subsystem shell script provide convenient variation system command special environment settings command options post-processing apply automatically way allows new script still act fully normal unix command one example would create version ls command list files giving shorter command name l would normally saved user bin directory /home/ username /bin/l default set command options pre-supplied first line shebang indicates interpreter execute rest script second line makes listing options file format indicators columns files none omitted size blocks lc_collate=c sets default collation order fold upper lower case together intermix dotfiles normal filenames side effect ignoring punctuation names dotfiles usually shown option like -a used causes parameters given l pass parameters ls normal options syntax known ls still used user could simply use l commonly used short listing another example shell script could used shortcut would print list files directories within given directory case shell script would start normal starting line /bin/sh following script executes command clear clears terminal text going next line following line provides main function script ls -al command lists files directories directory script run ls command attributes could changed reflect needs user note implementation clear command try using clr command instead shell scripts allow several commands would entered manually command-line interface executed automatically without wait user trigger stage sequence example directory three c source code files rather manually running four commands required build final program one could instead create c shell script named build kept directory would compile automatically script would allow user save file edited pause editor run ./build create updated program test return editor since 1980s however scripts type replaced utilities like make specialized building programs simple batch jobs unusual isolated tasks using shell loops tests variables provides much flexibility users bash unix shell script convert jpeg images png images image names provided command-line—possibly via wildcards—instead listed within script created file typically saved file like /home/ username /bin/jpg2png jpg2png command run entire directory full jpeg images /home/ username /bin/jpg2png .jpg key feature shell scripts invocation interpreters handled core operating system feature rather user shell able execute scripts shell language script interpreter directive handled correctly run shell limitations early bourne shell handling scripts shell scripts set executed os modern shell script footing system commands rather many system commands actually shell scripts generally scripts since interpreted shell instead perl python language extends returning exit codes like system utilities indicate success failure allows called components larger programs regardless larger tools implemented like standard system commands shell scripts classically omit kind filename extension unless intended read running shell special mechanism purpose sh ’ codice_13 csh ’ source many modern shells also supply various features usually found sophisticated general-purpose programming languages control-flow constructs variables comments arrays subroutines sorts features available possible write reasonably sophisticated applications shell scripts however still limited fact shell languages little support data typing systems classes threading complex math common full language features also generally much slower compiled code interpreted languages written speed performance goal standard unix tools sed awk provide extra capabilities shell programming perl also embedded shell scripts scripting languages like tcl perl tcl come graphics toolkits well many powerful scripting languages introduced tasks large complex comfortably handled ordinary shell scripts advantages script desirable development overhead full-blown compiled programming language would disadvantageous specifics separates scripting languages high-level programming languages frequent source debate generally speaking scripting language one requires interpreter shell scripts often serve initial stage software development often subject conversion later different underlying implementation commonly converted perl python c. interpreter directive allows implementation detail fully hidden inside script rather exposed filename extension provides seamless reimplementation different languages impact end users files .sh file extension usually shell script kind shell scripts filename extension perhaps biggest advantage writing shell script commands syntax exactly directly entered command-line programmer switch totally different syntax would script written different language compiled language used often writing shell script much quicker writing equivalent code programming languages many advantages include easy program file selection quick start interactive debugging shell script used provide sequencing decision-making linkage around existing programs moderately sized scripts absence compilation step advantage interpretive running makes easy write debugging code script re-run detect fix bugs non-expert users use scripting tailor behavior programs shell scripting provides limited scope multiprocessing hand shell scripting prone costly errors inadvertent typing errors rm -rf instead intended rm -rf / folklore unix community single extra space converts command one deletes everything sub-directories one deletes everything—and also tries delete everything root directory similar problems transform cp mv dangerous weapons misuse redirect delete contents file made problematic fact many unix commands differ name one letter cp cd dd df etc another significant disadvantage slow execution speed need launch new process almost every shell command executed script job accomplished setting pipeline efficient filter commands perform work slowdown mitigated complex script typically several orders magnitude slower conventional compiled program performs equivalent task also compatibility problems different platforms larry wall creator perl famously wrote easier port shell shell script similarly complex scripts run limitations shell scripting language limits make difficult write quality code extensions various shells ameliorate problems original shell language make problems worse many disadvantages using script languages caused design flaws within language syntax implementation necessarily imposed use text-based command-line number shells use shell programming languages even full-fledged languages like scsh uses scheme interoperability software cygwin mks toolkit interix available microsoft windows services unix hamilton c shell uwin unix windows others allow unix shell programs run machines running windows nt successors loss functionality ms-dos-windows 95 branch well earlier mks toolkit versions os/2 least three dcl implementations windows type operating systems—in addition xlnt multiple-use scripting language package used command shell windows script host cgi programming—are available systems well mac os x subsequent unix-like well addition aforementioned tools posix os/2 functionality used corresponding environmental subsystems windows nt operating system series windows 2000 well third 16-bit subsystem often called ms-dos subsystem uses command.com provided operating systems run aforementioned ms-dos batch files console alternatives 4dos 4os2 freedos peter norton ndos 4nt take command add functionality windows nt-style cmd.exe ms-dos/windows 95 batch files run command.com os/2 cmd.exe 4nt respectively similar shells enhance integrated windows script host comes three pre-installed engines vbscript jscript vba numerous third-party engines added rexx perl python ruby tcl pre-defined functions 4nt related programs pc dos quite similar ms-dos whilst dr dos different earlier versions windows nt able run contemporary versions 4os2 os/2 subsystem scripting languages definition able extended example ms-dos/windows 95/98 windows nt type systems allows shell/batch programs call tools like kixtart qbasic various basic rexx perl python implementations windows script host installed engines unix posix-compliant systems awk sed used extend string numeric processing ability shell scripts tcl perl rexx python graphics toolkits used code functions procedures shell scripts pose speed bottleneck c fortran assembly language c much faster still add functionality available shell language sockets connectivity functions heavy-duty text processing working numbers calling script abilities self-writing self-modifying code techniques like recursion direct memory access various types sorting difficult impossible main script visual basic applications vbscript used control communicate things spreadsheets databases scriptable programs types telecommunications software development tools graphics tools software accessed component object model 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: mondo_rescue.mondo rescue mondo rescue free disaster recovery software supports linux i386 x86-64 ia-64 freebsd i386 packaged multiple distributions red hat rhel fedora centos opensuse sles mandriva debian ubuntu gentoo also supports tapes disks usb devices network cd/dvd backup media multiple filesystems lvm software hardware raid restoration may done physical media including obdr tape support cd/dvd/usb media network pxe mentioned free software directory emphasis stability ease use according ohloh mondorescue development worth 6m mondo uses linux distribution called mindi provide favorable post boot environment performing data restore unlike disk clone solutions ready use live cd provided mondo rescue instead included mindi package create custom turn-key live cd/dvds using exact linux kernel configuration system backed effect bootable dvd/cd customized computer backed objective reduce possibility missing device drivers kernel incompatibilities may arise using generic vanilla linux kernel pre-built live dvd/cd I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,693	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sqlite.sqlite sqlite relational database management system rdbms contained c library contrast many database management systems sqlite client–server database engine rather embedded end program sqlite acid-compliant implements sql standard generally following postgresql syntax however sqlite uses dynamically weakly typed sql syntax guarantee domain integrity means one example insert string column defined integer sqlite attempt convert data formats appropriate string 123 integer case guarantee conversions store data as-is conversion possible sqlite popular choice embedded database software local/client storage application software web browsers arguably widely deployed database engine used today several widespread browsers operating systems embedded systems mobile phones among others sqlite bindings many programming languages unlike client–server database management systems sqlite engine standalone processes application program communicates instead sqlite library linked thus becomes integral part application program linking may static dynamic application program uses sqlite functionality simple function calls reduce latency database access function calls within single process efficient inter-process communication sqlite stores entire database definitions tables indices data single cross-platform file host machine implements simple design locking entire database file writing sqlite read operations multitasked though writes performed sequentially due server-less design sqlite applications require less configuration client-server databases sqlite called zero-conf require service management startup scripts access control based grant passwords access control handled means file system permissions given database file databases client-server systems use file system permissions give access database files daemon process another implication serverless design several processes may able write database file server-based databases several writers connect daemon able handle locks internally sqlite hand rely file-system locks less knowledge processes accessing database time therefore sqlite preferred choice write-intensive deployments however simple queries little concurrency sqlite performance profits avoiding overhead passing data another process sqlite uses postgresql reference platform would postgresql used make sense sql standard one major deviation exception primary keys sqlite enforce type checking type value dynamic strictly constrained schema although schema trigger conversion storing conversion potentially reversible sqlite strives follow postel rule d. richard hipp designed sqlite spring 2000 working general dynamics contract united states navy hipp designing software used damage-control system aboard guided missile destroyers originally used hp-ux ibm informix database back-end sqlite began tcl extension design goals sqlite allow program operated without installing database management system requiring database administrator hipp based syntax semantics postgresql 6.5 august 2000 version 1.0 sqlite released storage based gdbm gnu database manager sqlite 2.0 replaced gdbm custom b-tree implementation adding transaction capability sqlite 3.0 partially funded america online added internationalization manifest typing major improvements 2011 hipp announced plans add nosql interface managing documents expressed json sqlite databases develop unqlite embeddable document-oriented database sqlite implements sql-92 standard sql lacks features example partially provides triggers write views however provides instead triggers provide functionality provides complex queries still limited alter table function modify delete columns sqlite uses unusual type system sql-compatible dbms instead assigning type column sql database systems types assigned individual values language terms dynamically typed moreover weakly typed ways perl one insert string integer column although sqlite try convert string integer first column preferred type integer adds flexibility columns especially bound dynamically typed scripting language however technique portable sql products common criticism sqlite type system lacks data integrity mechanism provided statically typed columns products sqlite web site describes strict affinity mode feature yet added however implemented constraints like codice_1 tables normally include hidden rowid index column gives faster access database includes integer primary key column sqlite typically optimize treating alias rowid causing contents stored strictly typed 64-bit signed integer changing behavior somewhat like auto-incrementing column future versions sqlite may include command introspect whether column behavior like rowid differentiate columns weakly-typed non-autoincrementing integer primary keys sqlite full unicode function optional several computer processes threads may access database concurrently several read accesses satisfied parallel write access satisfied accesses currently serviced otherwise write access fails error code automatically retried configurable timeout expires concurrent access situation would change dealing temporary tables restriction relaxed version 3.7 write-ahead logging wal turned enabling concurrent reads writes sqlite version 3.7.4 first saw addition fts4 full text search module features enhancements older fts3 module fts4 allows users perform full text searches documents similar search engines search webpages version 3.8.2 added support creating tables without rowid may provide space performance improvements common table expressions support added sqlite version 3.8.3 2015 json1 extension new subtype interfaces sqlite version 3.9 introduced json content managing sqlite code hosted fossil distributed version control system built upon sqlite database standalone command-line program provided sqlite distribution used create database define tables insert change rows run queries manage sqlite database file also serves example writing applications use sqlite library sqlite uses automated regression testing prior release 2 million tests run part release verification starting august 10 2009 release sqlite 3.6.17 sqlite releases 100 branch test coverage one components code coverage tests test harnesses partially public domain partially proprietary sqlite included default large number programming languages provide bindings sqlite including 1-hop neighbor's text information: firebase.firebase firebase mobile web application development platform developed firebase inc. 2011 acquired google 2014 october 2018 firebase platform 18 products used 1.5 million apps firebase evolved envolve prior startup founded james tamplin andrew lee 2011 envolve provided developers api enables integration online chat functionality websites releasing chat service tamplin lee found used pass application data n't chat messages developers using envolve sync application data game state real time across users tamplin lee decided separate chat system real-time architecture powered founded firebase separate company september 2011 launched public april 2012 firebase first product firebase real-time database api synchronizes application data across ios android web devices stores firebase cloud product assists software developers building real-time collaborative applications may 2012 one month beta launch firebase raised 1.1m seed funding venture capitalists flybridge capital partners greylock partners founder collective new enterprise associates june 2013 company raised 5.6m series funding venture capitalists union square ventures flybridge capital partners 2014 firebase launched two products firebase hosting firebase authentication positioned company mobile backend service october 2014 firebase acquired google october 2015 google acquired divshot merge firebase team may 2016 google i/o company annual developer conference firebase expanded services become unified platform mobile developers firebase integrates various google services including google cloud platform admob google ads offer broader products scale developers google cloud messaging google service send push notifications android devices superseded firebase product firebase cloud messaging added functionality deliver push notifications ios web devices january 2017 google acquired fabric crashlytics twitter add services firebase october 2017 firebase launched cloud firestore realtime document database successor product original firebase realtime database firebase analytics cost-free app measurement solution provides insight app usage user engagement formerly known google cloud messaging gcm firebase cloud messaging fcm cross-platform solution messages notifications android ios web applications 2016 used cost firebase auth service authenticate users using client-side code supports social login providers facebook github twitter google google play games additionally includes user management system whereby developers enable user authentication email password login stored firebase firebase provides realtime database backend service service provides application developers api allows application data synchronized across clients stored firebase cloud company provides client libraries enable integration android ios javascript java objective-c swift node.js applications database also accessible rest api bindings several javascript frameworks angularjs react ember.js backbone.js rest api uses server-sent events protocol api creating http connections receiving push notifications server developers using realtime database secure data using company server-side-enforced security rules january 31st 2019 cloud firestore officially brought beta making official product firebase line-up successor firebase original databasing system real-time database allows nested documents fields rather tree-view provided real-time database firebase storage provides secure file uploads downloads firebase apps regardless network quality developer use store images audio video user-generated content firebase storage backed google cloud storage firebase hosting static dynamic web hosting service launched may 13 2014 supports hosting static files css html javascript files well support cloud functions service delivers files content delivery network cdn http secure https secure sockets layer encryption ssl firebase partners fastly cdn provide cdn backing firebase hosting company states firebase hosting grew customer requests developers using firebase real-time database needed place host content ml kit mobile machine learning system developers launched may 8 2018 beta google i/o 2018 ml kit api feature variety features including text recognition detecting faces scanning barcodes labelling images recognising landmarks currently available ios android developers may also import tensorflow lite models given api n't enough api used on-device cloud crash reporting creates detailed reports errors app errors grouped clusters similar stack traces triaged severity impact app users addition automatic reports developer log custom events help capture steps leading crash acquiring crashlytics firebase using firebase crash reporting firebase performance provides insights app performance latencies app users experience firebase test lab android ios provides cloud-based infrastructure testing android ios apps one operation developers initiate testing apps across wide variety devices device configurations test results—including logs videos screenshots—are made available project firebase console even developer n't written test code app test lab exercise app automatically looking crashes.test lab ios currently beta earn google admob app marketing scope admob google product integrates firebase audience dynamic firebase links smart urls dynamically change behavior provide best available experience across multiple platforms desktop web browsers well ios android in-depth links mobile app dynamic links work app installs user opens dynamic link ios android application installed user prompted install app first installed application start running access link 1-hop neighbor's text information: samsung_experience.samsung experience samsung experience stylized samsung experience software overlay android launcher designed samsung galaxy devices introduced late 2016 beta build based android nougat galaxy s7 succeeding touchwiz succeeded one ui based android pie touchwiz former name samsung used ui icons originally released june 4 2010 galaxy smartphone reviewers criticized samsung including many features bloat especially galaxy s4 included many users called samsung feature creep following years though samsung incrementally removed bloatware extra features touchwiz longer recognized touchwiz leading rename samsung experience makes several changes android default homescreen apps icon bottom right screen instead bottom middle google search bar middle screen instead top weather widget provided weather channel accuweather select countries devices top right corner screen addition user edit apps grid layout edge curved glass edge screen originally introduced galaxy note edge popularized galaxy s6 edge tasks edge gives users shortcut commonly utilized tasks making phone call certain contact setting timer creating event planner assortment icons e.g contact pictures phone messaging mail icons app icon plus symbol bottom right corner photo library masked shape circle gallery icon bottom right corner right screen people edge allows user add 5 different contacts display screen quick access functions calling texting emailing displays contact name photo apps edge displays ten user frequently used apps five two columns user also add complete folder screen yahoo sports finance news panels included phone user download extra panels ease use rss reader twitter trends news cnn quick tools edge transforms ruler compass flashlight user swipes edge screen screen edge display turns displays missed calls current time weather news first released samsung galaxy note 7 android marshmallow grace ux named device codename eventually made way older devices including galaxy note 5 update korea eventually countries galaxy s7 s7 edge official android nougat update grace ux features cleaner flatter look iconography extensive use white space touchwiz grace ux devices also benefit secure folder functionality enables users keep certain data even apps behind secure password addition countries languages absent previous versions android marshmallow earlier available release starting galaxy tab s3 single pixels illuminated always-on display active screen display current time calendar selected image different styles option clock 7 styles calendar 2 styles image 3 styles always-on display available galaxy series 2017 2018 galaxy s7/s7 edge galaxy s8/s8+ galaxy s9/s9+ galaxy s10/s10+\|galaxy s10 5g galaxy j7 2017 /j7 pro/j7+ c7 2017 galaxy c5/c7/c9 pro galaxy note 7/fe/8/9 devices samsung includes file manager galaxy phones unlike stock android game user downloads combined single folder folder one optimize frame rate resolution includes game tools button appears user playing game tapped mute notifications turn capacitive keys minimize game screenshot record gameplay bixby assistant launched samsung galaxy s8 replaces voice samsung phones three parts including bixby voice bixby vision bixby home bixby voice triggered saying hey bixby pressing holding button located volume rocker dubbed bixby button bixby vision built camera app see one see essentially augmented reality camera identify objects real time search various services offer user purchase available bixby also able translate text read qr codes recognize landmarks bixby home found swiping right home screen vertically scrolling list information bixby interact example weather fitness activity buttons controlling smart home gadgets bixby tasks related single keyword example simple good night request device turn silent mode turn night mode display note list exhaustive Target text information: optimus_ui.optimus ui optimus ui front-end touch interface developed lg electronics partners featuring full touch user interface sometimes incorrectly identified operating system optimus ui used internally lg sophisticated feature phones tablet computers available licensing external parties latest version optimus ui 4.1.2 released optimus k ii optimus neo 3 features refined user interface compared previous version 4.1.1 would include voice shutter quick memo optimus ui used devices based android I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,252	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_hive.apache hive apache hive data warehouse software project built top apache hadoop providing data query analysis hive gives sql-like interface query data stored various databases file systems integrate hadoop traditional sql queries must implemented mapreduce java api execute sql applications queries distributed data hive provides necessary sql abstraction integrate sql-like queries hiveql underlying java without need implement queries low-level java api since data warehousing applications work sql-based querying languages hive aids portability sql-based applications hadoop initially developed facebook apache hive used developed companies netflix financial industry regulatory authority finra amazon maintains software fork apache hive included amazon elastic mapreduce amazon web services apache hive supports analysis large datasets stored hadoop hdfs compatible file systems amazon s3 filesystem alluxio provides sql-like query language called hiveql schema read transparently converts queries mapreduce apache tez spark jobs three execution engines run hadoop resource negotiator yarn yet another resource negotiator accelerate queries provides indexes including bitmap indexes features hive include default hive stores metadata embedded apache derby database client/server databases like mysql optionally used first four file formats supported hive plain text sequence file optimized row columnar orc format rcfile apache parquet read via plugin versions later 0.10 natively starting 0.13 additional hive plugins support querying bitcoin blockchain major components hive architecture based sql hiveql strictly follow full sql-92 standard hiveql offers extensions sql including multitable inserts create table select offers basic support indexes hiveql lacked support transactions materialized views limited subquery support support insert update delete full acid functionality made available release 0.14 internally compiler translates hiveql statements directed acyclic graph mapreduce tez spark jobs submitted hadoop execution word count program counts number times word occurs input word count written hiveql brief explanation statements follows checks table codice_1 exists drops creates new table called codice_1 single column type codice_3 called codice_4 loads specified file directory case “ input_file ” table codice_5 specifies target table data loaded re-written otherwise data would appended query creates table called codice_6 two columns codice_7 codice_8 query draws input inner query query serves split input words different rows temporary table aliased codice_9 groups results based keys results codice_8 column holding number occurrences word codice_7 column sorts words alphabetically storage querying operations hive closely resemble traditional databases hive sql dialect lot differences structure working hive comparison relational databases differences mainly hive built top hadoop ecosystem comply restrictions hadoop mapreduce schema applied table traditional databases traditional databases table typically enforces schema data loaded table enables database make sure data entered follows representation table specified table definition design called schema write comparison hive verify data table schema write instead subsequently run time checks data read model called schema read two approaches advantages drawbacks checking data table schema load time adds extra overhead traditional databases take longer time load data quality checks performed data load time ensure data corrupt early detection corrupt data ensures early exception handling since tables forced match schema after/during data load better query time performance hive hand load data dynamically without schema check ensuring fast initial load drawback comparatively slower performance query time hive advantage schema available load time instead generated later dynamically transactions key operations traditional databases typical rdbms hive supports four properties transactions acid atomicity consistency isolation durability transactions hive introduced hive 0.13 limited partition level recent version hive 0.14 functions fully added support complete acid properties hive 0.14 later provides different row level transactions insert delete update enabling insert update delete transactions require setting appropriate values configuration properties codice_12 codice_13 codice_14 hive v0.7.0 added integration hadoop security hadoop began using kerberos authorization support provide security kerberos allows mutual authentication client server system client ’ request ticket passed along request previous versions hadoop several issues users able spoof username setting codice_15 property also mapreduce operations run user hadoop mapred hive v0.7.0 ’ integration hadoop security issues largely fixed tasktracker jobs run user launched username longer spoofed setting codice_15 property permissions newly created files hive dictated hdfs hadoop distributed file system authorization model uses three entities user group others three permissions read write execute default permissions newly created files set changing umask value hive configuration variable codice_17 1-hop neighbor's text information: relational_database.relational database relational database digital database based relational model data proposed e. f. codd 1970 software system used maintain relational databases relational database management system rdbms many relational database systems option using standard sql structured query language querying maintaining database term relational database invented e. f. codd ibm 1970 codd introduced term research paper relational model data large shared data banks paper later papers defined meant relational one well-known definition constitutes relational database system composed codd 12 rules however commercial implementations relational model conform codd rules term gradually come describe broader class database systems minimum 1974 ibm began developing system r research project develop prototype rdbms however first commercially available rdbms oracle released 1979 relational software oracle corporation examples rdbms include db2 sap sybase ase informix 1984 first rdbms macintosh began developed code-named silver surfer later released 1987 4th dimension known today 4d first systems relatively faithful implementations relational model first system sold rdbms multics relational data store 1978 ingres ibm bs12 followed common definition rdbms product presents view data collection rows columns even based strictly upon relational theory definition rdbms products typically implement codd 12 rules second school thought argues database implement codd rules current understanding relational model expressed christopher j date hugh darwen others relational view shared many theorists strict adherents codd principles would disqualify dbmss relational clarification often refer rdbmss truly-relational database management systems trdbms naming others pseudo-relational database management systems prdbms 2009 commercial relational dbmss employ sql query language alternative query languages proposed implemented notably pre-1996 implementation ingres quel model organizes data one tables relations columns rows unique key identifying row rows also called records tuples columns also called attributes generally table/relation represents one entity type customer product rows represent instances type entity lee chair columns representing values attributed instance address price row table unique key rows table linked rows tables adding column unique key linked row columns known foreign keys codd showed data relationships arbitrary complexity represented simple set concepts part processing involves consistently able select modify one one row table therefore physical implementations unique primary key pk row table new row written table new unique value primary key generated key system uses primarily accessing table system performance optimized pks natural keys may also identified defined alternate keys ak often several columns needed form ak one reason single integer column usually made pk pks aks ability uniquely identify row within table additional technology may applied ensure unique id across world globally unique identifier broader system requirements primary keys within database used define relationships among tables pk migrates another table becomes foreign key table cell contain one value pk migrates regular entity table design pattern represent either one-to-one one-to-many relationship relational database designs resolve many-to-many relationships creating additional table contains pks entity tables—the relationship becomes entity resolution table named appropriately two fks combined form pk migration pks tables second major reason system-assigned integers used normally pks usually neither efficiency clarity migrating bunch types columns relationships logical connection different tables established basis interaction among tables order database management system dbms operate efficiently accurately must use acid transactions programming within rdbms accomplished using stored procedures sps often procedures used greatly reduce amount information transferred within outside system increased security system design may grant access stored procedures directly tables fundamental stored procedures contain logic needed insert new update existing data complex procedures may written implement additional rules logic related processing selecting data relational database first defined june 1970 edgar codd ibm san jose research laboratory codd view qualifies rdbms summarized codd 12 rules relational database become predominant type database models besides relational model include hierarchical database model network model table summarizes important relational database terms corresponding sql term relation defined set tuples attributes tuple usually represents object information object objects typically physical objects concepts relation usually described table organized rows columns data referenced attribute domain conform constraints relational model specifies tuples relation specific order tuples turn impose order attributes applications access data specifying queries use operations select identify tuples project identify attributes join combine relations relations modified using insert delete update operators new tuples supply explicit values derived query similarly queries identify tuples updating deleting tuples definition unique tuple contains candidate primary key obviously unique however primary key need defined row record tuple definition tuple requires unique require primary key defined tuple unique attributes definition constitute superkey relational database data stored accessed via relations relations store data called base relations implementations called tables relations store data computed applying relational operations relations relations sometimes called derived relations implementations called views queries derived relations convenient act single relation even though may grab information several relations also derived relations used abstraction layer domain describes set possible values given attribute considered constraint value attribute mathematically attaching domain attribute means value attribute must element specified set character string abc instance integer domain integer value 123 another example domain describes possible values field coinface heads tails field coinface accept input values like 0,1 h constraints make possible restrict domain attribute instance constraint restrict given integer attribute values 1 10 constraints provide one method implementing business rules database support subsequent data use within application layer sql implements constraint functionality form check constraints constraints restrict data stored relations usually defined using expressions result boolean value indicating whether data satisfies constraint constraints apply single attributes tuple restricting combinations attributes entire relation since every attribute associated domain constraints domain constraints two principal rules relational model known entity integrity referential integrity primary key uniquely specifies tuple within table order attribute good primary key must repeat natural attributes attributes used describe data entered sometimes good primary keys surrogate keys often used instead surrogate key artificial attribute assigned object uniquely identifies instance table information students school might assigned student id order differentiate surrogate key intrinsic inherent meaning rather useful ability uniquely identify tuple another common occurrence especially regard n cardinality composite key composite key key made two attributes within table together uniquely identify record example database relating students teachers classes classes could uniquely identified composite key room number time slot since class could exactly combination attributes fact use composite key form data verification albeit weak one foreign key field relational table matches primary key column another table relates two keys foreign keys need unique values referencing relation foreign key used cross-reference tables effectively uses values attributes referenced relation restrict domain one attributes referencing relation concept described formally tuples referencing relation projected referencing attributes must exist tuple referenced relation projected attributes values referencing attributes match corresponding values referenced attributes stored procedure executable code associated generally stored database stored procedures usually collect customize common operations like inserting tuple relation gathering statistical information usage patterns encapsulating complex business logic calculations frequently used application programming interface api security simplicity implementations stored procedures sql rdbms often allow developers take advantage procedural extensions often vendor-specific standard declarative sql syntax stored procedures part relational database model commercial implementations include index one way providing quicker access data indexes created combination attributes relation queries filter using attributes find matching tuples randomly using index without check tuple turn analogous using index book go directly page information looking found read entire book find looking relational databases typically supply multiple indexing techniques optimal combination data distribution relation size typical access pattern indices usually implemented via b+ trees r-trees bitmaps indices usually considered part database considered implementation detail though indices usually maintained group maintains parts database use efficient indexes primary foreign keys dramatically improve query performance b-tree indexes result query times proportional log n n number rows table hash indexes result constant time queries size dependency long relevant part index fits memory queries made relational database derived relvars database expressed relational calculus relational algebra original relational algebra codd introduced eight relational operators two groups four operators first four operators based traditional mathematical set operations remaining operators proposed codd involve special operations specific relational databases operators introduced proposed since codd introduction original eight including relational comparison operators extensions offer support nesting hierarchical data among others normalization first proposed codd integral part relational model encompasses set procedures designed eliminate non-simple domains non-atomic values redundancy duplication data turn prevents data manipulation anomalies loss data integrity common forms normalization applied databases called normal forms connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database rdbms extension acronym sometimes used underlying database relational alternative definition relational database management system database management system dbms based relational model databases widespread use today based model rdbmss common option storage information databases used financial records manufacturing logistical information personnel data applications since 1980s relational databases often replaced legacy hierarchical databases network databases rdbms easier implement administer nonetheless relational databases received continued unsuccessful challenges object database management systems 1980s 1990s introduced attempt address so-called object-relational impedance mismatch relational databases object-oriented application programs well xml database management systems 1990s however due expanse technologies horizontal scaling computer clusters nosql databases recently become popular alternative rdbms databases distributed relational database architecture drda designed workgroup within ibm period 1988 1994 drda enables network connected relational databases cooperate fulfill sql requests messages protocols structural components drda defined distributed data management architecture according db-engines july 2019 widely used systems oracle mysql free software microsoft sql server postgresql free software ibm db2 microsoft access sqlite free software mariadb free software according research company gartner 2011 five leading proprietary software relational database vendors revenue oracle 48.8 ibm 20.2 microsoft 17.0 sap including sybase 4.6 teradata 3.7 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_velocity.apache velocity apache velocity java-based template engine provides template language reference objects defined java code aims ensure clean separation presentation tier business tiers web application model–view–controller design pattern velocity open source software project hosted apache software foundation released apache license jon scott stevens derived name altivec velocity engine powerpc g4 chip common types applications use velocity following template processed velocity produces following html syntax overall concept apache velocity templates similar syntax older webmacro template engine also open source project Target text information: sqoop.sqoop sqoop command-line interface application transferring data relational databases hadoop sqoop supports incremental loads single table free form sql query well saved jobs run multiple times import updates made database since last import imports also used populate tables hive hbase exports used put data hadoop relational database sqoop got name sql-to-hadoop sqoop became top-level apache project march 2012 informatica provides sqoop-based connector version 10.1 pentaho provides open-source sqoop based connector steps sqoop import sqoop export etl suite pentaho data integration since version 4.5 software microsoft uses sqoop-based connector help transfer data microsoft sql server databases hadoop couchbase inc. also provides couchbase server-hadoop connector means sqoop I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	9,789	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: memory-mapped_file.memory-mapped file memory-mapped file segment virtual memory assigned direct byte-for-byte correlation portion file file-like resource resource typically file physically present disk also device shared memory object resource operating system reference file descriptor present correlation file memory space permits applications treat mapped portion primary memory benefit memory mapping file increasing i/o performance especially used large files small files memory-mapped files result waste slack space memory maps always aligned page size mostly 4 kib therefore 5 kib file allocate 8 kib thus 3 kib wasted accessing memory mapped files faster using direct read write operations two reasons firstly system call orders magnitude slower simple change program local memory secondly operating systems memory region mapped actually kernel page cache file cache meaning copies need created user space certain application-level memory-mapped file operations also perform better physical file counterparts applications access update data file directly in-place opposed seeking start file rewriting entire edited contents temporary location since memory-mapped file handled internally pages linear file access seen example flat file data storage configuration files requires disk access new page boundary crossed write larger sections file disk single operation possible benefit memory-mapped files lazy loading thus using small amounts ram even large file trying load entire contents file significantly larger amount memory available cause severe thrashing operating system reads disk memory simultaneously writes pages memory back disk memory-mapping may bypass page file completely also allow smaller page-sized sections loaded data edited similarly demand paging used programs memory mapping process handled virtual memory manager subsystem responsible dealing page file memory mapped files loaded memory one entire page time page size selected operating system maximum performance since page file management one critical elements virtual memory system loading page sized sections file physical memory typically highly optimized system function two types memory-mapped files persisted files associated source file disk data saved source file disk last process finished memory-mapped files suitable working extremely large source files non-persisted files associated file disk last process finished working file data lost files suitable creating shared memory inter-process communications ipc major reason choose memory mapped file i/o performance nevertheless tradeoffs standard i/o approach costly due system call overhead memory copying memory-mapped approach cost minor page faults—when block data loaded page cache yet mapped process virtual memory space circumstances memory mapped file i/o substantially slower standard file i/o another drawback memory-mapped files relates given architecture address space file larger addressable space portions mapped time complicating reading example 32-bit architecture intel ia-32 directly address 4 gib smaller portions files even smaller amount addressable space available individual programs—typically range 2 3 gib depending operating system kernel i/o errors underlying file e.g removable drive unplugged optical media ejected disk full writing etc accessing mapped memory reported application sigsegv/sigbus signals posix execute_in_page_error structured exception windows code accessing mapped memory must prepared handle errors n't normally occur accessing memory hardware architectures mmu support memory-mapped files architectures without mmu operating system copy entire file memory request map made extremely wasteful slow little bit file accessed work files fit available memory perhaps common use memory-mapped file process loader modern operating systems including microsoft windows unix-like systems process started operating system uses memory mapped file bring executable file along loadable modules memory execution memory-mapping systems use technique called demand paging file loaded physical memory subsets one page page actually referenced specific case executable files permits os selectively load portions process image actually need execute another common use memory-mapped files share memory multiple processes modern protected mode operating systems processes generally permitted access memory space allocated use another process program attempt causes invalid page faults segmentation violations number techniques available safely share memory memory-mapped file i/o one popular two applications simultaneously map single physical file memory access memory example microsoft windows operating system provides mechanism applications memory-map shared segment system page file share data via section modern operating systems runtime environments support form memory-mapped file access function mmap creates mapping file given file descriptor starting location file length part posix specification wide variety posix-compliant systems unix linux mac os x openvms support common mechanism memory mapping files microsoft windows operating systems also support group api functions purpose createfilemapping free portable implementations memory-mapped files microsoft windows posix-compliant platforms java programming language provides classes methods access memory mapped files programming language supports memory mapped files standard library std.mmfile module ruby gem library called mmap implements memory-mapped file objects since version 1.6 python included mmap module standard library details module vary according whether host platform windows unix-like perl several modules available memory mapping files cpan sys :mmap file :map microsoft .net runtime p/invoke used use memory mapped files directly windows api managed access p/invoke necessary memory mapped files introduced version 4 runtime see memory-mapped files previous versions third-party libraries provide managed api php supported memory-mapping techniques number native file access functions file_get_contents removed 5.3 see revision log r programming language exists library cran called bigmemory uses boost library provides memory-mapped backed arrays directly r. package ff offers memory-mapped vectors matrices arrays data frames j programming language supported memory mapped files since least 2005 includes support boxed array data single datatype files support loaded 'data/jmf j jdb jd database engines use memory mapped files column stores early day implementation pmap system call dec-20 tops-20 operating system feature used software house system-1022 database system sunos 4 introduced unix mmap permitted programs map files memory two decades release tops-20 pmap windows nt given growable memory-mapped files gmmf since createfilemapping function requires size passed altering file size readily accommodated gmmf api developed use gmmf requires declaring maximum file size grow unused space wasted 1-hop neighbor's text information: interbase.interbase interbase relational database management system rdbms currently developed marketed embarcadero technologies interbase distinguished rdbmss small footprint close zero administration requirements multi-generational architecture interbase runs microsoft windows macos linux solaris operating systems well ios android interbase sql-92-compliant relational database supports standard interfaces jdbc odbc ado.net full interbase server installation requires around 40 mb disk minimum interbase client install requires 400 kb disk space interbase run embedded database regular server since interbase xe interbase includes 256bit aes strength encryption offers full database table column data encryption assists data controllers conform data protection laws around at-rest data providing separated encryption db access database ensuring database file encrypted wherever resides separation encryption also enables developers develop application rather worry data visible specific user login avoid blocking updates interbase uses multiversion concurrency control instead locks transaction create version record upon write step update fail rather blocked initially interbase also uses multi-generational records implement rollbacks rather transaction logs certain operations difficult implement multi-generational architecture hence perform slowly relative traditional implementation one example sql codice_1 verb even index available column columns included codice_1 records must visited order see visible current transaction isol interbase software—originally known groton database systems—was born ann harrison spare room ann first junior programmer company worked nearly every component version 0 3.3 jim starkey working dec datatrieve 4th generation language 4gl product came idea system manage concurrent changes many users idea dramatically simplified existing problems locking proving serious problem new relational database systems developed time starkey however idea spun original relational database project another group turf war ensued starkey left company shipping first version rdb/eln product although interbase implementation much similar system described reed mit dissertation database existed time starkey knew bernstein previous position computer corporation america later dec starkey stated arrived idea multiversion concurrency control independently comment starkey says inspiration multi-generational concurrency control database system done prime supported page level snapshots intention feature give reader consistent view database without blocking writers idea intrigued useful characteristic database system heard local workstation vendor apollo computer looking database offering unix machines agreed fund development encouragement formed groton database systems named town groton massachusetts located labor day 1984 started work would eventually released interbase 1986 apollo suffered corporate shakeup decided exit software business time product making money 1986 1991 product gradually sold ashton-tate makers famous dbase time purchasing various database companies order fill portfolio company soon trouble borland purchased ashton-tate 1991 acquiring interbase part deal early 2000 borland announced interbase would released open-source began negotiations spin separate company manage product people run new company borland could agree terms separation interbase remained borland product source code interbase version 6 released variant mozilla public license mid-2000 interbase division borland new management company released proprietary version interbase version 6 6.5 borland released several updates open source code announcing would longer actively develop open source project firebird open source fork interbase 6 code however remains active development 2001 backdoor discovered fixed software present versions since 1994 february 8 2006 borland announced intention sell line development tool products including interbase delphi jbuilder tools instead selling divisions borland spun subsidiary 14 november 2006 interbase along ide tools delphi jbuilder included new company product lineup 7 may 2008 borland embarcadero technologies announced embarcadero signed definitive asset purchase agreement purchase codegear acquisition approximately 24.5 million closed 30 june 2008 end 2002 borland released interbase version 7 featuring support smp enhanced support monitoring control server administrators borland released interbase 7.1 june 2003 7.5 december 2004 7.5.1 june 1 2005 september 2006 borland announced availability interbase 2007 new features include point time recovery via journaling also allows recoverability without performance penalty synchronous writes incremental backup batch statement operations new unicode character encodings new odbc driver september 2008 embarcadero announced availability interbase 2009 new features include full database encryption selective column-level data encryption over-the-wire encryption offering secure tcp/ip communication via secure socket layer ssl september 2010 embarcadero announced availability interbase xe new features include 64 bit client server improved security improved scalability support dynamic sql stored procedures optimized performance large objects stream methods 2013/2014 embarcadero added ios android available supported platforms interbase xe3 additionally interbase iblite released run time royalty free edition interbase covering windows macos ios android december 2014 embarcadero released interbase xe7 offering brand new patent pending change tracking technology called change views. added ubuntu certified linux platforms also added 64bit linux support additional 64bit transaction id introduced new distinguished data dumps enabling rapid updates read copies master database march 2017 embarcadero released interbase 2017 interbase 2017 includes interbase togo linux server wide monitoring support interbase server number language enhancements including derived tables common table expressions truncate table faster data removal enhancements change views expanding subscription table wide scope new transaction isolation levels transaction wait time management 1-hop neighbor's text information: embedded_c.embedded c embedded c set language extensions c programming language c standards committee address commonality issues exist c extensions different embedded systems historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee extended c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing embedded c uses syntax semantics standard c e.g. main function variable definition datatype declaration conditional statements switch case loops functions arrays strings structures union bit operations macros etc technical report published 2004 second revision 2006 Target text information: embedded_database.embedded database embedded database system database management system dbms tightly integrated application software requires access stored data database system hidden application ’ end-user requires little ongoing maintenance actually broad technology category includes term embedded database confusing small subset embedded database products used real-time embedded systems telecommunications switches consumer electronics devices see mobile database small-footprint databases could used embedded devices major embedded database products include alphabetical order sybase advantage database server ads full-featured embedded database management system provides isam relational data access compatible multiple platforms including windows linux netware available royalty-free local file-server database full client-server version ads around many years highly scalable administration support variety ides including .net framework .net object pascal delphi visual foxpro foxpro php visual basic vb visual objects vo vulcan clipper perl java xharbour etc derby embeddable sql engine written entirely java fully transactional multi-user decent sql subset derby mature engine freely available apache license actively maintained derby project page also distributed part oracle java se development kit jdk name java db empress software inc. developer empress embedded database privately held company founded 1979 empress embedded database full-function relational database embedded applications organizations small large deployment environments including medical systems network routers nuclear power plant monitors satellite management systems embedded system applications require reliability power empress acid compliant sql database engine c c++ java jdbc odbc sql ado.net kernel level apis applications developed using apis may run standalone and/or server modes empress embedded database runs linux unix microsoft windows real-time operating systems ese indexed sequential access method isam data storage technology microsoft ese notably core microsoft exchange server active directory purpose allow applications store retrieve data via indexed sequential access windows mail desktop search windows vista operating system also make use ese store indexes property information respectively mcobject launched extremedb first in-memory embedded database designed scratch real-time embedded systems initial product soon joined extremedb high availability ha fault tolerant applications product family includes 64-bit transaction logging editions hybrid extremedb fusion combines in-memory on-disk data storage 2008 mcobject introduced extremedb kernel mode first embedded dbms designed run operating system kernel today extremedb used millions real-time embedded systems worldwide mcobject also offers perst open source object-oriented embedded database java java .net .net compact framework silverlight firebird embedded relational database engine open source fork interbase acid compliant supports triggers stored procedures available linux osx windows systems features classic superserver version firebird two threads applications access database time starting firebird 2.5 firebird embedded acts local server one threaded client accessing databases means works properly asp.net web applications user thread means two users could access database time would thread asp.net opens new thread user exports standard firebird api entrypoints main advantage firebird embedded databases unlike sqlite access databases plugged full firebird server without modifications also multiplatform runs linux os x full asp.net mono support written java open source fast database engine embedded server mode clustering support run inside google app engine supports encrypted database files aes xtea development h2 started may 2004 first published december 14 2005 h2 dual licensed available modified version mpl 1.1 mozilla public license unmodified epl 1.0 eclipse public license haildb standalone embeddable form innodb storage engine given haildb based code base innodb storage engine contains many features high-performance scalability multiversion concurrency control mvcc row-level locking deadlock detection fault tolerance automatic crash recovery etc however embedded engine completely independent mysql lacks server components networking object-level permissions etc eliminating mysql server overhead innodb small footprint well-suited embedding applications require high-performance concurrency embedded database systems haildb designed accessed primarily isam-like c api rather sql though extremely rudimentary sql variant supported project longer maintained hsqldb opensource relational database management system bsd-like license runs java virtual machine embedded application hsqldb supports variety in-memory disk-based table modes unicode sql:2008 infinitydb embedded java dbms sorted hierarchical key/value store encrypted edition client/server edition multi-core speed patent-applied-for infinitydb secure transactional compressing robust single file instant installation zero administration apis include simple fast 'itemspace concurrentnavigablemap view json remoteitemspace transparently redirect embedded apis db instances client/server includes light-weight servlet server web admin database browsing rest python informix dynamic server ids characterized enterprise class embeddable database server combining embeddable features low footprint programmable autonomic capabilities enterprise class database features high availability flexible replication features ids used deeply embedded scenarios ip telephony call-processing systems point sale applications financial transaction processing systems interbase iot award-winning cross-platform unicode enabled sql database platform able embedded within turn-key applications box smp support disk aes strength 256bit encryption sql 92 acid compliance support windows macintosh linux solaris ios android platforms ideal small-to-medium large enterprises supporting hundreds users mobile application development interbase light free version used mobile device ideal mobile applications enterprises switch paid version requirements change management security increase interbase high adoption defense airspace oil gas manufacturing industries leveldb ordered key/value store created google lightweight implementation bigtable storage design library way use leveldb native api c++ also includes official c wrappers functionality third-party api wrappers exist python php go pure go leveldb implementation exists progress still node.js objective c. google distributes leveldb new bsd license lightning memory-mapped database lmdb memory-mapped key-value database openldap project written c api modeled berkeley db api though much simplified library extremely compact compiling 40kb x86 object code corruption proof orders magnitude faster robust scalable efficient similar libraries like berkeley db leveldb etc library implements b+trees multiversion concurrency control mvcc single level store copy write provides full acid transactions deadlocks library optimized high read concurrency readers need locks readers n't block writers writers n't block readers read performance scales perfectly linearly across arbitrarily many threads cpus third-party wrappers exist c++ erlang python lmdb distributed openldap project openldap public license 2013 openldap project deprecating use berkeley db favor lmdb embedded zero maintenance version proprietary mimer sql database available mongodb cross-platform document-oriented database program mongodb stores data flexible json-like documents meaning fields vary document document data structure changed time document model maps objects application code making data easy work ad hoc queries indexing real time aggregation provide powerful ways access analyze data mongodb distributed database core high availability horizontal scaling geographic distribution built easy use mongodb open-source published gnu affero general public license mongodb embedded across many industries high tech finserv retail healthcare use cases security fraud iot cms prestigious companies world embedded libmysqld mysql embedded server library provides features regular mysql linkable library run context client process initialization clients use c api calls talking separate mysql server less communication overhead need separate database process nexusdb commercial successor flashfiler database open source embedded delphi applications create stand-alone executables full database functionality objectbox nosql acid-compliant on-device object-oriented key-value database mobile iot name implies oracle ’ embedded database actually berkeley db oracle acquired sleepycat software originally developed university california berkeley db fast open-source embedded database used several well-known open-source products including linux bsd unix operating systems apache web server openoffice productivity suite nonetheless recent years many well-known projects switched using lmdb outperform berkeley db key scenarios ground less design well due license changing raima database manager produced raima one first database management systems categorized embedded database according raima definition product embedded two senses first embedded within application becoming extension application second possible use embedded computer/os real-time environments small footprint efficient operation apis c/c++ sql designed support limited resources embedded environments since initial release rdm embedded continually evolving currently released version 14.1 rocksdb created facebook began fork leveldb focuses performance especially ssds adds many features including transactions backups snapshots bloom filters column families expiry custom merge operators tunable compaction statistics collection geospatial indexing used storage engine inside several databases including arangodb ceph cockroachdb mongorocks myrocks rocksandra tikv soliddb hybrid on-disk/in-memory relational database often used embedded system database telecommunications equipment network software similar systems in-memory database technology used achieve throughput tens thousands transactions per second response times measured microseconds high availability option maintains two copies data synchronized times case system failure applications recover access soliddb less second without loss data sqlite software library implements self-contained server-less zero-configuration transactional sql database engine sqlite widely deployed sql database engine world source code chiefly c sqlite public domain includes native c library simple command line client database ’ included several operating systems among android freebsd ios os x windows 10 microsoft sql server compact embedded database wide variety features like multi-process connections t-sql ado.net sync services sync back end database merge replication sql server programming api linq sql linq entities ado.net product runs desktop mobile windows platforms market long time used many enterprises production software case studies product went multiple re-brandings known multiple names like sql ce sql server ce sql server mobile sql mobile I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	10,921	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: freebsd_ports.freebsd ports freebsd ports collection package management system freebsd operating system providing easy consistent way installing software packages april 2018 31,679 ports available collection also adopted netbsd basis pkgsrc system ports collection uses makefiles arranged directory hierarchy software built installed uninstalled make command installing application little user intervention required issuing beginning command make install make install clean ports directory desired application cases software automatically downloaded internet patched configured necessary compiled installed registered package database new port needed dependencies applications libraries installed beforehand automatically ports already configured default options deemed generally appropriate users however configuration options called knobs sometimes changed installation using make config command brings text-based interface allows user select desired options historically port software package maintained individual port maintainer responsible ensuring currency port providing general support today many ports maintained special task forces sub-projects dedicated mailing list e.g kde freebsd.org java freebsd.org etc unmaintained ports assigned generic group ports freebsd.org general anyone may become port maintainer contributing favorite software collection one may also choose maintain existing port active maintainer precompiled binary ports called packages package created corresponding port make package command prebuilt packages also available download freebsd-hosted package repositories user install package passing package name pkg install command downloads appropriate package installed freebsd release version installs application including software dependencies may default packages downloaded main freebsd package repository pkg.freebsd.org freebsd maintains build farm called pointyhat cluster packages supported architectures major releases built build logs known errors ports built packages pointyhat cluster available database weekly builds logs also available mailing list archives precompiled packages separated categories architectures available packages separated several release directories one current production release built ports collection shipped release production release directories never updated also stable current directories several major release branches updated less weekly cases package created older version freebsd installed used newer system without difficulty since binary backward compatibility across major releases enabled default packaging system binary packages called codice_1 replaced package management system freebsd 10 jordan hubbard committed port make macros freebsd cvs repository august 21 1994 package install suite makefile committed year earlier august 26 1993 core ports framework first maintained hubbard along satoshi asami several years ports management team later formed handle task netbsd pkgsrc openbsd ports collection trace roots freebsd since release 3.6 dragonfly bsd project uses freebsd ports base dports ports collection john marino dragonfly bsd project created deltaports repository – collection patches files overlay modify freebsd ports order generate dports 1-hop neighbor's text information: revolution_os.revolution os revolution os 2001 documentary film traces twenty-year history gnu linux open source free software movement directed j. t. s. moore film features interviews prominent hackers entrepreneurs including richard stallman michael tiemann linus torvalds larry augustin eric s. raymond bruce perens frank hecker brian behlendorf film begins glimpses raymond linux ipo torvalds idea open source perens stallman sets historical stage early days hackers computer hobbyists code shared freely discusses change came 1978 microsoft co-founder bill gates open letter hobbyists pointedly prodded hobbyists pay stallman relates struggles proprietary software vendors mit artificial intelligence lab leading departure focus development free software gnu project torvalds describes development linux kernel gnu/linux naming controversy linux evolution commercialization raymond stallman clarify philosophy free software versus communism capitalism well development stages linux michael tiemann discusses meeting stallman 1987 getting early version stallman gcc founding cygnus solutions larry augustin describes combining gnu software normal pc create unix-like workstation one third price twice power sun workstation relates early dealings venture capitalists eventual capitalization commodification linux company va linux ipo brian behlendorf one original developers apache http server explains started exchange patches ncsa web server daemon developers led release patchy webserver dubbed apache frank hecker netscape discusses events leading netscape executives releasing source code netscape browser one signal events made open source force reckoned business executives mainstream media public large point validated film release netscape source code eventually became firefox web browser reclaiming large percentage market share microsoft internet explorer film also documents scope first full-scale linuxworld summit conference appearances linus torvalds larry augustin keynote stage much footage film shot silicon valley film appeared several film festivals including south southwest atlanta film video festival boston film festival denver international film festival best documentary savannah film video festival kudzu film festival every review noted historical significance information noticed found production values high presentation history mainly dry even resembling lecture ron wells film threat found film important worthwhile well thought explaining principles free software open source concepts noting failure represent camera debate representatives proprietary software camp wells gave film 4 5 stars tv guide rated film 3 4 stars surprisingly exciting fascinating sharp looking good soundtrack daily variety saw film targeted equally techno-illiterate savvy-hacker crowd educating patting one group head canonizing strong enough enjoyable recommendation negative side new york times faulted film one-sidedness found reliance jargon fairly dense going gave recommendation internet reviews found didactic dull documentary glorifying software anarchy raging microsoft sun lacking follow-through red hat valinux stock 2007 2 peak value lots talking heads toxicuniverse.com noted revolution os blatantly serves infomercial propaganda bearded throwback sixties hacker richard stallman serves movement spiritual leader scandinavian linus torvalds acts mild mannered chief engineer developer linux kernel tim lord reviewing slashdot film interesting worthy viewing misgivings growth free software movement eventual co-option open source movement supposed linux battle microsoft movie quickly hijacked participants film lacks staple documentaries scenes multiple people later analyzed individually participants indeed much back-and-forth linux benefits notably missing w e never shown anyone using linux except unhappy users installfest debate linux vs windows missing showing origin os response proprietary expensive sun dec software hardware growth solely due apache web server lord notes film shows challenge torvalds stallman equally disingenuous remarks linux vs gnu/linux naming issue 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux_phone_standards_forum.linux phone standards forum linux phone standards forum lips forum consortium group companies create standards use linux mobile devices main goal lips forum create application programming interfaces apis allow developers build applications inter-operate across linux handsets made manufacturers founding members include arm ltd cellon esmertec france telecom telecom italia fsm labs huawei jaluna mizi research montavista software open-plug palmsource march 2007 palmsource changed name parent company access inc newer members include texas instruments trolltech asa movial oy british telecom joined lips forum september 2007 september 2007 lips forum announced going align efforts open mobile alliance june 2008 lips forum announced would join limo foundation thereby cease exist separate organization Target text information: package_format.package format package format type archive containing computer programs additional metadata needed package managers archive file format may unchanged package formats bear additional metadata manifest file certain directory layouts packages may contain either source code executable files packages may converted one type another software alien arch linux pacman slackware use tar archives generic naming specific internal structures I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	10,817	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: remote_procedure_call.remote procedure call distributed computing remote procedure call rpc computer program causes procedure subroutine execute different address space commonly another computer shared network coded normal local procedure call without programmer explicitly coding details remote interaction programmer writes essentially code whether subroutine local executing program remote form client–server interaction caller client executor server typically implemented via request–response message-passing system object-oriented programming paradigm rpc calls represented remote method invocation rmi rpc model implies level location transparency namely calling procedures largely whether local remote usually identical local calls distinguished remote calls remote calls usually orders magnitude slower less reliable local calls distinguishing important rpcs form inter-process communication ipc different processes different address spaces host machine distinct virtual address spaces even though physical address space different hosts physical address space different many different often incompatible technologies used implement concept response–request protocols date early distributed computing late 1960s theoretical proposals remote procedure calls model network operations date 1970s practical implementations date early 1980s bruce jay nelson generally credited coining term remote procedure call 1981 remote procedure calls used modern operating systems trace roots back rc 4000 multiprogramming system used request-response communication protocol process synchronization idea treating network operations remote procedure calls goes back least 1970s early arpanet documents 1978 per brinch hansen proposed distributed processes language distributed computing based external requests consisting procedure calls processes one earliest practical implementations 1982 brian randell colleagues newcastle connection unix machines soon followed lupine andrew birrell bruce nelson cedar environment xerox parc lupine automatically generated stubs providing type-safe bindings used efficient protocol communication one first business uses rpc xerox name courier 1981 first popular implementation rpc unix sun rpc called onc rpc used basis network file system nfs 1990s popularity object-oriented programming alternative model remote method invocation rmi widely implemented common object request broker architecture corba 1991 java remote method invocation rmis turn fell popularity rise internet particularly 2000s rpc request–response protocol rpc initiated client sends request message known remote server execute specified procedure supplied parameters remote server sends response client application continues process server processing call client blocked waits server finished processing resuming execution unless client sends asynchronous request server xmlhttprequest many variations subtleties various implementations resulting variety different incompatible rpc protocols important difference remote procedure calls local calls remote calls fail unpredictable network problems also callers generally must deal failures without knowing whether remote procedure actually invoked idempotent procedures additional effects called easily handled enough difficulties remain code call remote procedures often confined carefully written low-level subsystems let different clients access servers number standardized rpc systems created use interface description language idl let various platforms call rpc idl files used generate code interface client servers notable rpc implementations analogues include 1-hop neighbor's text information: xml.xml extensible markup language xml markup language defines set rules encoding documents format human-readable machine-readable w3c xml 1.0 specification several related specifications—all free open standards—define xml design goals xml emphasize simplicity generality usability across internet textual data format strong support via unicode different human languages although design xml focuses documents language widely used representation arbitrary data structures used web services several schema systems exist aid definition xml-based languages programmers developed many application programming interfaces apis aid processing xml data essence extensible markup languages necessary explained markup language example see markup language § xml standard generalized markup language hundreds document formats using xml syntax developed including rss atom soap svg xhtml xml-based formats become default many office-productivity tools including microsoft office office open xml openoffice.org libreoffice opendocument apple iwork xml also provided base language communication protocols xmpp applications microsoft .net framework use xml files configuration property lists implementation configuration storage built xml many industry data standards e.g hl7 ota fpml mismo niem etc based xml rich features xml schema specification many standards quite complex uncommon specification comprise several thousand pages publishing dita xml industry data standard xml used extensively underpin various publishing formats xml widely used services oriented architecture soa disparate systems communicate exchanging xml messages message exchange format standardised xml schema xsd also referred canonical schema xml come common use interchange data internet ietf superseded gave rules construction internet media types use sending xml also defines media types codice_1 codice_2 say data xml nothing semantics rfc 7303 also recommends xml-based languages given media types ending codice_3 example codice_4 svg guidelines use xml networked context appear rfc 3470 also known ietf bcp 70 document covering many aspects designing deploying xml-based language material section based xml specification exhaustive list constructs appear xml provides introduction key constructs often encountered day-to-day use xml documents consist entirely characters unicode repertoire except small number specifically excluded control characters character defined unicode may appear within content xml document xml includes facilities identifying encoding unicode characters make document expressing characters one reason another used directly unicode code points following ranges valid xml 1.0 documents xml 1.1 extends set allowed characters include plus remaining characters range u+0001–u+001f time however restricts use c0 c1 control characters u+0009 horizontal tab u+000a line feed u+000d carriage return u+0085 next line requiring written escaped form example u+0001 must written codice_22 equivalent case c1 characters restriction backwards incompatibility introduced allow common encoding errors detected code point u+0000 null character permitted xml 1.0 1.1 document unicode character set encoded bytes storage transmission variety different ways called encodings unicode defines encodings cover entire repertoire well-known ones include utf-8 utf-16 many text encodings predate unicode ascii iso/iec 8859 character repertoires almost every case subsets unicode character set xml allows use unicode-defined encodings encodings whose characters also appear unicode xml also provides mechanism whereby xml processor reliably without prior knowledge determine encoding used encodings utf-8 utf-16 necessarily recognized every xml parser xml provides escape facilities including characters problematic include directly example five predefined entities permitted unicode characters may represented numeric character reference consider chinese character 中 whose numeric code unicode hexadecimal 4e2d decimal 20,013 user whose keyboard offers method entering character could still insert xml document encoded either codice_32 codice_33 similarly string 3 jörg could encoded inclusion xml document codice_34 codice_35 permitted however null character one control characters excluded xml even using numeric character reference alternative encoding mechanism base64 needed represent characters comments may appear anywhere document outside markup comments appear xml declaration comments begin codice_36 end codice_37 compatibility sgml string -- double-hyphen allowed inside comments means comments nested ampersand special significance within comments entity character references recognized way represent characters outside character set document encoding example valid comment codice_38 xml 1.0 fifth edition xml 1.1 support direct use almost unicode character element names attributes comments character data processing instructions ones special symbolic meaning xml less-than sign following well-formed xml document including chinese armenian cyrillic characters xml specification defines xml document well-formed text meaning satisfies list syntax rules provided specification key points fairly lengthy list include definition xml document excludes texts contain violations well-formedness rules simply xml xml processor encounters violation required report errors cease normal processing policy occasionally referred draconian error handling stands notable contrast behavior programs process html designed produce reasonable result even presence severe markup errors xml policy area criticized violation postel law conservative send liberal accept xml specification defines valid xml document well-formed xml document also conforms rules document type definition dtd addition well-formed xml document may valid means contains reference document type definition dtd elements attributes declared dtd follow grammatical rules dtd specifies xml processors classified validating non-validating depending whether check xml documents validity processor discovers validity error must able report may continue normal processing dtd example schema grammar since initial publication xml 1.0 substantial work area schema languages xml schema languages typically constrain set elements may used document attributes may applied order may appear allowable parent/child relationships oldest schema language xml document type definition dtd inherited sgml dtds following benefits dtds following limitations two peculiar features distinguish dtds schema types syntactic support embedding dtd within xml documents defining entities arbitrary fragments text and/or markup xml processor inserts dtd xml document wherever referenced like character escapes dtd technology still used many applications ubiquity newer schema language described w3c successor dtds xml schema often referred initialism xml schema instances xsd xml schema definition xsds far powerful dtds describing xml languages use rich datatyping system allow detailed constraints xml document logical structure xsds also use xml-based format makes possible use ordinary xml tools help process xs schema element defines schema relax ng regular language xml next generation initially specified oasis standard part 2 regular-grammar-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl relax ng schemas may written either xml based syntax compact non-xml syntax two syntaxes isomorphic james clark conversion tool—trang—can convert without loss information relax ng simpler definition validation framework xml schema making easier use implement also ability use datatype framework plug-ins relax ng schema author example require values xml document conform definitions xml schema datatypes schematron language making assertions presence absence patterns xml document typically uses xpath expressions schematron standard part 3 rule-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl dsdl document schema definition languages multi-part iso/iec standard iso/iec 19757 brings together comprehensive set small schema languages targeted specific problems dsdl includes relax ng full compact syntax schematron assertion language languages defining datatypes character repertoire constraints renaming entity expansion namespace-based routing document fragments different validators dsdl schema languages vendor support xml schemas yet extent grassroots reaction industrial publishers lack utility xml schemas publishing schema languages describe structure particular xml format also offer limited facilities influence processing individual xml files conform format dtds xsds ability instance provide infoset augmentation facility attribute defaults relax ng schematron intentionally provide cluster specifications closely related xml developed starting soon initial publication xml 1.0 frequently case term xml used refer xml together one technologies come seen part xml core specifications conceived part xml core failed find wide adoption including xinclude xlink xpointer design goals xml include shall easy write programs process xml documents despite xml specification contains almost information programmers might go processing xml infoset specification provides vocabulary refer constructs within xml document provide guidance access information variety apis accessing xml developed used standardized existing apis xml processing tend fall categories stream-oriented facilities require less memory certain tasks based linear traversal xml document faster simpler alternatives tree-traversal data-binding apis typically require use much memory often found convenient use programmers include declarative retrieval document components via use xpath expressions xslt designed declarative description xml document transformations widely implemented server-side packages web browsers xquery overlaps xslt functionality designed searching large xml databases simple api xml sax lexical event-driven api document read serially contents reported callbacks various methods handler object user design sax fast efficient implement difficult use extracting information random xml since tends burden application author keeping track part document processed better suited situations certain types information always handled way matter occur document pull parsing treats document series items read sequence using iterator design pattern allows writing recursive descent parsers structure code performing parsing mirrors structure xml parsed intermediate parsed results used accessed local variables within functions performing parsing passed function parameters lower-level functions returned function return values higher-level functions examples pull parsers include data :edit :xml perl stax java programming language xmlpullparser smalltalk xmlreader php elementtree.iterparse python system.xml.xmlreader .net framework dom traversal api nodeiterator treewalker pull parser creates iterator sequentially visits various elements attributes data xml document code uses iterator test current item tell example whether start-tag end-tag text inspect attributes local name namespace values xml attributes value text etc also move iterator next item code thus extract information document traverses recursive-descent approach tends lend keeping data typed local variables code parsing sax instance typically requires parser manually maintain intermediate data within stack elements parent elements element parsed pull-parsing code straightforward understand maintain sax parsing code document object model dom api allows navigation entire document tree node objects representing document contents dom document created parser generated manually users limitations data types dom nodes abstract implementations provide programming language-specific bindings dom implementations tend memory intensive generally require entire document loaded memory constructed tree objects access allowed xml data binding binding xml documents hierarchy custom strongly typed objects contrast generic objects created dom parser approach simplifies code development many cases allows problems identified compile time rather run-time suitable applications document structure known fixed time application written example data binding systems include java architecture xml binding jaxb xml serialization .net framework xml serialization gsoap xml appeared first-class data type languages ecmascript xml e4x extension ecmascript/javascript language explicitly defines two specific objects xml xmllist javascript support xml document nodes xml node lists distinct objects use dot-notation specifying parent-child relationships e4x supported mozilla 2.5+ browsers though deprecated adobe actionscript adopted universally similar notations used microsoft linq implementation microsoft .net 3.5 scala uses java vm open-source xmlsh application provides linux-like shell special features xml manipulation similarly treats xml data type using notation resource description framework defines data type codice_42 hold wrapped canonical xml facebook produced extensions php javascript languages add xml core syntax similar fashion e4x namely xhp jsx respectively xml application profile sgml iso 8879 versatility sgml dynamic information display understood early digital media publishers late 1980s prior rise internet mid-1990s practitioners sgml gained experience then-new world wide web believed sgml offered solutions problems web likely face grew dan connolly added sgml list w3c activities joined staff 1995 work began mid-1996 sun microsystems engineer jon bosak developed charter recruited collaborators bosak well connected small community people experience sgml web xml compiled working group eleven members supported roughly 150-member interest group technical debate took place interest group mailing list issues resolved consensus failed majority vote working group record design decisions rationales compiled michael sperberg-mcqueen december 4 1997 james clark served technical lead working group notably contributing empty-element codice_43 syntax name xml names put forward consideration included magma minimal architecture generalized markup applications slim structured language internet markup mgml minimal generalized markup language co-editors specification originally tim bray michael sperberg-mcqueen halfway project bray accepted consulting engagement netscape provoking vociferous protests microsoft bray temporarily asked resign editorship led intense dispute working group eventually solved appointment microsoft jean paoli third co-editor xml working group never met face-to-face design accomplished using combination email weekly teleconferences major design decisions reached short burst intense work august november 1996 first working draft xml specification published design work continued 1997 xml 1.0 became w3c recommendation february 10 1998 xml profile iso standard sgml xml comes sgml unchanged sgml comes separation logical physical structures elements entities availability grammar-based validation dtds separation data metadata elements attributes mixed content separation processing representation processing instructions default angle-bracket syntax removed sgml declaration xml fixed delimiter set adopts unicode document character set sources technology xml tei text encoding initiative defined profile sgml use transfer syntax html elements synchronous resource document character sets separate resource encoding codice_44 attribute invented like http metadata accompanied resource rather needed declaration link ercs extended reference concrete syntax project spread standardization project regarding east asian documents project iso-related china/japan/korea document processing expert group basis xml 1.0 naming rules spread also introduced hexadecimal numeric character references concept references make available unicode characters support ercs xml html better sgml standard 8879 revised 1996 1998 websgml adaptations xml header followed iso hytime ideas developed discussion novel xml included algorithm encoding detection encoding header processing instruction target xml space attribute new close delimiter empty-element tags notion well-formedness opposed validity enables parsing without schema first formalized xml although implemented successfully electronic book technology dynatext software software university waterloo new oxford english dictionary project risp lisp sgml text processor uniscope tokyo us army missile command iads hypertext system mentor graphics context interleaf xerox publishing system two current versions xml first xml 1.0 initially defined 1998 undergone minor revisions since without given new version number currently fifth edition published november 26 2008 widely implemented still recommended general use second xml 1.1 initially published february 4 2004 day xml 1.0 third edition currently second edition published august 16 2006 contains features contentious intended make xml easier use certain cases main changes enable use line-ending characters used ebcdic platforms use scripts characters absent unicode 3.2 xml 1.1 widely implemented recommended use need particular features prior fifth edition release xml 1.0 differed xml 1.1 stricter requirements characters available use element attribute names unique identifiers first four editions xml 1.0 characters exclusively enumerated using specific version unicode standard unicode 2.0 unicode 3.2 fifth edition substitutes mechanism xml 1.1 future-proof reduces redundancy approach taken fifth edition xml 1.0 editions xml 1.1 certain characters forbidden names everything else allowed accommodate suitable name characters future unicode versions fifth edition xml names may contain characters balinese cham phoenician scripts among many others added unicode since unicode 3.2 almost unicode code point used character data attribute values xml 1.0 1.1 document even character corresponding code point defined current version unicode character data attribute values xml 1.1 allows use control characters xml 1.0 robustness control characters introduced xml 1.1 must expressed numeric character references x7f x9f allowed xml 1.0 xml 1.1 even required expressed numeric character references among supported control characters xml 1.1 two line break codes must treated whitespace whitespace characters control codes written directly discussion xml 2.0 although organization announced plans work project xml-sw sw skunkworks written one original developers xml contains proposals xml 2.0 might look like elimination dtds syntax integration namespaces xml base xml information set base standard world wide web consortium also xml binary characterization working group preliminary research use cases properties binary encoding xml information set working group chartered produce official standards since xml definition text-based itu-t iso using name fast infoset binary infoset avoid confusion see itu-t rec x.891 iso/iec 24824-1 xml extensions regularly criticized verbosity complexity redundancy mapping basic tree model xml type systems programming languages databases difficult especially xml used exchanging highly structured data applications primary design goal however xml data binding systems allow applications access xml data directly objects representing data structure data programming language used ensures type safety rather using dom sax retrieve data direct representation xml accomplished automatically creating mapping elements xml schema xsd document members class represented memory criticisms attempt refute claim xml self-describing language though xml specification makes claim json yaml s-expressions frequently proposed simpler alternatives see comparison data serialization formats focus representing highly structured data rather documents may contain highly structured relatively unstructured content however w3c standardized xml schema specifications offer broader range structured xsd data types compared simpler serialization formats offer modularity reuse xml namespace 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_service.web service term web service ws either web service web technology http — originally designed human-to-machine communication — used transferring machine-readable file formats xml json practice web service commonly provides object-oriented web-based interface database server utilized example another web server mobile app provides user interface end user many organizations provide data formatted html pages also provide data server xml json often web service allow syndication example wikipedia another application offered end user may mashup web server consumes several web services different machines compiles content one user interface asynchronous javascript xml ajax dominant technology web services developing combination http servers javascript clients plain old xml distinct soap w3c web services frequently used json well instead xml representational state transfer rest architecture well-behaved web services function internet scale 2004 document w3c sets following rest key distinguishing feature web services number web services use markup languages web api development web services emphasis moving simpler representational state transfer rest based communications restful apis require xml-based web service protocols soap wsdl support interfaces relation w3c web services w3c defined web service w3c web services may use soap http protocol allowing less costly efficient interactions internet via proprietary solutions like edi/b2b besides soap http web services also implemented reliable transport mechanisms like ftp 2002 document web services architecture working group defined web services architecture requiring standardized implementation web service term web service describes standardized way integrating web-based applications using xml soap wsdl uddi open standards internet protocol backbone xml data format used contain data provide metadata around soap used transfer data wsdl used describing services available uddi lists services available web service method communication two electronic devices network software function provided network address web service always concept utility computing many organizations use multiple software systems management different software systems often need exchange data web service method communication allows two software systems exchange data internet software system requests data called service requester whereas software system would process request provide data called service provider different software may use different programming languages hence need method data exchange n't depend upon particular programming language types software however interpret xml tags thus web services use xml files data exchange rules communication different systems need defined rules communication defined file called wsdl web services description language codice_1 extension proposals autonomous web services aws seek develop flexible web services rely strict rules directory called uddi universal description discovery integration defines software system contacted type data one software system needs one particular report/data would go uddi find systems contact receiving data software system finds systems contact would contact system using special protocol called soap simple object access protocol service provider system would first validate data request referring wsdl file process request send data soap protocol automated tools aid creation web service services using wsdl possible either automatically generate wsdl existing classes bottom-up model generate class skeleton given existing wsdl top-down model critics non-restful web services often complain complex based upon large software vendors integrators rather typical open source implementations also concerns performance due web services use xml message format soap/http enveloping transporting functional non-functional testing web services done help wsdl parsing regression testing performed identifying changes made upgrade software web service regression testing needs categorized three different ways namely changes wsdl changes code selective re-testing operations capture three needs three intermediate forms subset wsdl namely difference wsdl dwsdl unit wsdl uwsdl reduced wsdl rwsdl respectively three subset wsdls combined form combined wsdl cwsdl used regression testing web service help automated web service change management awscm performing selection relevant test cases construct reduced test suite old test suite web services testing also automated using several test automation tools like soap ui oracle application testing suite oats unified functional testing selenium etc work related capture visualization changes made web service visualization computation changes done form intermediate artifacts subset wsdl insight computation change impact helpful testing top-down development reduce regression testing awscm tool identify subset operations wsdl file construct subset wsdl Target text information: soapjr.soapjr soapjr protocol specification exchanging structured information implementation web services computer networks hybrid soap json-rpc abbreviated jr case soapjr designed create clean fast ajax-style apis analogous introduction band signalling telephony world traditional soap longer simple object access protocol initially designed bloated overly verbose making bandwidth-hungry slow also based xml making expensive parse manipulate especially mobile embedded clients however core envelope/head/body design pattern useful ajax style apis soapjr uses similar envelope/head/body model using lightweight easier manipulate json contrast soap json-rpc overly simplistic basically tunnels http get-style key/value pairs within query string using json however within json-rpc head/body separation leaving metadata pollute main data space soapjr combines best two concepts designed create modern ajax apis easily used mobile devices embedded systems desktop browsers see soapjr specs detailed description soapjr open source project software released gpl content creative commons following soapjr entities defined json-schemas latest versions also downloaded single file soapjr.org also aims contribute creation common set dmds data model definitions may align json-schema proposal service mapping description proposal applications within specific domains easily share data primary extension soapjr may provide use consistent standardised error codes resources may inform development common data models utilised within microformats rdf basic request view jcard details single user based username message would passed request within json parameter e.g simple soapjr response head.result represents success body contains single jcard record list list search context would contain array 0 jcard records I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	5,915	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: interrupt.interrupt system programming interrupt signal processor emitted hardware software indicating event needs immediate attention interrupt alerts processor high-priority condition requiring interruption current code processor executing processor responds suspending current activities saving state executing function called interrupt handler interrupt service routine isr deal event interruption temporary interrupt handler finishes unless handling interrupt emitted fatal error processor resumes normal activities two types interrupts hardware interrupts software interrupts softirqs hardware interrupts used devices communicate require attention operating system. bare-metal program running cpu oses internally hardware interrupts implemented using electronic alerting signals sent processor external device either part computer disk controller external peripheral example pressing key keyboard moving mouse triggers hardware interrupts cause processor read keystroke mouse position unlike software type described hardware interrupts asynchronous occur middle instruction execution requiring additional care programming act initiating hardware interrupt referred interrupt request irq different devices usually associated different interrupts using unique value associated interrupt makes possible know hardware device caused interrupts interrupt values often called irq lines interrupt lines software interrupts also called exceptions unlike interrupts exceptions occur synchronously respect processor clock sometimes referred synchronous interrupts software interrupt caused either exceptional condition processor special instruction instruction set causes interrupt executed former often called trap exception used errors events occurring program execution exceptional enough handled within program example divide-by-zero exception thrown processor arithmetic logic unit commanded divide number zero instruction error impossible operating system catch exception decide usually aborting process displaying error message software interrupt instructions function similarly subroutine calls used variety purposes request services device drivers like interrupts sent disk controller request reading writing data disk interrupt interrupt handler number hardware interrupts limited number interrupt request irq lines processor may hundreds different software interrupts interrupts commonly used technique computer multitasking especially real-time computing system said interrupt-driven interrupts similar signals difference signals used inter-process communication ipc mediated kernel possibly via system calls handled processes interrupts mediated processor handled kernel kernel may pass interrupt signal process caused typical examples sigsegv sigbus sigill sigfpe hardware interrupts introduced optimization eliminating unproductive waiting time polling loops waiting external events first system use approach dyseac completed 1954 although earlier systems provided error trap functions interrupts may implemented hardware distinct component control lines may integrated memory subsystem implemented hardware distinct component interrupt controller circuit ibm pc programmable interrupt controller pic may connected interrupting device processor interrupt pin multiplex several sources interrupt onto one two cpu lines typically available implemented part memory controller interrupts mapped system memory address space interrupts categorized different types processors typically internal interrupt mask allows software ignore external hardware interrupts set setting clearing mask may faster accessing interrupt mask register imr pic disabling interrupts device cases x86 architecture disabling enabling interrupts processor act memory barrier however may actually slower interrupt leaves machine well-defined state called precise interrupt interrupt four properties interrupt meet requirements called imprecise interrupt phenomenon overall system performance severely hindered excessive amounts processing time spent handling interrupts called interrupt storm univac 1103 computer generally credited earliest use interrupts 1953 earlier univac 1951 arithmetic overflow either triggered execution two-instruction fix-up routine address 0 programmer option caused computer stop ibm 650 1954 incorporated first occurrence interrupt masking national bureau standards dyseac 1954 first use interrupts i/o ibm 704 first use interrupts debugging transfer trap could invoke special routine branch instruction encountered.the mit lincoln laboratory tx-2 system 1957 first provide multiple levels priority interrupts level-triggered interrupt interrupt signaled maintaining interrupt line high low logic level device wishing signal level-triggered interrupt drives interrupt request line active level high low holds level serviced ceases asserting line cpu commands otherwise handles condition caused signal interrupt typically processor samples interrupt input predefined times bus cycle state t2 z80 microprocessor interrupt n't active processor samples cpu n't see one possible use type interrupt minimize spurious signals noisy interrupt line spurious pulse often short noticed multiple devices may share level-triggered interrupt line designed interrupt line must pull-down pull-up resistor actively driven settles inactive state devices actively assert line indicate outstanding interrupt let line float actively drive signaling interrupt line asserted state one one sharing devices signaling outstanding interrupt level-triggered interrupts favored easy share interrupt request line without losing interrupts multiple shared devices interrupt time upon detecting assertion interrupt line cpu must search devices sharing interrupt request line one triggered interrupt detected servicing device cpu may recheck interrupt line status determine whether devices also need service line de-asserted cpu avoids checking remaining devices line since devices interrupt frequently others device interrupts particularly expensive careful ordering device checks employed increase efficiency original pci standard mandated level-triggered interrupts advantage sharing interrupts also serious problems sharing level-triggered interrupts long device line outstanding request service line remains asserted possible detect change status device deferring servicing low-priority device option would prevent detection service requests higher-priority devices device line cpu know service interrupt device permanently blocks interrupts devices edge-triggered interrupt interrupt signaled level transition interrupt line either falling edge high low rising edge low high device wishing signal interrupt drives pulse onto line releases line inactive state pulse short detected polled i/o special hardware may required detect multiple devices may share edge-triggered interrupt line designed interrupt line must pull-down pull-up resistor actively driven settles inactive state default sate devices signal interrupt briefly driving line non-default state let line float actively drive signaling interrupt type connection also referred open collector line carries pulses generated devices analogous pull cord buses trolleys passenger pull signal driver requesting stop however interrupt pulses different devices may merge occur close time avoid losing interrupts cpu must trigger trailing edge pulse e.g rising edge line pulled driven low detecting interrupt cpu must check devices service requirements edge-triggered interrupts suffer problems level-triggered interrupts sharing service low-priority device postponed arbitrarily interrupts high-priority devices continue received get serviced device cpu know service may raise spurious interrupts wo n't interfere interrupt signaling devices however easy edge-triggered interrupt missed example interrupts masked period unless type hardware latch records event impossible recover problem caused many lockups early computer hardware processor know expected something modern hardware often one interrupt status registers latch interrupts requests well-written edge-driven interrupt handling code check registers ensure events missed elderly industry standard architecture isa bus uses edge-triggered interrupts without mandating devices able share irq lines mainstream isa motherboards include pull-up resistors irq lines well-behaved isa devices sharing irq lines work fine parallel port also uses edge-triggered interrupts many older devices assume exclusive use irq lines making electrically unsafe share 3 ways multiple devices sharing line raised first exclusive conduction switching exclusive connection pins next bus connected line listening cards bus must know talk talk ie isa bus talking triggered two ways accumulation latch logic gates logic gates expect continual data flow monitored key signals accumulators trigger remote side excites gate beyond threshold thus negotiated speed required speed versus distance advantages trigger generally method excitation detected rising edge falling edge threshold oscilloscope trigger wide variety shapes conditions triggering software interrupts must built software os app c app trigger table table functions header app os know use appropriately related hardware however confuse hardware interrupts signal cpu cpu enacts software table functions similarly software interrupts systems use hybrid level-triggered edge-triggered signaling hardware looks edge also verifies interrupt signal stays active certain period time common use hybrid interrupt nmi non-maskable interrupt input nmis generally signal major – even catastrophic – system events good implementation signal tries ensure interrupt valid verifying remains active period time 2-step approach helps eliminate false interrupts affecting system message-signaled interrupt use physical interrupt line instead device signals request service sending short message communications medium typically computer bus message might type reserved interrupts might pre-existing type memory write message-signalled interrupts behave much like edge-triggered interrupts interrupt momentary signal rather continuous condition interrupt-handling software treats two much manner typically multiple pending message-signaled interrupts message virtual interrupt line allowed merge closely spaced edge-triggered interrupts merge message-signalled interrupt vectors shared extent underlying communication medium shared additional effort required identity interrupt indicated pattern data bits requiring separate physical conductor many distinct interrupts efficiently handled reduces need sharing interrupt messages also passed serial bus requiring additional lines pci express serial computer bus uses message-signaled interrupts exclusively push button analogy applied computer systems term doorbell doorbell interrupt often used describe mechanism whereby software system signal notify computer hardware device work done typically software system place data well-known mutually agreed upon memory location ring doorbell writing different memory location different memory location often called doorbell region may even multiple doorbells serving different purposes region act writing doorbell region memory rings bell notifies hardware device data ready waiting hardware device would know data valid acted upon would typically write data hard disk drive send network encrypt etc term doorbell interrupt usually misnomer similar interrupt causes work done device however doorbell region sometimes implemented polled region sometimes doorbell region writes physical device registers sometimes doorbell region hardwired directly physical device registers either writing directly physical device registers may cause real interrupt occur device central processor unit cpu one doorbell interrupts compared message signaled interrupts similarities multiple devices sharing interrupt line triggering style act spurious interrupt sources respect many devices one line workload servicing interrupts grows proportion square number devices therefore preferred spread devices evenly across available interrupt lines shortage interrupt lines problem older system designs interrupt lines distinct physical conductors message-signaled interrupts interrupt line virtual favored new system architectures pci express relieve problem considerable extent devices poorly designed programming interface provide way determine whether requested service may lock otherwise misbehave serviced want devices tolerate spurious interrupts also tolerate sharing interrupt line isa cards due often cheap design construction notorious problem devices becoming much rarer hardware logic becomes cheaper new system architectures mandate shareable interrupts interrupts provide low overhead good latency low load degrade significantly high interrupt rate unless care taken prevent several pathologies various forms livelocks system spends time processing interrupts exclusion required tasks extreme conditions large number interrupts like high network traffic may completely stall system avoid problems operating system must schedule network interrupt handling carefully schedules process execution multi-core processors additional performance improvements interrupt handling achieved receive-side scaling rss multiqueue nics used nics provide multiple receive queues associated separate interrupts routing interrupts different cores processing interrupt requests triggered network traffic received single nic distributed among multiple cores distribution interrupts among cores performed automatically operating system routing interrupts usually referred irq affinity manually configured purely software-based implementation receiving traffic distribution known receive packet steering rps distributes received traffic among cores later data path part interrupt handler functionality advantages rps rss include requirements specific hardware advanced traffic distribution filters reduced rate interrupts produced nic downside rps increases rate inter-processor interrupts ipis receive flow steering rfs takes software-based approach accounting application locality performance improvements achieved processing interrupt requests cores particular network packets consumed targeted application typical uses interrupts include following system timers disk i/o power-off signals traps interrupts exist transfer data bytes using uarts ethernet sense key-presses control motors anything else equipment must another typical use generate periodic interrupts dividing output crystal oscillator interrupt handler count interrupts order processor keep time periodic interrupts often used os task scheduler reschedule priorities running processes older computers generated periodic interrupts power line frequency controlled utilities eliminate long-term drift electric clocks example disk interrupt signals completion data transfer disk peripheral process waiting read write file starts another example power-off interrupt predicts requests loss power allowing computer equipment perform orderly shut-down also interrupts used typeahead features buffering events like keystrokes interrupts used allow emulation instructions unimplemented certain models computer line example floating point instructions may implemented hardware systems emulated lower-cost systems execution unimplemented instruction cause interrupt operating system interrupt handler recognize occurrence unimplemented instruction interpret instruction software routine return interrupting program instruction executed provides application software portability across entire line 1-hop neighbor's text information: wdc_65c816.wdc 65c816 w65c816s also 65c816 65816 8/16-bit microprocessor mpu developed sold western design center wdc introduced 1983 w65c816s enhanced version wdc 65c02 8-bit mpu cmos enhancement venerable mos technology 6502 nmos mpu 65816 cpu apple iigs super nintendo entertainment system 65 part designation comes 65c02 compatibility mode 816 signifies mpu selectable 8– 16–bit register sizes addition availability 16 bit registers w65c816s features extended memory addressing 24-bits supporting 16 megabytes random-access memory enhanced instruction set 16 bit stack pointer well several new electrical signals improved system hardware management reset w65c816s starts emulation mode meaning substantially behaves 65c02 thereafter w65c816s may switched native mode two instruction sequence causing enable enhanced features yet still maintain substantial degree backward compatibility 65c02 software however unlike pdip40 version 65c02 pin-compatible replacement nmos ancestor pdip40 w65c816s pin-compatible 6502 family mpu related w65c816s w65c802 internal structure 16-bit support used 40-pin layout compatible original 6502 allowed used drop-in replacement certain roles lack new address pins limited 64 kb memory see extensive use longer produced 1981 bill mensch founder ceo wdc began development 65c02 production partners primarily rockwell semiconductor synertek primary goal 65c02 effort move original 6502 nmos process 65c02 cmos would allow run much lower power levels somewhere running clock speeds number new opcodes bug fixes also worked design development w65c816s commenced 1982 mensch consulted apple computer new version apple ii series personal computers would among things improved graphics sound apple wanted mpu would software compatible 6502 use apple ii ability address memory load store 16 bit words result 65c816 finished march 1984 samples provided apple atari second half year full release 1985 mensch aided design process sister kathryn responsible part device layout process also led 65c802 identical inside 65c816 produced fabrication lines diverged last metalization stages chip connected external pins 65c802 pins layout original 6502 allowed used drop-in replacement still allowing 16-bit processing cpu used however used original pinout 16 addressing pins could therefore access 64 kb external memory typically hardware manufacturers designed project ground used 65c816 rather 65c802 resulting latter withdrawn production apple subsequently integrated 65c816 apple iigs computer basic 65c816 design second-sourced gte sanyo others mid-to-late 1980s early 1990s 1990s 65c816 65c02 converted fully static core made possible completely stop processor clock without losing data registers feature along use asynchronous static ram made possible produce designs used minimal power standby state w65c816s available wdc 40 pin pdip plcc44 package well core asic integration example winbond w55v9x series tv edutainment ics wdc fabless semiconductor company works various foundries produce w65c816s well compatible products discrete processors available number electronics distributors designers wish include w65c816s functionality custom asic wdc offers rtl register-transfer level code verilog wdc 65816 features 65c816 two modes emulation mode 16-bit operations registers invisible chip appeared original 6502 cycle timings opcodes native mode made additional features visible cpu automatically returned emulation mode powered reset allowed drop-in replace 6502 obvious change 65c816 running 16-bit mode expansion various registers 8-bit 16-bit values affects accumulator x index registers stack pointer sp affect program counter p always 16-bit running native mode two bits status register change meaning original 6502 bits 4 5 used although bit 4 sometimes referred b reak flag native mode bit 4 becomes x flag bit 5 becomes flag bits control whether index registers x and/or accumulator/memory 8-bit 16-bit values zeros bits indicate 16-bit values ones indicate 8-bit values bits normally zero chip started remain switched native mode might immediately obvious one would want use 16-bit registers 8-bit mode switching 8-bit mode using new codice_1 set bit processor status codice_2 reset instructions means subsequent instructions accessing registers read single byte instead two instance bit set 1 codice_3 instruction issued single byte address 1234 read thereby reducing number cycles needed execute instruction particularly useful dealing 8-bit character data instance running 16-bit mode operations registers effect 16-bits instance left shift codice_4 shift 16 bits major change system running native mode memory model expanded 24-bit format original 16-bit format 6502 handled using 8-bit offset registers data bank register dbr program bank register pbr addresses code remain original 16-bit format values dbr pbr prepended form 24-bit address main memory means instructions access data within 64 kb page bank referred data outside page needs accessed dbr change likewise instructions lie anywhere memory using pbr branch jump instructions within bank addition register set direct page register set base address formerly called zero page referred direct page direct page offers special addressing mode requires one byte offer significantly improved performance used wisely 6502 direct page always first 256 bytes memory thus zero page whereas 16-bit register offset location 24-bit memory current mode operation stored emulation bit enough bits left status register hold new mode bit unique solution used mode bit left invisible unable directly accessed new codice_5 exchange carry emulation exchanges value emulation bit c arry bit bit 0 status register instance one wants enter native mode processor started one would use codice_6 clear carry bit codice_5 write emulation bit returning 6502 mode uses codice_8 cpu switches native mode upper 8-bits registers initially set zero read written complete 16-bit values point assuming x 16-bit mode system switches back 8-bit mode value upper 8-bits maintained return system switches back native systems based 65816 variants also used c-one supercpu enhancements commodore 64 1-hop neighbor's text information: mos_technology_6509.mos technology 6509 mos technology 6509 enhanced version popular 6502 microprocessor capable addressing 1 megabyte ram via bank switching numerous 6502-based processors could bank switching via separate logic 6509 logic on-chip 6509 reputation difficult program due bank switching scheme never fared well used ill-fated commodore cbm-ii line computers Target text information: interrupts_in_65xx_processors.interrupts 65xx processors 65xx family microprocessors consisting mos technology 6502 derivatives wdc 65c02 wdc 65c802 wdc 65c816 csg 65ce02 handle interrupts similar fashion three hardware interrupt signals common 65xx processors one software interrupt instruction wdc 65c816 adds fourth hardware interrupt— useful implementing virtual memory architectures—and software interrupt instruction also present 65c802 intended use system coprocessor type e.g. floating point processor hardware interrupt signals active low follows detection signal causes processor enter system initialization period six clock cycles sets interrupt request disable flag status register loads program counter values stored processor initialization vector – commencing execution operating native mode 65c816/65c802 switched back emulation mode stay returned native mode software control detection signal well execution instruction cause overall sequence events order behavior 65c816 asserted differs respects description separately discussed note processor push accumulator index registers stack—code interrupt handler must perform task well restore registers termination interrupt processing necessary also note vector eight bit 65xx processors well 65c802/65c816 operating emulation mode operating native mode 65c802/65c816 provide separate vectors set interrupt request disable flag bit status register disable detection signal effect interrupts however see section instruction implemented wdc cmos processors additionally 65 c 02 65c816/65c802 operating emulation mode copy status register pushed stack flag set software interrupt cause interrupt cleared cause hence interrupt service routine must retrieve copy saved status register pushed onto stack check status flag order distinguish requirement eliminated operating 65c802/65c816 native mode due separate vectors two interrupt types 65c816 interrupt input intended provide means redirect program execution hardware exception detected page fault memory access violation hence processor response input asserted negated different and/or asserted also achieving correct operation response requires interrupt occur proper time machine cycle whereas requirement exists asserted valid memory cycle processor asserted and/or status outputs following sequence events occur address pushed stack aborted instruction rather contents program counter executing return interrupt following interrupt cause processor return aborted instruction rather next instruction would case interrupts order processor correctly respond abort system logic must assert negate input soon valid address placed bus determined address constitutes page fault memory access violation anomaly e.g. attempted execution privileged instruction hence logic must assert processor asserted signals also must remain asserted fall phase-two clock immediately released timing constraints observed abort interrupt handler may aborted causing registers and/or memory changed possibly-undefined manner nmos 6502 derivatives e.g. 6510 simultaneous assertion hardware interrupt line execution accounted design—the instruction ignored case also status decimal mode flag processor status register unchanged following interrupt kind behavior potentially result difficult locate bug interrupt handler decimal mode happens enabled time interrupt anomalies corrected cmos versions processor well-designed succinct interrupt handler interrupt service routine isr expeditiously service event causes interrupt without interfering way interrupted foreground task—the isr must transparent interrupted task although exceptions may apply specialized cases means isr must preserve microprocessor mpu state disturb anything memory supposed disturb additionally isr fully reentrant meaning two interrupts arrive close succession isr able resume processing first interrupt second one serviced reentrancy achieved using mpu hardware stack storage preserving mpu state means isr must assure whatever values mpu registers time interrupt isr terminates part preservation process automatically handled mpu acknowledges interrupt push program counter program bank 65c816/65c802 status register stack prior executing isr completion isr instruction executed mpu reverse process member 65xx family pushes registers stack isrs accumulator and/or index registers must preserved assure transparency later restored final steps prior executing case 65c816/65c802 consideration must given whether operated emulation native mode time interrupt latter may also necessary preserve data bank direct zero page registers guarantee transparency also 65c816 native mode operating system may well use different stack location application software means isr would preserve subsequently restore stack pointer complicating matters 65c816/65c802 sizes accumulator index registers may either 8 16 bits operating native mode requiring sizes preserved later restoration methods mpu state preserved restored within isr vary different versions 65xx family nmos processors e.g. 6502 6510 8502 etc one method accumulator index registers preserved accumulator pushed pulled stack therefore following isr entry code typical instruction necessary previously noted nmos versions 6502 clear decimal mode flag status register interrupt occurs accumulator index registers preserved isr use needed isr concluded work would restore registers resume interrupted foreground task following nmos code typical consequence instruction mpu return decimal mode state time interrupt 65c02 65c816/65c802 operating emulation mode require less code able push pull index registers without using accumulator intermediary also automatically clear decimal mode executing isr following typical upon finishing isr would reverse process previously stated little complexity 65c816/65c802 operating native mode due variable register sizes necessity accounting registers case index registers may pushed without regard sizes changing sizes automatically sets significant byte msb registers zero data lost pushed value restored provided index registers size pushed accumulator however really two registers designated pushing accumulator set 8 bits preserve could result loss transparency isr change way therefore accumulator must always set 16 bits pushed pulled isr using also efficient set index registers 16 bits pushing otherwise isr push extra copy status register restore register sizes prior pulling stack isrs following entry code achieve goal transparency code fragment symbol mos technology wdc standard assembly language syntax bitwise operand isr assigned stack location preservation stack pointer must occur memory pushes occurred—it apparent following code added sequence would handle requirement completion isr processes would reversed follows note upon executing 65c816/65c802 automatically restore register sizes interrupt occurred since pulling previously–saved status register sets clears register size bits time interrupt possible switch 65c816/65c802 native mode emulation mode within isr fraught peril addition forcing accumulator index registers 8 bits causing loss significant byte index registers entering emulation mode truncate stack pointer 8 bits relocate stack page 1 ram result stack existed time interrupt inaccessible unless also page 1 ram larger 256 bytes general mode switching servicing interrupt recommended procedure may necessary specific operating environments previously noted software interrupts may used variety ways implement system functions historical use assist patching proms bugs discovered system firmware typical technique often used firmware development arrange vector point unprogrammed patch area prom event bug discovered patching would accomplished blowing fuses address faulty instruction located thus changing instruction opcode upon executing resulting mpu would redirected patch area suitable patch code would written often patch area code started sniffing stack determine address bug encountered potentially allowing presence one patch prom use prom patching diminished eproms eeproms became commonly available another use software development debugging aid conjunction machine language monitor overwriting opcode directing hardware vector entry point monitor one cause program halt desired point allowing monitor take control time one may examine memory view processor register values patch code etc debugging advocated kuckes thompson facilitated liberally sprinkling one code instructions opcode replaced instructions without altering actual behaviour program debugged characteristic instructions processor treats either two byte instruction opcode following byte referred signature upon execution processor add two program counter prior pushing stack hence return interrupt executed interrupted program continue address immediately following signature used debugging device program counter may adjusted point signature order execution resume expected alternatively may inserted signature placeholder case program counter adjustment required fact double-increment program counter pushing stack facilitates technique treating supervisor call instructions found mainframe computers usual procedure treat signature operating system service index operating system handler would retrieve value program counter pushed stack decrement read resulting memory location get signature converting signature zero-based index simple lookup table consulted load program counter address proper service routine upon completion service routine instruction would used return control program made operating system call note signature may value whereas signature limited range use and/or request operating system service means user applications know entry address operating system function correct signature byte invoke desired operation hence relocation operating system memory break compatibility existing user applications also executing always vectors processor address simple code may used preserve registers stack prior turning control requested service however programming model result somewhat slower execution compared calling service subroutine primarily result stack activity occurs interrupt also interrupt requests disabled executing requiring operating system re-enable wait interrupt opcode instruction available wdc version 65c02 65c816/65c802 microprocessors mpu halts mpu places semi-catatonic state hardware interrupt kind occurs primary use low-power embedded systems mpu nothing expected event occurs minimal power consumption desired system waiting quick response required typical example code would make use follows code fragment mpu halt upon execution go low power consumption state despite interrupt requests irq disabled prior instruction mpu respond hardware interrupt waiting upon receipt interrupt mpu awaken one clock cycle resume execution instruction immediately following hence interrupt latency short 70 nanoseconds 14 megahertz resulting rapid response possible external event similar ways stop opcode instruction completely shuts mpu waiting single interrupt input executed mpu halts internal clock retain data registers enters low power state mpu brought state pulling reset input pin classified interrupt input low execution resume address stored locations hardware reset vector intended use low power embedded applications long periods time may elapse events require mpu attention processing required would used normal programming would result total cessation processing I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	3,157	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: dru_lavigne.dru lavigne dru lavigne network systems administrator instructor technical writer director freebsd foundation using freebsd since 1996 authored several bsd books spent 10 years developing training materials providing training administration freebsd systems prolific author written o'reilly techrepublic dnsstuff openlogic contributed linux hacks hacking linux exposed author bsd hacks best freebsd basics third latest book definitive guide pc-bsd released march 2010 decade experience administering teaching netware microsoft cisco checkpoint sco solaris linux bsd systems writes widely read technical blog year life bsd guru toolbox.com founder current chair bsd certification group inc. non-profit organization mission create standard certifying bsd system administrators also community manager pc-bsd freenas projects making responsible dealing issues relating community relations administration various forums also principal author executive editor documentation projects since 22 january 2013 committer category doc freebsd project 1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_watson_(computer_scientist).robert watson computer scientist robert nicholas maxwell watson born 3 may 1977 freebsd developer founder trustedbsd project currently employed university lecturer systems security architecture security research group university cambridge computer laboratory watson graduated computer science carnegie mellon university attained phd university cambridge well cambridge worked national institutes health carnegie mellon university trusted information systems network associates mcafee sparta obtained phd computer security university cambridge computer laboratory supervised ross anderson sponsored google watson work supported darpa apple computer navy us government agencies main research interests network security operating system security main open source software contributions include work developing multi-threaded multi-processor freebsd network stack trustedbsd project openbsm writing featured forums acm queue magazine usenix annual technical conference bsdcon slashdot interview also freebsd core team member 2000 2012 watson coauthor standard textbook design implementation freebsd operating system 2nd ed. 2015 marshall kirk mckusick 1-hop neighbor's text information: altq.altq altq alternate queueing network scheduler berkeley software distribution altq provides queueing disciplines quality service qos related components required realize resource sharing commonly implemented bsd-based routers altq included base distribution freebsd netbsd dragonfly bsd integrated pf packet filter openbsd later replaced new queueing subsystem deprecated openbsd 5.5 release completely removed 5.6 2014 altq packets assigned queues purpose bandwidth control scheduler defines algorithm used decide packets get delayed dropped sent immediately five schedulers currently supported freebsd implementation altq Target text information: dtrace.dtrace dtrace comprehensive dynamic tracing framework created sun microsystems troubleshooting kernel application problems production systems real time originally developed solaris since released free common development distribution license cddl opensolaris descendant illumos ported several unix-like systems dtrace used get global overview running system amount memory cpu time filesystem network resources used active processes also provide much fine-grained information log arguments specific function called list processes accessing specific file 2010 oracle corporation acquired sun microsystems announced discontinuing opensolaris community effort core solaris engineers create truly open source solaris illumos operating system announced via webinar thursday 3 august 2010. fork opensolaris os/net consolidation including dtrace technology october 2011 oracle announced porting dtrace linux several years unofficial dtrace port linux available changes licensing terms august 2017 oracle released dtrace kernel code gplv2+ license user space code gplv2 upl licensing september 2018 microsoft announced ported dtrace freebsd windows september 2016 opendtrace effort began github code comprehensive documentation system internals opendtrace effort maintains original cddl licensing code opensolaris additional code contributions coming bsd 2 clause license goal opendtrace provide os agnostic portable implementation dtrace acceptable consumers including macos freebsd openbsd netbsd linux well embedded systems sun microsystems designed dtrace give operational insights allow users tune troubleshoot applications os testers write tracing programs also referred scripts using programming language confused programming languages named language inspired c includes added functions variables specific tracing programs resemble awk programs structure consist list one probes instrumentation points probe associated action probes comparable pointcut aspect-oriented programming whenever condition probe met associated action executed probe fires typical probe might fire certain file opened process started certain line code executed probe fires may analyze run-time situation accessing call stack context variables evaluating expressions print log information record database modify context variables reading writing context variables allows probes pass information allowing cooperatively analyze correlation different events special consideration taken make dtrace safe use production environment example minimal probe effect tracing underway performance impact associated disabled probe important since tens thousands dtrace probes enabled new probes also created dynamically dtrace scripts invoked directly command line providing one probes actions arguments examples dtrace -n 'proc exec-success trace curpsinfo- pr_psargs dtrace -n 'syscall :open* entry printf execname copyinstr arg0 dtrace -n 'syscall entry num execname count dtrace -n 'syscall entry num probefunc count dtrace -n 'syscall entry num pid execname count dtrace -n 'io start printf pid execname args 0 b_bcount dtrace -n 'vminfo pgpgin pg execname sum arg0 scripts also written reach hundreds lines length although typically tens lines needed advanced troubleshooting analysis 200 examples open source dtrace scripts found dtracetoolkit created brendan gregg author dtrace book also provides documentation demonstrations dtrace first became available use november 2003 formally released part sun solaris 10 january 2005 dtrace first component opensolaris project source code released common development distribution license cddl dtrace integral part illumos illumos distributions opensolaris continuation dtrace standard part freebsd netbsd apple added dtrace support mac os x 10.5 leopard including gui called instruments 40 dtrace scripts dtracetoolkit included /usr/bin including tools examine disk i/o iosnoop process execution execsnoop unlike platforms dtrace supported mac os x flag p_lnoattach program may set disallows tracing process debugging utilities dtrace gdb original mac os x dtrace implementation could affect tracing system information unrelated probes fire program flag set running would fail os x 10.5.3 update addressed issue months later however since el capitan system integrity protection prevents user dtracing protected binary default linux port dtrace available since 2008 work continues actively enhance fix issues also active implementation github standard core providers available fbt syscall profile plus special instr provider solaris providers yet available linux dtrace implementation loadable kernel module means kernel requires modification thus allows dtrace avoid cddl vs. gpl licensing conflicts source form least however dtrace loaded kernel instance marked tainted 2007 developer qnx software systems announced blog colleague working incorporating dtrace qnx operating system oracle corporation added beta dtrace support oracle linux 2011 technology preview unbreakable enterprise kernel release 2 gplv2 dtrace linux kernel module originally released cddl general availability announced december 2012 march 11th 2019 microsoft released build dtrace windows 10 insider builds supported language provider dtrace retrieve context code including function source file line number location dynamic memory allocation garbage collection made available supported language supported language providers include assembly language c c++ java erlang javascript perl php python ruby shell script tcl application providers allow dtrace follow operation applications system calls kernel applications offer dtrace application providers include mysql postgresql oracle database oracle grid engine firefox dtrace designed implemented bryan cantrill mike shapiro adam leventhal authors received recognition 2005 innovations dtrace infoworld technology review dtrace top prize wall street journal 2006 technology innovation awards competition authors recognized usenix software tools user group stug award 2008 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,506	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: scala_(programming_language).scala programming language scala general-purpose programming language providing support functional programming strong static type system designed concise many scala design decisions aimed address criticisms java scala source code intended compiled java bytecode resulting executable code runs java virtual machine scala provides language interoperability java libraries written either language may referenced directly scala java code like java scala object-oriented uses curly-brace syntax reminiscent c programming language unlike java scala many features functional programming languages like scheme standard ml haskell including currying type inference immutability lazy evaluation pattern matching also advanced type system supporting algebraic data types covariance contravariance higher-order types higher-rank types anonymous types features scala present java include operator overloading optional parameters named parameters raw strings conversely feature java scala checked exceptions proved controversial name scala portmanteau scalable language signifying designed grow demands users design scala started 2001 école polytechnique fédérale de lausanne epfl lausanne switzerland martin odersky followed work funnel programming language combining ideas functional programming petri nets odersky formerly worked generic java javac sun java compiler internal release late 2003 scala released publicly early 2004 java platform second version v2.0 followed march 2006 17 january 2011 scala team five-year research grant €2.3 million european research council 12 may 2011 odersky collaborators launched typesafe inc. later renamed lightbend inc. company provide commercial support training services scala typesafe received 3 million investment 2011 greylock partners scala runs java platform java virtual machine compatible existing java programs android applications typically written java translated java bytecode dalvik bytecode may translated native machine code installation packaged scala java compatibility makes well-suited android development functional approach preferred reference scala software distribution including compiler libraries released apache license scala.js scala compiler compiles javascript making possible write scala programs run web browsers node.js compiler development since 2013 announced longer experimental 2015 v0.6 version v1.0.0-m1 released june 2018 2019 still m7 scala native scala compiler targets llvm compiler infrastructure create executable code uses lightweight managed runtime uses boehm garbage collector project led denys shabalin first release 0.1 14 march 2017 development scala native began 2015 goal faster just-in-time compilation jvm eliminating initial runtime compilation code also providing ability call native routines directly reference scala compiler targeting .net framework common language runtime released june 2004 officially dropped 2012 hello world program written scala form unlike stand-alone hello world application java class declaration nothing declared static singleton object created object keyword used instead program stored file helloworld.scala user compiles command runs analogous process compiling running java code indeed scala compiling executing model identical java making compatible java build tools apache ant shorter version hello world scala program scala includes interactive shell scripting support saved file named codice_1 run script prior compiling using commands also entered directly scala interpreter using option expressions entered interactively repl following example shows differences java scala syntax syntactic differences code syntactic relaxations designed allow support domain-specific languages basic syntactic differences following example contrasts definition classes java scala code shows conceptual differences java scala handling classes scala compiling model java c namely separate compiling dynamic class loading scala code call java libraries scala operational characteristics java scala compiler generates byte code nearly identical generated java compiler fact scala code decompiled readable java code exception certain constructor operations java virtual machine jvm scala code java code indistinguishable difference one extra runtime library codice_35 scala adds large number features compared java fundamental differences underlying model expressions types make language theoretically cleaner eliminate several corner cases java scala perspective practically important several added features scala also available c examples include mentioned scala good deal syntactic flexibility compared java following examples may seem like questionable choices collectively serve purpose allowing domain-specific languages defined scala without needing extend compiler example erlang special syntax sending message actor i.e codice_67 implemented scala library without needing language extensions java makes sharp distinction primitive types e.g codice_68 codice_69 reference types class reference types part inheritance scheme deriving codice_70 scala types inherit top-level class codice_71 whose immediate children codice_72 value types codice_73 codice_74 codice_75 reference types java means java distinction primitive types boxed types e.g codice_68 vs. codice_77 present scala boxing unboxing completely transparent user scala 2.10 allows new value types defined user instead java foreach loops looping iterator scala codice_78-expressions similar list comprehensions languages haskell combination list comprehensions generator expressions python for-expressions using codice_79 keyword allow new collection generated iterating existing one returning new collection type translated compiler series codice_64 codice_65 codice_66 calls codice_79 used code approximates imperative-style loop translating codice_84 simple example result running following vector complex example iterating map expression codice_88 example pattern matching see iterating map returns set key-value tuples pattern-matching allows tuples easily destructured separate variables key value similarly result comprehension also returns key-value tuples automatically built back map source object variable codice_89 map note codice_89 instead held list set array collection tuples exactly code would yield new collection type supporting object-oriented features available java fact augmenting various ways scala also provides large number capabilities normally found functional programming languages together features allow scala programs written almost completely functional style also allow functional object-oriented styles mixed examples unlike c java similar languages lisp scala makes distinction statements expressions statements fact expressions evaluate value functions would declared returning codice_24 c java statements like codice_92 logically return value scala considered return type codice_25 singleton type one object type functions operators never return e.g codice_94 operator function always exits non-locally using exception logically return type codice_95 special type containing objects bottom type i.e subclass every possible type turn makes type codice_95 compatible every type allowing type inference function correctly similarly codice_97 statement actually expression produces value i.e result evaluating one two branches means block code inserted wherever expression desired obviating need ternary operator scala similar reasons codice_7 statements unnecessary scala fact discouraged lisp last expression block code value block code block code body function returned function make clear functions expressions even methods return codice_25 written equals sign equivalently type inference omitting unnecessary braces due type inference type variables function return values many expressions typically omitted compiler deduce examples codice_100 immutable constant immutable object codice_101 variable whose value later changed type inference scala essentially local contrast global hindley-milner algorithm used haskell ml purely functional languages done facilitate object-oriented programming result certain types still need declared notably function parameters return types recursive functions e.g return type declared recursive function scala functions objects convenient syntax exists specifying anonymous functions example expression codice_102 specifies function one parameter compares argument see less 2 equivalent lisp form codice_103 note neither type codice_104 return type need explicitly specified generally inferred type inference explicitly specified e.g codice_105 even codice_106 anonymous functions behave true closures automatically capture variables lexically available environment enclosing function variables available even enclosing function returns unlike case java anonymous inner classes need declared final even possible modify variables mutable modified value available next time anonymous function called even shorter form anonymous function uses placeholder variables example following written concisely even scala enforces distinction immutable unmodifiable read-only variables whose value changed assigned mutable variables changed similar distinction made immutable mutable objects distinction must made variable declared immutable variables declared codice_5 mutable variables use codice_6 similarly collection objects container types scala e.g linked lists arrays sets hash tables available mutable immutable variants immutable variant considered basic default implementation immutable variants persistent data types create new object encloses old object adds new member similar linked lists built lisp elements prepended creating new cons cell pointer new element head old list tail allows easy concurrency — locks needed shared objects ever modified immutable structures also constructed efficiently sense modified instances reuses old instance data unused/unreferenced parts collected gc evaluation strict eager default words scala evaluates expressions soon available rather needed however possible declare variable non-strict lazy codice_112 keyword meaning code produce variable value evaluated first time variable referenced non-strict collections various types also exist type codice_113 non-strict linked list collection made non-strict codice_114 method non-strict collections provide good semantic fit things like server-produced data evaluation code generate later elements list turn triggers request server possibly located somewhere else web happens elements actually needed functional programming languages commonly provide tail call optimization allow extensive use recursion without stack overflow problems limitations java bytecode complicate tail call optimization jvm general function calls tail call optimized mutually recursive functions trampolines suggested workaround trampoline support provided scala library object codice_115 since scala 2.8.0 released 14 july 2010 function may optionally annotated codice_116 case compile unless tail recursive scala built-in support pattern matching thought sophisticated extensible version switch statement arbitrary data types matched rather simple types like integers booleans strings including arbitrary nesting special type class known case class provided includes automatic support pattern matching used model algebraic data types used many functional programming languages perspective scala case class simply normal class compiler automatically adds certain behaviors could also provided manually e.g. definitions methods providing deep comparisons hashing destructuring case class constructor parameters pattern matching example definition quicksort algorithm using pattern matching idea partition list elements less pivot elements less recursively sort part paste results together pivot uses divide-and-conquer strategy mergesort fast sorting algorithms codice_117 operator used pattern matching object stored codice_118 codice_119 expression tried turn see match first match determines result case codice_120 matches literal object codice_120 codice_122 matches non-empty list simultaneously destructures list according pattern given case associated code access local variable named codice_123 holding head list another variable codice_124 holding tail list note variables read-only semantically similar variable bindings established using codice_125 operator lisp scheme pattern matching also happens local variable declarations case return value call codice_126 tuple — case two lists tuples differ types containers e.g lists always fixed size elements differing types — although pattern matching easiest way fetching two parts tuple form codice_127 declaration anonymous function placeholder variable see section anonymous functions list operators codice_128 adds element onto beginning list similar codice_129 lisp scheme codice_130 appends two lists together similar codice_131 lisp scheme appear despite appearances nothing built-in either operators specified string symbols serve function name method applied object written infix -style without period parentheses line written could also written thus standard method-call notation methods end colon right-associative bind object right pattern-matching example body codice_117 operator partial function consists series codice_119 expressions first matching expression prevailing similar body switch statement partial functions also used exception-handling portion codice_136 statement finally partial function used alone result calling equivalent codice_117 example prior code quicksort written thus read-only variable declared whose type function lists integers lists integers bind partial function note single parameter partial function never explicitly declared named however still call variable exactly normal function scala pure object-oriented language sense every value object data types behaviors objects described classes traits class abstractions extended subclassing flexible mixin-based composition mechanism avoid problems multiple inheritance traits scala replacement java interfaces interfaces java versions 8 highly restricted able contain abstract function declarations led criticism providing convenience methods interfaces awkward methods must reimplemented every implementation extending published interface backwards-compatible way impossible traits similar mixin classes nearly power regular abstract class lacking class parameters scala equivalent java constructor parameters since traits always mixed class codice_138 operator behaves specially traits allowing traits chained using composition addition inheritance following example simple window system variable may declared thus result calling codice_139 words call codice_140 first executed code codice_141 last trait mixed codice_142 calls threaded back mixed-in traits eventually code codice_143 even though none traits inherited one another similar decorator pattern concise less error-prone n't require explicitly encapsulating parent window explicitly forwarding functions whose implementation n't changed relying run-time initialization entity relationships languages similar effect could achieved compile-time long linear chain implementation inheritance disadvantage compared scala one linear inheritance chain would declared possible combination mix-ins scala equipped expressive static type system mostly enforces safe coherent use abstractions type system however sound particular type system supports scala able infer types usage makes static type declarations optional static types need explicitly declared unless compiler error indicates need practice static type declarations included sake code clarity common technique scala known enrich library originally termed pimp library martin odersky 2006 though concerns raised phrasing due negative connotation immaturity allows new methods used added existing types similar c concept extension methods powerful technique limited adding methods instance used implement new interfaces scala technique involves declaring implicit conversion type receiving method new type typically class wraps original type provides additional method method found given type compiler automatically searches applicable implicit conversions types provide method question technique allows new methods added existing class using add-on library code imports add-on library gets new functionality code unaffected following example shows enrichment type codice_73 methods codice_145 codice_146 importing members codice_147 brings implicit conversion extension class codice_148 scope scala standard library includes support actor model addition standard java concurrency apis lightbend inc. provides platform includes akka separate open-source framework provides actor-based concurrency akka actors may distributed combined software transactional memory transactors alternative communicating sequential processes csp implementations channel-based message passing communicating scala objects simply via jcsp actor like thread instance mailbox created codice_149 overriding codice_150 method receive messages using codice_151 exclamation point method send message following example shows echoserver receive messages print scala also comes built-in support data-parallel programming form parallel collections integrated standard library since version 2.9.0 following example shows use parallel collections improve performance besides actor support data-parallelism scala also supports asynchronous programming futures promises software transactional memory event streams well-known open-source cluster-computing solution written scala apache spark additionally apache kafka publish–subscribe message queue popular spark stream processing technologies written scala several ways test code scala scalatest supports multiple testing styles integrate java-based testing frameworks scalacheck library similar haskell quickcheck specs2 library writing executable software specifications scalamock provides support testing high-order curried functions junit testng popular testing frameworks written java scala often compared groovy clojure two programming languages also using jvm substantial differences languages found type system extent language supports object-oriented functional programming similarity syntax syntax java scala statically typed groovy clojure dynamically typed makes type system complex difficult understand allows almost type errors caught compile-time result significantly faster execution contrast dynamic typing requires testing ensure program correctness generally slower order allow greater programming flexibility simplicity regarding speed differences current versions groovy clojure allow optional type annotations help programs avoid overhead dynamic typing cases types practically static overhead reduced using recent versions jvm enhanced invoke dynamic instruction methods defined dynamically typed arguments advances reduce speed gap static dynamic typing although statically typed language like scala still preferred choice execution efficiency important regarding programming paradigms scala inherits object-oriented model java extends various ways groovy also strongly object-oriented focused reducing verbosity clojure object-oriented programming deemphasised functional programming main strength language scala also many functional programming facilities including features found advanced functional languages like haskell tries agnostic two paradigms letting developer choose two paradigms frequently combination thereof regarding syntax similarity java scala inherits much java syntax case groovy clojure hand follows lisp syntax different appearance philosophy however learning scala also considered difficult many advanced features case groovy despite also feature-rich language mainly designed mainly scripting language jvm-based languages clojure groovy kotlin scala significantly less popular original java language usually ranked first second also simultaneously evolving time popularity programming language index tracks searches language tutorials ranked scala 15th april 2018 small downward trend makes scala popular jvm-based language java although immediately followed kotlin jvm-based language strong upward trend ranked 16th tiobe index programming language popularity employs internet search engine rankings similar publication-counting determine language popularity april 2018 shows scala 34th place dropped four places last two years but–as mentioned bugs change requests –tiobe aware issues methodology using search terms might commonly used programming language communities ranking scala ahead functional languages like haskell 42nd erlang languages like swift 15th perl 16th go 19th clojure 30th thoughtworks technology radar opinion based biannual report group senior technologists recommended scala adoption languages frameworks category 2013 july 2014 assessment made specific refers scala good parts described successfully use scala need research language strong opinion parts right creating definition scala good parts. redmonk programming language rankings establishes rankings based number github projects questions asked stack overflow ranks scala 14th scala placed inside second-tier group languages–ahead go powershell haskell behind swift objective-c typescript r. however 2018 report rankings noted drop scala rank third time row questioning much available oxygen scala consumed kotlin latter continues rocket rankings 2018 edition state java survey collected data 5160 developers various java-related topics scala places third terms usage alternative languages jvm compared last year edition survey scala usage among alternative jvm languages fell almost quarter 28.4 21.5 overtaken kotlin rose 11.4 2017 28.8 2018 march 2015 former vp platform engineering group twitter raffi krikorian stated would chosen scala 2011 due learning curve month linkedin svp kevin scott stated decision minimize dependence scala november 2011 yammer moved away scala reasons included learning curve new team members incompatibility one version scala compiler next 1-hop neighbor's text information: ml_(programming_language).ml programming language ml meta language general-purpose functional programming language roots lisp characterized lisp types known use polymorphic hindley–milner type system automatically assigns types expressions without requiring explicit type annotations ensures type safetythere formal proof well-typed ml program cause runtime type errors ml provides pattern matching function arguments garbage collection imperative programming call-by-value currying used heavily programming language research one languages completely specified verified using formal semantics types pattern matching make well-suited commonly used operate formal languages compiler writing automated theorem proving formal verification features ml include call-by-value evaluation strategy first-class functions automatic memory management garbage collection parametric polymorphism static typing type inference algebraic data types pattern matching exception handling ml uses static scoping rules ml referred impure functional language although encourages functional programming allow side-effects like languages lisp unlike purely functional language haskell like programming languages ml uses eager evaluation meaning subexpressions always evaluated though lazy evaluation achieved use closures thus one create use infinite streams haskell expression indirect ml strengths mostly applied language design manipulation compilers analyzers theorem provers general-purpose language also used bioinformatics financial systems ml developed robin milner others early 1970s university edinburgh whose syntax inspired iswim historically ml conceived develop proof tactics lcf theorem prover whose language pplambda combination first-order predicate calculus simply-typed polymorphic lambda calculus ml metalanguage today several languages ml family three prominent standard ml sml ocaml f ideas ml influenced numerous languages like haskell cyclone nemerle ats elm following examples use syntax standard ml ml dialects ocaml f differ small ways factorial function expressed pure ml describes factorial recursive function single terminating base case similar descriptions factorials found mathematics textbooks much ml code similar mathematics facility syntax part definition shown optional describes types function notation e read expression e type instance argument n assigned type integer int fac n int result applying fac integer n also type integer function fac whole type function integer integer int int fac accepts integer argument returns integer result thanks type inference type annotations omitted derived compiler rewritten without type annotations example looks like function also relies pattern matching important part ml programming note parameters function necessarily parentheses separated spaces function argument 0 zero return integer 1 one cases second line tried recursion executes function base case reached implementation factorial function guaranteed terminate since negative argument causes infinite descending chain recursive calls robust implementation would check nonnegative argument recursing follows problematic case n negative demonstrates use ml exception system function improved writing inner loop tail-recursive style call stack need grow proportion number function calls achieved adding extra accumulator parameter inner function last arrive following function reverses elements list precisely returns new list whose elements reverse order compared given list implementation reverse correct clear inefficient requiring quadratic time execution function rewritten execute linear time following efficient though less easy-to-read style notably function example parametric polymorphism consume lists whose elements type return lists type modules ml system structuring large projects libraries module consists signature file one structure files signature file specifies api implemented like c header file java interface file structure implements signature like c source file java class file example following define arithmetic signature implementation using rational numbers imported interpreter 'use command interaction implementation allowed via signature functions example possible create 'rat data object directly via code 'structure block hides implementation detail outside ml standard libraries implemented modules way 1-hop neighbor's text information: map_(higher-order_function).map higher-order function many programming languages map name higher-order function applies given function element functor e.g list returning list results order often called apply-to-all considered functional form concept map limited lists works sequential containers tree-like containers even abstract containers futures promises suppose list integers codice_1 would like calculate square integer first define function codice_2 single number shown haskell square x x x afterwards may call » map square 1 2 3 4 5 yields codice_3 demonstrating codice_4 gone entire list applied function codice_2 element see view step mapping process list integers codice_6 want map new list codice_7 according function formula_1 codice_4 provided part haskell base prelude i.e standard library implemented map b b map map f x xs f x map f xs haskell polymorphic function codice_9 generalized polytypic function codice_10 applies type belonging codice_11 type class type constructor lists codice_12 defined instance codice_11 type class using codice_4 function previous example instance functor examples codice_11 instances include trees -- simple binary tree data tree leaf fork tree tree instance functor tree mapping tree yields » fmap square fork fork leaf 1 leaf 2 fork leaf 3 leaf 4 fork fork leaf 1 leaf 4 fork leaf 9 leaf 16 every instance codice_11 type class codice_17 contractually obliged obey functor laws fmap id ≡ id -- identity law fmap f g ≡ fmap f fmap g -- composition law codice_18 denotes function composition haskell among uses allows defining element-wise operations various kinds collections moreover two functors natural transformation function polymorphic type formula_2 respects function defined parametric polymorphism type definition specification always satisfied mathematical basis maps allow number optimizations composition law ensures lead result formula_5 however second form efficient compute first form codice_4 requires rebuilding entire list scratch therefore compilers attempt transform first form second type optimization known map fusion functional analog loop fusion map functions often defined terms fold codice_22 means one map-fold fusion codice_23 equivalent codice_24 implementation map singly linked lists tail-recursive may build lot frames stack called large list many languages alternately provide reverse map function equivalent reversing mapped list tail-recursive implementation utilizes fold-left function reversemap f foldl \ys x f x ys since reversing singly linked list also tail-recursive reverse reverse-map composed perform normal map tail-recursive way map function originated functional programming languages language lisp introduced map function called codice_25 1959 slightly different versions already appearing 1958 original definition codice_25 mapping function successive rest lists function codice_25 still available newer lisps like common lisp though functions like codice_28 generic codice_4 would preferred squaring elements list using codice_25 would written s-expression notation like using function codice_28 example would written like today mapping functions supported may defined many procedural object-oriented multi-paradigm languages well c++ standard template library called codice_32 c 3.0 linq library provided extension method called codice_33 map also frequently used operation high level languages coldfusion markup language cfml perl python ruby operation called codice_4 four languages codice_35 alias codice_4 also provided ruby smalltalk common lisp provides family map-like functions one corresponding behavior described called codice_28 codice_38 indicating access using car operation also languages syntactic constructs providing functionality map function map sometimes generalized accept dyadic 2-argument functions apply user-supplied function corresponding elements two lists languages use special names map2 zipwith languages using explicit variadic functions may versions map variable arity support variable-arity functions map 2 lists encounters issue handling lists different lengths various languages differ raise exception stop length shortest list ignore extra items lists continue length longest list lists already ended pass placeholder value function indicating value languages support first-class functions codice_4 may partially applied lift function works one value element-wise equivalent works entire container example codice_40 haskell function squares element list Target text information: partial_application.partial application computer science partial application partial function application refers process fixing number arguments function producing another function smaller arity given function formula_1 might fix 'bind first argument producing function type formula_2 evaluation function might represented formula_3 note result partial function application case function takes two arguments partial application sometimes incorrectly called currying related distinct concept intuitively partial function application says fix first arguments function get function remaining arguments example function div x x div parameter x fixed 1 another function div div 1 1/y function inv returns multiplicative inverse argument defined inv 1/ practical motivation partial application often functions obtained supplying arguments function useful example many languages function operator similar codice_1 partial application makes easy define functions example creating function represents addition operator 1 bound first argument languages ml haskell functions defined curried form default supplying fewer total number arguments referred partial application languages first-class functions one define codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 perform currying partial application explicitly might incur greater run-time overhead due creation additional closures haskell use efficient techniques scala implements optional partial application placeholder e.g returns incrementing function scala also support multiple parameter lists currying e.g clojure implements partial application using codice_5 function defined core library c++ standard library provides codice_6 return function object result partial application given arguments given function java codice_7 partially applies function first argument perl 6 codice_8 method creates new function fewer parameters python standard library module codice_9 includes codice_5 function allowing positional named argument bindings returning new function xquery argument placeholder codice_11 used non-fixed argument partial function application simply-typed lambda calculus function product types λ partial application currying uncurrying defined note codice_2 codice_4 codice_2 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,914	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: gerald_r._young.gerald r. young gerald r. young american intelligence official deputy director national security agency 1988 1990 director william o. studeman time highest ranking civilian agency time nsa also held position deputy director plans policy 1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_e._drake.robert e. drake robert edwin drake october 11 1923 – january 12 2006 american intelligence official deputy director national security agency 1978 1980 time highest ranking civilian agency joined armed services security agency 1949 eventually newly created national security agency 1952 nsa served overseas offices europe southeast asia hawaii also served position chief soviet east european analytic group deputy director operations retiring nsa 1978 returned independent consulting work intelligence work received national intelligence distinguished service medal national security agency meritorious exceptional civilian service awards defense department distinguished civilian service award central intelligence agency distinguished service medal alumnus carleton college minnesota george washington university national war college died heart failure 2006 aged 82 1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_e._rich.robert e. rich robert ellett rich born december 15 1926 american intelligence official deputy director national security agency 1982 1986 time highest ranking civilian agency working internal management also far east expert joined nsa 1962 worked office assistant secretary defense special operations prior worked armed forces security agency starting 1950 nsa predecessor time nsa also served japan office agency well special u.s. liaison officer london recipient national security medal presented president ronald reagan 1996 2003 served president board directors national cryptological museum foundation Target text information: deputy_director_of_the_national_security_agency.deputy director national security agency deputy director national security agency highest-ranking civilian within national security agency senior civilian nsa deputy director acts agency chief operating officer guiding directing strategies policy serves principal advisor director nsa deputy director reports nsa director required technically experienced civilian current deputy director george c. barnes armed forces security agency afsa predecessor nsa nowiki /nowiki november 1950 april 1951 deputy director service I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,668	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: national_cyber_security_hall_of_fame.national cyber security hall fame national cyber security hall fame founded larry letow rick geritz established 2012 recognize contributions key individuals field cyber security mission statement respect past protect future according website designed honor innovative individuals organizations vision leadership create fundamental building blocks cyber security industry organization also highlights major milestones industry 40-year history timeline representation includes inductees corresponding accomplishments nominations cyber security hall fame submitted following categories reviewed advisory committee chaired 2013 mike jacobs 2019 members cyber security hall fame advisory board Target text information: f._lynn_mcnulty.f. lynn mcnulty lt. col. frederick “ f. ” lynn mcnulty 1939–2012 first director information systems security u.s. state department pioneer field cybersecurity characterized “ father ” u.s. federal information security peers eulogized tireless advocate security nation early persistent champion information security government mcnulty played key role influencing u.s. national security policy everything export controls commercial encryption products deployment key federal cybersecurity infrastructure repeatedly called testify cybersecurity matters u.s. house senate subcommittees according scmagazine.com ’ robert bigman mcnulty ’ contributions cybersecurity “ woven dna almost every government information security policy program ” security initiatives became model within federal government served basis computer security act 1987 june 15 2012 edition federal computer weekly identified mcnulty one key thought leaders field cybersecurity preceding quarter century fellow international information systems security consortium isc ² mcnulty recipient federal 100 award inducted information systems security association issa hall fame publications include f. lynn mcnulty “ encryption importance economic infrastructure security ” 9 duke journal comparative international law 427–450 1999 born alameda california mcnulty received b.a international affairs university california berkeley awarded 2 master degrees m.a international affairs san jose state m.p.a george washington university united states army reserve officer 1963 1999 frederick lynn mcnulty activated four years vietnam war late 1960s early 1970s mcnulty worked information security central intelligence agency retired government 1995 mcnulty died aggressive lymphoma 2012 buried arlington national cemetery late 2013 isc ² created mcnulty award one u.s. government information security leadership awards gisla f. lynn mcnulty honor f. lynn mcnulty tribute gisla recognize member u.s. federal information security community upholds mcnulty ’ legacy visionary innovator outstanding service commitment organization shall bestow first f. lynn mcnulty gisla october 2013 2014 f. lynn mcnulty posthumously awarded lifetime achievement award 17th annual bestowing awards excellence information security public policy rsa global information security conference san francisco california widow peggy mcnulty accepted award I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,059	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: bhyve.bhyve bhyve pronounced bee hive formerly written bhyve type-2 hypervisor written freebsd ported number illumos based distributions including smartos omnios bhyve runs freebsd 9+ openbsd netbsd linux illumos windows nt windows vista later windows server 2008 later guests current development efforts aim widening support operating systems x86-64 architecture 1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu_variants.gnu variants gnu variants also called gnu distributions distros short operating systems based upon gnu operating system hurd kernel gnu c library system libraries application software like gnu coreutils bash gnome guix package manager etc. according gnu project others also include operating systems using linux kernel others using bsd-based kernels gnu users usually obtain operating system downloading gnu distributions available wide variety systems ranging embedded devices example librecmc personal computers example debian gnu/hurd powerful supercomputers example rocks cluster distribution hurd official kernel developed gnu system linux-libre also became official gnu package debian gnu/hurd discussed release technology preview debian 7.0 wheezy however plans discarded due immature state system however maintainers debian gnu/hurd decided publish unofficial release release date debian 7.0 debian gnu/hurd considered yet provide performance stability expected production system among open issues incomplete implementation java x.org graphical user interfaces limited hardware driver support two thirds debian packages ported hurd arch hurd derivative work arch linux porting gnu hurd system packages optimised intel p6 architecture goal provide arch-like user environment bsd-style init scripts pacman package manager rolling releases simple set gnu hurd stable enough least occasional use although abandoned 2018 project produced livecd evaluation purposes installations guides livecd conventional installation term gnu/linux gnu+linux used fsf supporters refer operating system linux kernel distributed gnu system software distributions primary installed base gnu packages programs also linux notable official use term distribution debian gnu/linux 2018 gnu variants recommended gnu project regular use linux distributions committed free system distribution guidelines refer gnu/linux like debian actually use deblobbed version linux like linux-libre linux per se debian gnu/kfreebsd operating system ia-32 x86-64 computer architectures distribution gnu debian package management kernel freebsd k kfreebsd abbreviation kernel reflects fact kernel complete freebsd operating system used operating system officially released debian squeeze 6.0 february 6 2011 one debian gnu/kfreebsd live cd ging longer maintained nexenta os first distribution combines gnu userland exception libc opensolaris libc used debian packaging organisation opensolaris kernel nexenta os available ia-32 x86-64 based systems nexenta systems inc initiated project sponsors continued development nexenta os considered gnu variant due use opensolaris libc multiple illumos distributions use gnu userland default cygwin project actively-developed compatibility layer form c library providing substantial part posix api functionality windows well distribution gnu unix-like programs ecosystem first released 1995 cygnus solutions red hat 2016 microsoft canonical added official compatibility layer windows 10 translates linux kernel calls windows nt ones reverse wine allows elf executables run unmodified windows intended provide web developers familiar gnu userland top windows kernel combination dubbed linux windows even though linux i.e operating system family defined common use linux kernel absent 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_free_and_open-source_web_applications.list free open-source web applications web applications traditional web 2.0 operated software running somewhere list free software used run alternative web applications also listed similar proprietary web applications users may familiar software server-side software often running web server Target text information: freebsd_foundation.freebsd foundation freebsd foundation united states-based 501 c 3 registered non-profit organization dedicated supporting freebsd project development community funding comes individual corporate donations used sponsor developers specific activities purchase hardware network infrastructure provide travel grants developer summits freebsd foundation able provide legal representation sign contracts agreements behalf freebsd project also holds freebsd trademark related domain names freebsd foundation received initial 501 c 3 charity status december 7 2000 foundation formally announced world june 27 2001 current board directors follows I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,636	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: url.url uniform resource locator url colloquially termed web address reference web resource specifies location computer network mechanism retrieving url specific type uniform resource identifier uri although many people use two terms interchangeably urls occur commonly reference web pages http also used file transfer ftp email mailto database access jdbc many applications web browsers display url web page page address bar typical url could form codice_1 indicates protocol codice_2 hostname codice_3 file name codice_4 uniform resource locators defined 1994 tim berners-lee inventor world wide web uri working group internet engineering task force ietf outcome collaboration started ietf living documents birds feather session 1992 format combines pre-existing system domain names created 1985 file path syntax slashes used separate directory filenames conventions already existed server names could prefixed complete file paths preceded double slash codice_5 berners-lee later expressed regret use dots separate parts domain name within uris wishing used slashes throughout also said given colon following first component uri two slashes domain name unnecessary early 1993 draft html specification referred universal resource locators dropped time june 1994 rfc 1630 october 1994 draft-ietf-uri-url-08.txt every http url conforms syntax generic uri web browser usually dereference url performing http request specified host default port number 80 urls using codice_6 scheme require requests responses made secure connection website internet users distributed throughout world using wide variety languages alphabets expect able create urls local alphabets internationalized resource identifier iri form url includes unicode characters modern browsers support iris parts url requiring special treatment different alphabets domain name path domain name iri known internationalized domain name idn web internet software automatically convert domain name punycode usable domain name system example chinese url codice_7 becomes codice_8 codice_9 indicates character originally ascii url path name also specified user local writing system already encoded converted utf-8 characters part basic url character set escaped hexadecimal using percent-encoding example japanese url codice_10 becomes codice_11 target computer decodes address displays page protocol-relative links prl also known protocol-relative urls prurl urls protocol specified example codice_12 use protocol current page either http https 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_security.computer security computer security cybersecurity information technology security security protection computer systems theft damage hardware software electronic data well disruption misdirection services provide field becoming important due increased reliance computer systems internet wireless network standards bluetooth wi-fi due growth smart devices including smartphones televisions various devices constitute internet things due complexity terms politics technology cybersecurity also one major challenges contemporary world vulnerability weakness design implementation operation internal control vulnerabilities discovered documented common vulnerabilities exposures cve database exploitable vulnerability one least one working attack exploit exists vulnerabilities often hunted exploited aid automated tools manually using customized scripts secure computer system important understand attacks made threats typically classified one categories backdoor computer system cryptosystem algorithm secret method bypassing normal authentication security controls may exist number reasons including original design poor configuration may added authorized party allow legitimate access attacker malicious reasons regardless motives existence create vulnerability denial service attacks dos designed make machine network resource unavailable intended users attackers deny service individual victims deliberately entering wrong password enough consecutive times cause victims account locked may overload capabilities machine network block users network attack single ip address blocked adding new firewall rule many forms distributed denial service ddos attacks possible attack comes large number points – defending much difficult attacks originate zombie computers botnet range techniques possible including reflection amplification attacks innocent systems fooled sending traffic victim unauthorized user gaining physical access computer likely able directly copy data may also compromise security making operating system modifications installing software worms keyloggers covert listening devices using wireless mice even system protected standard security measures may able by-passed booting another operating system tool cd-rom bootable media disk encryption trusted platform module designed prevent attacks eavesdropping act surreptitiously listening private conversation typically hosts network instance programs carnivore narusinsight used fbi nsa eavesdrop systems internet service providers even machines operate closed system i.e. contact outside world eavesdropped upon via monitoring faint electromagnetic transmissions generated hardware tempest specification nsa referring attacks surfacing 2017 new class multi-vector polymorphic cyber threats surfaced combined several types attacks changed form avoid cyber security controls spread threats classified fifth generation cyber attacks phishing attempt acquire sensitive information usernames passwords credit card details directly users phishing typically carried email spoofing instant messaging often directs users enter details fake website whose look feel almost identical legitimate one fake website often ask personal information log-in passwords information used gain access individual real account real website preying victim trust phishing classified form social engineering privilege escalation describes situation attacker level restricted access able without authorization elevate privileges access level example standard computer user may able exploit vulnerability system gain access restricted data even become root full unrestricted access system social engineering aims convince user disclose secrets passwords card numbers etc example impersonating bank contractor customer common scam involves fake ceo emails sent accounting finance departments early 2016 fbi reported scam cost us businesses 2bn two years may 2016 milwaukee bucks nba team victim type cyber scam perpetrator impersonating team president peter feigin resulting handover team employees 2015 w-2 tax forms spoofing act masquerading valid entity falsification data ip address username order gain access information resources one otherwise unauthorized obtain several types spoofing including tampering describes malicious modification products so-called evil maid attacks security services planting surveillance capability routers examples employee behavior big impact information security organizations cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization ″exploring relationship organizational culture information security culture″ provides following definition information security culture ″isc totality patterns behavior organization contribute protection information kinds.″ andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously ″information security culture analysis change″ authors commented ″it never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance.″ manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation growth number computer systems increasing reliance upon individuals businesses industries governments means increasing number systems risk computer systems financial regulators financial institutions like u.s. securities exchange commission swift investment banks commercial banks prominent hacking targets cyber criminals interested manipulating markets making illicit gains web sites apps accept store credit card numbers brokerage accounts bank account information also prominent hacking targets potential immediate financial gain transferring money making purchases selling information black market in-store payment systems atms also tampered order gather customer account data pins computers control functions many utilities including coordination telecommunications power grid nuclear power plants valve opening closing water gas networks internet potential attack vector machines connected stuxnet worm demonstrated even equipment controlled computers connected internet vulnerable 2014 computer emergency readiness team division department homeland security investigated 79 hacking incidents energy companies vulnerabilities smart meters many use local radio cellular communications cause problems billing fraud aviation industry reliant series complex systems could attacked simple power outage one airport cause repercussions worldwide much system relies radio transmissions could disrupted controlling aircraft oceans especially dangerous radar surveillance extends 175 225 miles offshore also potential attack within aircraft europe pan-european network service newpens us nextgen program air navigation service providers moving create dedicated networks consequences successful attack range loss confidentiality loss system integrity air traffic control outages loss aircraft even loss life desktop computers laptops commonly targeted gather passwords financial account information construct botnet attack another target smartphones tablet computers smart watches mobile devices quantified self devices like activity trackers sensors cameras microphones gps receivers compasses accelerometers could exploited may collect personal information including sensitive health information wifi bluetooth cell phone networks devices could used attack vectors sensors might remotely activated successful breach increasing number home automation devices nest thermostat also potential targets large corporations common targets many cases aimed financial gain identity theft involves data breaches loss millions clients credit card details home depot staples target corporation recent breach equifax cyberattacks ordered foreign governments governments engage cyberwarfare intent spread propaganda sabotage spy targets many people believe russian government played major role us presidential election 2016 using twitter facebook affect results election medical records targeted use general identify theft health insurance fraud impersonating patients obtain prescription drugs recreational purposes resale although cyber threats continue increase 62 organizations increase security training business 2015 attacks financially motivated however example security firm hbgary federal suffered serious series attacks 2011 hacktivist group anonymous retaliation firm ceo claiming infiltrated group sony pictures attack 2014 motive appears embarrass data leaks cripple company wiping workstations servers vehicles increasingly computerized engine timing cruise control anti-lock brakes seat belt tensioners door locks airbags advanced driver-assistance systems many models additionally connected cars may use wifi bluetooth communicate onboard consumer devices cell phone network self-driving cars expected even complex systems carry security risk issues gained wide attention simple examples risk include malicious compact disc used attack vector car onboard microphones used eavesdropping however access gained car internal controller area network danger much greater – widely publicized 2015 test hackers remotely carjacked vehicle 10 miles away drove ditch manufacturers reacting number ways tesla 2016 pushing security fixes air cars computer systems area autonomous vehicles september 2016 united states department transportation announced initial safety standards called states come uniform policies government military computer systems commonly attacked activists foreign powers local regional government infrastructure traffic light controls police intelligence agency communications personnel records student records financial systems also potential targets largely computerized passports government id cards control access facilities use rfid vulnerable cloning internet things iot network physical objects devices vehicles buildings embedded electronics software sensors network connectivity enables collect exchange data – concerns raised developed without appropriate consideration security challenges involved iot creates opportunities direct integration physical world computer-based systems also provides opportunities misuse particular internet things spreads widely cyber attacks likely become increasingly physical rather simply virtual threat front door lock connected internet locked/unlocked phone criminal could enter home press button stolen hacked phone people could stand lose much credit card numbers world controlled iot-enabled devices thieves also used electronic means circumvent non-internet-connected hotel door locks medical devices either successfully attacked potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated including in-hospital diagnostic equipment implanted devices including pacemakers insulin pumps many reports hospitals hospital organizations getting hacked including ransomware attacks windows xp exploits viruses data breaches sensitive data stored hospital servers 28 december 2016 us food drug administration released recommendations medical device manufacturers maintain security internet-connected devices – structure enforcement distributed generation systems risk cyber attack real according daily energy insider attack could cause loss power large area long period time attack could severe consequences natural disaster district columbia considering creating distributed energy resources der authority within city goal customers insight energy use giving local electric utility pepco chance better estimate energy demand d.c. proposal however would allow third-party vendors create numerous points energy distribution could potentially create opportunities cyber attackers threaten electric grid serious financial damage caused security breaches standard model estimating cost incident data available made public organizations involved several computer security consulting firms produce estimates total worldwide losses attributable virus worm attacks hostile digital acts general 2003 loss estimates firms range 13 billion worms viruses 226 billion forms covert attacks reliability estimates often challenged underlying methodology basically anecdotal security breaches continue cost businesses billions dollars survey revealed 66 security staffs believe senior leadership takes cyber precautions strategic priority however reasonable estimates financial cost security breaches actually help organizations make rational investment decisions according classic gordon-loeb model analyzing optimal investment level information security one conclude amount firm spends protect information generally small fraction expected loss i.e. expected value loss resulting cyber/information security breach physical security motivations breaches computer security vary attackers thrill-seekers vandals activists others criminals looking financial gain state-sponsored attackers common well resourced started amateurs markus hess hacked kgb recounted clifford stoll cuckoo egg additionally recent attacker motivations traced back extremist organizations seeking gain political advantage disrupt social agendas growth internet mobile technologies inexpensive computing devices led rise capabilities also risk environments deemed vital operations critical targeted environments susceptible compromise led series proactive studies migrate risk taking consideration motivations type actors several stark differences exist hacker motivation nation state actors seeking attack based ideological preference standard part threat modelling particular system identify might motivate attack system might motivated breach level detail precautions vary depending system secured home personal computer bank classified military network face different threats even underlying technologies use similar computer security countermeasure action device procedure technique reduces threat vulnerability attack eliminating preventing minimizing harm cause discovering reporting corrective action taken common countermeasures listed following sections security design alternately secure design means software designed ground secure case security considered main feature techniques approach include open security architecture organization defines security architecture design artifacts describe security controls security countermeasures positioned relate overall information technology architecture controls serve purpose maintain system quality attributes confidentiality integrity availability accountability assurance services techopedia defines security architecture unified security design addresses necessities potential risks involved certain scenario environment also specifies apply security controls design process generally reproducible key attributes security architecture state computer security conceptual ideal attained use three processes threat prevention detection response processes based various policies system components include following today computer security comprises mainly preventive measures like firewalls exit procedure firewall defined way filtering network data host network another network internet implemented software running machine hooking network stack case unix-based operating systems linux built operating system kernel provide real-time filtering blocking another implementation so-called physical firewall consists separate machine filtering network traffic firewalls common amongst machines permanently connected internet organizations turning big data platforms apache hadoop extend data accessibility machine learning detect advanced persistent threats however relatively organisations maintain computer systems effective detection systems fewer still organized response mechanisms place result reuters points companies first time report losing electronic theft data physical stealing assets primary obstacle effective eradication cyber crime could traced excessive reliance firewalls automated detection systems yet basic evidence gathering using packet capture appliances puts criminals behind bars vulnerability management cycle identifying remediating mitigating vulnerabilities especially software firmware vulnerability management integral computer security network security vulnerabilities discovered vulnerability scanner analyzes computer system search known vulnerabilities open ports insecure software configuration susceptibility malware beyond vulnerability scanning many organizations contract outside security auditors run regular penetration tests systems identify vulnerabilities sectors contractual requirement formal verification correctness computer systems possible yet common operating systems formally verified include sel4 sysgo pikeos – make small percentage market two factor authentication method mitigating unauthorized access system sensitive information requires something know password pin something card dongle cellphone piece hardware increases security unauthorized person needs gain access social engineering direct computer access physical attacks prevented non-computer means difficult enforce relative sensitivity information training often involved help mitigate risk even highly disciplined environments e.g military organizations social engineering attacks still difficult foresee prevent enoculation derived inoculation theory seeks prevent social engineering fraudulent tricks traps instilling resistance persuasion attempts exposure similar related attempts possible reduce attacker chances keeping systems date security patches updates using security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible security statement ambiguous even systems developed competent people get penetrated effects data loss/damage reduced careful backing insurance hardware may source insecurity microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced manufacturing process hardware-based assisted computer security also offers alternative software-only computer security using devices methods dongles trusted platform modules intrusion-aware cases drive locks disabling usb ports mobile-enabled access may considered secure due physical access sophisticated backdoor access required order compromised covered detail one use term computer security refers technology used implement secure operating systems 1980s united states department defense dod used orange book standards current international standard iso/iec 15408 common criteria defines number progressively stringent evaluation assurance levels many common operating systems meet eal4 standard methodically designed tested reviewed formal verification required highest levels means uncommon example eal6 semiformally verified design tested system integrity-178b used airbus a380 several military jets software engineering secure coding aims guard accidental introduction security vulnerabilities also possible create software designed ground secure systems secure design beyond formal verification aims prove correctness algorithms underlying system important cryptographic protocols example within computer systems two many security models capable enforcing privilege separation access control lists acls capability-based security using acls confine programs proven insecure many situations host computer tricked indirectly allowing restricted file access issue known confused deputy problem also shown promise acls giving access object one person never guaranteed practice problems resolved capabilities mean practical flaws exist acl-based systems designers certain utilities must take responsibility ensure introduce flaws capabilities mostly restricted research operating systems commercial oss still use acls capabilities however also implemented language level leading style programming essentially refinement standard object-oriented design open source project area e language end-user widely recognized weakest link security chain estimated 90 security incidents breaches involve kind human error among commonly recorded forms errors misjudgment poor password management inability recognize misleading urls identify fake websites dangerous email attachments human component cyber risk particularly relevant determining global cyber risk organization facing security awareness training levels provides formal compliance regulatory industry mandates considered essential reducing cyber risk protecting individuals companies great majority cyber threats focus end-user represents profound cultural change many security practitioners traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively technical perspective moves along lines suggested major security centers develop culture cyber awareness within organization recognizing security aware user provides important line defense cyber attacks responding forcefully attempted security breaches manner one would attempted physical security breaches often difficult variety reasons incident response organized approach addressing managing aftermath computer security incident compromise goal preventing breach thwarting cyberattack incident identified managed time intrusion typically escalates impactful event data breach system failure intended outcome computer security incident response plan limit damage reduce recovery time costs responding compromises quickly mitigate exploited vulnerabilities restore services processes minimize impact losses incident response planning allows organization establish series best practices stop intrusion causes damage typical incident response plans contain set written instructions outline organization response cyberattack without documented plan place organization may successfully detect intrusion compromise stakeholders may understand roles processes procedures escalation slowing organizations response resolution four key components computer security incident response plan illustrative examples different types computer security breaches given 1988 60,000 computers connected internet mainframes minicomputers professional workstations 2 november 1988 many started slow running malicious code demanded processor time spread computers – first internet computer worm software traced back 23-year-old cornell university graduate student robert tappan morris jr. said wanted count many machines connected internet 1994 hundred intrusions made unidentified crackers rome laboratory us air force main command research facility using trojan horses hackers able obtain unrestricted access rome networking systems remove traces activities intruders able obtain classified files air tasking order systems data furthermore able penetrate connected networks national aeronautics space administration goddard space flight center wright-patterson air force base defense contractors private sector organizations posing trusted rome center user early 2007 american apparel home goods company tjx announced victim unauthorized computer systems intrusion hackers accessed system stored data credit card debit card check merchandise return transactions 2010 computer worm known stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth iran nuclear centrifuges disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers plcs targeted attack generally believed launched israel united states – although neither publicly admitted early 2013 documents provided edward snowden published washington post guardian exposing massive scale nsa global surveillance also indications nsa may inserted backdoor nist standard encryption standard later withdrawn due widespread criticism nsa additionally revealed tapped links google data centres 2013 2014 russian/ukrainian hacking ring known rescator broke target corporation computers 2013 stealing roughly 40 million credit cards home depot computers 2014 stealing 53 56 million credit card numbers warnings delivered corporations ignored physical security breaches using self checkout machines believed played large role malware utilized absolutely unsophisticated uninteresting says jim walter director threat intelligence operations security technology company mcafee – meaning heists could easily stopped existing antivirus software administrators responded warnings size thefts resulted major attention state federal united states authorities investigation ongoing april 2015 office personnel management discovered hacked year earlier data breach resulting theft approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled office office personnel management hack described federal officials among largest breaches government data history united states data targeted breach included personally identifiable information social security numbers names dates places birth addresses fingerprints current former government employees well anyone undergone government background check believed hack perpetrated chinese hackers july 2015 hacker group known impact team successfully breached extramarital relationship website ashley madison created avid life media group claimed taken company data user data well breach impact team dumped emails company ceo prove point threatened dump customer data unless website taken permanently avid life media take site offline group released two compressed files one 9.7gb second 20gb second data dump avid life media ceo noel biderman resigned website remained functioning international legal issues cyber attacks complicated nature global base common rules judge eventually punish cyber crimes cyber criminals security firms agencies locate cybercriminal behind creation particular piece malware form cyber attack often local authorities take action due lack laws prosecute proving attribution cyber crimes cyber attacks also major problem law enforcement agencies computer viruses switch one country another one jurisdiction another – moving around world using fact n't capability globally police operations like internet someone given free plane tickets online criminals world use techniques dynamic dns fast flux bullet proof servers add difficulty investigation enforcement role government make regulations force companies organizations protect systems infrastructure information cyberattacks also protect national infrastructure national power-grid government regulatory role cyberspace complicated cyberspace seen virtual space remain free government intervention seen many today libertarian blockchain bitcoin discussions many government officials experts think government crucial need improved regulation mainly due failure private sector solve efficiently cybersecurity problem r. clarke said panel discussion rsa security conference san francisco believes industry responds threaten regulation industry n't respond threat follow hand executives private sector agree improvements necessary think government intervention would affect ability innovate efficiently daniel r. mccarthy analyzed public-private partnership cybersecurity reflected role cybersecurity broader constitution political order many different teams organisations exist including 14 april 2016 european parliament council european union adopted general data protection regulation gdpr eu 2016/679 gdpr became enforceable beginning 25 may 2018 provides data protection privacy individuals within european union eu european economic area eea gdpr requires business processes handle personal data built data protection design default gdpr also requires certain organizations appoint data protection officer dpo countries computer emergency response team protect network security since 2010 canada cyber security strategy functions counterpart document national strategy action plan critical infrastructure strategy three main pillars securing government systems securing vital private cyber systems helping canadians secure online also cyber incident management framework provide coordinated response event cyber incident canadian cyber incident response centre ccirc responsible mitigating responding threats canada critical infrastructure cyber systems provides support mitigate cyber threats technical support respond recover targeted cyber attacks provides online tools members canada critical infrastructure sectors posts regular cyber security bulletins operates online reporting tool individuals organizations report cyber incident inform general public protect online public safety canada partnered stop.think.connect coalition non-profit private sector government organizations launched cyber security cooperation program also run getcybersafe portal canadian citizens cyber security awareness month october public safety canada aims begin evaluation canada cyber security strategy early 2015 china central leading group internet security informatization established 27 february 2014 leading small group lsg communist party china headed general secretary xi jinping staffed relevant party state decision-makers lsg created overcome incoherent policies overlapping responsibilities characterized china former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms lsg oversees policy-making economic political cultural social military fields relate network security strategy lsg also coordinates major policy initiatives international arena promote norms standards favored chinese government emphasize principle national sovereignty cyberspace berlin starts national cyber defense initiative 16 june 2011 german minister home affairs officially opened new german ncaz national center cyber defense nationales cyber-abwehrzentrum located bonn ncaz closely cooperates bsi federal office information security bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bka federal police organisation bundeskriminalamt deutschland bnd federal intelligence service bundesnachrichtendienst mad military intelligence service amt für den militärischen abschirmdienst national organisations germany taking care national security aspects according minister primary task new organization founded 23 february 2011 detect prevent attacks national infrastructure mentioned incidents like stuxnet provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 national cyber security policy 2013 policy framework ministry electronics information technology meity aims protect public private infrastructure cyber attacks safeguard information personal information web users financial banking information sovereign data cert- nodal agency monitors cyber threats country post national cyber security coordinator also created prime minister office pmo indian companies act 2013 also introduced cyber law cyber security obligations part indian directors provisions cyber security incorporated rules framed information technology act 2000 update 2013 following cyber attacks first half 2013 government news media television station bank websites compromised national government committed training 5,000 new cybersecurity experts 2017 south korean government blamed northern counterpart attacks well incidents occurred 2009 2011 2012 pyongyang denies accusations 1986 computer fraud abuse act key legislation prohibits unauthorized access damage protected computers defined although various measures proposed – none succeeded 2013 executive order improving critical infrastructure cybersecurity signed prompted creation nist cybersecurity framework standardized government testing services general services administration gsa standardized penetration test service pre-vetted support service rapidly address potential vulnerabilities stop adversaries impact us federal state local governments services commonly referred highly adaptive cybersecurity services hacs listed us gsa advantage website see information penetration test standardized government penetration test services department homeland security dedicated division responsible response system risk management program requirements cybersecurity united states called national cyber security division division home us-cert operations national cyber alert system national cybersecurity communications integration center brings together government organizations responsible protecting computer networks networked infrastructure third priority federal bureau investigation fbi protect united states cyber-based attacks high-technology crimes along national white collar crime center nw3c bureau justice assistance bja part multi-agency task force internet crime complaint center also known ic3 addition specific duties fbi participates alongside non-profit organizations infragard criminal division united states department justice operates section called computer crime intellectual property section ccips charge investigating computer crime intellectual property crime specialized search seizure digital evidence computers networks 2017 ccips published framework vulnerability disclosure program online systems help organizations clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure discovery conduct thereby substantially reducing likelihood described activities result civil criminal violation law computer fraud abuse act 18 u.s.c § 1030 united states cyber command also known uscybercom tasked defense specified department defense information networks ensures security integrity governance government military infrastructure assets role protection civilian networks u.s. federal communications commission role cybersecurity strengthen protection critical communications infrastructure assist maintaining reliability networks disasters aid swift recovery ensure first responders access effective communications services food drug administration issued guidance medical devices national highway traffic safety administration concerned automotive cybersecurity criticized government accountability office following successful attacks airports claimed attacks airplanes federal aviation administration devoted funding securing systems board planes private manufacturers aircraft communications addressing reporting system concerns also raised future next generation air transportation system computer emergency response team name given expert groups handle computer security incidents us two distinct organization exist although work closely together growing concern cyberspace become next theater warfare mark clayton christian science monitor described article titled new cyber arms race future wars fought soldiers guns planes drop bombs also fought click mouse half world away unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs disrupt destroy critical industries like utilities transportation communications energy attacks could also disable military networks control movement troops path jet fighters command control warships led new terms cyberwarfare cyberterrorism united states cyber command created 2009 many countries similar forces critical voices question whether cybersecurity significant threat made cybersecurity fast-growing field concerned reducing organizations risk hack data breach according research enterprise strategy group 46 organizations say problematic shortage cybersecurity skills 2016 28 2015 commercial government non-governmental organizations employ cybersecurity professionals fastest increases demand cybersecurity workers industries managing increasing volumes consumer data finance health care retail however use term cybersecurity prevalent government job descriptions typical cyber security job titles descriptions include student programs also available people interested beginning career cybersecurity meanwhile flexible effective option information security professionals experience levels keep studying online security training including webcasts wide range certified courses also available united kingdom nationwide set cyber security forums known u.k cyber security forum established supported government cyber security strategy order encourage start-ups innovation address skills gap identified u.k government following terms used regards computer security explained Target text information: system_reconfiguration_attacks.system reconfiguration attacks system reconfiguration attacks modify settings user ’ pc malicious purposes example urls favorites file might modified direct users look-alike websites e.g. bank website url may changed “ bankofabc.com ” “ bancofabc.com ” بتعديل الإعدادات على جهاز الكمبيوتر الخاص بالمستخدم والهدف من هذا التعديل أهداف ضارة system reconfiguration attacks تقوم هجمات إعادة تهيئة النظام I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,242	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: infrastructure_as_a_service.infrastructure service infrastructure service iaas online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor xen oracle virtualbox oracle vm kvm vmware esx/esxi hyper-v lxd runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements typically iaas involves use cloud orchestration technology like open stack apache cloudstack open nebula manages creation virtual machine decides hypervisor i.e physical host start enables vm migration features hosts allocates storage volumes attaches vms usage information billing lots alternative hypervisors linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing defines infrastructure service according internet engineering task force ietf basic cloud-service model providers offering infrastructure — virtual machines resources — service subscribers iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed Target text information: kvh_co._ltd..kvh co. ltd. kvh co. ltd. previously known kvh telecom founded fidelity investments 1999 asia-pacific it/communications service provider facility-based optical fiber networks data centers cloud services platform kvh information delivery platform providing integrated communication solutions enterprise businesses kvh serves media manufacturing carrier financial services key customer segments offers customers bilingual support japanese english kvh specializes operating developing low latency networks financial services industry provides low latency connectivity major japanese exchanges kvh fiber backbone features flat network hierarchy media converters network devices making lowest latency network metropolitan japan headquartered tokyo japan kvh also points presence pops osaka hong kong singapore chicago new york sydney seoul busan partner networks europe asia pacific region edward ted higase appointed kvh president chief executive officer representative director may 16 2012 november 12 2014 colt london-based telecom firm announced acquisition kvh kvh part colt group s.a. acquisition combined kvh colt colt group operates 28 countries across europe asia u.s. metropolitan area networks 47 major cities connections 200 cities globally established fidelity investments april 1999 kvh began constructing low latency fiber optic networks tokyo osaka following dot-com crisis 2000 kvh one foreign-owned carriers continued invest business japan 2001 kvh introduced first 2.4 gbit/s leased line services japan opened first data center osaka following year kvh opened second data center japan first tokyo kvh tokyo data center 1 tdc1 tdc1 second largest data center tokyo accompanied launch kvh ethernet services voice tdm services co-location data center operational services within year since kvh expanding portfolio services well presence across asia-pacific region today kvh network extends beyond japan connects chicago singapore hong kong february 2011 kvh opened tokyo data center 2 tdc2 located inzai city chiba 2012 kvh singapore pte ltd. kvh services llc kvh hong kong ltd. kvh korea ltd. established march 2013 kvh launched japan ’ first 100g metro ethernet network service april 2013 kvh expanded business asia pacific launched two data centers hong kong singapore kvh hong kong data center 1 hkdc1 kvh singapore data center 1 sgdc1 10-site cloud platform reaching across europe asia november 12 2014 colt london-based telecom firm announced acquisition kvh I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	1,678	test
[''] Target text information: guidestar.guidestar guidestar usa inc. information service specializing reporting u.s. nonprofit companies 2016 database provided information 2.5 million organizations guidestar one first central sources information u.s. nonprofits world largest source information nonprofit organizations guidestar founded williamsburg virginia september 1994 received tax-exempt status 1996 year company began posting nonprofit organizations financial reports world wide web guidestar also serves verify recipient organization established donated funds go donor intended individuals looking give wake disasters 2013 guidestar announced major changes guidestar exchange program allows nonprofits supplement public information available irs guidestar nonprofit profiles implemented three seals based information nonprofit provides profile bronze silver gold 2016 new seal allowed nonprofits share progress results mission guidestar platinum introduced 2019 guidestar merged foundation center form new organization candid charity watch investigator compared charity navigator charity watch better business bureau combined federal campaign great nonprofits investigator praised guidestar offering information rather making judgments guidestar placed notice pages charities listed southern poverty law center splc hate list one groups sued guidestar defamation charities echoed criticism guidestar use splc list I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	6,892	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: natural_language_processing.natural language processing natural language processing nlp subfield linguistics computer science information engineering artificial intelligence concerned interactions computers human natural languages particular program computers process analyze large amounts natural language data challenges natural language processing frequently involve speech recognition natural language understanding natural language generation history natural language processing nlp generally started 1950s although work found earlier periods 1950 alan turing published article titled computing machinery intelligence proposed called turing test criterion intelligence georgetown experiment 1954 involved fully automatic translation sixty russian sentences english authors claimed within three five years machine translation would solved problem however real progress much slower alpac report 1966 found ten-year-long research failed fulfill expectations funding machine translation dramatically reduced little research machine translation conducted late 1980s first statistical machine translation systems developed notably successful natural language processing systems developed 1960s shrdlu natural language system working restricted blocks worlds restricted vocabularies eliza simulation rogerian psychotherapist written joseph weizenbaum 1964 1966 using almost information human thought emotion eliza sometimes provided startlingly human-like interaction patient exceeded small knowledge base eliza might provide generic response example responding head hurts say head hurts 1970s many programmers began write conceptual ontologies structured real-world information computer-understandable data examples margie schank 1975 sam cullingford 1978 pam wilensky 1978 talespin meehan 1976 qualm lehnert 1977 politics carbonell 1979 plot units lehnert 1981 time many chatterbots written including parry racter jabberwacky 1980s natural language processing systems based complex sets hand-written rules starting late 1980s however revolution natural language processing introduction machine learning algorithms language processing due steady increase computational power see moore law gradual lessening dominance chomskyan theories linguistics e.g transformational grammar whose theoretical underpinnings discouraged sort corpus linguistics underlies machine-learning approach language processing earliest-used machine learning algorithms decision trees produced systems hard if-then rules similar existing hand-written rules however part-of-speech tagging introduced use hidden markov models natural language processing increasingly research focused statistical models make soft probabilistic decisions based attaching real-valued weights features making input data cache language models upon many speech recognition systems rely examples statistical models models generally robust given unfamiliar input especially input contains errors common real-world data produce reliable results integrated larger system comprising multiple subtasks many notable early successes occurred field machine translation due especially work ibm research successively complicated statistical models developed systems able take advantage existing multilingual textual corpora produced parliament canada european union result laws calling translation governmental proceedings official languages corresponding systems government however systems depended corpora specifically developed tasks implemented systems often continues major limitation success systems result great deal research gone methods effectively learning limited amounts data recent research increasingly focused unsupervised semi-supervised learning algorithms algorithms able learn data hand-annotated desired answers using combination annotated non-annotated data generally task much difficult supervised learning typically produces less accurate results given amount input data however enormous amount non-annotated data available including among things entire content world wide web often make inferior results algorithm used low enough time complexity practical 2010s representation learning deep neural network-style machine learning methods became widespread natural language processing due part flurry results showing techniques achieve state-of-the-art results many natural language tasks example language modeling parsing many others popular techniques include use word embeddings capture semantic properties words increase end-to-end learning higher-level task e.g. question answering instead relying pipeline separate intermediate tasks e.g. part-of-speech tagging dependency parsing areas shift entailed substantial changes nlp systems designed deep neural network-based approaches may viewed new paradigm distinct statistical natural language processing instance term neural machine translation nmt emphasizes fact deep learning-based approaches machine translation directly learn sequence-to-sequence transformations obviating need intermediate steps word alignment language modeling used statistical machine translation smt early days many language-processing systems designed hand-coding set rules e.g writing grammars devising heuristic rules stemming however rarely robust natural language variation since so-called statistical revolution late 1980s mid 1990s much natural language processing research relied heavily machine learning machine-learning paradigm calls instead using statistical inference automatically learn rules analysis large corpora typical real-world examples corpus plural corpora set documents possibly human computer annotations many different classes machine-learning algorithms applied natural-language-processing tasks algorithms take input large set features generated input data earliest-used algorithms decision trees produced systems hard if-then rules similar systems hand-written rules common increasingly however research focused statistical models make soft probabilistic decisions based attaching real-valued weights input feature models advantage express relative certainty many different possible answers rather one producing reliable results model included component larger system systems based machine-learning algorithms many advantages hand-produced rules following list commonly researched tasks natural language processing tasks direct real-world applications others commonly serve subtasks used aid solving larger tasks though natural language processing tasks closely intertwined frequently subdivided categories convenience coarse division given first published work artificial intelligence published 2018 1 road marketed novel contains sixty million words 1-hop neighbor's text information: computational_linguistics.computational linguistics computational linguistics interdisciplinary field concerned statistical rule-based modeling natural language computational perspective well study appropriate computational approaches linguistic questions traditionally computational linguistics performed computer scientists specialized application computers processing natural language today computational linguists often work members interdisciplinary teams include regular linguists experts target language computer scientists general computational linguistics draws upon involvement linguists computer scientists experts artificial intelligence mathematicians logicians philosophers cognitive scientists cognitive psychologists psycholinguists anthropologists neuroscientists among others computational linguistics theoretical applied components theoretical computational linguistics focuses issues theoretical linguistics cognitive science applied computational linguistics focuses practical outcome modeling human language use association computational linguistics defines computational linguistics computational linguistics often grouped within field artificial intelligence actually present development artificial intelligence computational linguistics originated efforts united states 1950s use computers automatically translate texts foreign languages particularly russian scientific journals english since computers make arithmetic calculations much faster accurately humans thought short matter time could also begin process language computational quantitative methods also used historically attempted reconstruction earlier forms modern languages subgrouping modern languages language families earlier methods lexicostatistics glottochronology proven premature inaccurate however recent interdisciplinary studies borrow concepts biological studies especially gene mapping proved produce sophisticated analytical tools trustworthy results machine translation also known mechanical translation failed yield accurate translations right away automated processing human languages recognized far complex originally assumed computational linguistics born name new field study devoted developing algorithms software intelligently processing language data term computational linguistics first coined david hays founding member association computational linguistics international committee computational linguistics artificial intelligence came existence 1960s field computational linguistics became sub-division artificial intelligence dealing human-level comprehension production natural languages order translate one language another observed one understand grammar languages including morphology grammar word forms syntax grammar sentence structure order understand syntax one also understand semantics lexicon 'vocabulary even something pragmatics language use thus started effort translate languages evolved entire discipline devoted understanding represent process natural languages using computers nowadays research within scope computational linguistics done computational linguistics departments computational linguistics laboratories computer science departments linguistics departments research field computational linguistics aims create working speech text processing systems others aim create system allowing human-machine interaction programs meant human-machine communication called conversational agents computational linguistics performed experts variety fields wide assortment departments research fields broach diverse range topics following sections discuss literature available across entire field broken four main area discourse developmental linguistics structural linguistics linguistic production linguistic comprehension language cognitive skill develops throughout life individual developmental process examined using number techniques computational approach one human language development provide constraints make harder apply computational method understanding instance language acquisition human children largely exposed positive evidence means linguistic development individual evidence correct form provided evidence correct insufficient information simple hypothesis testing procedure information complex language provides certain boundaries computational approach modeling language development acquisition individual attempts made model developmental process language acquisition children computational angle leading statistical grammars connectionist models work realm also proposed method explain evolution language history using models shown languages learned combination simple input presented incrementally child develops better memory longer attention span simultaneously posed reason long developmental period human children conclusions drawn strength artificial neural network project created ability infants develop language also modeled using robots order test linguistic theories enabled learn children might model created based affordance model mappings actions perceptions effects created linked spoken words crucially robots able acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure vastly simplifying learning process shedding light information furthers current understanding linguistic development important note information could empirically tested using computational approach understanding linguistic development individual within lifetime continually improved using neural networks learning robotic systems also important keep mind languages change develop time computational approaches understanding phenomenon unearthed interesting information using price equation pólya urn dynamics researchers created system predicts future linguistic evolution also gives insight evolutionary history modern-day languages modeling effort achieved computational linguistics would otherwise impossible clear understanding linguistic development humans well throughout evolutionary time fantastically improved advances computational linguistics ability model modify systems affords science ethical method testing hypotheses would otherwise intractable order create better computational models language understanding language structure crucial end english language meticulously studied using computational approaches better understand language works structural level one important pieces able study linguistic structure availability large linguistic corpora samples grants computational linguists raw data necessary run models gain better understanding underlying structures present vast amount data contained single language one cited english linguistic corpora penn treebank derived widely-different sources ibm computer manuals transcribed telephone conversations corpus contains 4.5 million words american english corpus primarily annotated using part-of-speech tagging syntactic bracketing yielded substantial empirical observations related language structure theoretical approaches structure languages also developed works allow computational linguistics framework within work hypotheses understanding language myriad ways one original theoretical theses internalization grammar structure language proposed two types models models rules patterns learned increase strength frequency encounter work also created question computational linguists answer infant learn specific non-normal grammar chomsky normal form without learning overgeneralized version getting stuck theoretical efforts like set direction research go early lifetime field study crucial growth field structural information languages allows discovery implementation similarity recognition pairs text utterances instance recently proven based structural information present patterns human discourse conceptual recurrence plots used model visualize trends data create reliable measures similarity natural textual utterances technique strong tool probing structure human discourse without computational approach question vastly complex information present discourse data would remained inaccessible scientists information regarding structural data language available english well languages japanese using computational methods japanese sentence corpora analyzed pattern log-normality found relation sentence length though exact cause lognormality remains unknown precisely sort intriguing information computational linguistics designed uncover information could lead important discoveries regarding underlying structure japanese could number effects understanding japanese language computational linguistics allows exciting additions scientific knowledge base happen quickly little room doubt recent days structural data languages available several languages world english language computational linguistics work progress sindhi language structure grammar domain sindhi language different languages world computational linguistics models english language suitable sindhi language viewing computational linguistics work sindhi language started properly developing methods algorithms linguistics tools https //sindhinlp.com/ machine learning models deep learning models since 2016. focus solve linguistics problems sindhi language work could lead important discoveries regarding underlying structure sindhi could number effects understanding sindhi language computational linguistics allows exciting additions scientific knowledge base happen quickly little room doubt without computational approach structure linguistic data much information available would still hidden vastness data within single language computational linguistics allows scientists parse huge amounts data reliably efficiently creating possibility discoveries unlike seen approaches production language equally complex information provides necessary skills fluent producer must say comprehension half problem communication half system produces language computational linguistics made interesting discoveries area famous paper published 1950 alan turing proposed possibility machines might one day ability think thought experiment might define concept thought machines proposed imitation test human subject two text-only conversations one fellow human another machine attempting respond like human turing proposes subject tell difference human machine may concluded machine capable thought today test known turing test remains influential idea area artificial intelligence projects still trying solve problem first started computational linguistics field first place however methods become refined clever consequently results generated computational linguists become enlightening effort improve computer translation several models compared including hidden markov models smoothing techniques specific refinements apply verb translation model found produce natural translations german french words refined alignment model first-order dependence fertility model 16 also provide efficient training algorithms models presented give scientists ability improve results type work specific computational linguistics applications could vastly improve understanding language produced comprehended computers work also done making computers produce language naturalistic manner using linguistic input humans algorithms constructed able modify system style production based factor linguistic input human abstract factors like politeness five main dimensions personality work takes computational approach via parameter estimation models categorize vast array linguistic styles see across individuals simplify computer work way making human-computer interaction much natural many earliest simplest models human-computer interaction eliza example involve text-based input user generate response computer method words typed user trigger computer recognize specific patterns reply accordingly process known keyword spotting recent technologies placed emphasis speech-based interactive systems systems siri ios operating system operate similar pattern-recognizing technique text-based systems former user input conducted speech recognition branch linguistics involves processing user speech sound waves interpreting acoustics language patterns order computer recognize input much focus modern computational linguistics comprehension proliferation internet abundance easily accessible written human language ability create program capable understanding human language would many broad exciting possibilities including improved search engines automated customer service online education early work comprehension included applying bayesian statistics task optical character recognition illustrated bledsoe browing 1959 large dictionary possible letters generated learning example letters probability one learned examples matched new input combined make final decision attempts applying bayesian statistics language analysis included work mosteller wallace 1963 analysis words used federalist papers used attempt determine authorship concluding madison likely authored majority papers 1971 terry winograd developed early natural language processing engine capable interpreting naturally written commands within simple rule governed environment primary language parsing program project called shrdlu capable carrying somewhat natural conversation user giving commands within scope toy environment designed task environment consisted different shaped colored blocks shrdlu capable interpreting commands find block taller one holding put box asking questions n't understand pyramid mean response user input impressive kind natural language processing proven much difficult outside limited scope toy environment similarly project developed nasa called lunar designed provide answers naturally written questions geological analysis lunar rocks returned apollo missions kinds problems referred question answering initial attempts understanding spoken language based work done 1960s 1970s signal modeling unknown signal analyzed look patterns make predictions based history initial somewhat successful approach applying kind signal modeling language achieved use hidden markov models detailed rabiner 1989 approach attempts determine probabilities arbitrary number models could used generating speech well modeling probabilities various words generated possible models similar approaches employed early speech recognition attempts starting late 70s ibm using word/part-of-speech pair probabilities recently kinds statistical approaches applied difficult tasks topic identification using bayesian parameter estimation infer topic probabilities text documents modern computational linguistics often combination studies computer science programming math particularly statistics language structures natural language processing combined fields often lead development systems recognize speech perform task based speech examples include speech recognition software apple siri feature spellcheck tools speech synthesis programs often used demonstrate pronunciation help disabled machine translation programs websites google translate computational linguistics especially helpful situations involving social media internet example filters chatrooms website searches require computational linguistics chat operators often use filters identify certain words phrases deem inappropriate users submit another example using filters websites schools use filters websites certain keywords blocked children view also many programs parents use parental controls put content filters place computational linguists also develop programs group organize content social media mining example twitter programs group tweets subject keywords computational linguistics also used document retrieval clustering online search documents websites retrieved based frequency unique labels related typed search engine instance search red large four-wheeled vehicle intention finding pictures red truck search engine still find information desired matching words four-wheeled car computational linguistics divided major areas depending upon medium language processed whether spoken textual upon task performed whether analyzing language recognition synthesizing language generation speech recognition speech synthesis deal spoken language understood created using computers parsing generation sub-divisions computational linguistics dealing respectively taking language apart putting together machine translation remains sub-division computational linguistics dealing computers translate languages possibility automatic language translation however yet realized remains notoriously hard branch computational linguistics areas research studied computational linguistics include subject computational linguistics recurring impact popular culture 1-hop neighbor's text information: 80legs.80legs 80legs web crawling service allows users create run web crawls software service platform 80legs created computational crawling company houston tx company launched private beta 80legs april 2009 publicly launched service demofall 09 conference time public launch 80legs offered customized web crawling scraping services since added subscription plans product offerings 80legs built top distributed grid computing network grid consists approximately 50,000 individual computers distributed across world uses bandwidth monitoring technology prevent bandwidth cap overages 80legs criticised numerous site owners technology effectively acting distributed denial service attack obeying robots.txt average webmaster aware existence 80legs blocking access crawler done already late server ddosed guilty party detected time-consuming in-depth analysis logfiles rulesets modsecurity like one atomicorp block access webserver 80legs order prevent ddos webknight also blocks 80legs default distributed crawler impossible block crawler ip best way found block 80legs useragent 008 wrecksite blocks 80legs default Target text information: language_computer_corporation.language computer corporation language computer corporation lcc natural language processing research company based richardson texas company develops variety natural language processing products including software question answering information extraction automatic summarization since founding 1995 low-profile company landed significant united states government contracts 8,353,476 contracts 2006-2008 company focused primarily government software market lcc also used technology spin three start-up companies first spin known lymba corporation markets poweranswer question answering product originally developed lcc 2010 lcc ceo andrew hickl co-founded two start-ups made use company technology included swingly automatic question answering start-up extractiv information extraction service founded partnership houston texas-based 80legs I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	6,374	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: cybercrime.cybercrime cybercrime computer-oriented crime crime involves computer network computer may used commission crime may target cybercrimes defined offences committed individuals groups individuals criminal motive intentionally harm reputation victim cause physical mental harm loss victim directly indirectly using modern telecommunication networks internet networks including chat rooms emails notice boards groups mobile phones bluetooth/sms/mms cybercrime may threaten person nation security financial health issues surrounding types crimes become high-profile particularly surrounding hacking copyright infringement unwarranted mass-surveillance sextortion child pornography child grooming also problems privacy confidential information intercepted disclosed lawfully otherwise debarati halder k. jaishankar define cybercrime perspective gender defined 'cybercrime women crimes targeted women motive intentionally harm victim psychologically physically using modern telecommunication networks internet mobile phones internationally governmental non-state actors engage cybercrimes including espionage financial theft cross-border crimes cybercrimes crossing international borders involving actions least one nation-state sometimes referred cyberwarfare report sponsored mcafee published 2014 estimated annual damage global economy 445 billion approximately 1.5 billion lost 2012 online credit debit card fraud us 2018 study center strategic international studies csis partnership mcafee concludes close 600 billion nearly one percent global gdp lost cybercrime year computer crime encompasses broad range activities computer fraud dishonest misrepresentation fact intended let another refrain something causes loss context fraud result obtaining benefit forms fraud may facilitated using computer systems including bank fraud carding identity theft extortion theft classified information types crime often result loss private information monetary information government officials information technology security specialists documented significant increase internet problems server scans since early 2001 growing concern among government agencies federal bureau investigations fbi central intelligence agency cia intrusions part organized effort cyberterrorists foreign intelligence services groups map potential security holes critical systems cyberterrorist someone intimidates coerces government organization advance political social objectives launching computer-based attack computers networks information stored cyberterrorism general defined act terrorism committed use cyberspace computer resources parker 1983 simple propaganda piece internet bomb attacks holidays considered cyberterrorism also hacking activities directed towards individuals families organized groups within networks tending cause fear among people demonstrate power collecting information relevant ruining peoples lives robberies blackmailing etc cyberextortion occurs website e-mail server computer system subjected threatened repeated denial service attacks malicious hackers hackers demand money return promising stop attacks offer protection according federal bureau investigation cybercrime extortionists increasingly attacking corporate websites networks crippling ability operate demanding payments restore service 20 cases reported month fbi many go unreported order keep victim name public domain perpetrators typically use distributed denial-of-service attack however cyberextortion techniques exist doxing extortion bug poaching example cyberextortion attack sony pictures 2014 u.s. department defense dod notes cyberspace emerged national-level concern several recent events geostrategic significance among included attack estonia infrastructure 2007 allegedly russian hackers august 2008 russia allegedly conducted cyber attacks time coordinated synchronized kinetic non-kinetic campaign country georgia december 2015 ukraine power grid cyberattack also attributed russia considered first successful cyber attack power grid fearing attacks may become norm future warfare among nation-states concept cyberspace operations impacts adapted warfighting military commanders future crimes committed selected group criminals unlike crimes using computer tool crimes require technical knowledge perpetrators technology evolves nature crime crimes relatively new existence long computers have—which explains unprepared society world general towards combating crimes numerous crimes nature committed daily internet crimes primarily target computer networks devices include individual main target cybercrime computer considered tool rather target crimes generally involve less technical expertise human weaknesses generally exploited damage dealt largely psychological intangible making legal action variants difficult crimes existed centuries offline world scams theft likes existed even development high-tech equipment criminal simply given tool increases potential pool victims makes harder trace apprehend crimes use computer networks devices advance ends include unsolicited sending bulk email commercial purposes spam unlawful jurisdictions phishing mostly propagated via email phishing emails may contain links websites affected malware may contain links fake online banking websites used steal private account information content websites electronic communications may distasteful obscene offensive variety reasons instances communications may illegal extent communications unlawful varies greatly countries even within nations sensitive area courts become involved arbitrating groups strong beliefs one area internet pornography target strongest efforts curtailment child pornography illegal jurisdictions world whereas content may offensive non-specific way harassment directs obscenities derogatory comments specific individuals focusing example gender race religion nationality sexual orientation often occurs chat rooms newsgroups sending hate e-mail interested parties harassment internet also includes revenge porn instances committing crime using computer lead enhanced sentence example case united states v. neil scott kramer kramer served enhanced sentence according u.s sentencing guidelines manual §2g1.3 b 3 use cell phone persuade induce entice coerce facilitate travel minor engage prohibited sexual conduct kramer argued claim insufficient charge included persuading computer device cellular phone technically computer although kramer tried argue point u.s sentencing guidelines manual states term computer means electronic magnetic optical electrochemically high-speed data processing device performing logical arithmetic storage functions includes data storage facility communications facility directly related operating conjunction device connecticut u.s. state pass statute making criminal offense harass someone computer michigan arizona virginia south carolina also passed laws banning harassment electronic means harassment defined u.s. computer statutes typically distinct cyberbullying former usually relates person use computer computer network communicate obscene vulgar profane lewd lascivious indecent language make suggestion proposal obscene nature threaten illegal immoral act latter need involve anything sexual nature although freedom speech protected law democratic societies us done first amendment include types speech fact spoken written true threat speech/text criminalized intent harm intimidate also applies online type network related threats written text speech us supreme court definition true threat statements speaker means communicate serious expression intent commit act unlawful violence particular individual group darknet markets used buy sell recreational drugs online drug traffickers use encrypted messaging tools communicate drug mules dark web site silk road major online marketplace drugs shut law enforcement reopened new management shut law enforcement silk road 2.0 went silk road 3 reloaded emerged however older marketplace named diabolus market used name exposure brand previous success broad diffusion cybercriminal activities issue computer crimes detection prosecution according jean-loup richet associate professor sorbonne business school technical expertise accessibility longer act barriers entry cybercrime indeed hacking much less complex years ago hacking communities greatly diffused knowledge internet blogs communities hugely contributed information sharing beginners could benefit older hackers knowledge advice furthermore hacking cheaper ever cloud computing era order spam scam one needed dedicated server skills server management network configuration maintenance knowledge internet service provider standards etc comparison mail software-as-a-service scalable inexpensive bulk transactional e-mail-sending service marketing purposes could easily set spam jean-loup richet explains cloud computing could helpful cybercriminal way leverage attack – brute-forcing password improve reach botnet facilitating spamming campaign computer source evidence see digital forensics even computer directly used criminal purposes may contain records value criminal investigators form logfile countries internet service providers required law keep logfiles predetermined amount time example european wide data retention directive applicable eu member states states e-mail traffic retained minimum 12 months method cybercrime investigation many ways cybercrime take place investigations tend start ip address trace however necessarily factual basis upon detectives solve case different types high-tech crime may also include elements low-tech crime vice versa making cybercrime investigators indispensable part modern law enforcement method cybercrime detective work dynamic constantly improving whether closed police units international cooperation framework due easily exploitable laws cybercriminals use developing countries order evade detection prosecution law enforcement developing countries philippines laws cybercrime weak sometimes nonexistent weak laws allow cybercriminals strike international borders remain undetected even identified criminals avoid punished extradited country united states developed laws allow prosecution proves difficult cases agencies fbi used deception subterfuge catch criminals example two russian hackers evading fbi time fbi set fake computing company based seattle washington proceeded lure two russian men united states offering work company upon completion interview suspects arrested outside building clever tricks like sometimes necessary part catching cybercriminals weak legislation makes impossible otherwise then-president barack obama released executive order april 2015 combat cybercrime executive order allows united states freeze assets convicted cybercriminals block economic activity within united states first solid legislation combats cybercrime way european union adopted directive 2013/40/eu offences directive definitions procedural institutions also council europe convention cybercrime.. usa european union introducing new measures cybercrime 31 may 2017 china announced new cybersecurity law takes effect date penalties computer-related crimes new york state range fine short period jail time class misdemeanor unauthorized use computer computer tampering first degree class c felony carry 3 15 years prison however hackers hired information security experts private companies due inside knowledge computer crime phenomenon theoretically could create perverse incentives possible counter courts ban convicted hackers using internet computers even released prisonthough computers internet become central everyday life type punishment may viewed harsh draconian however nuanced approaches developed manage cyber offenders behavior without resorting total computer internet bans approaches involve restricting individuals specific devices subject computer monitoring computer searches probation parole officers technology advances people rely internet store sensitive information banking credit card information criminals increasingly attempt steal information cybercrime becoming threat people across world raising awareness information protected tactics criminals use steal information continues grow importance according fbi internet crime complaint center 2014 269,422 complaints filed claims combined reported total loss 800,492,073 cybercrime yet seem average person radar 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually means 4,000 attacks day 170 attacks every hour nearly three attacks every minute studies showing us 16 victims asked people carrying attacks stop anybody uses internet reason victim important aware one protected online cybercrime proliferated professional ecosystem evolved support individuals groups seeking profit cybercriminal activities ecosystem become quite specialized including malware developers botnet operators professional cybercrime groups groups specializing sale stolen content forth leading cybersecurity companies skills resources visibility follow activities individuals group wide variety information available sources used defensive purposes including technical indicators hashes infected files malicious ips/urls well strategic information profiling goals techniques campaigns profiled groups freely published consistent on-going access typically requires subscribing adversary intelligence subscription service level individual threat actor threat intelligence often referred actor ttp tactics techniques procedures infrastructure tools technical indicators often trivial attackers change corporate sectors considering crucial role artificial intelligence cybersecurity Target text information: fred_teeven.fred teeven fredrik fred teeven born 5 august 1958 retired dutch politician people party freedom democracy vvd jurist teeven served member house representatives parliamentary leader livable netherlands party house representatives 23 may 2002 30 january 2003 2003 rejoined people party freedom democracy general election 2006 served member house representatives 30 november 2006 14 october 2010 became state secretary security justice cabinet rutte ii general election 2012 served member house representatives 20 september 2012 5 november 2012 26 march 2015 23 march 2017 teeven born province north holland studied law vu university amsterdam public management university twente working first tax collector became prosecutor becoming known crimefighter since led many investigations organised crime teeven involved prosecutions dési bouterse mink kok johan verhoek willem holleeder 2002 teeven succeeded pim fortuyn front runner lijsttrekker livable netherlands leefbaar nederland 23 may 2002 30 january 2003 parliamentary group leader livable netherlands house representatives also member house representatives 23 may 2002 – 30 january 2003 found would front runner 2003 elections quit party returned former post public prosecutor 2006 teeven announced return politics time people party freedom democracy vvd dutch general election 2006 6th candidate list vvd elected house representatives 30 november 2006 main spokesperson justice policy dutch general election 2010 3rd candidate list vvd cabinet formation 2010 first rutte cabinet teeven became undersecretary security justice taking office 14 october 2010 resigned day mp 5 november 2012 continued undersecretary security justice second rutte cabinet meanwhile mp 20 september 2012 5 november 2012 undersecretary security justice tasked dealing prevention family law youth justice copyright law 10 march 2015 justice minister ivo opstelten resigned together teeven former informed house representatives wrongly early 2000s deal made teeven state prosecutor 1994 deal concerned money paid drug trafficker whose money seized received compensation origin money could proved illegal opstelten mentioned house representatives lower amount one actually paid receipt transaction gone missing later surfaced wake scandal house chairman van miltenburg resigned 12 december 2015 became clear suppressed two letters whistle blower justice department already mentioned right details 'deal putting letters shredder resigning state secretary teeven served member house representatives 26 march 2015 23 march 2017 teeven currently works bus driver public transportation company connexxion consultant public relations cybercrime I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,574	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: hp-ux.hp-ux hp-ux hewlett packard unix hewlett packard enterprise proprietary implementation unix operating system based unix system v initially system iii first released 1984 recent versions support hp 9000 series computer systems based pa-risc instruction set architecture hp integrity systems based intel itanium architecture earlier versions hp-ux supported hp integral pc hp 9000 series 200 300 400 computer systems based motorola 68000 series processors well hp 9000 series 500 computers based hp proprietary focus architecture hp-ux first unix offer access control lists file access permissions alternative standard unix permissions system hp-ux also among first unix systems include built-in logical volume manager hp long partnership veritas software uses vxfs primary file system one six commercial operating systems versions certified open group unix 03 standard others macos solaris inspur k-ux huawei euleros aix hp-ux 11i offers common shared disks clustered file system hp serviceguard cluster solution hp-ux hp global workload management adjusts workloads optimize performance integrates instant capacity demand installed resources paid 30-minute increments needed peak workload demands hp-ux offers operating system-level virtualization features hardware partitions isolated os virtual partitions cell-based servers hp integrity virtual machines hpvm integrity servers hpvm supports guests running hp-ux 11i v3 hosts – guests run linux windows openvms 8.4 hp-ux hp supports online vm guest migration encryption secure guest contents migration hp-ux 11i v3 scales follows superdome 2 32 intel itanium 9560 processors 11i v2 release introduced kernel-based intrusion detection strong random number generation stack buffer overflow protection security partitioning role-based access management various open-source security tools hp classifies operating system security features three categories data system identity release 6.x together 3.x introduced context dependent files cdf feature method allowing fileserver serve different configurations binaries even architectures different client machines heterogeneous environment directory containing files suid bit set made hidden ordinary root processes normal use scheme sometimes exploited intruders hide malicious programs data cdfs cdf filesystem dropped release 10.0 hp-ux operating systems supports variety pa-risc systems 11.0 added support integrity-based servers transition pa-risc itanium hp-ux 11i v1.5 first version supported itanium introduction hp-ux 11i v2 operating system supported architectures hp-ux 11i supports hp integrity servers hp bl server blade family servers use intel itanium architecture hp-ux 11i v2 11i v3 support hp cx series servers cx stands carrier grade used mainly telco industry -48v dc support nebs certified systems contain itanium mad6m processors discontinued hp-ux supports hp rx series servers prior release hp-ux version 11.11 hp used decimal version numbering scheme first number giving major release number following decimal showing minor release 11.11 hp made marketing decision name releases 11 followed v decimal-number version intended indicate os internet-enabled effective result dual version-numbering scheme hp bundles hp-ux 11i programs packages call operating environments oes following lists currently available hp-ux 11i v3 oes 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_server.web server web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems march 1989 sir tim berners-lee proposed new project employer cern goal easing exchange information scientists using hypertext system project resulted berners-lee writing two programs 1990 1991 1994 simplicity effectiveness early technologies used surf exchange data world wide web helped port many different operating systems spread use among scientific organizations universities subsequently industry 1994 berners-lee decided constitute world wide web consortium w3c regulate development many technologies involved http html etc standardization process web servers able map path component uniform resource locator url static request url path specified client relative web server root directory consider following url would requested client http client user agent translate connection nowiki www.example.com /nowiki following http 1.1 request web server nowiki www.example.com /nowiki append given path path root directory apache server commonly /home/www unix machines usually /var/www result local file system resource web server reads file exists sends response client web browser response describe content file contain file error message return saying file exist unavailable web server either incorporated os kernel user space like regular applications web servers run user-mode ask system permission use memory cpu resources requests kernel take time always satisfied system reserves resources usage responsibility share hardware resources running applications executing user mode also mean useless buffer copies another handicap user-mode web servers web server program defined load limits handle limited number concurrent client connections usually 2 80,000 default 500 1,000 per ip address tcp port serve certain maximum number rps also known queries per second qps depending web server near limit becomes unresponsive time web servers overloaded due symptoms overloaded web server partially overcome average load limits prevent overload popular web sites use common techniques like latest statistics market share sites top web servers internet w3techs usage web servers websites web servers used less 1 websites latest statistics market share sites top web servers internet w3techs usage web servers websites web servers used less 1 websites latest statistics market share sites top web servers internet netcraft february 2017 web server survey latest statistics market share sites top web servers internet netcraft february 2016 web server survey apache iis nginx used web servers world wide web Target text information: in-kernel_web_server.in-kernel web server in-kernel web server unlimited http server runs kernel space equivalent also called accelerator I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	1,757	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: information_security.information security information security sometimes shortened infosec practice protecting information mitigating information risks part information risk management typically involves preventing least reducing probability unauthorized/inappropriate access use disclosure disruption deletion/destruction corruption modification inspection recording devaluation although may also involve reducing adverse impacts incidents information may take form e.g electronic physical. tangible e.g paperwork intangible e.g knowledge information security primary focus balanced protection confidentiality integrity availability data also known cia triad maintaining focus efficient policy implementation without hampering organization productivity largely achieved structured risk management process involves standardize discipline academics professionals collaborate offer guidance policies industry standards password antivirus software firewall encryption software legal liability security awareness training forth standardization may driven wide variety laws regulations affect data accessed processed stored transferred destroyed however implementation standards guidance within entity may limited effect culture continual improvement n't adopted core information security information assurance act maintaining confidentiality integrity availability cia information ensuring information compromised way critical issues arise issues include limited natural disasters computer/server malfunction physical theft paper-based business operations still prevalent requiring set information secuy practices enterprise digital initiatives increasingly emphasized information assurance typically dealt information technology security specialists specialists apply information security technology often form computer system worthwhile note computer necessarily mean home desktop computer device processor memory devices range non-networked standalone devices simple calculators networked mobile computing devices smartphones tablet computers security specialists almost always found major enterprise/establishment due nature value data within larger businesses responsible keeping technology within company secure malicious cyber attacks often attempt acquire critical private information gain control internal systems field information security grown evolved significantly recent years offers many areas specialization including securing networks allied infrastructure securing applications databases security testing information systems auditing business continuity planning electronic record discovery digital forensics information security professionals stable employment 80 percent professionals change employer employment period year number professionals projected continuously grow 11 percent annually 2014 2019 information security threats come many different forms common threats today software attacks theft intellectual property identity theft theft equipment information sabotage information extortion people experienced software attacks sort viruses worms phishing attacks trojan horses common examples software attacks theft intellectual property also extensive issue many businesses information technology field identity theft attempt act someone else usually obtain person personal information take advantage access vital information social engineering theft equipment information becoming prevalent today due fact devices today mobile prone theft also become far desirable amount data capacity increases sabotage usually consists destruction organization website attempt cause loss confidence part customers information extortion consists theft company property information attempt receive payment exchange returning information property back owner ransomware many ways help protect attacks one functional precautions conduct periodical user awareness number one threat organisation users internal employees also called insider threats governments military corporations financial institutions hospitals non-profit organisations private businesses amass great deal confidential information employees customers products research financial status confidential information business customers finances new product line fall hands competitor black hat hacker business customers could suffer widespread irreparable financial loss well damage company reputation business perspective information security must balanced cost gordon-loeb model provides mathematical economic approach addressing concern individual information security significant effect privacy viewed differently various cultures possible responses security threat risk since early days communication diplomats military commanders understood necessary provide mechanism protect confidentiality correspondence means detecting tampering julius caesar credited invention caesar cipher c. 50 b.c. created order prevent secret messages read message fall wrong hands however part protection achieved application procedural handling controls sensitive information marked indicate protected transported trusted persons guarded stored secure environment strong box postal services expanded governments created official organizations intercept decipher read reseal letters e.g. u.k. secret office founded 1653 mid-nineteenth century complex classification systems developed allow governments manage information according degree sensitivity example british government codified extent publication official secrets act 1889 time first world war multi-tier classification systems used communicate information various fronts encouraged greater use code making breaking sections diplomatic military headquarters encoding became sophisticated wars machines employed scramble unscramble information volume information shared allied countries second world war necessitated formal alignment classification systems procedural controls arcane range markings evolved indicate could handle documents usually officers rather enlisted troops stored increasingly complex safes storage facilities developed enigma machine employed germans encrypt data warfare successfully decrypted alan turing regarded striking example creating using secured information procedures evolved ensure documents destroyed properly failure follow procedures led greatest intelligence coups war e.g. capture u-570 end twentieth century early years twenty-first century saw rapid advancements telecommunications computing hardware software data encryption availability smaller powerful less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within reach small business home user computers quickly became interconnected internet rapid growth widespread use electronic data processing electronic business conducted internet along numerous occurrences international terrorism fueled need better methods protecting computers information store process transmit academic disciplines computer security information assurance emerged along numerous professional organizations sharing common goals ensuring security reliability information systems various definitions information security suggested summarized different sources cia triad confidentiality integrity availability heart information security members classic infosec triad—confidentiality integrity availability—are interchangeably referred literature security attributes properties security goals fundamental aspects information criteria critical information characteristics basic building blocks however debate continues whether cia triad sufficient address rapidly changing technology business requirements recommendations consider expanding intersections availability confidentiality well relationship security privacy principles accountability sometimes proposed pointed issues non-repudiation fit well within three core concepts 1992 revised 2002 oecd guidelines security information systems networks proposed nine generally accepted principles awareness responsibility response ethics democracy risk assessment security design implementation security management reassessment building upon 2004 nist engineering principles information technology security proposed 33 principles derived guidelines practices 1998 donn parker proposed alternative model classic cia triad called six atomic elements information elements confidentiality possession integrity authenticity availability utility merits parkerian hexad subject debate amongst security professionals 2011 open group published information security management standard o-ism3 standard proposed operational definition key concepts security elements called security objectives related access control 9 availability 3 data quality 1 compliance technical 4 2009 dod software protection initiative released three tenets cybersecurity system susceptibility access flaw capability exploit flaw neither models widely adopted information security confidentiality property information made available disclosed unauthorized individuals entities processes similar privacy two words n't interchangeable rather confidentiality component privacy implements protect data unauthorized viewers examples confidentiality electronic data compromised include laptop theft password theft sensitive emails sent incorrect individuals information security data integrity means maintaining assuring accuracy completeness data entire lifecycle means data modified unauthorized undetected manner thing referential integrity databases although viewed special case consistency understood classic acid model transaction processing information security systems typically provide message integrity alongside confidentiality information system serve purpose information must available needed means computing systems used store process information security controls used protect communication channels used access must functioning correctly high availability systems aim remain available times preventing service disruptions due power outages hardware failures system upgrades ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks flood incoming messages target system essentially forcing shut realm information security availability often viewed one important parts successful information security program ultimately end-users need able perform job functions ensuring availability organization able perform standards organization stakeholders expect involve topics proxy configurations outside web access ability access shared drives ability send emails executives oftentimes understand technical side information security look availability easy fix often requires collaboration many different organizational teams network operations development operations incident response policy/change management successful information security team involves many different key roles mesh align cia triad provided effectively law non-repudiation implies one intention fulfill obligations contract also implies one party transaction deny received transaction party deny sent transaction important note technology cryptographic systems assist non-repudiation efforts concept core legal concept transcending realm technology instance sufficient show message matches digital signature signed sender private key thus sender could sent message nobody else could altered transit data integrity alleged sender could return demonstrate digital signature algorithm vulnerable flawed allege prove signing key compromised fault violations may may lie sender assertions may may relieve sender liability assertion would invalidate claim signature necessarily proves authenticity integrity sender may repudiate message authenticity integrity pre-requisites non-repudiation certified information systems auditor cisa review manual 2006 provides following definition risk management risk management process identifying vulnerabilities threats information resources used organization achieving business objectives deciding countermeasures take reducing risk acceptable level based value information resource organization two things definition may need clarification first process risk management ongoing iterative process must repeated indefinitely business environment constantly changing new threats vulnerabilities emerge every day second choice countermeasures controls used manage risks must strike balance productivity cost effectiveness countermeasure value informational asset protected risk analysis risk evaluation processes limitations since security incidents occur emerge context rarity uniqueness give rise unpredictable threats analysis phenomena characterized breakdowns surprises side-effects requires theoretical approach able examine interpret subjectively detail incident risk likelihood something bad happen causes harm informational asset loss asset vulnerability weakness could used endanger cause harm informational asset threat anything man-made act nature potential cause harm likelihood threat use vulnerability cause harm creates risk threat use vulnerability inflict harm impact context information security impact loss availability integrity confidentiality possibly losses lost income loss life loss real property pointed possible identify risks possible eliminate risk remaining risk called residual risk risk assessment carried team people knowledge specific areas business membership team may vary time different parts business assessed assessment may use subjective qualitative analysis based informed opinion reliable dollar figures historical information available analysis may use quantitative analysis research shown vulnerable point information systems human user operator designer human iso/iec 27002:2005 code practice information security management recommends following examined risk assessment broad terms risk management process consists given risk management choose accept risk based upon relative low value asset relative low frequency occurrence relative low impact business leadership may choose mitigate risk selecting implementing appropriate control measures reduce risk cases risk transferred another business buying insurance outsourcing another business reality risks may disputed cases leadership may choose deny risk selecting implementing proper security controls initially help organization bring risk acceptable levels control selection follow based risk assessment controls vary nature fundamentally ways protecting confidentiality integrity availability information iso/iec 27001 defined controls different areas organizations implement additional controls according requirement organization iso/iec 27002 offers guideline organizational information security standards administrative controls consist approved written policies procedures standards guidelines administrative controls form framework running business managing people inform people business run day-to-day operations conducted laws regulations created government bodies also type administrative control inform business industry sectors policies procedures standards guidelines must followed – payment card industry data security standard pci dss required visa mastercard example examples administrative controls include corporate security policy password policy hiring policies disciplinary policies administrative controls form basis selection implementation logical physical controls logical physical controls manifestations administrative controls paramount importance logical controls also called technical controls use software data monitor control access information computing systems passwords network host-based firewalls network intrusion detection systems access control lists data encryption examples logical controls important logical control frequently overlooked principle least privilege requires individual program system process granted access privileges necessary perform task blatant example failure adhere principle least privilege logging windows user administrator read email surf web violations principle also occur individual collects additional access privileges time happens employees job duties change employees promoted new position employees transferred another department access privileges required new duties frequently added onto already existing access privileges may longer necessary appropriate physical controls monitor control environment work place computing facilities also monitor control access facilities include doors locks heating air conditioning smoke fire alarms fire suppression systems cameras barricades fencing security guards cable locks etc separating network workplace functional areas also physical controls important physical control frequently overlooked separation duties ensures individual complete critical task example employee submits request reimbursement also able authorize payment print check applications programmer also server administrator database administrator roles responsibilities must separated one another information security must protect information throughout lifespan initial creation information final disposal information information must protected motion rest lifetime information may pass many different information processing systems many different parts information processing systems many different ways information information systems threatened fully protect information lifetime component information processing system must protection mechanisms building layering overlapping security measures called defense depth contrast metal chain famously strong weakest link defense depth strategy aims structure one defensive measure fail measures continue provide protection recall earlier discussion administrative controls logical controls physical controls three types controls used form basis upon build defense depth strategy approach defense depth conceptualized three distinct layers planes laid one top additional insight defense depth gained thinking forming layers onion data core onion people next outer layer onion network security host-based security application security forming outermost layers onion perspectives equally valid provides valuable insight implementation good defense depth strategy important aspect information security risk management recognizing value information defining appropriate procedures protection requirements information information equal information requires degree protection requires information assigned security classification first step information classification identify member senior management owner particular information classified next develop classification policy policy describe different classification labels define criteria information assigned particular label list required security controls classification factors influence classification information assigned include much value information organization old information whether information become obsolete laws regulatory requirements also important considerations classifying information information systems audit control association isaca business model information security also serves tool security professionals examine security systems perspective creating environment security managed holistically allowing actual risks addressed type information security classification labels selected used depend nature organization examples employees organization well business partners must trained classification schema understand required security controls handling procedures classification classification particular information asset assigned reviewed periodically ensure classification still appropriate information ensure security controls required classification place followed right procedures access protected information must restricted people authorized access information computer programs many cases computers process information must also authorized requires mechanisms place control access protected information sophistication access control mechanisms parity value information protected sensitive valuable information stronger control mechanisms need foundation access control mechanisms built start identification authentication access control generally considered three steps identification authentication authorization identification assertion someone something person makes statement hello name john doe making claim however claim may may true john doe granted access protected information necessary verify person claiming john doe really john doe typically claim form username entering username claiming person username belongs authentication act verifying claim identity john doe goes bank make withdrawal tells bank teller john doe claim identity bank teller asks see photo id hands teller driver license bank teller checks license make sure john doe printed compares photograph license person claiming john doe photo name match person teller authenticated john doe claimed similarly entering correct password user providing evidence he/she person username belongs three different types information used authentication strong authentication requires providing one type authentication information two-factor authentication username common form identification computer systems today password common form authentication usernames passwords served purpose increasingly inadequate usernames passwords slowly replaced supplemented sophisticated authentication mechanisms time-based one-time password algorithms person program computer successfully identified authenticated must determined informational resources permitted access actions allowed perform run view create delete change called authorization authorization access information computing services begins administrative policies procedures policies prescribe information computing services accessed conditions access control mechanisms configured enforce policies different computing systems equipped different kinds access control mechanisms may even offer choice different access control mechanisms access control mechanism system offers based upon one three approaches access control may derived combination three approaches non-discretionary approach consolidates access control centralized administration access information resources usually based individuals function role organization tasks individual must perform discretionary approach gives creator owner information resource ability control access resources mandatory access control approach access granted denied basing upon security classification assigned information resource examples common access control mechanisms use today include role-based access control available many advanced database management systems simple file permissions provided unix windows operating systems group policy objects provided windows network systems kerberos radius tacacs simple access lists used many firewalls routers effective policies security controls must enforceable upheld effective policies ensure people held accountable actions u.s. treasury guidelines systems processing sensitive proprietary information example states failed successful authentication access attempts must logged access information must leave type audit trail also need-to-know principle needs effect talking access control principle gives access rights person perform job functions principle used government dealing difference clearances even though two employees different departments top-secret clearance must need-to-know order information exchanged within need-to-know principle network administrators grant employee least amount privileges prevent employees accessing supposed need-to-know helps enforce confidentiality-integrity-availability triad need-to-know directly impacts confidential area triad information security uses cryptography transform usable information form renders unusable anyone authorized user process called encryption information encrypted rendered unusable transformed back original usable form authorized user possesses cryptographic key process decryption cryptography used information security protect information unauthorized accidental disclosure information transit either electronically physically information storage cryptography provides information security useful applications well including improved authentication methods message digests digital signatures non-repudiation encrypted network communications older less secure applications telnet file transfer protocol ftp slowly replaced secure applications secure shell ssh use encrypted network communications wireless communications encrypted using protocols wpa/wpa2 older less secure wep wired communications itu‑t g.hn secured using aes encryption x.1035 authentication key exchange software applications gnupg pgp used encrypt data files email cryptography introduce security problems implemented correctly cryptographic solutions need implemented using industry-accepted solutions undergone rigorous peer review independent experts cryptography length strength encryption key also important consideration key weak short produce weak encryption keys used encryption decryption must protected degree rigor confidential information must protected unauthorized disclosure destruction must available needed public key infrastructure pki solutions address many problems surround key management terms reasonable prudent person due care due diligence used fields finance securities law many years recent years terms found way fields computing information security u.s. federal sentencing guidelines make possible hold corporate officers liable failing exercise due care due diligence management information systems business world stockholders customers business partners governments expectation corporate officers run business accordance accepted business practices compliance laws regulatory requirements often described reasonable prudent person rule prudent person takes due care ensure everything necessary done operate business sound business principles legal ethical manner prudent person also diligent mindful attentive ongoing due care business field information security harris offers following definitions due care due diligence due care steps taken show company taken responsibility activities take place within corporation taken necessary steps help protect company resources employees nowiki due diligence /nowiki continual activities make sure protection mechanisms continually maintained operational attention made two important points definitions first due care steps taken show means steps verified measured even produce tangible artifacts second due diligence continual activities means people actually things monitor maintain protection mechanisms activities ongoing organizations responsibility practicing duty care applying information security duty care risk analysis standard docra provides principles practices evaluating risk considers parties could affected risks docra helps evaluate safeguards appropriate protecting others harm presenting reasonable burden increased data breach litigation companies must balance security controls compliance mission software engineering institute carnegie mellon university publication titled governing enterprise security ges implementation guide defines characteristics effective security governance include incident response plan group policies dictate organizations reaction cyber attack security breach identified plan initiated important note legal implications data breach knowing local federal laws critical every plan unique needs organization involve skill set part team example lawyer may included response plan help navigate legal implications data breach mentioned every plan unique plans include following good preparation includes development incident response team skills need used team would penetration testing computer forensics network security etc team also keep track trends cybersecurity modern attack strategies training program end users important well modern attack strategies target users network part incident response plan identifies security event end user reports information admin notices irregularities investigation launched incident log crucial part step members team updating log ensure information flows fast possible identified security breach occurred next step activated phase irt works isolate areas breach took place limit scope security event phase important preserve information forensically analyzed later process containment could simple physically containing server room complex segmenting network allow spread virus threat identified removed affected systems could include using deleting malicious files terminating compromised accounts deleting components events require step however important fully understand event moving step help ensure threat completely removed stage systems restored back original operation stage could include recovery data changing user access information updating firewall rules policies prevent breach future executing step system could still vulnerable future security threats step information gathered process used make future decisions security step crucial ensure future events prevented using information train admins critical process step also used process information distributed entities experienced security event change management formal process directing controlling alterations information processing environment includes alterations desktop computers network servers software objectives change management reduce risks posed changes information processing environment improve stability reliability processing environment changes made objective change management prevent hinder necessary changes implemented change information processing environment introduces element risk even apparently simple changes unexpected effects one management many responsibilities management risk change management tool managing risks introduced changes information processing environment part change management process ensures changes implemented inopportune times may disrupt critical business processes interfere changes implemented every change needs managed kinds changes part everyday routine information processing adhere predefined procedure reduces overall level risk processing environment creating new user account deploying new desktop computer examples changes generally require change management however relocating user file shares upgrading email server pose much higher level risk processing environment normal everyday activity critical first steps change management defining change communicating definition b defining scope change system change management usually overseen change review board composed representatives key business areas security networking systems administrators database administration application developers desktop support help desk tasks change review board facilitated use automated work flow application responsibility change review board ensure organization documented change management procedures followed change management process follows change management procedures simple follow easy use greatly reduce overall risks created changes made information processing environment good change management procedures improve overall quality success changes implemented accomplished planning peer review documentation communication iso/iec 20000 visible ops handbook implementing itil 4 practical auditable steps full book summary information technology infrastructure library provide valuable guidance implementing efficient effective change management program information security business continuity management bcm concerns arrangements aiming protect organization critical business functions interruption due incidents least minimize effects bcm essential organization keep technology business line current threats continuation business usual bcm included organizations risk analysis plan ensure necessary business functions need keep going event type threat business function encompasses whereas bcm takes broad approach minimizing disaster-related risks reducing probability severity incidents disaster recovery plan drp focuses specifically resuming business operations quickly possible disaster disaster recovery plan invoked soon disaster occurs lays steps necessary recover critical information communications technology ict infrastructure disaster recovery planning includes establishing planning group performing risk assessment establishing priorities developing recovery strategies preparing inventories documentation plan developing verification criteria procedure lastly implementing plan partial listing governmental laws regulations various parts world significant effect data processing information security important industry sector regulations also included significant impact information security describing simply security aware employees information security culture ideas customs social behaviors organization impact information security positive negative ways cultural concepts help different segments organization work effectively work effectiveness towards information security within organization way employees think feel security actions take big impact information security organizations roer petric 2017 identify seven core dimensions information security culture organizations andersson reimers 2014 found employees often see part organization information security effort often take actions ignore organizational information security best interests research shows information security culture needs improved continuously information security culture analysis change authors commented never ending process cycle evaluation change maintenance manage information security culture five steps taken pre-evaluation strategic planning operative planning implementation post-evaluation international organization standardization iso consortium national standards institutes 157 countries coordinated secretariat geneva switzerland iso world largest developer standards iso 15443 information technology – security techniques – framework security assurance iso/iec 27002 information technology – security techniques – code practice information security management iso-20000 information technology – service management iso/iec 27001 information technology – security techniques – information security management systems – requirements particular interest information security professionals us national institute standards technology nist non-regulatory federal agency within u.s. department commerce nist computer security division develops standards metrics tests validation programs well publishes standards guidelines increase secure planning implementation management operation nist also custodian u.s. federal information processing standard publications fips internet society professional membership society 100 organizations 20,000 individual members 180 countries provides leadership addressing issues confront future internet organizational home groups responsible internet infrastructure standards including internet engineering task force ietf internet architecture board iab isoc hosts requests comments rfcs includes official internet protocol standards rfc-2196 site security handbook information security forum isf global nonprofit organization several hundred leading organizations financial services manufacturing telecommunications consumer goods government areas undertakes research information security practices offers advice biannual standard good practice detailed advisories members institute information security professionals iisp independent non-profit body governed members principal objective advancing professionalism information security practitioners thereby professionalism industry whole institute developed iisp skills framework framework describes range competencies expected information security information assurance professionals effective performance roles developed collaboration private public sector organizations world-renowned academics security leaders german federal office information security german bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bsi bsi-standards 100-1 100-4 set recommendations including methods processes procedures approaches measures relating information security bsi-standard 100-2 it-grundschutz methodology describes information security management implemented operated standard includes specific guide baseline protection catalogs also known it-grundschutz catalogs 2005 catalogs formerly known baseline protection manual catalogs collection documents useful detecting combating security-relevant weak points environment cluster collection encompasses september 2013 4,400 pages introduction catalogs it-grundschutz approach aligned iso/iec 2700x family european telecommunications standards institute standardized catalog information security indicators headed industrial specification group isg isi 1-hop neighbor's text information: disaster_recovery.disaster recovery disaster recovery involves set policies tools procedures enable recovery continuation vital technology infrastructure systems following natural human-induced disaster disaster recovery focuses technology systems supporting critical business functions opposed business continuity involves keeping essential aspects business functioning despite significant disruptive events disaster recovery therefore considered subset business continuity service continuity itsc subset business continuity planning bcp encompasses disaster recovery planning wider resilience planning also incorporates elements infrastructure services relate communications voice telephony data communications itsc plan reflects recovery point objective rpo recent transactions recovery time objective rto time intervals planning includes arranging backup sites hot warm cold standby sites hardware needed continuity 2008 british standards institution launched specific standard connected supporting business continuity standard bs 25999 titled bs25777 specifically align computer continuity business continuity withdrawn following publication march 2011 iso/iec 27031 security techniques — guidelines information communication technology readiness business continuity itil defined terms recovery time objective rto targeted duration time service level within business process must restored disaster disruption order avoid unacceptable consequences associated break business continuity accepted business continuity planning methodology rto established business impact analysis bia owner process including identifying options time frames alternate manual workarounds good deal literature subject rto spoken complement recovery point objective rpo two metrics describing limits acceptable tolerable itsc performance terms time lost rto normal business process functioning terms data lost backed period time rpo respectively forbes overview noted recovery time actual rta critical metric business continuity disaster recovery rta established exercises actual events business continuity group times rehearsals actuals makes needed refinements recovery point objective rpo defined business continuity planning maximum targeted period data transactions might lost service due major incident rpo measured minutes even hours practice off-site mirrored backups must continuously maintained daily off-site backup tape suffice recovery instantaneous restore data/transactions period time goal without incurring significant risks significant losses rpo measures maximum time period recent data might permanently lost event major incident direct measure quantity loss instance bc plan restore last available backup rpo maximum interval backup safely vaulted offsite business impact analysis used determine rpo service rpo determined existent backup regime level preparation off-site data required period data might lost often starts near time beginning work prepare backups time backups taken off-site although data synchronization point point time timing performing physical backup must included one approach used halt processing update queue disk-to-disk copy made backup reflects earlier time copy operation data copied tape transmitted elsewhere rto rpo must take business risk account along major system design criteria rpo tied times backups sent offsite offsiting via synchronous copies offsite mirror allows unforeseen difficulty use physical transportation tapes transportable media comfortably covers backup needs relatively low cost recovery enacted predetermined site shared offsite space hardware completes package needed high volumes high value transaction data hardware split across two sites splitting across geographic areas adds resiliency planning disaster recovery information technology developed mid- late 1970s computer center managers began recognize dependence organizations computer systems time systems batch-oriented mainframes another offsite mainframe could loaded backup tapes pending recovery primary site downtime relatively less critical disaster recovery industry developed provide backup computer centers one earliest centers located sri lanka sungard availability services 1978 1980s 90s internal corporate timesharing online data entry real-time processing grew availability systems needed regulatory agencies became involved even rapid growth internet 2000s objectives 2 3 4 5 nines 99.999 often mandated high-availability solutions hot-site facilities sought service continuity essential many organizations implementation business continuity management bcm information security management icm part implementation operation information security management well business continuity management specified iso/iec 27001 iso 22301 respectively rise cloud computing since 2010 continues trend nowadays matters even less computing services physically served long network sufficiently reliable separate issue less concern since modern networks highly resilient design 'recovery service raas one security features benefits cloud computing promoted cloud security alliance disasters classified two broad categories first natural disasters floods hurricanes tornadoes earthquakes preventing natural disaster impossible risk management measures avoiding disaster-prone situations good planning help second category man-made disasters hazardous material spills infrastructure failure bio-terrorism disastrous bugs failed change implementations instances surveillance testing mitigation planning invaluable recent research supports idea implementing holistic pre-disaster planning approach cost-effective long run every 1 spent hazard mitigation disaster recovery plan saves society 4 response recovery costs 2015 disaster recovery statistics suggest downtime lasting one hour cost systems become increasingly critical smooth operation company arguably economy whole importance ensuring continued operation systems rapid recovery increased example companies major loss business data 43 never reopen 29 close within two years result preparation continuation recovery systems needs taken seriously involves significant investment time money aim ensuring minimal losses event disruptive event control measures steps mechanisms reduce eliminate various threats organizations different types measures included disaster recovery plan drp disaster recovery planning subset larger process known business continuity planning includes planning resumption applications data hardware electronic communications networking infrastructure business continuity plan bcp includes planning non-it related aspects key personnel facilities crisis communication reputation protection refer disaster recovery plan drp related infrastructure recovery continuity disaster recovery control measures classified following three types good disaster recovery plan measures dictate three types controls documented exercised regularly using so-called dr tests prior selecting disaster recovery strategy disaster recovery planner first refers organization business continuity plan indicate key metrics recovery point objective recovery time objective metrics business processes mapped systems infrastructure failure properly plan extend disaster impact metrics mapped organization reviews budget rto rpo metrics must fit available budget cost-benefit analysis often dictates disaster recovery measures implemented adding cloud-based backup benefits local offsite tape archiving new york times wrote adds layer data protection common strategies data protection include many cases organization may elect use outsourced disaster recovery provider provide stand-by site systems rather using remote facilities increasingly via cloud computing addition preparing need recover systems organizations also implement precautionary measures objective preventing disaster first place may include disaster recovery service draas arrangement third party although vendor lists published disaster recovery product even though several large hardware vendors developed mobile/modular offerings installed made operational short time 1-hop neighbor's text information: backup.backup information technology backup data backup copy computer data taken stored elsewhere may used restore original data loss event verb form referring process back whereas noun adjective form backup backups used recover data loss data deletion corruption recover data earlier time backups provide simple form disaster recovery however backup systems able reconstitute computer system complex configuration computer cluster active directory server database server backup system contains least one copy data considered worth saving data storage requirements large information repository model may used provide structure storage different types data storage devices used copying backups data already secondary storage onto archive files. ref group note name=archivefilemaynotcontainold/historicalmaterial contrast everyday use term archive data stored archive file necessarily old historical interest. /ref also different ways devices arranged provide geographic dispersion data security portability data selected extracted manipulated storage process include methods dealing live data including open files well compression encryption de-duplication additional techniques apply enterprise client-server backup backup schemes may include dry runs validate reliability data backed limitations human factors involved backup scheme backup strategy requires information repository secondary storage space data aggregates backups data sources repository could simple list backup media dvds etc dates produced could include computerized index catalog relational database backup data needs stored requiring backup rotation scheme system backing data computer media limits number backups different dates retained separately appropriate re-use data storage media overwriting backups longer needed scheme determines piece removable storage used backup operation long retained backup data stored unstructured repository may simply stack tapes dvd-rs external hdds minimal information backed method easiest implement unlikely achieve high level recoverability lacks automation repository using backup method contains complete source data copies taken one specific points time copying system images method frequently used computer technicians record known good configurations however imaging generally useful way deploying standard configuration many systems rather tool making ongoing backups diverse systems incremental backup stores data changed since reference point time duplicate copies unchanged data n't copied typically full backup files infrequent intervals serving reference point incremental repository subsequently number incremental backups made successive time periods restores begin last full backup apply incrementals backup systems create series incrementals thus providing equivalent frequently full backup done modify single archive file speeds restores recent versions files true continuous data protection cdp refers backup instantly saves copy every change made data allows restoration data point time comprehensive advanced data protection near-cdp backup applications frequently marketed cdp automatically take incremental backups specific intervals example every 15 minutes one hour 24 hours therefore allow restores fixed interval near-cdp backup applications use journaling typically based periodic snapshots read-only copy data frozen particular point time near-cdp except apple time machine intent-logs every change host system often saving byte block-level differences rather file-level differences backup method differs simple disk mirroring enables roll-back log thus restoration old images data intent-logging allows precautions consistency live data protecting self-consistent files requiring applications quiesced made ready backup near-cdp practicable ordinary personal backup applications opposed cdp must run conjunction virtual machine equivalent therefore generally used enterprise client-server backups reverse incremental backup method stores recent archive file mirror source data series differences mirror current state previous states reverse incremental backup method starts non-image full backup full backup performed system periodically synchronizes full backup live copy storing data necessary reconstruct older versions either done using hard links—as apple time machine using binary diffs differential backup saves data changed since last full backup means maximum two backups repository used restore data however time last full backup thus accumulated changes data increases time perform differential backup restoring entire system requires starting recent full backup applying last differential backup differential backup copies files created changed since last full backup regardless whether differential backups made since whereas incremental backup copies files created changed since recent backup type full incremental variations incremental backup include multi-level incrementals block-level incrementals compare parts files instead entire files regardless repository model used data copied onto archive file data storage medium medium used also referred type backup destination magnetic tape long time commonly used medium bulk data storage backup archiving interchange previously less expensive option longer case smaller amounts data tape sequential access medium rate continuously writing reading data fast many tape formats proprietary specific certain markets like mainframes particular brand personal computer 2014 lto become primary tape technology remaining viable super formats ibm 3592 also referred ts11xx series oracle storagetek t10000 use hard disk storage increased time become progressively cheaper hard disks usually easy use widely available accessed quickly however hard disk backups close-tolerance mechanical devices may easily damaged tapes especially transported mid-2000s several drive manufacturers began produce portable drives employing ramp loading accelerometer technology sometimes termed shock sensor 2010 industry average drop tests drives technology showed drives remaining intact working 36-inch non-operating drop onto industrial carpeting manufacturers also offer 'ruggedized portable hard drives include shock-absorbing case around hard disk claim range higher drop specifications period years stability hard disk backups shorter tape backups external hard disks connected via local interfaces like scsi usb firewire esata via longer-distance technologies like ethernet iscsi fibre channel disk-based backup systems via virtual tape libraries otherwise support data deduplication reduce amount disk storage capacity consumed daily weekly backup data optical storage uses lasers store retrieve data recordable cds dvds blu-ray discs commonly used personal computers generally cheap past capacities speeds discs lower hard disks tapes although advances optical media slowly shrinking gap many optical disc formats worm type makes useful archival purposes since data changed optical storage systems allow cataloged data backups without human contact discs allowing longer data integrity french study 2008 indicated lifespan typically-sold cd-rs 2–10 years one manufacturer later estimated longevity cd-rs gold-sputtered layer high 100 years sony optical disc archive 2016 reach read rate 250mb/s solid-state drives ssds use integrated circuit assemblies store data flash memory thumb drives usb flash drives compactflash smartmedia memory sticks secure digital card devices relatively expensive low capacity convenient backing relatively low data volumes solid-state drive contain movable parts making less susceptible physical damage huge throughput around 500 mbit/s 6 gbit/s available ssds become capacious cheaper flash memory backups stable fewer years hard disk backups remote backup services cloud backups involve service providers storing data offsite used protect events fires floods earthquakes could destroy locally stored backups cloud-based backup provides layer data protection however users must trust provider maintain privacy integrity data confidentiality enhanced use encryption speed availability limited user online connection users large amounts data may need use cloud seeding large-scale recovery various methods used manage backup media striking balance accessibility security cost media management methods mutually exclusive frequently combined meet user needs using on-line disks staging data sent near-line tape library common example online backup storage typically accessible type data storage begin restore milliseconds internal hard disk disk array maybe connected san example online backup type storage convenient speedy vulnerable deleted overwritten either accident malevolent action wake data-deleting virus payload nearline storage typically less accessible less expensive online storage still useful backup data storage mechanical device usually used move media units storage drive data read written generally safety properties similar on-line storage example tape library restore times ranging seconds minutes off-line storage requires direct action provide access storage media example inserting tape tape drive plugging cable data accessible via computer except limited periods written read back largely immune on-line backup failure modes access time varies depending whether media on-site off-site backup media may sent off-site vault protect disaster site-specific problem vault simple system administrator home office sophisticated disaster-hardened temperature-controlled high-security bunker facilities backup media storage data replica off-site also on-line e.g. off-site raid mirror replica fairly limited value backup backup site disaster recovery center used store data enable computer systems networks restored properly configure event disaster organisations heir data recovery centres others contract third-party due high costs backing rarely considered preferred method moving data dr site typical way would remote disk mirroring keeps dr data date possible backup operation starts selecting extracting coherent units data data modern computer systems stored discrete units known files files organized filesystems deciding back given time involves tradeoffs backing much redundant data information repository fill quickly backing insufficient amount data eventually lead loss critical information files actively updated called live present challenge back effective way back live data temporarily quiesce e.g. close files take snapshot resume live operations point snapshot backed normal methods snapshot instantaneous function filesystems presents copy filesystem frozen specific point time often copy-on-write mechanism snapshotting file changed results corrupted file unusable also case across interrelated files may found conventional database applications microsoft exchange server term fuzzy backup used describe backup live data looks like ran correctly represent state data single point time backup options data files quiesced include information stored computer stored files accurately recovering complete system scratch requires keeping track non-file data frequently useful required manipulate data backed optimize backup process manipulations improve backup speed restore speed data security media usage and/or reduced bandwidth requirements out-of-date data automatically deleted personal backup applications—as opposed enterprise client-server backup applications automated data grooming customized—the deletion globally delayed disabled various schemes employed shrink size source data stored uses less storage space compression frequently built-in feature tape drive hardware redundancy due backing similarly configured workstations reduced thus storing one copy technique applied file raw block level potentially large reduction called deduplication occur server data moves backup media sometimes referred source/client side deduplication approach also reduces bandwidth required send backup data target media process also occur target storage device sometimes referred inline back-end deduplication sometimes backups duplicated second set storage media done rearrange archive files optimize restore speed second copy different location different storage medium—as disk-to-disk-to-tape capability enterprise client-server backup high-capacity removable storage media backup tapes present data security risk lost stolen encrypting data media mitigate problem however encryption cpu intensive process slow backup speeds security encrypted backups effective security key management policy many computers backed destination storage devices ability use single storage device several simultaneous backups useful however cramming scheduled backup window via multiplexed backup used tape destinations process rearranging backup sets archive file known refactoring example backup system uses single tape day store incremental backups protected computers restoring one computers could require many tapes refactoring could used consolidate backups single computer onto single tape creating synthetic full backup especially useful backup systems incrementals forever style backups sometimes backups copied staging disk copied tape process sometimes referred d2d2t acronym disk disk tape useful problem matching speed final destination device source device frequently faced network-based backup systems also serve centralized location applying data manipulation techniques Target text information: cyber_resilience.cyber resilience cyber resilience refers entity ability continuously deliver intended outcome despite adverse cyber events cyber resilience evolving perspective rapidly gaining recognition concept essentially brings areas information security business continuity organizational resilience together entities potential need cyber resilience abilities include limited systems critical infrastructure business processes organizations societies nation-states adverse cyber events negatively impact availability integrity confidentiality networked systems associated information services events may intentional e.g cyber attack unintentional e.g failed software update caused humans nature combination thereof objective cyber resilience maintain entity ability deliver intended outcome continuously times means even regular delivery mechanisms failed crisis security breach concept also includes ability restore regular delivery mechanisms events well ability continuously change modify delivery mechanisms needed face new risks backups disaster recovery operations part process restoring delivery mechanisms resilience defined presidential policy directive ppd-21 ability prepare adapt changing conditions withstand recover rapidly disruptions cyber resilience focuses preventative detective reactive controls information technology environment assess gaps drive enhancements overall security posture entity cyber resilience review crr one framework assessment entity resiliency created department homeland security another framework created symantec based 5 pillars prepare/identify protect detect respond recover national institute standards technology special publication 800-160 volume 2 offers framework engineering secure reliable systems—treating adverse cyber events resiliency security issues particular 800-160 identifies fourteen techniques used improve resiliency cyber security consists technologies processes measures designed protect systems networks data cyber crimes effective cyber security reduces risk cyber attack protects entities organisations individuals deliberate exploitation systems networks technologies cyber resilience looks wider scope comprises cyber security business resilience cyber security effective without compromising usability systems robust continuity business plan resume operations cyber attack successful cyber resilience helps businesses recognize hackers advantage innovative tools element surprise target successful attempt concept helps business prepare prevent respond successfully recover intended secure state cultural shift organization sees security full-time job embedded security best practices day-to-day operations comparison cyber security cyber resilience requires business think differently agile handling attacks I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,019	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: the_open_group.open group open group industry consortium seeks enable achievement business objectives developing open vendor-neutral technology standards certifications 625 members provides number services including strategy management innovation research standards certification test development established 1996 x/open merged open software foundation open group certifying body unix trademark publishes single unix specification technical standard extends posix standards open group also develops manages togaf standard industry standard enterprise architecture framework 625 members include range vendors buyers well government agencies including example capgemini fujitsu oracle hpe orbus software ibm huawei philips u.s. department defense nasa obligation product developers vendors adopt standards developed association early 1990s major unix system vendors begun realize standards rivalries often called unix wars causing participants harm good leaving unix industry open emerging competition microsoft cose initiative 1993 considered first unification step merger open software foundation osf x/open 1996 ultimate step end skirmishes osf previously merged unix international 1994 meaning new entity effectively represented elements unix community time january 1997 responsibility x window system transferred open group defunct x consortium 1999 x.org formed manage x window system management services provided open group x.org members made number releases including x11r6.8 open group provided management services 2004 x.org open group worked together establish newly formed x.org foundation took control x.org domain name stewardship x window system see history x window system open group best-known services certification programs including certification products best practices posix north american state lotteries association naspl unix open group offers certifications professionals addition togaf certification covers tools services people certification open group also administers open group certified architect open ca program open group certified specialist open cits certification program latter skills experience based certification programs open group also offers certification archimate tools people well people certification open fair it4it open group provides platform members discuss requirements work jointly development adoption industry standards facilitate enterprise integration note open group documents available members especially development based area interest members join one semi-autonomous forums include members come together open group quarterly events member meetings open group also provides range services initial setup ongoing operational support collaboration standards best practices development assistance market impact activities assist organizations setting business objectives strategy procurement also provide certification test development includes services government agencies suppliers companies organizations set governments Target text information: universal_data_element_framework.universal data element framework universal data element framework udef controlled vocabulary developed open group provided framework categorizing naming indexing data assigned every item data structured alphanumeric tag plus controlled vocabulary name describes meaning data allowed relating data elements similar elements defined organizations udef defined dewey-decimal like code concept example employee number often used human resource management udef tag a.5_12.35.8 controlled vocabulary description employee.person_employer.assigned.identifier udef superseded open data element framework o-def application used hospital last name first name several people could include following example concepts examples following udef ids available I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,116	test
[''] Target text information: von_duprin.von duprin von duprin brand security products producer first panic bar style door mechanism allows door public building locked outside still easy exit inside 1903 iroquois theatre fire chicago claimed lives almost 600 people carl prinzler supposed attend show theatre fateful day however business dealings called elsewhere era common theatres like lock interior exterior doors prevent non-paying persons entering also inhibited persons inside exiting case iroquois theatre fire doors locked and/or bolted prevented patrons exiting causing burned alive succumb smoke inhalation prinzler astounded enormous senseless loss life night sought way doors public facilities locked outside allow egress inside minimal effort emergency prinzler tapped architectural engineering abilities henry h. dupont develop product 1908 first model panic bar style egress device released vonnegut hardware company utilized market owing joint effort develop sell product sold name von duprin combination names vonnegut dupont prinzler popular 88 series crossbar exit devices still manufactured von duprin look similar original design although significant engineering changes made von duprin continues manufacture security related products brand allegion plc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,755	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: semantic_web.semantic web semantic web extension world wide web standards world wide web consortium w3c standards promote common data formats exchange protocols web fundamentally resource description framework rdf according w3c semantic web provides common framework allows data shared reused across application enterprise community boundaries semantic web therefore regarded integrator across different content information applications systems term coined tim berners-lee web data data web processed machines—that one much meaning machine-readable critics questioned feasibility proponents argue applications library information science industry biology human sciences research already proven validity original concept berners-lee originally expressed vision semantic web follows 2001 scientific american article berners-lee hendler lassila described expected evolution existing web semantic web 2006 berners-lee colleagues stated simple idea…remains largely unrealized 2013 four million web domains contained semantic web markup following example text 'paul schuster born dresden website annotated connecting person place birth following html-fragment shows small graph described rdfa-syntax using schema.org vocabulary wikidata id div vocab= http //schema.org/ typeof= person /div example defines following five triples shown turtle syntax triple represents one edge resulting graph first element triple subject name node edge starts second element predicate type edge last third element object either name node edge ends literal value e.g text number etc. triples result graph shown given figure one advantages using uniform resource identifiers uris dereferenced using http protocol according so-called linked open data principles dereferenced uri result document offers data given uri example uris edges nodes e.g nowiki http //schema.org/person /nowiki nowiki http //schema.org/birthplace /nowiki nowiki http //www.wikidata.org/entity/q1731 /nowiki dereferenced result rdf graphs describing uri e.g dresden city germany person sense uri fictional second graph shows previous example enriched triples documents result dereferencing nowiki http //schema.org/person /nowiki green edge nowiki http //www.wikidata.org/entity/q1731 /nowiki blue edges additionally edges given involved documents explicitly edges automatically inferred triple original rdfa fragment triple document nowiki http //schema.org/person /nowiki green edge figure allow infer following triple given owl semantics red dashed line second figure concept semantic network model formed early 1960s researchers cognitive scientist allan m. collins linguist m. ross quillian psychologist elizabeth f. loftus form represent semantically structured knowledge applied context modern internet extends network hyperlinked human-readable web pages inserting machine-readable metadata pages related enables automated agents access web intelligently perform tasks behalf users term semantic web coined tim berners-lee inventor world wide web director world wide web consortium w3c oversees development proposed semantic web standards defines semantic web web data processed directly indirectly machines many technologies proposed w3c already existed positioned w3c umbrella used various contexts particularly dealing information encompasses limited defined domain sharing data common necessity scientific research data exchange among businesses addition technologies similar goals emerged microformats many files typical computer also loosely divided human-readable documents machine-readable data documents like mail messages reports brochures read humans data calendars addressbooks playlists spreadsheets presented using application program lets viewed searched combined currently world wide web based mainly documents written hypertext markup language html markup convention used coding body text interspersed multimedia objects images interactive forms metadata tags provide method computers categorize content web pages examples field names keywords description author assigned values computing cheap widgets sale john doe metadata tagging categorization computer systems want access share data easily identify relevant values html tool render perhaps web browser software perhaps another user agent one create present page lists items sale html catalog page make simple document-level assertions document title 'widget superstore capability within html assert unambiguously example item number x586172 acme gizmo retail price €199 consumer product rather html say span text x586172 something positioned near acme gizmo €199 etc way say catalog even establish acme gizmo kind title €199 price also way express pieces information bound together describing discrete item distinct items perhaps listed page semantic html refers traditional html practice markup following intention rather specifying layout details directly example use denoting emphasis rather specifies italics layout details left browser combination cascading style sheets practice falls short specifying semantics objects items sale prices microformats extend html syntax create machine-readable semantic markup objects including people organisations events products similar initiatives include rdfa microdata schema.org semantic web takes solution involves publishing languages specifically designed data resource description framework rdf web ontology language owl extensible markup language xml html describes documents links rdf owl xml contrast describe arbitrary things people meetings airplane parts technologies combined order provide descriptions supplement replace content web documents thus content may manifest descriptive data stored web-accessible databases markup within documents particularly extensible html xhtml interspersed xml often purely xml layout rendering cues stored separately machine-readable descriptions enable content managers add meaning content i.e. describe structure knowledge content way machine process knowledge instead text using processes similar human deductive reasoning inference thereby obtaining meaningful results helping computers perform automated information gathering research example tag would used non-semantic web page encoding similar information semantic web page might look like tim berners-lee calls resulting network linked data giant global graph contrast html-based world wide web berners-lee posits past document sharing future data sharing answer question provides three points instruction one url point data two anyone accessing url get data back three relationships data point additional urls data tim berners-lee described semantic web component web 3.0 semantic web sometimes used synonym web 3.0 though definition term varies web 3.0 started emerge movement away centralisation services like search social media chat applications dependent single organisation function guardian journalist john harris reviewed concept favorably early2019 particular work bernerslee project called 'solid based around personal data stores 'pods individuals retain control bernerslee formed startup inrupt advance idea attract volunteer developers challenges semantic web include vastness vagueness uncertainty inconsistency deceit automated reasoning systems deal issues order deliver promise semantic web list challenges illustrative rather exhaustive focuses challenges unifying logic proof layers semantic web world wide web consortium w3c incubator group uncertainty reasoning world wide web urw3-xg final report lumps problems together single heading uncertainty many techniques mentioned require extensions web ontology language owl example annotate conditional probabilities area active research standardization semantic web context web 3.0 care w3c term semantic web often used specifically refer formats technologies enable collection structuring recovery linked data enabled technologies provide formal description concepts terms relationships within given knowledge domain technologies specified w3c standards include semantic web stack illustrates architecture semantic web functions relationships components summarized follows well-established standards yet fully realized intent enhance usability usefulness web interconnected resources creating semantic web services services could useful public search engines could used knowledge management within organization business applications include corporation closed group users management able enforce company guidelines like adoption specific ontologies use semantic annotation compared public semantic web lesser requirements scalability information circulating within company trusted general privacy less issue outside handling customer data critics question basic feasibility complete even partial fulfillment semantic web pointing difficulties setting lack general-purpose usefulness prevents required effort invested 2003 paper marshall shipman point cognitive overhead inherent formalizing knowledge compared authoring traditional web hypertext according marshall shipman tacit changing nature much knowledge adds knowledge engineering problem limits semantic web applicability specific domains issue point domain- organisation-specific ways express knowledge must solved community agreement rather technical means turns specialized communities organizations intra-company projects tended adopt semantic web technologies greater peripheral less-specialized communities practical constraints toward adoption appeared less challenging domain scope limited general public world-wide web finally marshall shipman see pragmatic problems idea knowledge navigator-style intelligent agents working largely manually curated semantic web cory doctorow critique metacrap perspective human behavior personal preferences example people may include spurious metadata web pages attempt mislead semantic web engines naively assume metadata veracity phenomenon well-known metatags fooled altavista ranking algorithm elevating ranking certain web pages google indexing engine specifically looks attempts manipulation peter gärdenfors timo honkela point logic-based semantic web technologies cover fraction relevant phenomena related semantics enthusiasm semantic web could tempered concerns regarding censorship privacy instance text-analyzing techniques easily bypassed using words metaphors instance using images place words advanced implementation semantic web would make much easier governments control viewing creation online information information would much easier automated content-blocking machine understand addition issue also raised use foaf files geolocation meta-data would little anonymity associated authorship articles things personal blog concerns addressed policy aware web project active research development topic another criticism semantic web would much time-consuming create publish content would need two formats one piece data one human viewing one machines however many web applications development addressing issue creating machine-readable format upon publishing data request machine data development microformats one reaction kind criticism another argument defense feasibility semantic web likely falling price human intelligence tasks digital labor markets amazon mechanical turk specifications erdf rdfa allow arbitrary rdf data embedded html pages grddl gleaning resource descriptions dialects language mechanism allows existing material including microformats automatically interpreted rdf publishers need use single format html first research group explicitly focusing corporate semantic web acacia team inria-sophia-antipolis founded 2002 results work include rdf based corese search engine application semantic web technology realm e-learning since 2008 corporate semantic web research group located free university berlin focuses building blocks corporate semantic search corporate semantic collaboration corporate ontology engineering ontology engineering research includes question involve non-expert users creating ontologies semantically annotated content extracting explicit knowledge interaction users within enterprises tim o'reilly coined term web 2.0 proposed long-term vision semantic web web data sophisticated applications manipulate data web data web transforms web distributed file system distributed database system 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_services_description_language.web services description language web services description language wsdl xml-based interface description language used describing functionality offered web service acronym also used specific wsdl description web service also referred wsdl file provides machine-readable description service called parameters expects data structures returns therefore purpose roughly similar type signature programming language current version wsdl wsdl 2.0 meaning acronym changed version 1.1 stood definition wsdl describes services collections network endpoints ports wsdl specification provides xml format documents purpose abstract definitions ports messages separated concrete use instance allowing reuse definitions port defined associating network address reusable binding collection ports defines service messages abstract descriptions data exchanged port types abstract collections supported operations concrete protocol data format specifications particular port type constitutes reusable binding operations messages bound concrete network protocol message format way wsdl describes public interface web service wsdl often used combination soap xml schema provide web services internet client program connecting web service read wsdl file determine operations available server special datatypes used embedded wsdl file form xml schema client use soap actually call one operations listed wsdl file using example xml http current version specification 2.0 version 1.1 endorsed w3c version 2.0 w3c recommendation wsdl 1.2 renamed wsdl 2.0 substantial differences wsdl 1.1 accepting binding http request methods get post version 1.1 wsdl 2.0 specification offers better support restful web services much simpler implement however support specification still poor software development kits web services often offer tools wsdl 1.1 example version 2.0 business process execution language bpel supports wsdl 1.1 subset wsdl swsdl wsdl subset operations original wsdl developer use swsdl access subset service thus handle subset web service code subset wsdl used perform web service testing top development slicing web service done using subset wsdl access subset service subset service categorized layers using swsdl swsdls used web service analysis testing top development awscm pioneer tool construct swsdl successfully xml version= 1.0 encoding= utf-8 description xmlns= http //www.w3.org/ns/wsdl documentation /documentation -- abstract type -- -- abstract interfaces -- -- concrete binding http -- -- concrete binding soap -- -- web service offering endpoints bindings -- /description wsdl 1.0 sept. 2000 developed ibm microsoft ariba describe web services soap toolkit built combining two service description languages nassl network application service specification language ibm sdl service description language microsoft wsdl 1.1 published march 2001 formalization wsdl 1.0 major changes introduced 1.0 1.1 wsdl 1.2 june 2003 working draft w3c become wsdl 2.0 according w3c wsdl 1.2 easier flexible developers previous version wsdl 1.2 attempts remove non-interoperable features also defines http 1.1 binding better wsdl 1.2 supported soap servers/vendors wsdl 2.0 became w3c recommendation june 2007 wsdl 1.2 renamed wsdl 2.0 substantial differences wsdl 1.1 changes following since wsdl files xml-based specification describing web service wsdl files susceptible attack mitigate vulnerability files limiting access generated wsdl files setting proper access restrictions wsdl definitions avoiding unnecessary definitions web services encouraged 1-hop neighbor's text information: wsmo.wsmo wsmo web service modeling ontology conceptual model relevant aspects related semantic web services provides ontology based framework supports deployment interoperability semantic web services wsmo four main components wsmo working group part essi cluster aligns research development efforts areas semantic web services several european fp6 research projects wsmo working group includes wsml working group aims developing language called web services modeling language wsml formalizes web services modeling ontology wsmo Target text information: web_services_modeling_language.web services modeling language wsml web service modeling language formal language provides syntax semantics web service modeling ontology wsmo words wsml provides means formally describe wsmo elements ontologies semantic web services goals mediators wsml based logical formalisms description logic first-order logic logic programming I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	7,408	test
[''] Target text information: memory_ballooning.memory ballooning memory ballooning technique used eliminate need overprovision host memory used virtual machine vm implement virtual machine kernel implements balloon driver allocates unused memory within vm address space reserved memory pool balloon unavailable processes vm however rather reserved uses within vm physical memory mapped pages within vm actually unmapped vm host operating system hypervisor making available uses host machine depending amount memory required vm size balloon may increased decreased dynamically mapping unmapping physical memory required vm I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,790	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: usage_share_of_operating_systems.usage share operating systems usage share operating systems percentage computing devices run operating system particular time figures necessarily estimates data operating system share difficult obtain reliable primary sources agreed methodologies collection personal computing platform area smartphones watches google android dominates 2.5 billion users mobile phone operating systems include apple ios kaios series 30+ area desktop laptop computers microsoft windows generally 70 markets 78 globally apple macos around 14 google chromeos 3 north america linux around 2 figures vary somewhat different markets depending gathered android battling windows used rank often popular past global scale ios never managed close half popularity windows however mobile operating systems android plus ios majority use non-mobile windows e.g macos close two years mostly android continues popular windows still countries continents mobile devices never anywhere near popular continents countries become mobile-majority still including ireland ios alone popular windows later android alone europe populous countries populous continent asia whole e.g china india excluding e.g russia still mobile-majority 56.37 public internet servers linux generally counted dominant powering twice number hosts windows server trailed many smaller players including traditional mainframe oses supercomputer field completely dominated linux 100 top500 running os according gartner following worldwide device shipments referring wholesale operating system includes smartphones tablets laptops pcs together shipments stores mean sales consumers necessarily year shipment therefore suggesting numbers indicate popularity and/or usage could misleading smartphones sell higher numbers traditional pcs also whole lot dollar value gap projected widen well double 2015 earlier gartner reports year worldwide pc shipments declined fourth consecutive year started 2012 launch tablets 8 decline pc sales 2015 including cumulative decline sales previous years gartner includes macs running macos pc sales numbers e.g ipads androids individually slight increase sales 2015 28 may 2015 google announced 1.4 billion android users 1 billion google play users active month changed 2 billion monthly active users may 2017 27 january 2016 paul thurrott summarized operating system market day apple announced one billion devices microsoft backed away goal one billion windows 10 devices three years middle 2018 reported 26 september 2016 windows 10 running 400 million devices march 2019 800 million late 2016 android e.g samsung smartphones explained killing apple ios market share i.e declining sales smartphones relatively also number units whole market increasing 9 may 2019 biggest smartphone companies market share samsung huawei apple respectively gartner press release said apple continued downward trend decline 7.7 percent second quarter 2016 decline based absolute number units underestimates relative decline market increasing along misleading 1.7 percent point decline point decline means 11.6 relative decline 14.6 12.9 although units sold apple declining almost vendor making profit smartphone sector hardware sales alone q3 2016 example captured 103.6 market profits mobile phone owners toothbrush owners mobile phones fastest growing technology history billion active mobile phones world people many 10 billion sold far less half still use explained fact people one extra work phones operating system fraction smartphones os capable running modern applications currently 3.1 billion smartphones tablets use across world tablets small fraction total generally running operating systems android ios latter popular tablets 2019 announced variant ios called ipados specifically ipad tablets development 2015 emarketer estimated beginning year tablet installed base would hit one billion first time china use 328 million google play n't serve track usa use second 156 million end year cheap tablets counted analysts goal met even excluding cumulative sales previous years conflicts statistics idc say tablet market contracted 10 2015 huawei ranked fifth big gains doubling share fourth quarter 2015 five biggest vendors except amazon fire tablets ranked third worldwide new list enabled quite tripling market share 7.9 fire os android-derivative recent data various sources published last twelve months summarized table sources monitor substantial number web sites statistics related one web site excluded android currently ranks highest windows incl xbox console systems every day week ios competes windows sweden depending day ios used ios windows 10 competing 13 windows mobile systems i.e windows phone accounts 0.51 web usage weekends ios alone topped windows us ios n't popular independent country guam unincorporated territory united states three consecutive quarters ios also highest ranked falkland islands british overseas territory one quarter plus one month overtaken android following quarter unknown strangely high countries madagascar 32.44 may due fact statcounter uses browser detection get os statistics common browsers often used version breakdown browsers madagascar shows 34.9 opera mini 4.4 popular known browser 22.1 plus e.g 3.34 opera 7.6 however browser statistics without version-breakdown opera 48.11 category small china android highest ranked operating system since january 2016 windows occasionally topped since asian continent whole android ranked highest since february 2016 android alone majority share large majority populous countries continent 84 bangladesh since august 2015 android ranked first 48.36 may 2016 african continent took big jump ahead windows 7 thereby africa joined asia mobile-majority continent china longer desktop-majority country joining india mobile-majority 71 confirming asia significant mobile-majority online usage linux kernel derivatives google systems gnu/linux exceeds windows true since time january april 2016 according w3counter statcounter however even figure unix-like oses including apple higher windows windows still dominant desktop os dominance varies region gradually lost market share desktop operating systems mobile slide noticeable us macos usage tripled 2009 2017 windows 72.76 chrome os 3.33 plus traditional linux 1.46 little openly published information device shipments desktop laptop computers gartner publishes estimates way estimates calculated openly published another source market share various operating systems statcounter basing estimate web use although may accurate also sales may overstate usage computers sold pre-installed operating system users replacing os different one due personal preference installing another os alongside using conversely sales underestimate usage counting unauthorized copies example 2009 approximately 80 software sold china comprised illegitimate copies 2007 statistics automated update ie7 registered windows computers differed observed web browser share leading one writer estimate 25–35 windows xp installations unlicensed usage share microsoft latest client operating system windows 10 slowly increasing since july/august 2016 windows 7 slight decrease time reaching around 27.15 december 2016 web analysis shows significant variation different parts world example north america usage windows xp dropped 2.06 africa still 11.02 asia 6.63 even higher china 18.21 tied windows 10 second going overtaken windows 10 conversely macos north america claims 16.82 17.52 us whereas asia 4.4 2019 stack overflow developer survey provides detail particular versions windows desktop operating system share among identifying professional developers june 2016 microsoft claimed windows 10 half market share windows installations usa uk quoted betanews digital video game distribution platform steam publishes monthly hardware software survey statistics q1 2018 mobile operating systems smartphones included google dominant android variants apple ios combined almost 100 market share smartphone penetration vs. desktop use differs substantially country countries like russia still smartphone use low 19 western countries smartphone use close 50 smartphone usage share developing countries much higher bangladesh example android smartphones 84 share mali smartphones 90 95 share year section information regional trends move smartphones clear correlation gdp per capita country country respective smartphone os market share richest countries much likely choose apple iphone google android predominant elsewhere tablet computers simply tablets became significant os market share category starting apple ipad q1 2018 ios 65.03 market share android 34.58 market share windows tablets may get classified analysts thus barely register e.g 2-in-1 pcs may get classified desktops tablets since 2016 south america cuba north america android tablets gained majority asia 2017 android slightly popular ipad 49.05 usage share october 2015 africa android tablets much popular elsewhere ipad safe margin android made steady gains becoming popular tablet operating system trend many countries already gained majority large countries india 63.25 indonesia 62.22 african continent android 62.22 first gain android majority late 2014 steady gains 20.98 august 2012 egypt 62.37 zimbabwe 62.04 south america 51.09 july 2015 peru 52.96 asia 46 nepal android gained majority lead november 2014 lost 41.35 ios 56.51 taiwan october 2016 android gained confident majority losing streak china major exception android gaining market share asia android phablets much popular android tablets similar devices get classified smartphones ipad/ios 82.84 march 2015 according statcounter web use statistics proxy use smartphones popular desktop computers globally android particular popular windows although desktop computers still popular many countries overall 44.9 first quarter 2017 smartphones popular even many developed countries countries continents desktop-minority android popular windows many e.g poland europe half countries south america many north america e.g guatemala honduras haiti countries asia africa smartphone-majority android poland turkey europe highest 57.68 62.33 respectively ireland smartphone use 45.55 outnumbers desktop use mobile whole gains majority including tablet share 9.12 spain also slightly desktop-minority july 2019 sweden desktop-minority eight weeks row range measured mobile web use varies lot country statcounter press release recognizes india amongst world leaders use mobile surf internet big countries share around 80 desktop 19.56 russia trailing 17.8 mobile use desktop rest smartphones discounting tablets first gained majority december 2016 desktop-majority lost month n't christmas-time fluke close majority smartphone majority happened march 2017 week 7–13 november 2016 smartphones alone without tablets overtook desktop first time albeit short period examples mobile-majority countries include paraguay south america poland europe turkey asia africa world still desktop-majority example united states 54.89 days however territories united states puerto rico desktop significantly majority windows 30 overtaken android 22 october 2016 subsequent weekends mobile showed majority since 27 october desktop n't majority including weekdays smartphones alone showed majority since 23 december end year share topping 58.22 christmas day mobile -majority share smartphones tablets could added giving 63.22 majority unusually high top similar high also occurred monday 17 april 2017 smartphone share slightly lower tablet share slightly higher combining 62.88 formerly according statcounter press release world turned desktop-minority 49 desktop use month mobile n't ranked higher tablet share added exceed desktop share christmas season i.e temporarily desktop-minority remains smartphone-majority weekends last two weeks december 2016 australia oceania general desktop-minority first time extended period i.e every day 23 december south america smartphones alone took majority desktops christmas day full-week-average desktop still least 58 uk desktop-minority dropped 44.02 christmas day eight days end year ireland joined european countries smartphone-majority three days christmas topping day 55.39 us desktop-minority happened three days around christmas longer four-day stretch happened november happens frequently weekends according statcounter web use statistics proxy use week 7–13 november 2016 mobile meaning smartphones alone without tablets overtook desktop first time highest ranked 52.13 27 november 2016 49.02 full week mobile-majority applies countries paraguay south america poland europe turkey continents asia africa large regions rest world still desktop-majority days united states north america whole n't us desktop-minority four days row five-day average examples desktop-minority days include uk ireland australia oceania whole fact least one country every continent turned desktop-minority least month 22 october 2016 subsequent weekends mobile shown majority previously according statcounter press release world turned desktop-minority 49 desktop use month desktop-minority stretching 18-weeks/4-months period 28 june 31 october 2016 whole july august september 2016 showed desktop-majority many long sub-periods long stretch showed desktop-minority similarly fridays saturdays sundays desktop-minority biggest continents asia africa shown vast mobile-majority long time day week well several individual countries elsewhere also turned mobile-majority poland albania turkey europe paraguay bolivia south america according statcounter web use statistics saturday 28 may 2016 day smartphones mobile statcounter counts tablets separately became used platform ranking first 47.27 desktops next day desktops slightly outnumbered mobile unless counting tablets analysts count tablets smartphones separately others desktops even tablets ipad android windows devices since sunday 27 march 2016 first day world dipped desktop-minority happened almost every week week 11–17 july 2016 world desktop-minority followed next week thereon also three-week period trend still stronger weekends e.g 17 july 2016 showed desktop 44.67 mobile 49.5 plus tablets 5.7 recent weekly data shows downward trend desktops according statcounter web use statistics proxy overall use weekends desktops worldwide lose 5 percent points e.g 51.46 15 august 2015 loss relative web use going mobile also minuscule increase tablets mostly windows 7 ranked 1st workdays declines web use shifting android lesser degree ios two continents already crossed mobile-majority android based statcounters web use statistics june 2015 asia became first continent mobile overtook desktop followed africa august nigeria mobile majority october 2011 symbian later 51 share series 40 dominating followed android dominating operating system far back october 2014 reported trend large scale press release mobile usage already overtaken desktop several countries including india south africa saudi arabia india desktop went majority july 2012 32 bangladesh desktop went majority may 2013 17 android alone accounting majority web use african countries still desktop-majority many large mobile majority including ethiopia kenya mobile usage 72 popularity mobile use worldwide driven huge popularity increase android asian countries android highest ranked operating system statistically virtually every south-east asian country also ranks popular almost every african country poland desktop-minority since april 2015 android vastly popular european countries albania turkey also crossed south america continent somewhat far losing desktop-majority paraguay lost android mobile browsing general also become hugely popular continents desktop large desktop base trend mobile clear fraction total web use analysts count tablets desktops run windows others count mobile phones vast majority tablets run so-called mobile operating system android operating system \|android ios ipad ipad clear lead globally clearly lost majority android south america number eastern european countries poland lost virtually african countries lost majority twice asia gained majority back many individual countries e.g india middle east clear android majority tablets android tablets thus second popular ipad march 2015 first time us number mobile-only adult internet users exceeded number desktop-only internet users 11.6 digital population using mobile compared 10.6 using desktop also means majority 78 use desktop mobile access internet smaller countries north america haiti android gone mobile majority mobile went 72.35 64.43 february 2016 region largest android usage also largest mobile revenue file rack001.jpg\|thumb\| server computing \|servers colocation centre \|upright\|right server computing \|internet based servers market share measured statistical surveys publicly accessible servers web server mail server dns server internet operating systems powering servers found inspecting raw response messages method gives insight market share operating systems publicly accessible internet differences result depending sample done observations weighted usually surveys based random sample ip numbers domain names hosts organisations servers found method additionally many domains ip numbers may served one host domains may served several hosts one host several ip numbers file ibm system z10.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|right\|ibm ibm system z10\|system z10 common operating system mainframes ibm z/os operating systems ibm system z generation hardware include ibm proprietary z/os linux z systems transaction processing facility\|z/tpf vse operating system \|z/vse z/vm gartner reported 23 december 2008 linux system z used approximately 28 customer z base expected increase 50 following five years linux system z red hat micro focus compete sell red hat enterprise linux\|rhel suse linux enterprise server\|sles respectively file operating systems used top 500 supercomputers.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.8\|supercomputer os family 1993–2019 systems share according top500 field supercomputers always dominated unix unix-like operating systems linux predominating since 2017 top 500 fastest supercomputers run linux top500 project lists ranks 500 fastest supercomputer benchmark results submitted june 2017 two aix computers held rank 493 494 last non-linux systems dropped list last non-linux fastest supercomputer asci white also running aix held title november 2000 november 2001 decommissioned 2006 historically kinds unix operating systems dominated end ultimately linux remains category operating systems\|*usage share operating systems category usage share\|operating systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: z/architecture.z/architecture z/architecture initially briefly called esa modal extensions esame ibm 64-bit instruction set architecture implemented mainframe computers ibm introduced first z/architecture-based system z900 late 2000 later z/architecture systems include ibm z800 z990 z890 system z9 system z10 zenterprise 196 zenterprise 114 zec12 zbc12 z13 z14 z/architecture retains backward compatibility previous 32-bit-data/31-bit-addressing architecture esa/390 predecessors way back 32-bit-data/24-bit-addressing system/360 ibm z13 last z systems server support running operating system esa/390 architecture mode however 24-bit 31-bit problem-state application programs originally written run esa/390 architecture unaffected change z/os address space called 64-bit address space 16 exabytes size z/os address space 8 billion times size former 2-gigabyte address space operating systems including z/os generally restrict code execution first 2 gb 31 address bits 2 addressable bytes virtual address space reasons efficiency compatibility rather architectural limits z/os implementation java programming language exception z/os virtual memory implementation supports multiple 2 gb address spaces permitting 2 gb concurrently resident program code 64-bit version linux system z allows code execute within 64-bit address ranges programmers need store large amounts data 64-bit address space usually suffices applications need 16 exabyte data address space employ extended addressability techniques using additional address spaces data-only spaces data-only spaces available user programs called spaces similar areas virtual storage program create 2 gigabytes unlike address space dataspace hiperspace contains user data contain system control blocks common areas program code run dataspace hiperspace dataspace differs hiperspace dataspaces byte-addressable whereas hiperspaces page-addressable traditionally ibm mainframe memory byte-addressable kind memory termed central storage ibm mainframe processors much 1980s 1990s supported another kind memory expanded storage expanded storage 4kb-page addressable application wants access data expanded storage must first moved central storage similarly data movement central storage expanded storage done multiples 4kb pages initially page movement performed using relatively expensive instructions paging subsystem code overhead moving single groups pages central expanded storage reduced introduction mvpg move page instruction admf asynchronous data mover facility capability mvpg instruction admf explicitly invoked—generally middleware z/os z/vm acp —to access data expanded storage uses namely mid-1990s central expanded storage physically different areas memory processor since mid-1990s central expanded storage merely assignment choices underlying processor memory choices made based specific expected uses example expanded storage required hiperbatch function uses mvpg instruction access hiperspaces addition hiperspace paging cases mentioned uses expanded storage including z/os removed support expanded storage memory z/os central storage z/vm continues support expanded storage ibm described mvpg moves single page central processor execute instructions page move completed mvpg mainframe instruction move page opcode x'b254 compared mvcl move character long instruction move 256 bytes within main memory using single instruction instructions comply definitions atomicity although used single instruction within documented timing non-overlap restrictions need move 256 bytes within main memory historically addressed software mvc loops mvcl introduced 1970 announcement system/370 mvpg patented announced ibm 1989 advantages admf asynchronous data mover facility introduced 1992 goes beyond capabilities mvpg move page instruction limited single page move groups pages central expanded storage macro instruction named iosadmf described api avoids direct low-level use admf used read write data hiperspace hiperspaces created using dspserv create provide reentrancy iosadmf used together list form execute form z/vse version 4 z/tpf version 1 z/vm version 5 operating systems presumably successors require z/architecture z/architecture supports running multiple concurrent operating systems applications even use different address sizes allows software developers choose address size advantageous applications data structures platform solutions inc. psi previously marketed itanium-based servers compatible z/architecture ibm bought psi july 2008 psi systems longer available flex-es zpdt hercules emulator also implement z/architecture hitachi mainframes running newer releases vos3 operating system implement esa/390 plus hitachi-unique cpu instructions including 64-bit instructions hitachi likely inspired z/architecture formally collaborated ibm z900-g2/z800 cpus introduced 2002 hitachi machines z/architecture-compatible july 7 2009 ibm occasion announcing new version one operating systems implicitly stated architecture level set 4 als 4 exists implemented system z10 subsequent machines als 4 also specified loadxx archlvl 3 whereas earlier z900 z800 z990 z890 system z9 specified archlvl 2 earlier announcements system z10 simply specified implements z/architecture additions 50+ new machine instructions 1 mb page frames hardware decimal floating point unit hdfu 1-hop neighbor's text information: os/vs2_(svs).os/vs2 svs single virtual storage svs refers release 1 operating system/virtual storage 2 os/vs2 successor system mvt option operating system/360 os/vs2 svs stopgap measure pending availability mvs although ibm provided support enhancements svs long shipping mvs svs provides single 16mib address space shared tasks system regardless size physical memory os/360 used interval timer feature providing time day triggering time-dependent events support s/370 made limited use new timing facilities retained dependency interval timer svs uses tod clock clock comparator cpu timer exclusively wake applied data research lawsuit ibm decided although clear whether lawsuit actually deciding factor result svs include sort/merge program language processor new assembler xf replacing assembler f required system generation process authorized program facility apf new facility limited use certain dangerous services programs authorized link edited ac 1 loaded link list lpa sys1.svclib mvs ibm enhanced facility allow installation designate additional data sets authorized reader/interpreter svs runs pageable storage much less benefit automatic sysin batching asb reader svs include os/360 facility called direct sysout dso whereby specific output classes could diverted data sets tape instead normal spool datasets dasd prices dropped facility dropped use svs provide os/360 provided limited interactive facilities conversational remote job entry crje graphic job processing gjp interactive terminal facility itf satellite graphic job processing sgjp prior time sharing option tso ibm carry forward svs tso continues provide equivalent facilities except support use 2250 terminal use 2250 batch job using graphics access method gam graphics subroutine package gsp remains supported os/360 included batch debugging facility named testran clumsier equivalent facility ibsys/ibjob used much advent tso testran became even less relevant svs include dynamic support system dss new os/vs debugging facility system software remained available selectable unit 64 mvs/system extensions release 2 storage key facility system/360 system/370 keeps track page frame modified machine check handler mch svs correct parity ecc error unmodified page unassigning damaged page frame marking page table entry cause pagein operation newly assigned page table replaces special handling refreshable transient svc routines os/360 svs expands size error recovery procedure erp transient area none processors svs runs equivalent 2361 large core storage lcs thus need hierarchy support svs provide svs also dropped support obsolete i/o equipment os/360 load modules could permanently loaded initial program load ipl time area real storage known link pack area lpa svs lpa split three areas searched turn os/360 support multiprocessor version 360/65 svs provide equivalent support customers wanting run multiprocessor system/370 use mvs os/360 introduced telecommunications access method tcam successor queued telecommunications access method qtam svs include qtam svs include remote job entry rje however asp hasp provide comparable facilities larger 16 mib address space svs provides less external fragmentation mvt rollin/rollout would provide less benefit svs include os/360 transient svc routines loaded 1 kib areas known svc transient areas considerable amount code required manage svs svc routines preloaded virtual storage svc transient areas svs retains spool support os/360 shops used asp hasp precursors jes2 jes3 storage management svs similar mvt notable differences description somewhat simplified glosses special cases svs 16mib addressable storage single address space regardless size physical memory nucleus flpa virtual=real v=r meaning virtual address area mapped corresponding physical address job step svs request v=r storage assigned pages v=r region mapped corresponding real page frames program check occurs interrupt code 16 17 svs checks whether page assigned virtual address svs assign page frame read contents page page assigned svs causes abnormal end abend abend code 0c4 mvt would used protection violation svs provides services page fixing unfixing page fixed page frame subject page stealing primary purpose page fixing i/o i/o channels s/370 successors ability address translation however part support virtual storage operating systems ibm provided indirect data address ida feature channel control word ccw ida bit set points ida list idal rather directly i/o buffer svs provides ccw translation service part execute channel program excp svc excp necessary page fixing allocate storage ida lists translate virtual addresses real put translated addresses appropriate ida words put real addresses ida lists translated ccw i/o completes excp reverses process freeing storage translating status back virtual addition svs provides execute channel program real storage excvr svc privileged applications paged fixing build ida lists ibm provided several enhancements svs shipped part included Target text information: linux_on_z_systems.linux z systems linux ibm z linux z short previously linux z systems collective term linux operating system compiled run ibm mainframes especially ibm z ibm linuxone servers similar terms imply meaning linux zenterprise linux zseries linux/390 linux/390x etc terms zlinux z/linux also sometimes used terms discouraged ibm create implication ibm-offered ibm-distributed version linux incorrect zlinux without slash also incorrect software software nomenclature involves slash z/vm z/os z/vse etc hardware z900 z13 etc linux ibm z originated two separate efforts port linux ibm system/390 servers first effort bigfoot project developed linas vepstas late 1998 early 1999 independent distribution since abandoned ibm published collection patches additions linux 2.2.13 kernel december 18 1999 start today mainline linux z formal product announcements quickly followed 2000 including integrated facility linux ifl engines think blue linux early mainframe distribution consisting mainly red hat packages added ibm kernel commercial linux distributors introduced mainframe editions quickly initial kernel work start ibm involvement linux patches ibm z included object code oco modules without source code soon ibm replaced oco modules open source modules linux z free software gnu general public license according ibm may 2006 1,700 customers running linux mainframes virtualization required default ibm z option run linux z without degree virtualization first 64-bit mainframe models z900 z800 included non-virtualized basic mode first layer virtualization provided processor resource system manager pr/sm deploy one logical partitions lpars lpar supports variety operating systems including linux ibm z hypervisor called z/vm also run second layer virtualization lpars create many virtual machines vms resources assigned lpars support kvm z another hypervisor option linux applications lpar access data applications lpars cics ibm db2 ims linux mainframe subsystems running physical mainframe utilize hipersockets – fast memory-only tcp/ip connections compared tcp/ip standard network interface cards nics also known open system adapters osas mainframes hipersockets improve end-user responsiveness reduce network latency processing overhead security since network connection intercept reliability since network connection lose zec12 zbc12 later models hipersocket concept extended beyond physical machine boundary via rdma converged ethernet roce adapter facilitate secure high speed inter-system communication applications lpar system thus use hipersockets communicate applications lpar b system b ensure security performance attributes beginning linux kernel version 4.1 released early 2015 linux z available 64-bit operating system compatible z/architecture mainframes previously linux z also available 31-bit operating system compatible older model mainframes introduced prior 2000 z900 model however newer 64-bit linux kernel 64-bit linux z distributions still backward compatible applications compiled 31-bit linux z historically linux kernel architecture designations s390 s390x distinguish 31-bit 64-bit linux z kernels respectively s390 also refers generally one linux z kernel architecture linux runs standard general purpose mainframe cps central processors well ifls integrated facility linux ifls mainframe processors dedicated running linux either natively hypervisor z/vm kvm z microcode restricts ifls running traditional workloads z/os physically identical ibm z processors ifls typically less expensive acquire ibm cps linux z gives flexibility running linux advantages fault-tolerant mainframe hardware capable 90,000 i/o operations per second mean time failure mtbf measured decades using virtualization numerous smaller servers combined onto one mainframe gaining benefits centralization cost reduction still allowing specialized servers instead paravirtualization ibm mainframes use full virtualization permits workload density far greater paravirtualization combining full virtualization hardware plus lightweight virtual machine containers run linux isolation somewhat similar concept docker result platform supports virtual servers single footprint also lower operating costs additional savings seen reduced need floor space power cooling networking hardware infrastructure needed support data center ibm mainframes allow transparent use redundant processor execution steps integrity checking important critical applications certain industries banking.. mainframes typically allow hot-swapping hardware processors memory ibm z provides fault tolerance key components including processors memory i/o interconnect power supply channel paths network cards others internal monitoring possible problems detected problem components designed switched without even failing single transaction rare event failure firmware automatically enable spare component disable failing component notify ibm dispatch service representative transparent operating system allowing routine repairs performed without shutting system many industries continue rely mainframes considered best option terms reliability security cost linux z generally appropriate premises small businesses would fewer 10 distributed linux servers although expensive per-processor licensed software quickly reduce rule thumb software vendors including ibm treat highly virtualized ifls like non-virtualized processors platforms licensing purposes words single ifl running scores linux instances still typically counts one ordinary cpu cpu price software licensing test development quality assurance training redundant production server instances run one ifl ifls needed peak demand performance capacity thus beyond minimum threshold linux z quickly become cost-advantageous factoring labor software costs cost equation linux z always well understood controversial many businesses governments difficulty measuring much less basing decisions software labor costs costs outage security breaches acquisition costs often visible small non-scalable servers cheap nonetheless non-acquisition costs less real usually far greater hardware acquisition prices also individual users departments within larger businesses governments sometimes difficulty sharing computing infrastructure resources matter citing loss control server centralization linux z provides might reward cooperation better service lower costs say cooperation always easily accomplished within corporate bureaucracy linux z also supports less expensive disk storage devices z/os linux require ficon escon attachment although z/os may use disk space efficiently balance due hardware-assisted database compression common z/os smaller number operating system instances z/os typically requires also operational advantages using ficon-attached storage linux z example support z/vm live guest relocation mainframe characteristics designed business workloads transaction processing especially conjunction concurrent high volume batch processing large database management mainframe design traditionally emphasizes balanced performance computing elements including input/output implemented via channel i/o mainframes offload i/o system accounting non-core computing tasks main cpus much possible z/architecture additionally offloads cryptographic calculations example single ibm z13 machine 141 processor cores available configure ifls however every machine also 27 additional main cores 2 spares 1 firmware support remainder running system accounting i/o support tasks addition i/o adapter typically two powerpc processors z13 supports hundreds i/o adapters also separate processors handling memory cache control tasks environmental monitoring internal interconnections examples historically mainframes general linux z particular execute cpu-intensive single task computations notably high performance compared certain platforms notable exceptions cryptographic calculations examples included scientific simulations weather forecasting molecular modeling supercomputers including linux-based supercomputers excel workloads bifurcation mainframes platforms significantly blurred recent years starting introduction 2008 system z10 machine based quad-core 4.4 ghz processors hardware decimal floating point mainframe processor technology continued evolve especially introduction ibm linuxone ibm z13 models 2015 ibm started promoting mainframes ideal platforms run real-time analytics computationally intensive tasks mainframes historically run well ibm sold x86 server product line lenovo 2014 mainframes provide graphics sound adapters ill-suited digital media editing computer-aided design cad except perhaps support roles e.g content storage parts inventories metadata management security services etc like versions linux linux z governed gpl free software license complete linux z source code available numerous parties free equal basis architectural support part main linux kernel effort ibm assigns several programmers community effort ibm means participant though obstacles running linux z distribution ibm z system ibm routinely tests three particular linux z distributions red hat suse starting 2015 canonical ubuntu linux notable linux z distributions include debian fedora slackware centos gentoo nearly every free open-source software package available linux generally available linux z including apache http server samba software jboss postgresql mysql php python programming language concurrent versions system cvs gnu compiler collection gcc llvm perl rust among many others red hat suse offer mainline support distributions running linux z 2015 canonical announced plans offer official support distribution starting early 2016 ibm global services also offers support contracts including 24x7 coverage standard linux software applications readily available pre-compiled including popular closed-source enterprise software packages websphere db2 oracle databases applications sap r/3 sap erp ibm java developer kit jdk name ibm offers resources developers wishing target linux z linux z supports unicode ascii like linux distribution—it ebcdic-based operating system however convenience linux able read kernel parameters ebcdic z/vm takes advantage capability porting linux applications linux z fairly straightforward potential issues include endianness linux z big-endian reliance non-portable libraries particularly source code available programs easily cross compiled z/architecture binaries non-mainframe linux systems least three software-based ibm z mainframes emulators I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	863	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: mill_architecture.mill architecture mill architecture novel belt machine-based computer architecture general-purpose computing development since 2003 ivan godard startup mill computing inc. formerly named box computing east palo alto california mill computing claims 10x single-thread power/performance gain conventional out-of-order superscalar architectures runs programs without rewrite mill computing founded persons formerly worked together family digital signal processors dsps philips trimedia designers claim power cost improvements come adapting dsp-like deeply-pipelined processor general-purpose code timing hazards branches memory access said handled via speculative execution pipelining late binding statically-scheduled logic claimed improvements power area said come eliminating dynamic optimizing hardware register-renaming out-of-order execution hazard management dynamic cache optimizing replace hardware mill processor designed timing memory-access behavior predictable single cycles scheduling subject highly-optimizing compiler mill uses long instruction word vliw -style encoding store 33 simple operations wide instruction words termed opcodes mill uses two program counters every wide instruction split two parts one program counters counts backward code every linear instruction block executed middle outside two almost independent decoders unused operations deleted small fixed-format data item center instruction helps maintain code density reducing incidence no-operation codes mill code also allows functional unit start speculatively executing instruction field discard result instruction ivan godard designer mill quotes research finding operation standard register machine values stored processor registers 6 accessed never 80 14 thus mill uses novel temporal register addressing scheme belt analogy conveyor belt operands arithmetic logic units alus functional units may taken position belt result computation dropped stored front position belt advancing belt make room belt fixed length drops front matched older operands falling back pushed-off operands become inaccessible must explicitly saved still needed later work operations instruction set work data belt data registers main memory cells typical instruction like codice_1 argument operands come explicitly named positions belt result dropped front ready next instruction operations multiple results simply drop values belt front example division produce quotient remainder operations overflow produce double-wide results belt instructions encoded operation code opcode two belt positions added fields specify result register memory address literal constant encoding easily extended richer operations two inputs one result constant operands dropped separate codice_2 instructions access program variables main random-access memory ram segregated separate codice_3 codice_4 instructions containing one memory address way calculate address belt operands belt machines variants load/store opcodes access local variables heap offsets pointer belt various special-purpose base registers similarly instructions branch address taken belt along branches relative program counter drop result moves prior belt content along later positions queue given operand continually changes position hence address result later execution effect access operand position zero request recent value dropped belt example reference position five sixth recent drop thus addresses belt operands reflect belt history time temporal addressing hard human programmers keep track belt contents hence operand addresses writing assembly code belt machine however easy compiler track changing contents emit correct position addresses generated code belt fixed length may short hold live transient operands pushed end operand needed longer belt lifetime must saved still belt spill later restored belt needed fill situation equivalent need spill registers memory program runs registers general-register machine spilled operands may written memory using normal store instructions restored using normal load instructions spill fill may use special-purpose storage associated operations faster offer advantages load store operands belt read-only new results overwrite prior values belt thus single-assignment structure immune data hazards must dealt modern out-of-order general-register machines dense machine code valuable 1960s main memory costly limited even mainframe computers became important initially-tiny memories minicomputers microprocessors density remains important today applications smartphone downloaded browsers slow internet connections read-only memory rom embedded applications general advantage increased density improved effectiveness caches instruction prefetch belt machines smaller instructions register-based machines due needing destination address results saving make significant difference fixed-length instruction formats normally use power-of-two instruction widths thirty-two addressable elements registers general-register machine belt positions belt machine element address occupies five bits instruction needing 15 bits three-address format general-register machine 10 bits using two-address format belt machine bits also needed opcode information instruction power-of-two constrained instruction width often determines maximum number addressable elements possible design typically belt machine instruction support encoding double number addressable elements compared general-register machine instruction width similar gains variable-length instruction encodings overall belt machine code less compact stack machines use operand addresses often must introduce stack-manipulation instructions unneeded belt machine instructions accumulator machines padded multiple register fields instead use return stack need extra memory reference instructions belt machine presents operand queue program model mill architecture n't implement belt physical queue shift register implemented hardware instead semantic representation bypass network present fast computers intercepts pipelined accesses registers routing directly execution units need result number registers reasonably small needed pipeline output functional unit one possible belt item small number registers reduces size power complexity network access registers live data values kept conveniently addressable physical resources individual registers register files static random-access memory sram operand forwarding functional units generally moved duration belt lifetime instruction decoder maps logical belt positions physical locations mapping updated reflect changes logical position arising newly dropped results patent belt granted 2016 depending type success load operations mill also assigns metadata belt item including status width vectorization count operations operate item described thus width vector count part instruction coding operation fails failure information hashed placed destination metadata use debugging mill also uses metadata assist speculative execution pipelining example vector load operation fails e.g. part leaves protection boundary parts belt entry marked codice_5 nar metadata allows speculatively-executed vector code emulate per-vector-item fault behavior nar items create fault attempt occurs store perform non-speculative code never used fault ever created mill architecture appears able reduce size complexity pipelined loop code pipeline video every operation required cope special operand value called codice_6 confused codice_7 floating point formats special semantics purpose operations least one argument codice_6 generally produce codice_6 output codice_6 attempted stored memory store portion store vectors elements codice_6 ignored leaving memory location undisturbed special codice_6 value implemented reserved bit pattern using extra metadata bits associated belt item first iterations pipelined loop code drops group codice_13 belt using special codice_14 operation tells cpu many items drop cycle however many real items drop onto belt previous scheduled operations codice_14 drops enough additional codice_13 bring total number drops cycle requested amount steady state reached generally codice_13 generated way belt always expected number new items usual steady-state loop body operate codice_13 acting placeholders data n't ready operations scheduled previous iterations loop begin dropping results belt therefore starts new loop iteration real data items fewer placeholder codice_13 ordering rules simultaneous drops different-latency operations codice_14 ensure real results appear new iterations always occupy position codice_6 previous iterations operation use input belt number iterations meanwhile store operations loop body receive codice_6 values loop steady state reached therefore effect real results available storing thus loop body handles steady-state pipeline code includes appropriate codice_14 operations acts prologue code processing final elements pipeline generally finished loop deliberately execute extra iterations remaining scheduled operations time finish stored memory nearly operations side effects attempted invalid memory reads merely produce codice_24 value belt cause fault unless used store flow control operation pipeline nested loops mill treats loop almost like subroutine call automatic saves restores appropriate state belt scratchpad another improvement said open instruction-level parallelism mill instructions phased instructions may span several clock cycles hold 33 operations within instruction finishing occurs math operations first data rearrangements middle stores memory last also operations even multiple cores operate statically-predictable prioritized timings several versions mill processor development spanning tin low-end uses gold high-performance uses company estimates dual-core gold chips implemented 28 nm lithography may work 1.2 ghz typical thermal design power tdp 28watts performance 79 billion operations per second different versions mill intended different markets said different instruction set architectures different numbers execution units different pipeline timings thus different binaries accommodate compilers required emit specification recompiled executable binary recompiler supplied mill computing company way code distributed adapted specifics exact model pipeline binary coding etc development many tool sets processor designs may impractically costly ivan godard said mill plan develop software tools accept specification mill processor write software tools assembler compiler backend simulator verilog describing cpu demo video mill claimed show early versions software create assembler simulator bulk compiler said port llvm incomplete 1-hop neighbor's text information: manycore_processor.manycore processor manycore processors specialist multi-core processors designed high degree parallel processing containing large number simpler independent processor cores tens cores thousands manycore processors used extensively embedded computers high-performance computing manycore processors distinct multi-core processors optimized outset higher degree explicit parallelism higher throughput lower power consumption expense latency lower single thread performance broader category multi-core processors contrast usually designed efficiently run parallel serial code therefore place emphasis high single thread performance e.g devoting silicon order execution deeper pipelines superscalar execution units larger general caches shared memory techniques devote runtime resources toward figuring implicit parallelism single thread used systems evolved continuously backward compatibility single core processors usually 'few cores e.g 2,4,8 may complemented manycore accelerator gpu heterogeneous system cache coherency issue limiting scaling multicore processors manycore processors may bypass tricks message passing scratchpad memory dma partitioned global address space read-only/non-coherent caches manycore processor using network chip local memories gives software opportunity explicitly optimise spatial layout tasks e.g seen tooling developed truenorth manycore processors may common conceptually technologies originating high performance computing clusters vector processors gpus may considered form manycore processor multiple shader processing units suitable highly parallel code high throughput extremely poor single thread performance number computers built multicore processors one million individual cpu cores examples include 1-hop neighbor's text information: instruction-level_parallelism.instruction-level parallelism instruction-level parallelism ilp measure many instructions computer program executed simultaneously two approaches instruction level parallelism hardware level works upon dynamic parallelism whereas software level works static parallelism dynamic parallelism means processor decides run time instructions execute parallel whereas static parallelism means compiler decides instructions execute parallel pentium processor works dynamic sequence parallel execution itanium processor works static level parallelism consider following program operation 3 depends results operations 1 2 calculated completed however operations 1 2 depend operation calculated simultaneously assume operation completed one unit time three instructions completed total two units time giving ilp 3/2 goal compiler processor designers identify take advantage much ilp possible ordinary programs typically written sequential execution model instructions execute one order specified programmer ilp allows compiler processor overlap execution multiple instructions even change order instructions executed much ilp exists programs application specific certain fields graphics scientific computing amount large however workloads cryptography may exhibit much less parallelism micro-architectural techniques used exploit ilp include known ilp exploited compiler hardware support compiler also provides inherent implicit ilp programs hardware compilation optimization optimization techniques extracting available ilp programs would include scheduling register allocation/renaming memory access optimization dataflow architectures another class architectures ilp explicitly specified recent example see trips architecture recent years ilp techniques used provide performance improvements spite growing disparity processor operating frequencies memory access times early ilp designs ibm system/360 model 91 used ilp techniques overcome limitations imposed relatively small register file presently cache miss penalty main memory costs several hundreds cpu cycles principle possible use ilp tolerate even memory latencies associated resource power dissipation costs disproportionate moreover complexity often latency underlying hardware structures results reduced operating frequency reducing benefits hence aforementioned techniques prove inadequate keep cpu stalling off-chip data instead industry heading towards exploiting higher levels parallelism exploited techniques multiprocessing multithreading Target text information: stack_register.stack register stack register computer central processor register whose purpose keep track call stack accumulator-based architecture machine may dedicated register sp intel x86 machine general register machine may register reserved convention pdp-11 risc machines designs data general eclipse dedicated register used reserved hardware memory address function machines late 1960s—such pdp-8 hp 2100—did compilers supported recursion subroutine instructions typically would save current location jump address set program counter next address simpler maintaining stack since one return location per subroutine code section recursion without considerable effort part programmer stack machine 2 stack registers — one keeps track call stack keep track stack 8086 main stack register called stack pointer sp stack segment register ss usually used store information memory segment stores call stack currently executed program sp points current stack top default stack grows downward memory newer values placed lower memory addresses push value stack codice_1 instruction used pop value stack codice_2 instruction used example assuming ss 1000h sp 0xf820 means current stack top physical address 0x1f820 due memory segmentation 8086 next two machine instructions program illustrates push works usually running program pushes registers stack make use registers purposes like call routine may change current values registers restore values stored stack program shall contain machine instructions like note program pops bx first pushed last note 8086 codice_1 codice_2 instructions work 16-bit elements simpler processors store stack pointer regular hardware register use arithmetic logic unit alu manipulate value typically push pop translated multiple micro-ops separately add/subtract stack pointer perform load/store memory newer processors contain dedicated stack engine optimize stack operations pentium first x86 processor introduce stack engine implementation stack pointer split among two registers esp 32-bit register esp 8-bit delta value updated directly stack operations push pop call ret opcodes operate directly esp register esp near overflow esp register referenced instructions esp ≠ 0 synchronisation micro-op inserted updates esp using alu resets esp 0 design remained largely unmodified later intel processors although esp expanded 64 bits stack engine similar intel also adopted amd k8 microarchitecture bulldozer need synchronization micro-ops removed internal design stack engine known I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	7,858	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: proofpoint,_inc..proofpoint inc. proofpoint enterprise security company based sunnyvale california provides software service products inbound email security outbound data loss prevention social media mobile devices digital risk email encryption electronic discovery ediscovery ” email archiving claims half fortune 100 users solutions company founded june 2002 eric hahn formerly cto netscape communications launched july 21 2003 raising 7 million series funding round releasing first product lining six customers references backed venture investors benchmark capital stanford university additional 9 million series b funding led new york-based rre ventures announced october 2003 proofpoint became publicly traded company april 2012 time initial public offering ipo company shares traded 13 apiece investors purchased 6.3 million shares ipo raising 80 million company first product proofpoint protection server medium large businesses incorporated described mlx technology proprietary machine learning algorithms applied problem accurately identifying spam email using 10,000 different attributes differentiate spam valid email company joined dozens anti-spam software providers business opportunity fueled exponential increase spam volume threatening worker productivity making spam top business priority according 2004 national technology readinesed number spam detection attributes 50,000 2004 strict new hipaa regulations governing financial disclosures privacy health care data prompted proofpoint begin developing new products would automatically identify intercept outbound email containing sensitive information march 2004 proofpoint introduced first hardware appliance p-series message protection appliance later renamed proofpoint messaging security gateway using hardened linux kernel proofpoint protection server 2.0 software tested infoworld found stop 94 spam another product introduction november 2004 included protection server 3.0 email firewall mlx-based dynamic reputation analysis content security suite plug-in modules designed scanning outbound messages attachments assist compliance data protection regulations sarbanes-oxley hipaa gramm-leach-bliley combination known proofpoint messaging security gateway appliance reviewed channelweb proofpoint appliance stands guard e-mail gate channelweb nov 26 2004 observed used combination technologies policy-based management spam-filtering engine adaptive learning technology proofpoint introduced new product network content sentry add-on appliance content security suite august 2005 designed monitor online messaging email appliance monitors web mail message boards blogs ftp-based communications proofpoint also introduced policy-based email encryption features using identity-based encryption technology licensed voltage security step towards simpler operational requirements proofpoint messaging security gateway virtual edition released april 2007 product runs virtual appliance host running vmware virtual server software moving dedicated hardware appliance virtual server eliminates problems associated proprietary hardware reduces upgrade costs though require knowledge vmware virtual server architecture proofpoint messaging security gateway v5.0 released june 2007 based new integrated architecture combining capabilities single platform could run either dedicated appliance virtual appliance software suite icsa labs independent division verizon business announced april 2007 certified six anti-spam products new testing program one proofpoint messaging security gateway goal icsa labs anti-spam product testing certification evaluate product effectiveness detecting removing spam guidelines also address well products recognize e-mail messages legitimate sources moving software-as-a-service business proofpoint introduced proofpoint demand hosted version email security data loss prevention offerings may 2008 company hosted offerings expanded introduction proofpoint demand—standard edition product targeted small-to-medium size businesses need email security run servers on-site personnel proofpoint products designed solve three business problems advanced cybersecurity threats regulatory compliance brand-impostor fraud calls “ digital risk ” products work across email social media mobile devices cloud june 2008 proofpoint acquired fortiva inc. provider on-demand email archiving software legal discovery regulatory compliance email storage management fortiva used exchange journaling automatically archive internal external communications end users search archived messages including attachments directly search folder outlook proofpoint security portfolio includes products stop traditional cyberattacks delivered via malicious attachments urls socially engineered attacks—such business email compromise bec credential phishing—that use malware uses blend sandbox analysis reputational analysis automated threat data human threat intelligence attributes sender/recipient relationship headers content detect potential threats automated encryption data-loss prevention forensics-gathering tools designed speed incident response mitigate damage costs threats get portfolio also includes protection social-media account takeovers harmful mobile apps rogue wi-fi networks proofpoint compliance products designed reduce manual labor involved identifying potentially sensitive data managing supervising compliance government industry rules producing quickly e-discovery legal requests proofpoint digital risk products aimed companies seeking stop cybercriminals impersonating brand harm customers partners brand reputation email digital risk portfolio includes authentication technology prevent email domain spoofing social media stops scams fraudsters create fake customer-service accounts find people seeking help social media trick handing account credentials visiting malicious website mobile finds counterfeit apps distributed mobile app stores 2016 forrester wave™ digital risk monitoring q3 2016 proofpoint digital risk social media product included evaluation nine top vendors emerging market solutions monitor “ digital ” —i.e. social mobile web dark web—channels detect prevent malicious unwanted content undermining organizational efforts build brand across major social media platforms oct 23 2014 proofpoint acquired nexgate inc. social media security compliance vendor nov 4 2015 proofpoint acquired socialware inc compliance workflow content capture review technology company 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 gartner magic quadrant identified proofpoint inc. leader “ magic quadrant secure email gateways ” seventh consecutive year gartner magic quadrant identified proofpoint inc. leader enterprise information archiving 2017 2017 sc magazine awards proofpoint inc. awarded best email security solution best regulatory compliance solution 2016 sc magazine award proofpoint inc. awarded best email security trust award forrester research named proofpoint inc. “ leader ” forrester wave™ digital risk monitoring q3 2016 nine vendors matter stack forrester credited proofpoint inc. report proofpoint stands rest pack strong portfolio patents related digital risk monitoring proofpoint essentials wins customers ’ choice award review platform expert insights may 2019 1-hop neighbor's text information: eric_allman.eric allman eric paul allman born september 2 1955 american computer programmer developed sendmail precursor delivermail late 1970s early 1980s uc berkeley 1998 allman greg olson co-founded company sendmail inc. born el cerrito california allman knew early age wanted work computing breaking high school mainframe later using uc berkeley computing center computing needs 1973 entered uc berkeley unix operating system began become popular academic circles earned b.s m.s degrees uc berkeley 1977 1980 respectively unix source code available berkeley local hackers quickly made many extensions code one extension delivermail 1981 turned sendmail mta designed deliver email still relatively small compared today internet arpanet consisted many smaller networks vastly differing formats e-mail headers sendmail soon became important part berkeley software distribution bsd used widely used mta unix based systems despite somewhat complex configuration syntax frequent abuse internet telemarketing firms 1998 allman greg olson founded sendmail inc. headquartered emeryville california proprietary work improving sendmail logging format used mta known syslog first used solely sendmail eventually became unofficial standard format used unrelated programs logging later format made official rfc 3164 2001 however original format made obsolete recent revision rfc 5424 allman credited popularizing allman indent style also known bsd indent style ported fortran version super star trek c programming language later became bsd trek still included various linux distributions part classic bsdgames package awarded telluride tech festival award technology august 2006 telluride colorado 2009 recognized distinguished engineer association computing machinery april 2014 inducted internet hall fame allman openly gay lives berkeley california marshall kirk mckusick partner 30 years married october 2013 mckusick lead developer bsd two first met graduate school Target text information: sendmail,_inc..sendmail inc. sendmail inc. email management business company headquartered emeryville ca offices throughout americas europe asia company founded 1998 eric allman creator sendmail open source mail transfer agent 2005 sendmail released sentrion email infrastructure platform address need full-content message inspection enabling policy-based delivery human machine-generated email 2012 sendmail partnered mimecast provide hybrid-cloud email security archiving continuity predicted 2013 would see organizations implementing hybrid cloud computing strategies reduce cost complexity messaging infrastructure 2012 sendmail released sentrion reac rogue email application control amid growing security compliance concerns posed growth application-generated email migration email cloud 2013 sendmail acquired security-as-a-service company proofpoint inc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,484	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sql_injection.sql injection sql injection code injection technique used attack data-driven applications malicious sql statements inserted entry field execution e.g dump database contents attacker sql injection must exploit security vulnerability application software example user input either incorrectly filtered string literal escape characters embedded sql statements user input strongly typed unexpectedly executed sql injection mostly known attack vector websites used attack type sql database sql injection attacks allow attackers spoof identity tamper existing data cause repudiation issues voiding transactions changing balances allow complete disclosure data system destroy data make otherwise unavailable become administrators database server 2012 study observed average web application received 4 attack campaigns per month retailers received twice many attacks industries first public discussions sql injection started appearing around 1998 example 1998 article phrack magazine sql injection sqli considered one top 10 web application vulnerabilities 2007 2010 open web application security project 2013 sqli rated number one attack owasp top ten four main sub-classes sql injection storm worm one representation compounded sqli classification represents state sqli respecting evolution 2010—further refinement underway form injection occurs user input filtered escape characters passed sql statement results potential manipulation statements performed database end-user application following line code illustrates vulnerability sql code designed pull records specified username table users however username variable crafted specific way malicious user sql statement may code author intended example setting username variable using comments even block rest query three types sql comments three lines space end renders one following sql statements parent language code used authentication procedure example could used force selection every data field users rather one specific user name coder intended evaluation 1'= 1 always true following value username statement would cause deletion users table well selection data userinfo table essence revealing information every user using api allows multiple statements input renders final sql statement follows specified sql server implementations allow multiple statements executed one call way sql apis php codice_1 function allow security reasons prevents attackers injecting entirely separate queries n't stop modifying queries blind sql injection used web application vulnerable sql injection results injection visible attacker page vulnerability may one displays data display differently depending results logical statement injected legitimate sql statement called page type attack traditionally considered time-intensive new statement needed crafted bit recovered depending structure attack may consist many unsuccessful requests recent advancements allowed request recover multiple bits unsuccessful requests allowing consistent efficient extraction several tools automate attacks location vulnerability target information established one type blind sql injection forces database evaluate logical statement ordinary application screen example book review website uses query string determine book review display url codice_2 would cause server run query would populate review page data review id 5 stored table bookreviews query happens completely server user know names database table fields user know query string user sees url returns book review hacker load urls codice_3 codice_3 may result queries respectively original review loads 1=1 url blank error page returned 1=2 url returned page created alert user input invalid words caught input test script site likely vulnerable sql injection attack query likely passed successfully cases hacker may proceed query string designed reveal version number mysql running server codice_3 would show book review server running mysql 4 blank error page otherwise hacker continue use code within query strings glean information server another avenue attack discovered goals achieved second order sql injection occurs submitted values contain malicious commands stored rather executed immediately cases application may correctly encode sql statement store valid sql another part application without controls protect sql injection might execute stored sql statement attack requires knowledge submitted values later used automated web application security scanners would easily detect type sql injection may need manually instructed check evidence attempted sql injection well known attack easily prevented simple measures apparent sql injection attack talktalk 2015 bbc reported security experts stunned large company would vulnerable development platforms parameterized statements work parameters used sometimes called placeholders bind variables instead embedding user input statement placeholder store value given type arbitrary sql fragment hence sql injection would simply treated strange probably invalid parameter value many cases sql statement fixed parameter scalar table user input assigned bound parameter easily put using parameterized queries definitely prevent sql injection mainly means variables n't query strings would accept arbitrary sql inputs however parameters given types definitely necessary parameterized queries require developer define code therefore without parameterized queries anyone could put kind sql code field database erased parameters set username person would able put username without kind code using object-relational mapping libraries avoids need write sql code orm library effect generate parameterized sql statements object-oriented code straightforward though error-prone way prevent injections escape characters special meaning sql manual sql dbms explains characters special meaning allows creating comprehensive blacklist characters need translation instance every occurrence single quote codice_6 parameter must replaced two single quotes codice_7 form valid sql string literal example php usual escape parameters using function codice_8 sending sql query function prepends backslashes following characters codice_9 codice_10 codice_11 codice_12 codice_6 codice_14 codice_15 function normally used make data safe sending query mysql php similar functions database systems pg_escape_string postgresql function codice_16 works escaping characters used especially querying databases escaping functions php returns string backslashes characters need quoted database queries etc characters single quote double quote backslash nul null byte routinely passing escaped strings sql error prone easy forget escape given string creating transparent layer secure input reduce error-proneness entirely eliminate integer float boolean string parameters checked value valid representation given type strings must follow strict pattern date uuid alphanumeric etc checked match pattern limiting permissions database login used web application needed may help reduce effectiveness sql injection attacks exploit bugs web application example microsoft sql server database logon could restricted selecting system tables would limit exploits try insert javascript text columns database 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_application_firewall.web application firewall web application firewall waf filters monitors blocks http traffic web application waf differentiated regular firewall waf able filter content specific web applications regular firewalls serve safety gate servers inspecting http traffic prevent attacks stemming web application security flaws sql injection cross-site scripting xss file inclusion security misconfigurations application firewalls control input output access applications services first developed early 1990s gene spafford bill cheswick marcus ranum product largely network-based firewall could handle applications like ftp rsh released market dec within next years products developed researchers provide stable firewall software others build raised bar industry dedicated web application firewalls entered market later decade web server hacker attacks becoming much noticeable first company offer dedicated web application firewall perfecto technologies appshield product focused e-commerce market protected illegal web page character entries perfecto renamed sanctum named top ten web application hacking techniques laid foundations waf market 2002 open source project modsecurity formed order make waf technology accessible solve obstacles within industry like business cases cost barriers proprietary rule-sets modsecurity finalized core rule set protecting web applications based oasis web application security technical committee ’ tc vulnerability work 2003 work expanded standardized open web application security project ’ owasp top 10 list annual ranking web security vulnerabilities list would become industry benchmark many compliance themes since market continued grow evolve involving larger commerce industry rise credit card fraud development payment card industry data security standard pci dss standard organizations increase controls cardholder data security regulated sparked wide-scale interest industry according ciso magazine waf market size expected grow 5.48 billion 2022 web application firewall special type application firewall applies specifically web applications deployed front web applications analyzes bi-directional web-based http traffic detecting blocking anything malicious owasp provides broad technical definition waf “ security solution web application level technical point view depend application itself. ” according pci dss information supplement requirement 6.6 waf defined “ security policy enforcement point positioned web application client endpoint functionality implemented software hardware running appliance device typical server running common operating system may stand-alone device integrated network components. ” words waf virtual physical appliance prevents vulnerabilities web applications exploited outside threats vulnerabilities may application legacy type insufficiently coded design waf addresses code shortcomings special configurations rule-sets also known policies previously unknown vulnerabilities discovered penetration testing via vulnerability scanner web application vulnerability scanner also known web application security scanner defined samate nist 500-269 “ automated program examines web applications potential security vulnerabilities addition searching web application-specific vulnerabilities tools also look software coding errors. ” resolving vulnerabilities commonly referred remediation corrections code made application typically prompt response necessary situations application custom policy unique web application vulnerability provide temporary immediate fix known virtual patch may necessary wafs ultimate security solution rather meant used conjunction network perimeter security solutions network firewalls intrusion prevention systems provide holistic defense strategy wafs typically follow positive security model negative security combination mentioned sans institute wafs use combination rule-based logic parsing signatures detect prevent attacks cross-site scripting sql injection owasp produces list top ten web application security flaws commercial waf offerings cover ten flaws minimum non-commercial options well mentioned earlier well-known open source waf engine called modsecurity one options waf engine alone insufficient provide adequate protection therefore owasp along trustwave spiderlabs help organize maintain core-rule set via github use modsecurity waf engine although names operating mode may differ wafs basically deployed inline three different ways according nss labs deployment options transparent bridge transparent reverse proxy reverse proxy 'transparent refers fact http traffic sent straight web application therefore waf transparent client server contrast reverse proxy waf acts proxy client ’ traffic sent directly waf waf separately sends filtered traffic web applications provide additional benefits ip masking may introduce disadvantages performance latency many commercial wafs similar features major differences often refer user interfaces deployment options requirements within specific environments notable vendors include notable open-source applications include 1-hop neighbor's text information: ossec.ossec ossec open source hids security free open-source host-based intrusion detection system hids performs log analysis integrity checking windows registry monitoring rootkit detection time-based alerting active response provides intrusion detection operating systems including linux openbsd freebsd os x solaris windows ossec centralized cross-platform architecture allowing multiple systems easily monitored managed ossec log analysis engine able correlate analyze logs multiple devices formats ossec compliant payment card industry data security standard pci dss requirements june 2008 ossec project copyrights owned daniel b. cid project leader acquired third brigade inc promised continue contribute open source community extend commercial support training ossec open source community may 2009 trend micro acquired third brigade ossec project promises keep open source free 2018 trend released domain name source code ossec foundation ossec project currently maintained atomicorp stewards free open source version also offers enhanced commercial version ossec consists main application agent web interface since 2017 atomicorp running annual ossec conference active developers members community get together discuss ossec future 2019 ossec con held march 20-21st outside washington dc slides materials conference available Target text information: sucuri.sucuri sucuri company started daniel cid 2010 founder ossec project early premise sucuri provide webmasters tool provides visibility state security websites 2010 sucuri became private llc delaware dre armeda invited co-founder 2011 tony perez joined team third co-founder sucuri acquired godaddy march 2017 sucuri globally distributed company 100 employees across 27 different countries I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,035	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: netsuite.netsuite netsuite founded 1998 evan goldberg original name netledger offered web-hosted accounting software oracle licensed software banner oracle small business suite short time cancellation netsuite widely seen first cloud computing software company company ’ 1999 founding pre-dating salesforce.com month goldberg chairman chief technology officer oracle acquisition july 2002 zach nelson appointed ceo prior joining netsuite nelson ran early provider business applications internet called mycio.com division mcafee corp experience led belief software would delivered internet left mcafee join netsuite led company 1 million revenue billion-dollar run-rate prior acquisition oracle corp. january 4 2007 netsuite named moneyball general manager billy beane major league baseball oakland board directors evan goldberg cited beane ability combine facts instinct important factor decision involve company netsuite became publicly traded company initial public offering ipo 6.2 million shares new york stock exchange december 2007 one quarter employees based philippine office netsuite additional offices denver las vegas austin chicago atlanta new york city boston toronto united kingdom spain czech republic hong kong singapore australia uruguay 1998 evan goldberg received approximately 125 million initial financial backing larry ellison founder chief executive officer oracle corporation ellison venture capital entity tako ventures initial investors starvest partners adp ubs painewebber netsuite software also relies database software licensed oracle ellison family members owned approximately 47.4 netsuite common stock december 31 2014 firm 10-q filing march 2 2015 stated mr. ellison able exercise control approval significant corporate transactions including change control liquidation july 28 2016 oracle announced offered purchase netsuite 9.3 billion deal faced intense scrutiny oracle founder larry ellison owned nearly 40 netsuite conflict interest led board companies establish independent committees review deal perspective independent shareholders major netsuite shareholders t. rowe notified oracle would tendering shares current terms proposed deal early october 2016 oracle extended deadline shareholders netsuite tender shares november 4 deal closed nov. 7 netsuite offers four main software solutions optional implementation support services 1-hop neighbor's text information: software_as_a_service.software service software service saas software licensing delivery model software licensed subscription basis centrally hosted sometimes referred on-demand software formerly referred software plus services microsoft saas typically accessed users using thin client e.g via web browser saas become common delivery model many business applications including office software messaging software payroll processing software dbms software management software cad software development software gamification virtualization accounting collaboration customer relationship management crm management information systems mis enterprise resource planning erp invoicing human resource management hrm talent acquisition learning management systems content management cm geographic information systems gis service desk management saas incorporated strategy nearly leading enterprise software companies according gartner estimate saas sales 2018 expected grow 23 72 billion saas applications also known web-based software on-demand software hosted software term software service saas considered part nomenclature cloud computing along infrastructure service iaas platform service paas desktop service daas managed software service msaas mobile backend service mbaas information technology management service itmaas centralized hosting business applications dates back 1960s starting decade ibm mainframe providers conducted service bureau business often referred time-sharing utility computing services included offering computing power database storage banks large organizations worldwide data centers expansion internet 1990s brought new class centralized computing called application service providers asp asps provided businesses service hosting managing specialized business applications goal reducing costs central administration solution provider specialization particular business application two world pioneers largest asps usi headquartered washington dc area futurelink corporation headquartered irvine california software service essentially extends idea asp model term software service saas however commonly used specific settings acronym first appeared goods services description uspto trademark filed september 23 1985 dbaas database service emerged sub-variety saas type cloud database cloud saas model physical need indirect distribution distributed physically deployed almost instantaneously thereby negating need traditional partners middlemen however market grown saas managed service players forced try redefine role unlike traditional software conventionally sold perpetual license up-front cost optional ongoing support fee saas providers generally price applications using subscription fee commonly monthly fee annual fee consequently initial setup cost saas typically lower equivalent enterprise software saas vendors typically price applications based usage parameters number users using application however saas environment customers data reside saas vendor opportunities also exist charge per transaction event unit value number processors required relatively low cost user provisioning i.e. setting new customer multitenant environment enables saas vendors offer applications using freemium model model free service made available limited functionality scope fees charged enhanced functionality larger scope saas applications completely free users revenue derived alternative sources advertising key driver saas growth saas vendors ability provide price competitive on-premises software consistent traditional rationale outsourcing systems involves applying economies scale application operation i.e. outside service provider may able offer better cheaper reliable applications vast majority saas solutions based multitenant architecture model single version application single configuration hardware network operating system used customers tenants support scalability application installed multiple machines called horizontal scaling cases second version application set offer select group customers access pre-release versions applications e.g. beta version testing purposes contrasted traditional software multiple physical copies software — potentially different version potentially different configuration often customized — installed across various customer sites traditional model version application based unique code although exception rather norm saas solutions use multitenancy use mechanisms—such virtualization—to cost-effectively manage large number customers place multitenancy whether multitenancy necessary component software service topic controversy two main varieties saas although software-as-a-service applications share traits characteristics common among many saas applications saas applications similarly support traditionally known application configuration words like traditional enterprise software single customer alter set configuration options a.k.a parameters affect functionality look-and-feel customer may settings parameter values configuration options application customized degree designed based set predefined configuration options example support customers common need change application look-and-feel application appears customer brand or—if desired—co-branded many saas applications let customers provide self service interface working application provider staff custom logo sometimes set custom colors customer however change page layout unless option designed saas applications often updated frequently traditional software many cases weekly monthly basis enabled several factors accelerated feature delivery enabled agile software development methodologies methodologies evolved mid-1990s provide set software development tools practices support frequent software releases saas applications access company internal systems databases internal services predominantly offer integration protocols application programming interfaces apis operate wide area network typically protocols based http rest soap ubiquity saas applications internet services standardization api technology spawned development mashups lightweight applications combine data presentation functionality multiple services creating compound service mashups differentiate saas applications on-premises software latter easily integrated outside company firewall inspired success online social networks so-called web 2.0 functionality many saas applications offer features let users collaborate share information example many project management applications delivered saas model offer—in addition traditional project planning functionality—collaboration features letting users comment tasks plans share documents within outside organization several saas applications let users vote offer new feature ideas although collaboration-related functionality also integrated on-premises software implicit explicit collaboration users different customers possible centrally hosted software opensaas refers software service saas based open source code similar saas applications open saas web-based application hosted supported maintained service provider roadmap open saas applications defined community users upgrades product enhancements managed central provider term coined 2011 dries buytaert creator drupal content management framework andrew hoppin former chief information officer new york state senate vocal advocate opensaas government calling future government innovation points wordpress unified successful example opensaas software delivery model gives customers best worlds options fact open source means start building websites self-hosting wordpress customizing website heart ’ content concurrently fact wordpress saas means ’ manage website -- simply pay wordpress.com host drupal gardens free web hosting platform based open source drupal content management system offers another example forbes contributor dan woods calls new open source model saas according woods open source provides escape hatch drupal gardens users able press button get source code version drupal code runs site along data database take code put one hosting companies anything would like several important changes software market technology landscape facilitated acceptance growth saas solutions limitations slow acceptance saas prohibit used cases standard model also limitations engineering simulation software traditionally delivered on-premises solution user desktop ideal candidate saas delivery market saas engineering simulation software infancy interest concept growing similar reasons interest saas growing industries main driver traditional engineering simulation software required large up-front investment order access simulation software large investment kept engineering simulation inaccessible many startups middle market companies reluctant unable risk large software expenditure unproven projects according survey himss analytics 83 us healthcare organizations using cloud services 9.3 planning whereas 67 healthcare organizations currently running saas-based applications software service data escrow process keeping copy critical software-as-a-service application data independent third party similar source code escrow critical software source code stored independent third party saas data escrow applies logic data within saas application allows companies protect insure data resides within saas applications protecting data loss many varied reasons considering saas data escrow including concerns vendor bankruptcy unplanned service outages potential data loss corruption many businesses also keen ensure complying data governance standards want improved reporting business analytics saas data research conducted clearpace software ltd. growth saas showed 85 percent participants wanted take copy saas data third participants wanted copy daily basis one notable criticism saas comes richard stallman free software foundation refers service software substitute saass considers use saass violation principles free software according stallman saas products face problem 2010 forbes contributor dan woods noted drupal gardens web hosting platform based open source drupal content management system new open source model saas added similarly mediawiki wordpress many extensions increasingly used wide variety internal applications well public web services obtaining code relatively simple integration existing extensions plug-ins templates etc actual customizations rare usually quickly replaced standard publicly available extensions additionally guarantee software source code obtained means accurately reflects software system claims reflect andrew hoppin former chief information officer new york state senate refers combination saas open source software opensaas points wordpress another successful example opensaas software delivery model gives customers best worlds options fact open source means start building websites self-hosting wordpress customizing website heart ’ content concurrently fact wordpress saas means ’ manage website – simply pay wordpress.com host cloud saas model physical need indirect distribution distributed physically deployed almost instantaneously thereby negating need traditional partners middlemen 1-hop neighbor's text information: sap_se.sap se sap se systems applications products data processing german multinational software corporation makes enterprise software manage business operations customer relations sap headquartered walldorf baden-württemberg germany regional offices 180 countries company 425,000 customers 180 countries component euro stoxx 50 stock market index xerox exited computer hardware manufacturing industry 1971 asked ibm migrate business systems ibm technology part ibm compensation migration ibm given rights scientific data systems sds /sape software reportedly contract credit 80,000 five ibm engineers ai department dietmar hopp klaus tschira hans-werner hector hasso plattner claus wellenreuther mannheim baden-württemberg working enterprise-wide system based software told would longer necessary rather abandoning project decided leave ibm tech start another company june 1972 founded sap system analysis program development sapd company private partnership german civil code first client german branch imperial chemical industries östringen developed mainframe programs payroll accounting instead storing data punch cards mechanically ibm stored locally electronic system using common logical database activities organization therefore called software real-time system since need process punch cards overnight reason flagship product carried r name late 1990s first version also standalone software could offered interested parties 1973 first commercial product launched sap completes first financial accounting system rf system serves cornerstone ongoing development software modules system eventually bear name sap r/1 offered common system multiple tasks permitted use centralized data storage improving maintenance data technical point view therefore database necessary 1976 sap gmbh systeme anwendungen und produkte der datenverarbeitung systems applications products data processing founded sales support subsidiary five years later private partnership dissolved rights passed sap gmbh headquarters moved following year walldorf germany three years later 1979 sap launched sap r/2 expanding capabilities system areas material management production planning 1981 sap brought re-designed product market however sap r/2 improve period 1985 1990 sap released new sap r/3 1992 sap developed released several versions r/3 1995 mid-1990s sap followed trend mainframe computing client/server architectures development sap internet strategy mysap.com redesigned concept business processes integration via internet result r/3 replaced introduction sap erp central component ecc 5.0 2004 architectural changes also made support enterprise service architecture transition customers services-oriented architecture latest version sap erp 6.0 released 2006 sap erp 6.0 since updated sap enhancement packs recent sap enhancement package 8 sap erp 6.0 2016 august 1988 sap gmbh became sap ag public trading started 4 november 1988 shares listed frankfurt stuttgart stock exchanges 1995 sap included german stock index dax 22 september 2003 sap included stoxx europe 50 company official name became sap ag public limited company 2005 annual general meeting 2014 sap changed ag european company societas europaea se since 2012 sap acquired several companies sell cloud-based products several multibillion-dollar acquisitions seen analysts attempt challenge competitor oracle 2014 sap bought concur technologies provider cloud-based travel expense management software 8.3 billion sap expensive purchase date analysts reactions purchase mixed thomas becker commerzbank questioning whether concur right choice sap credit suisse called acquisition aggressive move 2014 ibm sap began partnership sell cloud-based services likewise 2015 sap also partnered hpe provide secure hybrid cloud-based services running sap platform hpe ibm provide infrastructure services sap sap runs sap hana cloud solution top sap announced additional partnerships microsoft order give customers tools data visualization well improved mobile applications sap exceeded revenue projections due expansion cloud business success sap hana growth also partially attributed acquisitions concur fieldglass company announced plans 2016 invest heavily technology relating internet things iot part strategy capitalize growth market purpose €2 billion planned investment relevant sectors end 2020 sap also launch new product line called sap iot combine large amounts data things connected internet machine learning sap real-time database s/4 hana 2015 company launched sap s/4hana newest generation sap business suite written natively sap hana platform offers cloud on-premises hybrid deployment options customers benefits including smaller data footprint higher throughput faster analytics faster access data also allows existing sap business suite customers upgrade product sap business suite 2016 sap introduced sap hana express edition meant run personal computers cloud computing platforms students small-scale developers january 29 2019 sap announced plans cut approximately 4,000 positions company strategic plan shift modern cloud-based technologies blockchain quantum computing machine learning internet things artificial intelligence fiscal year 2017 sap reported earnings eur€4 billion annual revenue eur€23.5 billion increase 6.3 previous fiscal cycle sap shares traded usd105 per share market capitalization valued usd128 billion december 2018 makes sap valuable company germany sap world third largest software programming company corporation operates europe asia africa middle east north america south america sap focuses 25 industries six industry sectors process industries discrete industries consumer industries service industries financial services public services offers integrated product sets large enterprises mid-sized companies small businesses service-oriented architecture incorporated sap erp enterprise resource planning system products defined within sap enterprise services architecture enterprise soa sap enterprise service oriented architecture enterprise soa sap se service-oriented architecture implementation enterprise soa enabled sap netweaver platform builds benefits web services sap positioned enterprise soa deliver benefits offered service-oriented architecture including enabling flexibility business efficiency sap markets enterprise soa cost-effective way adding new applications existing infrastructure sap solutions currently use enterprise soa mysap crm mysap erp mysap srm sap partners include global services partners cross-industry multinational consulting capabilities global software partners providing integrated products complement sap business suite solutions global technology partners providing user companies wide range products support sap technology including vendors hardware database storage systems networks mobile computing technology extensions partners companies provide functionality complements sap product capabilities products certified sold supported sap partner companies include adobe ca technologies gk software hewlett-packard ids scheer mendix opentext knoa software backoffice associates sap also partnered apple work mobile experience sap enterprise customers part partnership new sap hana cloud platform sdk would delivered exclusively ios result developers build applications based sap hana cloud platform iphone ipad devices partnership announced may 2016 sap products small businesses midsize companies delivered global partner network sap partneredge programme sap partner programme offers set business enablement resources program benefits help partners including value-added resellers vars independent software vendors isvs profitable successful implementing selling marketing developing delivering sap products broad range customers sap community network scn community sap customers partners employees influencers – typically roles developers consultants integrators business analysts – gain share knowledge abap java .net soa technologies plus analytics dashboards business process best practices cloud mobile big data range topics via blogs discussion forums downloads code samples training materials technical library sap uses two-tier structure boards executive board supervisory board 2016 members executive board bill mcdermott ceo chairman joined 2008 robert enslin 2014 bernd leukert 2014 luka mucic cfo 2014 michael kleinemeier 2015 stefan ries 2016 steve singh 2016 gerhard oswald 1996 juergen mueller join executive board 2019 functional units sap split across different organizational units r needs field activities customer support sap labs mainly responsible product development whereas field organizations spread across country responsible field activities sales marketing consulting headquarters responsible overall management well core engineering activities related product development worldwide customer support provided field organizations unified organization called active global support ags sap labs r locations develop improve sap core products sap labs strategically located high-tech clusters around globe four prominent labs sap se located germany india china us labs walldorf founded 1972 became sap primary location beginning focus sap expansion entering highly developed markets 1993 palo alto became part sap labs aiming acquire talented employees sap opened another lab bangalore 2003 among latest sap labs labs czech republic slovakia poland three labs established 2016 labs india largest labs outside germany order manage sap labs sap labs network sln created sln global unit manages regional labs shares best business practices coordinates distributes development projects among individual sap labs locations accelerates product delivery gives sap full access talent drives sap corporate strategy regarding innovation business growth sap user groups independent nonprofit organizations sap customers sap partners serve communications channel members towards sap sap towards markets americas sap users group asug company largest user group 100,000 individuals 3,800 companies asug members professionals work 17 industries many technical business process experts sap ecosystem varied levels experience come small businesses global corporations well universities 2007 sap user group executive network sugen established sap provoked controversy frustration among users 2008 raising cost maintenance contracts issue subject intense discussion among user groups sap cloud platform sap platform-as-a-service paas used deliver in-memory capabilities microservices building extending mobile-enabled cloud applications infrastructure offered global network sap managed data centers sap cloud platform open platform-as-a-service includes in-memory sap hana database management system connects premises cloud-based systems running sap third-party software relies open standards like java javascript node.js cloud foundry integration options sap cloud platform promoted build extend business applications rapid innovation cycles sap apple inc. partnered develop mobile applications ios using cloud-based software development kits sdks sap cloud platform sap founding development partners cloud platform include accenture celonis enterprisealumni walmart sap cloud platform based open source technology developed supported partnership suse company also partnership cloud foundry beta offering sap cloud platform enables customers test give feedback functionalities coming cloud foundry sap launched sap store march 2015 principal e-commerce property allow customers buy products directly web rather traditional sales channels customers purchase free trials starter editions pay credit card paypal launched 2016 sap app center online application marketplace third-party applications integrate extend sap products applications available free well via yearly monthly subscription models applications available range integrations content management software mobile approval management payment platforms july 2018 features 1,500 applications sap two annual conferences sap competitors primarily enterprise resource planning software industry field oracle corporation sap major competitor sap also competes customer relationship management marketing sales software manufacturing warehousing industrial software supply chain management logistics software sectors oracle corporation filed lawsuit sap malpractice unfair competition california courts 2007 sap lost case 2010 ordered pay 1.3 billion cited largest copyright infringement judgment history verdict overturned 2011 lawsuit finally settled 2014 356.7 million resulting pressure saw sap sugen sap user group executive network agree major benchmarking exercise prove value new support pricing policy customers december 2009 sap delayed enterprise support price rises agreement reached benchmarks kpis key performance indicators january 2010 sap reversed direction enterprise support reintroduced standard support package customers move reinstate standard support – 18 percent annual license fees enable customers choose option best meets requirements company said august 2013 sap acquired german software company hybris ecommerce capabilities sap donated several millions dollars variety global health causes including product red campaign global fund addition sap distributed free software south africa part effort towards developing future markets company also encourages employees volunteer social sabbaticals sending teams people different countries aid non-profits sap employees volunteered china india brazil south africa sap arena opened mannheim 2005 home adler mannheim ice hockey team rhein-neckar löwen handball team since 2013 company name sponsor sap center san jose california team also sponsors formula one racing team mclaren nfl teams new york giants new york jets city football group esports squad team liquid sap ambassadors include german tennis player angelique kerber german eventing rider ingrid klimke south african golfers ernie els gary player branden grace sap also engages outreach activities within company 2013 company launched initiative hire employees autism asperger syndrome citing undervalued ability contribute workforce sap aims compose 1 workforce individuals autism year 2020 february 2019 sap accused ‘ improper conduct ’ linked state contracts kenya tanzania anonymous whistle-blower claims firm attorneys sap used twenty third century systems ttcs bribe officials tanzania ports authority tpa win us 6.6-million enterprise resource planning software tender involved provision software licenses services july 2017 allegations made sap involved business transactions controversial politically influential gupta family south africa sap accused paying cad house gupta-controlled company r100 million order secure transnet deal sap denied allegations claiming money paid extension sales force despite cad house prior sap experience guptas dealings sap revealed widely publicized e-mail leak consequence allegations sap launched investigation led four south african managers placed administrative leave along seizure mobile phones computers claas kuehnemann named acting managing director africa investigation continued 26 october 2017 sap announced voluntarily reported u.s. securities exchange commission possible violation us law including foreign corrupt practices act related south african bribery allegations sap investigation conducted law firm baker mckenzie revealed sap paid 7.7 million commissions third-parties linked gupta family securing contracts worth 48 million transnet eskom may 2015 sap agreed pay 3.9 million settle u.s. securities exchange commission civil charges former executive scheme bribe panama government officials order win lucrative technology contracts Target text information: calliduscloud.calliduscloud calliduscloud global enterprise software saas company headquartered dublin california company best known cloud-based solutions sales effectiveness sales performance management sales execution cpq clm software services callidus software inc. incorporated delaware september 6 1996 founders andrew swett scott kitayama company specializing providing enterprise incentive management eim application systems initial funding came onset ventures first hire former chief architect greg holmberg followed former president ceo reed d. taussig november 2003 company went public nasdaq national market stock symbol cald raising us 70 million following list acquisitions calliduscloud.com calliduscloud formerly callidus software 200m revenue 200m cash grows around 30 2014 total revenue 136.6 million increase 24.3 million 22 2013 2015 total revenue increased 27 173.1 million 2015 company added 900 customers take total number companies using one software products 4,600 report 5000 january 30 2018 announced sap company acquired calliduscloud 2.4 billion calliduscloud provides software service saas solutions marketing sales effectiveness suite solutions includes applications identify right leads ensure proper territory quota distribution enable sales forces automate quote proposal generation streamline sales compensation additionally offer applications customer experience monitoring sales gamification learning management including content authoring calliduscloud global alliance partners providing integrated solution complement calliduscloud products system integrators partners providing user companies wide range selections support different sales methodologies drive revenue technology partners provide functionality complements calliduscloud product capabilities partner companies include adobe accenture canidium llc deloitte lanshore llc netsuite opensymmetry oracle salesforce.com sap I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	7,721	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: elie_bursztein.elie bursztein elie bursztein born 1 june 1980 leads anti-abuse research team google best known research anti-fraud abuse novel attacks web service video games work applied cryptography prior google bursztein post-doctoral fellow computer science stanford university focused captchas security usability elie bursztein obtained computer engineering degree epita 2004 master degree computer science paris 7/ ens 2004 supervision patrick cousot phd computer science école normale supérieure de cachan 2008 supervision jean goubault-larrecq phd thesis tilted anticipation games théorie des jeux appliqués à la sécurité réseau anticipation game game theory applied network security showed combine model-checking temporal logic game theory find optimal responses network attacks stanford university post-doctoral fellow stanford security laboratory unit computer science department focuses network computer security 2014 bursztein published first study account manual hijackers kurt thomas et al published google attempt reduce phone verified account fraud 2015 kurt thomas et al received p best practical award study malicious ads injectors joseph bonneau et al got www'15 best student paper award publishing first practical study secret questions security usability using google data 2009 bursztein presented first complete analysis microsoft dpapi data protection application programming interface jean michel picod 2011 j. lagarenne m. hamburg d. boneh used private set intersection protocols defend game map hacking 2014 adam langley made chrome mobile roughly three times faster implementing new tls cipher suite uses algorithms chacha20 poly1305 bursztein research captchas aims make puzzles easier humans solve harder computers crack main contributions easier captcha human used recaptcha generic algorithm break text-based captcha 2009 bursztein showed steven bethard ebay audio captchas broken 2010 studied s. bethard c. fabry d. jurafsky j. c. mitchell humans perform real world captchas running large-scale study 2011 demonstrated r. beauxis h. paskov d. perito c. fabry j. mitchell non-continuous audio captcha ineffective bursztein part team stanford researchers broke nucaptcha security despite company claims next generation video-based captcha security told cnet news 2012 able break nucaptcha video scheme 90 percent success 2010 defcon showed build generic map hack software 2012 defcon demonstrated fuzz online games including diablo 3 league legend 2014 defcon showed use machine learning predict opponent play card based game hearthstone blizzard request tool never made public notable achievements web mobile security include notable awards 1-hop neighbor's text information: radhia_cousot.radhia cousot radhia cousot 6 august 1947 – 1 may 2014 french computer scientist known inventing abstract interpretation radhia cousot born 6 august 1947 sakiet sidi youssef tunisia survived went sousse algiers polytechnic school algiers ranked 1st woman specialized mathematical optimization integer linear programming supported unesco fellowship 1972–1975 obtained master degree computer science joseph fourier university grenoble 1972 obtained mathematics nancy 1985 supervision radhia cousot appointed associate research scientist imag laboratory joseph fourier university grenoble 1975–1979 1980 centre national de la recherche scientifique junior research scientist research scientist senior research scientist senior research scientist emerita computer science laboratories henri poincaré university nancy 1980–1983 university paris-sud orsay 1984–1988 école polytechnique 1989–2008 1991 headed research team “ semantics proof abstract interpretation ” école normale supérieure 2006–2014 together husband patrick radhia cousot originator abstract interpretation influential technique formal methods abstract interpretation based three main ideas thesis radhia cousot advanced semantics proof static analysis methods concurrent parallel programs radhia cousot origin contacts airbus january 1999 lead development astrée run-time error analyzer 2001 onwards tool sound static program analysis embedded control/command software developed école normale supérieure distributed absint gmbh german software company specialized static analysis astrée used transportation space medical software industries patrick cousot received acm sigplan programming languages achievement award 2013 ieee computer society ieee computer society harlan d. mills award 2014 “ invention ‘ abstract interpretation ’ development tool support practical application ” since september 2014 radhia cousot best young researcher paper award attributed annually program chair behalf program committee static analysis symposia sas 1-hop neighbor's text information: mathematics_genealogy_project.mathematics genealogy project mathematics genealogy project web-based database academic genealogy mathematicians 13 february 2019 contained information 238,725 mathematical scientists contributed research-level mathematics typical mathematician project entry includes graduation year thesis title alma mater doctoral advisor doctoral students project grew founder harry coonce desire know name advisor advisor coonce professor mathematics minnesota state university mankato time project founding project went online fall 1997 coonce retired mankato 1999 fall 2002 university decided would longer support project project relocated time north dakota state university since 2003 project also operated auspices american mathematical society 2005 received grant clay mathematics institute harry coonce assisted mitchel t. keller assistant professor washington lee university keller currently managing director project mathematics genealogy mission statement states throughout project use word mathematics mathematician mean word inclusive sense thus relevant data statistics computer science philosophy operations research welcome genealogy information obtained sources dissertation abstracts international notices american mathematical society may supplied anyone via project website searchable database contains name mathematician university awarded degree year degree awarded title dissertation names advisor second advisor flag country degree awarded listing doctoral students count academic descendants historically significant figures lacked doctoral degree listed notably joseph louis lagrange noted data collected mathematics genealogy project self-reported guarantee observed genealogy network complete description mentorship network fact 16,147 mathematicians recorded mentor 8,336 recorded proteges maimgren ottino amaral 2010 stated mathematicians graduated 1900 1960 believe graduation mentorship record reliable Target text information: patrick_cousot.patrick cousot patrick cousot born 3 december 1948 french computer scientist currently silver professor computer science courant institute mathematical sciences new york university usa professor école normale supérieure ens paris france école polytechnique palaiseau france university metz france research scientist french national center scientific research cnrs joseph fourier university grenoble france together wife radhia cousot 1947–2014 patrick cousot originator abstract interpretation influential technique formal methods 2000s worked practical methods static analysis critical embedded software astrée found avionics 1999 received cnrs silver medal 2006 great prize eads foundation 2001 bestowed honorary doctorate saarland university germany radhia cousot received acm sigplan programming languages achievement award 2013 ieee computer society harlan d. mills award 2014 “ invention ‘ abstract interpretation ’ development tool support practical application ” received humboldt research award 2008 2018 ieee john von neumann medal introducing abstract interpretation powerful framework automatically calculating program properties broad application verification optimisation knight chevalier ordre national du mérite ordre des palmes académiques member academia europaea informatics section since 2006 member board trustees imdea software institute I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,977	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: transmeta_efficeon.transmeta efficeon efficeon processor transmeta second-generation 256-bit vliw design released 2004 employs software engine code morphing software aka cms convert code written x86 processors native instruction set chip like predecessor transmeta crusoe 128-bit vliw architecture efficeon stresses computational efficiency low power consumption low thermal footprint efficeon closely mirrors feature set intel pentium 4 processors although like amd opteron processors supports fully integrated memory controller hypertransport io bus nx bit no-execute x86 extension pae mode nx bit support available starting cms version 6.0.4 efficeon computational performance relative mobile cpus like intel pentium thought lower although little appears published relative performance competing processors efficeon came two package types 783- 592-contact ball grid array power consumption moderate consuming little 3 watts 1 ghz 7 watts 1.5 ghz passively cooled two generations chip produced first generation tm8600 manufactured using tsmc 0.13 micrometre process produced speeds 1.2 ghz second generation tm8800 tm8820 manufactured using fujitsu 90 nm process produced speeds ranging 1 ghz 1.7 ghz internally efficeon two arithmetic logic units two load/store/add units two execute units two floating-point/mmx/sse/sse2 units one branch prediction unit one alias unit one control unit vliw core execute 256-bit vliw instruction per cycle called molecule room store eight 32-bit instructions called atoms per cycle efficeon 128 kb l1 instruction cache 64 kb l1 data cache 1 mb l2 cache caches die additionally efficeon cms code morphing software reserves small portion main memory typically 32 mb translation cache dynamically translated x86 instructions 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: x86.x86 x86 family instruction set architectures based intel 8086 microprocessor 8088 variant 8086 introduced 1978 fully 16-bit extension intel 8-bit 8080 microprocessor memory segmentation solution addressing memory covered plain 16-bit address term x86 came names several successors intel 8086 processor end 86 including 80186 80286 80386 80486 processors many additions extensions added x86 instruction set years almost consistently full backward compatibility architecture implemented processors intel cyrix amd via many companies also open implementations zet soc platform nevertheless intel amd via hold x86 architectural licenses producing modern 64-bit designs term synonymous ibm pc compatibility implies multitude computer hardware embedded systems well general-purpose computers used x86 chips pc-compatible market started ibm pc 1981 2018 majority personal computers laptops sold based x86 architecture categories—especially high-volume mobile categories smartphones tablets—are dominated arm high end x86 continues dominate compute-intensive workstation cloud computing segments 1980s early 1990s 8088 80286 still common use term x86 usually represented 8086 compatible cpu today however x86 usually implies binary compatibility also 32-bit instruction set 80386 due fact instruction set become something lowest common denominator many modern operating systems probably also term became common introduction 80386 1985 years introduction 8086 8088 intel added complexity naming scheme terminology iapx ambitious ill-fated intel iapx 432 processor tried successful 8086 family chips applied kind system-level prefix 8086 system including coprocessors 8087 8089 well simpler intel-specific system chips thereby described iapx 86 system also terms irmx operating systems isbc single-board computers isbx multimodule boards based 8086-architecture together heading microsystem 80 however naming scheme quite temporary lasting years early 1980s although 8086 primarily developed embedded systems small multi-user single-user computers largely response successful 8080-compatible zilog z80 x86 line soon grew features processing power today x86 ubiquitous stationary portable personal computers also used midrange computers workstations servers new supercomputer clusters top500 list large amount software including large list using x86-based hardware modern x86 relatively uncommon embedded systems however small low power applications using tiny batteries well low-cost microprocessor markets home appliances toys lack significant x86 presence simple 8-bit 16-bit based architectures common although x86-compatible via c7 via nano amd geode athlon neo intel atom examples 32- 64-bit designs used relatively low power low cost segments several attempts including intel end market dominance inelegant x86 architecture designed directly first simple 8-bit microprocessors examples iapx 432 project originally named intel 8800 intel 960 intel 860 intel/hewlett-packard itanium architecture however continuous refinement x86 microarchitectures circuitry semiconductor manufacturing would make hard replace x86 many segments amd 64-bit extension x86 intel eventually responded compatible design scalability x86 chips eight-core intel xeon 12-core amd opteron underlining x86 example continuous refinement established industry standards resist competition completely new architectures table lists processor models model series implementing variations x86 instruction set chronological order line item characterized significantly improved commercially successful processor microarchitecture designs various times companies ibm nec amd ti stm fujitsu oki siemens cyrix intersil c nexgen umc dm p started design manufacture x86 processors cpus intended personal computers well embedded systems x86 implementations seldom simple copies often employ different internal microarchitectures well different solutions electronic physical levels quite naturally early compatible microprocessors 16-bit 32-bit designs developed much later personal computer market real quantities started appear around 1990 i386 i486 compatible processors often named similarly intel original chips companies designed manufactured x86 x87 processors include itt corporation national semiconductor ulsi system technology weitek following fully pipelined i486 intel introduced pentium brand name unlike numbers could trademarked new set superscalar x86 designs x86 naming scheme legally cleared x86 vendors choose different names x86-compatible products initially chose continue variations numbering scheme ibm partnered cyrix produce 5x86 efficient 6x86 m1 6x86mx mii lines cyrix designs first x86 microprocessors implementing register renaming enable speculative execution amd meanwhile designed manufactured advanced delayed 5k86 k5 internally closely based amd earlier 29k risc design similar nexgen nx586 used strategy dedicated pipeline stages decode x86 instructions uniform easily handled micro-operations method remained basis x86 designs day early versions microprocessors heat dissipation problems 6x86 also affected minor compatibility problems nx586 lacked floating point unit fpu crucial pin-compatibility k5 somewhat disappointing performance eventually introduced customer ignorance alternatives pentium series contributed designs comparatively unsuccessful despite fact k5 good pentium compatibility 6x86 significantly faster pentium integer code amd later managed establish serious contender k6 set processors gave way successful athlon opteron also contenders centaur technology formerly idt rise technology transmeta via technologies energy efficient c3 c7 processors designed centaur company sold many years centaur newest design via nano first processor superscalar speculative execution introduced time intel first in-order processor since p5 pentium intel atom instruction set architecture twice extended larger word size 1985 intel released 32-bit 80386 later known i386 gradually replaced earlier 16-bit chips computers although typically embedded systems following years extended programming model originally referred i386 architecture like first implementation intel later dubbed ia-32 introducing unrelated ia-64 architecture 1999-2003 amd extended 32-bit architecture 64 bits referred x86-64 early documents later amd64 intel soon adopted amd architectural extensions name ia-32e later using name em64t finally using intel 64 microsoft sun microsystems/oracle also use term x64 many linux distributions bsds also use amd64 term microsoft windows example designates 32-bit versions x86 64-bit versions x64 installation files 64-bit windows versions required placed directory called amd64 x86 architecture variable instruction length primarily cisc design emphasis backward compatibility instruction set typical cisc however basically extended version simple eight-bit 8008 8080 architectures byte-addressing enabled words stored memory little-endian byte order memory access unaligned addresses allowed valid word sizes largest native size integer arithmetic memory addresses offsets 16 32 64 bits depending architecture generation newer processors include direct support smaller integers well multiple scalar values handled simultaneously via simd unit present later generations described immediate addressing offsets immediate data may expressed 8-bit quantities frequently occurring cases contexts -128..127 range enough typical instructions therefore 2 3 bytes length although much longer single-byte conserve encoding space registers expressed opcodes using three four bits latter via opcode prefix 64-bit mode one operand instruction memory location however memory operand may also destination combined source destination operand source either register immediate among factors contributes code size rivals eight-bit machines enables efficient use instruction cache memory relatively small number general registers also inherited 8-bit ancestors made register-relative addressing using small immediate offsets important method accessing operands especially stack much work therefore invested making accesses fast register accesses i.e one cycle instruction throughput circumstances accessed data available top-level cache dedicated floating point processor 80-bit internal registers 8087 developed original 8086 microprocessor subsequently developed extended 80387 later processors incorporated backward compatible version functionality microprocessor main processor addition modern x86 designs also contain simd-unit see sse instructions work parallel one two 128-bit words containing two four floating point numbers 64 32 bits wide respectively alternatively 2 4 8 16 integers 64 32 16 8 bits wide respectively presence wide simd registers means existing x86 processors load store 128 bits memory data single instruction also perform bitwise operations although integer arithmetic full 128-bits quantities parallel intel sandy bridge processors added avx advanced vector extensions instructions widening simd registers 256 bits knights corner architecture used intel xeon phi co-processors uses 512-bit wide simd registers execution current x86 processors employ extra decoding steps split instructions smaller pieces called micro-operations handed control unit buffers schedules compliance x86-semantics executed partly parallel one several less specialized execution units modern x86 designs thus pipelined superscalar also capable order speculative execution via branch prediction register renaming memory dependence prediction means may execute multiple partial complete x86 instructions simultaneously necessarily order given instruction stream intel amd starting amd zen cpus also capable simultaneous multithreading two threads per core xeon phi four threads per core case intel transactional memory tsx introduced mid-1990s method sometimes referred risc core risc translation partly marketing reasons also micro-operations share properties certain types risc instructions however traditional microcode used since 1950s also inherently shares many properties new method differs mainly translation micro-operations occurs asynchronously synchronize execution units decode steps opens possibilities analysis buffered code stream therefore permits detection operations performed parallel simultaneously feeding one execution unit latest processors also opposite appropriate combine certain x86 sequences compare followed conditional jump complex micro-op fits execution model better thus executed faster less machine resources involved another way try improve performance cache decoded micro-operations processor directly access decoded micro-operations special cache instead decoding intel followed approach execution trace cache feature netburst microarchitecture pentium 4 processors later decoded stream buffer core-branded processors since sandy bridge transmeta used completely different method x86 compatible cpus used just-in-time translation convert x86 instructions cpu native vliw instruction set transmeta argued approach allows power efficient designs since cpu forgo complicated decode step traditional x86 implementations minicomputers late 1970s running 16-bit 64-kb address limit memory become cheaper minicomputers like pdp-11 used complex bank-switching schemes case digital vax redesigned much expensive processors could directly handle 32-bit addressing data original 8086 developed simple 8080 microprocessor primarily aiming small inexpensive computers specialized devices instead adopted simple segment registers increased memory address width 4 bits multiplying 64-kb address 16 20-bit address could address total one megabyte 1,048,576 bytes quite large amount small computer time concept segment registers new many mainframes used segment registers swap quickly different tasks practice x86 much-criticized implementation greatly complicated many common programming tasks compilers however architecture soon allowed linear 32-bit addressing starting 80386 late 1985 major actors microsoft took several years convert 16-bit based systems 80386 80486 therefore largely used fast still 16-bit based 8086 many years data code could managed within near 16-bit segments within 64 kb portions total 1 mb address space compiler could operate far mode using 32-bit codice_1 pairs reaching 1 mb would also prove quite limiting mid-1980s working emerging pc market made simple translate software older 8008 8080 8085 z80 newer processor 1985 16-bit segment addressing model effectively factored introduction 32-bit offset registers 386 design real mode segmentation achieved shifting segment address left 4 bits adding offset order receive final 20-bit address example ds a000h si 5677h ds si point absolute address ds × 10h si a5677h thus total address space real mode 2 bytes 1 mb quite impressive figure 1978 memory addresses consist segment offset every type access code data stack default segment register associated data register usually ds code cs stack ss data accesses segment register explicitly specified using segment override prefix use four segment registers scheme two different segment/offset pairs point single absolute location thus ds a111h si 4567h ds si point a5677h scheme makes impossible use four segments cs ss vital correct functioning program ds es used point data segments outside program precisely outside currently executing segment program stack protected mode introduced 80286 segment register longer contains physical address beginning segment contain selector points system-level structure called segment descriptor segment descriptor contains physical address beginning segment length segment access permissions segment offset checked length segment offsets referring locations outside segment causing exception offsets referring locations inside segment combined physical address beginning segment get physical address corresponding offset segmented nature make programming compiler design difficult use near far pointers affects performance addressing modes 16-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 32-bit x86 processors 32-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 64-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula instruction relative addressing 64-bit code rip displacement rip instruction pointer register simplifies implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems 8086 eight-bit alternatively i/o space one segment stack memory supported computer hardware words two bytes pushed stack stack grows toward numerically lower addresses pointing recently pushed item 256 interrupts invoked hardware software interrupts cascade using stack store return address original intel 8086 8088 fourteen 16-bit registers four ax bx cx dx general-purpose registers gprs although may additional purpose example cx used counter loop instruction accessed two separate bytes thus bx high byte accessed bh low byte bl two pointer registers special roles sp stack pointer points top stack bp base pointer often used point place stack typically local variables see frame pointer registers si di bx bp address registers may also used array indexing four segment registers cs ds ss es used form memory address flags register contains flags carry flag overflow flag zero flag finally instruction pointer ip points next instruction fetched memory executed register directly accessed read written program intel 80186 80188 essentially upgraded 8086 8088 cpu respectively on-chip peripherals added cpu registers 8086 8088 addition interface registers peripherals 8086 8088 80186 80188 use optional floating-point coprocessor 8087 8087 appears programmer part cpu adds eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 hold numeric data one seven formats 32- 64- 80-bit floating point 16- 32- 64-bit binary integer 80-bit packed decimal integer intel 80286 support protected mode three special registers hold descriptor table addresses gdtr ldtr idtr fourth task register tr used task switching 80287 floating-point coprocessor 80286 registers 8087 data formats advent 32-bit 80386 processor 16-bit general-purpose registers base registers index registers instruction pointer flags register segment registers expanded 32 bits nomenclature represented prefixing e extended register names x86 assembly language thus ax register corresponds lowest 16 bits new 32-bit eax register si corresponds lowest 16 bits esi general-purpose registers base registers index registers used base addressing modes registers except stack pointer used index addressing modes two new segment registers fs gs added greater number registers instructions operands machine code format expanded provide backward compatibility segments executable code marked containing either 16-bit 32-bit instructions special prefixes allow inclusion 32-bit instructions 16-bit segment vice versa 80386 optional floating-point coprocessor 80387 eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 like 8087 80287 80386 could also use 80287 coprocessor 80486 subsequent x86 models floating-point processing unit fpu integrated on-chip pentium mmx added eight 64-bit mmx integer registers mmx0 mmx7 share lower bits 80-bit-wide fpu stack pentium iii intel added 32-bit streaming simd extensions sse control/status register mxcsr eight 128-bit sse floating point registers xmm0 xmm7 starting amd opteron processor x86 architecture extended 32-bit registers 64-bit registers way similar 16 32-bit extension took place r-prefix identifies 64-bit registers rax rbx rcx rdx rsi rdi rbp rsp rflags rip eight additional 64-bit general registers r8-r15 also introduced creation x86-64 however extensions usable 64-bit mode one two modes available long mode addressing modes dramatically changed 32-bit mode except addressing extended 64 bits virtual addresses sign extended 64 bits order disallow mode bits virtual addresses selector details dramatically reduced addition addressing mode added allow memory references relative rip instruction pointer ease implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems simd registers xmm0–xmm15 simd registers ymm0–ymm15 simd registers zmm0–zmm31 x86 processors protected mode i.e 80286 later processors also three descriptor registers gdtr ldtr idtr task register tr 32-bit x86 processors starting 80386 also include various special/miscellaneous registers control registers cr0 4 cr8 64-bit debug registers dr0 3 plus 6 7 test registers tr3 7 80486 model-specific registers msrs appearing pentium although main registers exception instruction pointer general-purpose 32-bit 64-bit versions instruction set used anything originally envisioned used following purposes segment registers particular purposes envisioned 8 registers available 64-bit mode instructions compile execute efficiently using registers designed purpose example using al accumulator adding immediate byte value produces efficient add al opcode 04h whilst using bl register produces generic longer add register opcode 80c3h another example double precision division multiplication works specifically ax dx registers modern compilers benefited introduction sib byte scale-index-base byte allows registers treated uniformly minicomputer-like however using sib byte universally non-optimal produces longer encodings using selectively necessary main benefit sib byte orthogonality powerful addressing modes provides make possible save instructions use registers address calculations scaling index special instructions lost priority hardware design became slower equivalent small code sequences notable example lodsw instruction note pl registers available 64-bit mode note il registers available 64-bit mode real address mode commonly called real mode operating mode 8086 later x86-compatible cpus real mode characterized 20-bit segmented memory address space meaning 1 mib memory addressed—actually slightly direct software access peripheral hardware concept memory protection multitasking hardware level x86 cpus 80286 series later start real mode power-on 80186 cpus earlier one operational mode equivalent real mode later chips ibm pc platform direct software access ibm bios routines available real mode since bios written real mode however characteristic x86 cpu ibm bios design order use 64 kb memory segment registers must used created great complications compiler implementors introduced odd pointer modes near far huge leverage implicit nature segmented architecture different degrees pointers containing 16-bit offsets within implied segments pointers containing segment addresses offsets within segments technically possible use 256 kb memory code data 64 kb code setting four segment registers using 16-bit offsets optionally default-segment override prefixes address memory puts substantial restrictions way data addressed memory operands combined violates architectural intent intel designers separate data items e.g arrays structures code units contained separate segments addressed segment addresses new programs ported earlier 8-bit processors 16-bit address spaces addition real mode intel 80286 supports protected mode expanding addressable physical memory 16 mb addressable virtual memory 1 gb providing protected memory prevents programs corrupting one another done using segment registers storing index descriptor table stored memory two tables global descriptor table gdt local descriptor table ldt holding 8192 segment descriptors segment giving access 64 kb memory 80286 segment descriptor provides 24-bit base address base address added 16-bit offset create absolute address base address table fulfills role literal value segment register fulfills real mode segment registers converted direct registers indirect registers segment assigned one four ring levels used hardware-based computer security segment descriptor also contains segment limit field specifies maximum offset may used segment offsets 16 bits segments still limited 64 kb 80286 protected mode time segment register loaded protected mode 80286 must read 6-byte segment descriptor memory set hidden internal registers therefore loading segment registers much slower protected mode real mode changing segments frequently avoided actual memory operations using protected mode segments slowed much 80286 later hardware check offset segment limit parallel instruction execution intel 80386 extended offsets also segment limit field segment descriptor 32 bits enabling segment span entire memory space also introduced support protected mode paging mechanism making possible use paged virtual memory 4 kb page size paging allows cpu map page virtual memory space page physical memory space uses additional mapping tables memory called page tables protected mode 80386 operate paging either enabled disabled segmentation mechanism always active generates virtual addresses mapped paging mechanism enabled segmentation mechanism also effectively disabled setting segments base address 0 size limit equal whole address space also requires minimally-sized segment descriptor table four descriptors since fs gs segments need used paging used extensively modern multitasking operating systems linux 386bsd windows nt developed 386 first intel architecture cpu support paging 32-bit segment offsets 386 architecture became basis development x86 series x86 processors support protected mode boot real mode backward compatibility older 8086 class processors upon power-on a.k.a booting processor initializes real mode begins executing instructions operating system boot code might stored rom may place processor protected mode enable paging features instruction set protected mode similar used real mode however certain constraints apply real mode able use ax cx dx addressing apply protected mode conversely segment arithmetic common practice real mode code allowed protected mode also sub-mode operation 32-bit protected mode a.k.a 80386 protected mode called virtual 8086 mode also known v86 mode basically special hybrid operating mode allows real mode programs operating systems run control protected mode supervisor operating system allows great deal flexibility running protected mode programs real mode programs simultaneously mode exclusively available 32-bit version protected mode exist 16-bit version protected mode long mode mid 1990s obvious 32-bit address space x86 architecture limiting performance applications requiring large data sets 32-bit address space would allow processor directly address 4 gb data size surpassed applications video processing database engines using 64-bit addresses possible directly address 16 eib data although 64-bit architectures support access full 64-bit address space example amd64 supports 48 bits 64-bit address split four paging levels 1999 amd published nearly complete specification 64-bit extension x86 architecture called x86-64 claimed intentions produce design currently used almost x86 processors exceptions intended embedded systems mass-produced x86-64 chips general market available four years later 2003 time spent working prototypes tested refined time initial name x86-64 changed amd64 success amd64 line processors coupled lukewarm reception ia-64 architecture forced intel release implementation amd64 instruction set intel previously implemented support amd64 opted enable hopes amd would bring amd64 market itanium new ia-64 instruction set widely adopted branded implementation amd64 em64t later re-branded intel 64 literature product version names microsoft sun refer amd64/intel 64 collectively x64 windows solaris operating systems linux distributions refer either x86-64 variant x86_64 amd64 bsd systems use amd64 macos uses x86_64 long mode mostly extension 32-bit instruction set unlike 16–to–32-bit transition many instructions dropped 64-bit mode affect actual binary backward compatibility would execute legacy code modes retain support instructions changes way assembler compilers new code work first time major extension x86 architecture initiated originated manufacturer intel also first time intel accepted technology nature outside source early x86 processors could extended floating-point hardware form series floating point numerical co-processors names like 8087 80287 80387 abbreviated x87 also known npx numeric processor extension apt name since coprocessors used mainly floating-point calculations also performed integer operations binary decimal formats exceptions 80486 subsequent x86 processors integrated x87 functionality chip made x87 instructions de facto integral part x86 instruction set x87 register known st 0 st 7 80 bits wide stores numbers ieee floating-point standard double extended precision format registers organized stack st 0 top done order conserve opcode space registers therefore randomly accessible either operand register-to-register instruction st0 must always one two operands either source destination regardless whether operand st x memory operand however random access stack registers obtained instruction exchanges specified st x st 0 operations include arithmetic transcendental functions including trigonometric exponential functions well instructions load common constants 0 1 e base natural logarithm log2 10 log10 2 one stack registers integer capability often overlooked x87 operate larger integers single instruction 8086 80286 80386 x86 cpu without 64-bit extensions repeated integer calculations even small values e.g 16-bit accelerated executing integer instructions x86 cpu x87 parallel x86 cpu keeps running x87 coprocessor calculates x87 sets signal x86 finished interrupts x86 needs attention error mmx simd instruction set designed intel introduced 1997 pentium mmx microprocessor mmx instruction set developed similar concept first used intel i860 supported subsequent ia-32 processors intel vendors mmx typically used video processing multimedia applications instance mmx added 8 new registers architecture known mm0 mm7 henceforth referred mmn reality new registers aliases existing x87 fpu stack registers hence anything done floating point stack would also affect mmx registers unlike fp stack mmn registers fixed relative therefore randomly accessible instruction set adopt stack-like semantics existing operating systems could still correctly save restore register state multitasking without modifications mmn registers 64-bit integers however one main concepts mmx instruction set concept packed data types means instead using whole register single 64-bit integer quadword one may use contain two 32-bit integers doubleword four 16-bit integers word eight 8-bit integers byte given mmx 64-bit mmn registers aliased fpu stack floating point registers 80 bits wide upper 16 bits floating point registers unused mmx bits set ones mmx instruction correspond floating point representation nans infinities 1997 amd introduced 3dnow introduction technology coincided rise 3d entertainment applications designed improve cpu vector processing performance graphic-intensive applications 3d video game developers 3d graphics hardware vendors use 3dnow enhance performance amd k6 athlon series processors 3dnow designed natural evolution mmx integers floating point uses exactly register naming convention mmx mm0 mm7 difference instead packing integers registers two single precision floating point numbers packed register advantage aliasing fpu registers instruction data structures used save state fpu registers also used save 3dnow register states thus special modifications required made operating systems would otherwise know 1999 intel introduced streaming simd extensions sse instruction set following 2000 sse2 first addition allowed offloading basic floating-point operations x87 stack second made mmx almost obsolete allowed instructions realistically targeted conventional compilers introduced 2004 along prescott revision pentium 4 processor sse3 added specific memory thread-handling instructions boost performance intel hyperthreading technology amd licensed sse3 instruction set implemented sse3 instructions revision e later athlon 64 processors athlon 64 support hyperthreading lacks sse3 instructions used hyperthreading sse discarded legacy connections fpu stack also meant instruction set discarded legacy connections previous generations simd instruction sets like mmx freed designers allowing use larger registers limited size fpu registers designers created eight 128-bit registers named xmm0 xmm7 note amd64 number sse xmm registers increased 8 16 however downside operating systems awareness new set instructions order able save register states intel created slightly modified version protected mode called enhanced mode enables usage sse instructions whereas stay disabled regular protected mode os aware sse activate enhanced mode whereas unaware os enter traditional protected mode sse simd instruction set works floating point values like 3dnow however unlike 3dnow severs legacy connection fpu stack larger registers 3dnow sse pack twice number single precision floats registers original sse limited single-precision numbers like 3dnow sse2 introduced capability pack double precision numbers 3dnow possibility since double precision number 64-bit size would full size single 3dnow mmn register 128 bits sse xmmn registers could pack two double precision floats one register thus sse2 much suitable scientific calculations either sse1 3dnow limited single precision sse3 introduce additional registers physical address extension pae first added intel pentium pro later amd athlon processors allow 64 gb ram addressed without pae physical ram 32-bit protected mode usually limited 4 gb pae defines different page table structure wider page table entries third level page table allowing additional bits physical address although initial implementations 32-bit processors theoretically supported 64 gb ram chipset platform limitations often restricted could actually used x64 processors define page table structures theoretically allow 52 bits physical address although chipset platform concerns like number dimm slots available maximum ram possible per dimm prevent large physical address space realized x64 processors pae mode must active switch long mode must remain active long mode active long mode non-pae mode pae mode affect width linear virtual addresses 2000s 32-bit x86 processors limitations memory addressing obstacle utilization high-performance computing clusters powerful desktop workstations aged 32-bit x86 competing much advanced 64-bit risc architectures could address much memory intel whole x86 ecosystem needed 64-bit memory addressing x86 survive 64-bit computing era workstation desktop software applications soon start hitting limitations present 32-bit memory addressing however intel felt right time make bold step use transition 64-bit desktop computers transition away x86 architecture general experiment ultimately failed 2001 intel attempted introduce non-x86 64-bit architecture named ia-64 itanium processor initially aiming high-performance computing market hoping would eventually replace 32-bit x86 ia-64 incompatible x86 itanium processor provide emulation capabilities translating x86 instructions ia-64 affected performance x86 programs badly rarely ever actually useful users programmers rewrite x86 programs ia-64 architecture performance itanium would orders magnitude worse true x86 processor market rejected itanium processor since broke backward compatibility preferred continue using x86 chips programs rewritten ia-64 amd decided take another path toward 64-bit memory addressing making sure backward compatibility would suffer april 2003 amd released first x86 processor 64-bit general-purpose registers opteron capable addressing much 4 gb virtual memory using new x86-64 extension also known amd64 x64 64-bit extensions x86 architecture enabled newly introduced long mode therefore 32-bit 16-bit applications operating systems could simply continue using amd64 processor protected modes without even slightest sacrifice performance full compatibility back original instructions 16-bit intel 8086 market responded positively adopting 64-bit amd processors high-performance applications business home computers seeing market rejecting incompatible itanium processor microsoft supporting amd64 intel respond introduced x86-64 processor prescott pentium 4 july 2004 result itanium processor ia-64 instruction set rarely used x86 x86-64 incarnation still dominant cpu architecture non-embedded computers x86-64 also introduced nx bit offers protection security bugs caused buffer overruns result amd 64-bit contribution x86 lineage subsequent acceptance intel 64-bit risc architectures ceased threat x86 ecosystem almost disappeared workstation market x86-64 began utilized powerful supercomputers amd opteron intel xeon incarnations market previously natural habitat 64-bit risc designs ibm power microprocessors sparc processors great leap toward 64-bit computing maintenance backward compatibility 32-bit 16-bit software enabled x86 architecture become extremely flexible platform today x86 chips utilized small low-power systems example intel quark intel atom fast gaming desktop computers example intel core i7 amd fx/ryzen even dominate large supercomputing clusters effectively leaving arm 32-bit 64-bit risc architecture competitor smartphone tablet market prior 2005 x86 architecture processors unable meet popek goldberg requirements specification virtualization created 1974 gerald j. popek robert p. goldberg however proprietary open-source x86 virtualization hypervisor products developed using software-based virtualization proprietary systems include hyper-v parallels workstation vmware esx vmware workstation vmware workstation player windows virtual pc free open-source systems include qemu kqemu virtualbox xen introduction amd-v intel vt-x instruction sets 2005 allowed x86 processors meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements Target text information: code_morphing_software.code morphing software code morphing software cms technology used transmeta microprocessors execute x86 instructions broad view cms reads x86 instructions generates instructions proprietary vliw processor style shade cms translation much expensive shade produces much higher quality code cms also contains interpreter simulates user-mode system mode operation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,134	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: hp-ux.hp-ux hp-ux hewlett packard unix hewlett packard enterprise proprietary implementation unix operating system based unix system v initially system iii first released 1984 recent versions support hp 9000 series computer systems based pa-risc instruction set architecture hp integrity systems based intel itanium architecture earlier versions hp-ux supported hp integral pc hp 9000 series 200 300 400 computer systems based motorola 68000 series processors well hp 9000 series 500 computers based hp proprietary focus architecture hp-ux first unix offer access control lists file access permissions alternative standard unix permissions system hp-ux also among first unix systems include built-in logical volume manager hp long partnership veritas software uses vxfs primary file system one six commercial operating systems versions certified open group unix 03 standard others macos solaris inspur k-ux huawei euleros aix hp-ux 11i offers common shared disks clustered file system hp serviceguard cluster solution hp-ux hp global workload management adjusts workloads optimize performance integrates instant capacity demand installed resources paid 30-minute increments needed peak workload demands hp-ux offers operating system-level virtualization features hardware partitions isolated os virtual partitions cell-based servers hp integrity virtual machines hpvm integrity servers hpvm supports guests running hp-ux 11i v3 hosts – guests run linux windows openvms 8.4 hp-ux hp supports online vm guest migration encryption secure guest contents migration hp-ux 11i v3 scales follows superdome 2 32 intel itanium 9560 processors 11i v2 release introduced kernel-based intrusion detection strong random number generation stack buffer overflow protection security partitioning role-based access management various open-source security tools hp classifies operating system security features three categories data system identity release 6.x together 3.x introduced context dependent files cdf feature method allowing fileserver serve different configurations binaries even architectures different client machines heterogeneous environment directory containing files suid bit set made hidden ordinary root processes normal use scheme sometimes exploited intruders hide malicious programs data cdfs cdf filesystem dropped release 10.0 hp-ux operating systems supports variety pa-risc systems 11.0 added support integrity-based servers transition pa-risc itanium hp-ux 11i v1.5 first version supported itanium introduction hp-ux 11i v2 operating system supported architectures hp-ux 11i supports hp integrity servers hp bl server blade family servers use intel itanium architecture hp-ux 11i v2 11i v3 support hp cx series servers cx stands carrier grade used mainly telco industry -48v dc support nebs certified systems contain itanium mad6m processors discontinued hp-ux supports hp rx series servers prior release hp-ux version 11.11 hp used decimal version numbering scheme first number giving major release number following decimal showing minor release 11.11 hp made marketing decision name releases 11 followed v decimal-number version intended indicate os internet-enabled effective result dual version-numbering scheme hp bundles hp-ux 11i programs packages call operating environments oes following lists currently available hp-ux 11i v3 oes 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: .net_framework..net framework .net framework pronounced dot net software framework developed microsoft runs primarily microsoft windows includes large class library named framework class library fcl provides language interoperability language use code written languages across several programming languages programs written .net framework execute software environment contrast hardware environment named common language runtime clr clr application virtual machine provides services security memory management exception handling computer code written using .net framework called managed code fcl clr together constitute .net framework fcl provides user interface data access database connectivity cryptography web application development numeric algorithms network communications programmers produce software combining source code .net framework libraries framework intended used new applications created windows platform microsoft also produces integrated development environment largely .net software called visual studio .net framework began proprietary software although firm worked standardize software stack almost immediately even first release despite standardization efforts developers mainly free open-source software communities expressed unease selected terms prospects free open-source implementation especially regarding software patents since microsoft changed .net development closely follow contemporary model community-developed software project including issuing update patent promising address concerns .net framework led family .net platforms targeting mobile computing embedded devices alternative operating systems web browser plug-ins reduced version framework .net compact framework available windows ce platforms including windows mobile devices smartphones .net micro framework targeted resource-constrained embedded devices silverlight available web browser plugin mono available many operating systems customized popular smartphone operating systems android ios game engines .net core targets universal windows platform uwp cross-platform cloud computing workloads microsoft began developing .net framework late 1990s originally name next generation windows services ngws part .net strategy late 2000 first beta versions .net 1.0 released august 2000 microsoft intel worked standardize common language infrastructure cli c december 2001 ratified ecma international ecma standards international organisation standardisation iso followed april 2003 current version iso standards iso/iec 23271:2012 iso/iec 23270:2006 microsoft partners hold patents cli c ecma iso require patents essential implementation made available reasonable non-discriminatory terms firms agreed meet terms make patents available royalty-free however apply part .net framework covered ecma-iso standards included windows forms ado.net asp.net patents microsoft holds areas may deterred non-microsoft implementations full framework october 3 2007 microsoft announced source code .net framework 3.5 libraries become available microsoft reference source license ms-rsl source code repository became available online january 16 2008 included bcl asp.net ado.net windows forms wpf xml scott guthrie microsoft promised linq wcf wf libraries added november 12 2014 microsoft announced .net core effort include cross-platform support .net source release microsoft coreclr implementation source entire … library stack .net core adoption conventional bazaar -like open-source development model consolation stewardship .net foundation miguel de icaza describes .net core redesigned version .net based simplified version class libraries microsoft immo landwerth explained .net core would foundation future .net platforms time announcement initial release .net core project seeded subset libraries source code coincided relicensing microsoft existing .net reference source away restrictions ms-rsl landwerth acknowledged disadvantages formerly selected shared license explaining made codename rotor non-starter community-developed open source project meet criteria open source initiative osi approved license november 2014 microsoft also produced update patent grants extends scope beyond prior pledges prior projects like mono existed legal grey area microsoft earlier grants applied technology covered specifications including strictly 4th editions ecma-334 ecma-335 new patent promise however places ceiling specification version even extends .net runtime technologies documented msdn formally specified ecma group project chooses implement allows mono projects maintain feature parity modern .net features introduced since 4th edition published without risk patent litigation implementation features new grant maintain restriction implementation must maintain minimum compliance mandatory parts cli specification march 31 2016 microsoft announced microsoft build completely relicense mono mit license even scenarios formerly commercial license needed microsoft also supplemented prior patent promise mono stating assert applicable patents parties using selling offering sale importing distributing mono announced mono project contributed .net foundation developments followed acquisition xamarin began february 2016 finished march 18 2016 microsoft press release highlights cross-platform commitment allows fully open-source modern server-side .net stack microsoft released source code wpf windows forms winui december 4 2018 may 8th 2019 microsoft announced .net 5.0 released november 2020 based .net core common language infrastructure cli provides language-neutral platform application development execution implementing core aspects .net framework within scope cli functions tied one language available across many languages supported framework .net framework includes common language runtime clr serves execution engine .net framework offers many services memory management type safety exception handling garbage collection security thread management programs written .net framework executed clr programs written .net framework compiled common intermediate language code cil opposed directly compiled machine code execution architecture-specific just-in-time compiler jit turns cil code machine code microsoft move .net core cli virtual execution system ves implementation known coreclr instead clr compiled cil code stored cli assemblies mandated specification assemblies stored portable executable pe file format common windows platform dynamic-link library dll executable exe files assembly consists one files one must contain manifest bearing metadata assembly complete name assembly confused file name disk contains simple text name version number culture public key token assemblies considered equivalent share complete name private key also used creator assembly strong naming public key token identifies private key assembly signed creator key pair typically person signing assembly sign assemblies strong name prior version assembly since creator possesses private key strong naming required add assemblies global assembly cache starting visual studio 2015 .net native compilation technology allows compilation .net code universal windows platform apps directly machine code rather cil code app must written either c visual basic.net .net framework includes implementation cli foundational standard libraries .net framework class library fcl organized hierarchy namespaces built-in application programming interfaces apis part either codice_1 codice_2 namespaces class libraries implement many common functions file reading writing graphic rendering database interaction xml document manipulation class libraries available cli compliant languages fcl implements cli base class library bcl class libraries—some specified cli microsoft specific bcl includes small subset entire class library core set classes serve basic api clr .net framework classes considered part bcl reside codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 bcl classes available .net framework well alternative implementations including .net compact framework microsoft silverlight .net core mono fcl refers entire class library ships .net framework includes expanded set libraries including bcl windows forms asp.net windows presentation foundation wpf also extensions base class libraries ado.net language integrated query linq windows communication foundation wcf workflow foundation wf fcl much larger scope standard libraries languages like c++ comparable scope standard libraries java introduction alternative implementations e.g. silverlight microsoft introduced concept portable class libraries pcl allowing consuming library run one platform proliferation .net platforms pcl approach failed scale pcls defined intersections api surface two platforms next evolutionary step pcl .net standard library created retroactively based codice_6 based apis found uwp silverlight new .net platforms encouraged implement version standard library allowing re-use extant third-party libraries run without new versions .net standard library allows independent evolution library app model layers within .net architecture nuget package manager .net platforms used retrieve third-party libraries .net project global library feed nuget.org private feeds maintained separately e.g. build server file system directory microsoft move .net core cli foundational class libraries implementation known corefx instead fcl atop class libraries multiple app models used create apps .net framework supports console windows forms windows presentation foundation asp.net asp.net core apps default app models offered alternative implementations .net framework console uwp asp.net core available .net core mono used power xamarin app models android ios macos retroactive architectural definition app models showed early 2015 also applied prior technologies like windows forms wpf microsoft introduced c++/cli visual studio 2005 language means compiling visual c++ programs run within .net framework parts c++ program still run within unmanaged visual c++ runtime specially modified parts translated cil code run .net framework clr assemblies compiled using c++/cli compiler termed mixed-mode assemblies since contain native managed code dll assemblies complex reverse engineer since .net decompilers .net reflector reveal managed code computer systems commonly require interaction newer older applications .net framework provides means access functions implemented newer older programs execute outside .net environment access component object model com components provided codice_7 codice_8 namespaces framework access functions via platform invocation services p/invoke access .net functions native applications via reverse p/invoke function .net framework introduces common type system cts defines possible data types programming constructs supported clr may may interact conforming cli specification feature .net framework supports exchange types object instances libraries applications written using conforming .net language cts clr used .net framework also enforce type safety prevents ill-defined casts wrong method invocations memory size issues accessing object also makes cli languages statically typed without type inference however starting .net framework 4.0 dynamic language runtime extended clr allowing dynamically typed languages implemented atop cli microsoft never implemented full framework system except microsoft windows engineered framework cross-platform implementations available operating systems see silverlight § alternative implementations microsoft submitted specifications cli includes core class libraries cts cil c c++/cli ecma international ecma international organization standardization iso making available official standards makes possible third parties create compatible implementations framework languages platforms .net framework security mechanism two general features code access security cas validation verification cas based evidence associated specific assembly typically evidence source assembly whether installed local machine downloaded internet cas uses evidence determine permissions granted code code demand calling code granted specified permission demand causes clr perform call stack walk every assembly method call stack checked required permission assembly granted permission security exception thrown managed cil bytecode easier reverse-engineer native code unless obfuscated decompiler programs enable developers reverse-engineering skills view source code behind unobfuscated .net assemblies contrast apps compiled native machine code much harder reverse-engineer source code almost never produced successfully mainly compiler optimizations lack reflection creates concerns business community possible loss trade secrets bypassing license control mechanisms mitigate microsoft included dotfuscator community edition visual studio .net since 2002 third-party obfuscation tools also available vendors vmware v.i labs turbo red gate software method-level encryption tools .net code available vendors safenet clr frees developer burden managing memory allocating freeing done handles memory management detecting memory safely freed instantiations .net types objects allocated managed heap pool memory managed clr long reference object exists may either direct via graph objects object considered use reference object exists reached used becomes garbage eligible collection .net framework includes garbage collector gc runs periodically separate thread application thread enumerates unusable objects reclaims memory allocated non-deterministic compacting mark-and-sweep garbage collector gc runs set amount memory used enough pressure memory system since guaranteed conditions reclaim memory reached gc runs non-deterministic .net application set roots pointers objects managed heap managed objects include references static objects objects defined local variables method parameters currently scope objects referred cpu registers gc runs pauses application object referred root recursively enumerates objects reachable root objects marks reachable uses cli metadata reflection discover objects encapsulated object recursively walk enumerates objects heap initially allocated contiguously using reflection objects marked reachable garbage mark phase since memory held garbage consequence considered free space however leaves chunks free space objects initially contiguous objects compacted together make free space managed heap contiguous reference object invalidated moving object updated gc reflect new location application resumed garbage collection ends latest version .net framework uses concurrent garbage collection along user code making pauses unnoticeable done background garbage collector used .net framework also generational objects assigned generation newly created objects tagged generation 0 objects survive one garbage collection tagged generation 1 generation 1 objects survive another collection generation 2 framework uses generation 2 objects higher generation objects garbage collected less often lower generation objects raises efficiency garbage collection older objects tend longer lifetimes newer objects ignoring older objects collection runs fewer checks compaction operations needed total application first launched .net framework compiles cil code executable code using just-in-time compiler caches executable program .net native image cache due caching application launches faster subsequent launches although first launch usually slower speed first launch developers may use native image generator utility manually ahead-of-time compile cache .net application garbage collector integrated environment introduce unanticipated delays execution developer little direct control large applications number objects garbage collector needs work become large means take long time visit rearrange .net framework provides support calling streaming simd extensions sse via managed code april 2014 visual studio 2013 update 2 however mono provided support simd extensions version 2.2 within namespace 2009 mono lead developer miguel de icaza expressed hope simd support adopted clr ecma standard streaming simd extensions available x86 cpus since introduction pentium iii architectures arm mips also simd extensions case cpu lacks support extensions instructions simulated software .net framework predominant implementation .net technologies implementations parts framework exist although runtime engine described ecma-iso specification implementations may encumbered patent issues iso standards may include disclaimer attention drawn possibility elements document may subject patent rights iso shall held responsible identifying patent rights harder develop alternatives fcl described open standard may subject copyright restrictions also parts fcl windows-specific functions behavior implementation non-windows platforms problematic alternative implementations parts framework listed microsoft managed code frameworks components licensed follows Target text information: hp_rtr.hp rtr hp reliable transaction router rtr transactional middleware computer software marketed hewlett packard rtr used integrate applications require reliable transaction services rtr manages messages sent client-server provide node network fail-over increased reliability transactional integrity interoperability dissimilar systems rtr software three logical entities referred front-end fe back-end transaction-router tr router software component provides fail-over intelligence manages connections back-end client applications running front-end combined router server applications running back-end interact provide transaction integrity reliability three logical entities exist node usually deployed different nodes achieve modularity scalability high availability client application interacts front-end forwards messages router router turn routes message intended back-end appropriate server application available processing message rtr routing capability partitions data across multiple servers nodes increased performance within application partition determines messages routed client servers message exchange happens client server transactions start client involve many messages go number different servers method messaging used situations multiple recipients message unsolicited messages need sent rtr help survive failures generally seen distributed application environment include complete site failure node failure network link failure software process failure rtr also provides continuous availability using redundant resources distributed environment rtr provides web interface command line interface cli managing rtr environment rtr components running along applications client application server application rtr services active rtr integrated client applications customized user management applications written using rtr apis c c++ java .net variants apis available creating applications use rtr rtr first conceived zurich switzerland dr. paul shrager early 1988 developed small team four engineers working dec digital equipment corporation initial release written mix macro bliss pascal sdl top decnet vms later reimplemented c top tcp/ip stack os agnostic infrastructure allowed deployed multiple operating systems including various flavors unix/linux vms windows java c++ veneer added mid 90s support rpc style veneer top services oriented interface rtr one first oltp middleware services provided following features addition usual ones viz additionally rtr guarantees data equivalence repositories behind primary shadow servers enforcing deduced dependency relationship among set concurrent transactions shadowed allows rtr process multiple transactions shadow without compromising dependency violations high profile users banks stock exchanges railway passenger reservation systems rtr available hp-ux linux windows openvms 2010 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	206	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: ping_of_death.ping death ping death type attack computer system involves sending malformed otherwise malicious ping computer correctly-formed ping packet typically 56 bytes size 64 bytes internet protocol header considered however ipv4 packet including pings may large 65,535 bytes computer systems never designed properly handle ping packet larger maximum packet size violates internet protocol documented rfc 791 like large well-formed packets ping death fragmented groups 8 octets transmission however target computer reassembles malformed packet buffer overflow occur causing system crash potentially allowing injection malicious code early implementations tcp/ip bug easy exploit affect wide variety systems including unix linux mac windows peripheral devices systems began filtering pings death firewalls detection methods different kind ping attack known ping flooding later appeared floods victim many ping requests normal traffic fails reach system basic denial-of-service attack defined rfc 791 maximum packet length ipv4 packet including ip header 65,535 2 − 1 bytes limitation presented use 16-bit wide ip header field describes total packet length underlying data link layer almost always poses limits maximum frame size see mtu ethernet typically 1500 bytes case large ip packet split across multiple ip packets also known ip fragments ip fragment match imposed limit receiver ip fragments reassemble complete ip packet continue processing usual fragmentation performed ip fragment needs carry information part original ip packet contains information kept fragment offset field ip header field 13 bits long contains offset data current ip fragment original ip packet offset given units 8 bytes allows maximum offset 65,528 2-1 *8 adding 20 bytes ip header maximum 65,548 bytes exceeds maximum frame size means ip fragment maximum offset data larger 7 bytes else would exceed limit maximum packet length malicious user send ip fragment maximum offset much data 8 bytes large physical layer allows receiver assembles ip fragments end ip packet larger 65,535 bytes may possibly overflow memory buffers receiver allocated packet cause various problems evident description problem nothing icmp used payload big enough exploit problem problem reassembly process ip fragments may contain type protocol tcp udp igmp etc. correction problem add checks reassembly process check incoming ip fragment makes sure sum fragment offset total length fields ip header ip fragment smaller equal 65,535 sum greater packet invalid ip fragment ignored check performed firewalls protect hosts bug fixed another fix problem using memory buffer larger 65,535 bytes re-assembly packet essentially breaking specification since adds support packets larger allowed 2013 ipv6 version ping death vulnerability discovered microsoft windows windows tcp/ip stack n't handle memory allocation correctly processing incoming malformed icmpv6 packets could cause remote denial service vulnerability fixed ms13-065 august 2013 cve-id vulnerability cve-2013-3183 1-hop neighbor's text information: fork_bomb.fork bomb computing fork bomb also called rabbit virus wabbit denial-of-service attack wherein process continually replicates deplete available system resources slowing crashing system due resource starvation around 1978 early variant fork bomb called wabbit reported run system/360 may descended similar attack called rabbits reported 1969 burroughs 5500 university washington fork bombs operate consuming cpu time process forking saturating operating system process table basic implementation fork bomb infinite loop repeatedly launches new copies unix-like operating systems fork bombs generally written use fork system call forked processes also copies first program resume execution next address frame pointer continue forking endlessly within copy infinite loop effect causing exponential growth processes modern unix systems generally use copy-on-write forking new processes fork bomb generally saturate system memory microsoft windows operating systems equivalent functionality unix fork system call fork bomb operating system must therefore create new process instead forking existing one inline shell example using perl interpreter import os true int main public class forkbomb -- requires luaposix module local unistd require posix.unistd true end section .text _start example shell script told run two instances 0 ― 0 shell variable returning name script ― pipe output one results exponentially replicating processes 0\|./ 0 simpler way run 0 twice 0 0 bash fork bomb performed declaring calling multiple-recursive function bomb bomb additionally one famous commonly cited examples fork bomb dense one-line bash command command obfuscated version trick used function name possible colon reserved character bash languages otherwise identical unicode support similarly rendered shorter done command line using escape specials condensed version designed run directly run ... prompt true fork bomb mode operation entirely encapsulated creating new processes one way preventing fork bomb severely affecting entire system limit maximum number processes single user may linux achieved using ulimit utility example command codice_1 would limit affected user maximum thirty owned processes pam-enabled systems limit also set codice_2 freebsd system administrator put limits codice_3 1-hop neighbor's text information: zemra.zemra zemra ddos bot first discovered underground forums may 2012 zemra capable http syn flood flooding also simple command control panel protected 256-bit des encryption communicating command control c c server zemra also sends information computer name language settings windows version send data remote location specific date time also opens backdoor tcp port 7710 receive commands remote command-and-control server able monitor devices collect system information execute files even update uninstall necessary Target text information: r-u-dead-yet.r-u-dead-yet r.u.d.y. short r u dead yet acronym used describe denial service dos tool used hackers perform slow-rate a.k.a “ low slow ” attacks directing long form fields targeted server known interactive console thus making user-friendly tool opens fewer connections website targeted long period keeps sessions open long feasible amount open sessions overtires server website making unavailable authentic visitors data sent small packs incredibly slow rate normally gap ten seconds byte intervals definite may vary avert detection victim servers types attacks may face issues able access particular website disrupt connection drastically slow network performance etc hackers use attacks different purposes targeting different servers hosts purposes include limited blackmail vengeance sometimes even activism rudy attack opens concurrent post http connections http server delays sending body post request point server resources saturated attack sends numerous small packets slow rate keep connection open server busy low-and slow attack behavior makes relatively difficult detect compared flooding dos attacks raise traffic volume abnormally I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,488	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: botnet.botnet botnet number internet-connected devices running one bots botnets used perform distributed denial-of-service attack ddos attack steal data send spam allows attacker access device connection owner control botnet using command control c c software word botnet combination words robot network term usually used negative malicious connotation botnet logical collection internet-connected devices computers smartphones iot devices whose security breached control ceded third party compromised device known bot created device penetrated software malware malicious software distribution controller botnet able direct activities compromised computers communication channels formed standards-based network protocols irc hypertext transfer protocol http botnets increasingly rented cyber criminals commodities variety purposes botnet architecture evolved time effort evade detection disruption traditionally bot programs constructed clients communicate via existing servers allows bot herder person controlling botnet perform control remote location obfuscates traffic many recent botnets rely existing peer-to-peer networks communicate p2p bot programs perform actions client-server model require central server communicate first botnets internet used client-server model accomplish tasks typically botnets operate internet relay chat networks domains websites infected clients access predetermined location await incoming commands server bot herder sends commands server relays clients clients execute commands report results back bot herder case irc botnets infected clients connect infected irc server join channel pre-designated c c bot herder bot herder sends commands channel via irc server client retrieves commands executes clients send messages back irc channel results actions response efforts detect decapitate irc botnets bot herders begun deploying malware peer-to-peer networks bots may use digital signatures someone access private key control botnet see e.g gameover zeus zeroaccess botnet newer botnets fully operate p2p networks rather communicate centralized server p2p bots perform command distribution server client receives commands avoids single point failure issue centralized botnets order find infected machines bot discreetly probes random ip addresses contacts another infected machine contacted bot replies information software version list known bots one bots version lower initiate file transfer update way bot grows list infected machines updates periodically communicating known bots botnet originator known bot herder bot master controls botnet remotely known command-and-control c c program operation must communicate via covert channel client victim machine zombie computer irc historically favored means c c communication protocol bot herder creates irc channel infected clients join messages sent channel broadcast channel members bot herder may set channel topic command botnet e.g message codice_1 bot herder alerts infected clients belonging channel begin ddos attack website www.victim.com example response codice_2 bot client alerts bot herder begun attack botnets implement custom versions well-known protocols implementation differences used detection botnets example mega-d features slightly modified smtp implementation testing spam capability bringing mega-d smtp server disables entire pool bots rely upon smtp server computer science zombie computer computer connected internet compromised hacker computer virus trojan horse used perform malicious tasks one sort another remote direction botnets zombie computers often used spread e-mail spam launch denial-of-service attacks owners zombie computers unaware system used way owner tends unaware computers metaphorically compared zombies coordinated ddos attack multiple botnet machines also resembles zombie horde attack many computer users unaware computer infected bots process stealing computing resources result system joined botnet sometimes referred scrumping botnet command control c c protocols implemented number ways traditional irc approaches sophisticated versions telnet botnets use simple c c botnet protocol bots connect main command server host botnet bots added botnet using scanning script scanning script run external server scans ip ranges telnet ssh server default logins login found added infection list infected malicious infection line via ssh scanner server ssh command run infects server commands server ping control server becomes slave malicious code infecting servers infected server bot controller launch ddos attacks high volume using c c panel host server types botnets used take large websites like xbox playstation network known hacking group called lizard squad irc networks use simple low bandwidth communication methods making widely used host botnets tend relatively simple construction used moderate success coordinating ddos attacks spam campaigns able continually switch channels avoid taken however cases merely blocking certain keywords proven effective stopping irc-based botnets rfc 1459 irc standard popular botnets first known popular botnet controller script maxite bot using irc xdcc protocol private control commands one problem using irc bot client must know irc server port channel use botnet anti-malware organizations detect shut servers channels effectively halting botnet attack happens clients still infected typically lie dormant since way receiving instructions mitigate problem botnet consist several servers channels one servers channels becomes disabled botnet simply switches another still possible detect disrupt additional botnet servers channels sniffing irc traffic botnet adversary even potentially gain knowledge control scheme imitate bot herder issuing commands correctly since botnets using irc networks domains taken time hackers moved p2p botnets c c way make harder taken also used encryption way secure lock botnet others time use encryption public-key cryptography presented challenges implementing breaking many large botnets tend use domains rather irc construction see rustock botnet srizbi botnet usually hosted bulletproof hosting services one earliest types c c zombie computer accesses specially-designed webpage domain serves list controlling commands advantages using web pages domains c c large botnet effectively controlled maintained simple code readily updated disadvantages using method uses considerable amount bandwidth large scale domains quickly seized government agencies without much trouble effort domains controlling botnets seized also easy targets compromise denial-of-service attacks fast-flux dns used way make difficult track control servers may change day day control servers may also hop dns domain dns domain domain generation algorithms used create new dns names controller servers botnets use free dns hosting services dyndns.org no-ip.com afraid.org point subdomain towards irc server harbors bots free dns services host attacks provide reference points often hard-coded botnet executable removing services cripple entire botnet calling back large social media sites github twitter reddit instagram xmpp open source instant message protocol tor hidden services popular ways avoiding egress filtering communicate c c server example illustrates botnet created used malicious gain newer bots automatically scan environment propagate using vulnerabilities weak passwords generally vulnerabilities bot scan propagate valuable becomes botnet controller community computers co-opted botnet execute malicious software accomplished luring users making drive-by download exploiting web browser vulnerabilities tricking user running trojan horse program may come email attachment malware typically install modules allow computer commanded controlled botnet operator software downloaded call home send reconnection packet host computer re-connection made depending written trojan may delete may remain present update maintain modules cases botnet may temporarily created volunteer hacktivists implementations low orbit ion cannon used 4chan members project chanology 2010 china great cannon china allows modification legitimate web browsing traffic internet backbones china create large ephemeral botnet attack large targets github 2015 botnet controller community features constant continuous struggle bots highest overall bandwidth high-quality infected machines like university corporate even government machines botnets often named malware created multiple botnets typically use malware operated different entities botnets used many electronic scams botnets used distribute malware viruses take control regular users computer/software taking control someone personal computer unlimited access personal information including passwords login information accounts called phishing phishing acquiring login information victim accounts link victim clicks sent email text survey verizon found around two-thirds electronic espionage cases come phishing geographic dispersal botnets means recruit must individually identified/corralled/repaired limits benefits filtering computer security experts succeeded destroying subverting malware command control networks among means seizing servers getting cut internet denying access domains due used malware contact c c infrastructure cases breaking c c network response c c operators resorted using techniques overlaying c c networks existing benign infrastructure irc tor using peer-to-peer networking systems dependent fixed servers using public key encryption defeat attempts break spoof network norton antibot aimed consumers target enterprises and/or isps host-based techniques use heuristics identify bot behavior bypassed conventional anti-virus software network-based approaches tend use techniques described shutting c c servers null-routing dns entries completely shutting irc servers bothunter software developed support u.s. army research office detects botnet activity within network analyzing network traffic comparing patterns characteristic malicious processes researchers sandia national laboratories analyzing botnets behavior simultaneously running one million linux kernels—a similar scale botnet—as virtual machines 4,480-node high-performance computer cluster emulate large network allowing watch botnets work experiment ways stop detecting automated bot attacks becoming difficult day newer sophisticated generations bots getting launched attackers example automated attack deploy large bot army apply brute-force methods highly accurate username password lists hack accounts idea overwhelm sites tens thousands requests different ips world bot submitting single request every 10 minutes result 5 million attempts per day cases many tools try leverage volumetric detection automated bot attacks ways circumventing triggers volumetric detection one techniques detecting bot attacks known signature-based systems software attempt detect patterns request packet attacks constantly evolving may viable option patterns ca n't discerned thousands requests also behavioral approach thwarting bots ultimately trying distinguish bots humans identifying non-human behavior recognizing known bot behavior process applied user browser network levels capable method using software combat virus utilize honeypot software order convince malware system vulnerable malicious files analyzed using forensic software july 15 2014 subcommittee crime terrorism committee judiciary united states senate held hearing threats posed botnets public private efforts disrupt dismantle first botnet first acknowledged exposed earthlink lawsuit notorious spammer khan c. smith 2001 purpose bulk spam accounting nearly 25 spam time around 2006 thwart detection botnets scaling back size 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor 1-hop neighbor's text information: mobile_operating_system.mobile operating system mobile operating system mobile os operating system phones tablets smartwatches mobile devices computers typical laptops 'mobile operating systems usually used considered mobile ones originally designed desktop computers historically need specific mobile features distinction becoming blurred newer operating systems hybrids made uses mobile operating systems combine features personal computer operating system features useful mobile handheld use usually including following considered essential modern mobile systems wireless inbuilt modem sim tray telephony data connection touchscreen cellular bluetooth wi-fi protected access wi-fi global positioning system gps mobile navigation video- single-frame picture cameras speech recognition voice recorder music player near field communication infrared blaster q1 2018 383 million smartphones sold 86.2 percent running android 12.9 percent running ios android alone popular popular desktop operating system windows general smartphone use even without tablets outnumber desktop use mobile devices mobile communications abilities e.g. smartphones contain two mobile operating systemsthe main user-facing software platform supplemented second low-level proprietary real-time operating system operates radio hardware research shown low-level systems may contain range security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations gain high levels control mobile device mobile operating systems majority use since 2017 measured web use even smartphones running excluding tablets used kind device thus traditional desktop os minority used kind os see usage share operating systems however variations occur popularity regions desktop-minority also applies days regions united states united kingdom mobile operating system milestones mirror development mobile phones smartphones operating systems often run atop baseband real time operating systems handle hardware aspects phone android based modified linux kernel mobile operating system developed google inc besides largest installed base worldwide smartphones also popular operating system general purpose computers category includes desktop computers mobile devices even though android popular operating system regular desktop personal computers pcs although android operating system free open-source software devices sold much software bundled including google apps vendor-installed software proprietary software closed source android releases 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.6 used exclusively mobile phones android 2.x releases mostly used mobile phones also tablets android 3.0 tablet-oriented release officially run mobile phones phone tablet compatibility merged android 4.0 current android version 9.0 pie android releases named sweets dessert items except first second releases android one software experience runs unmodified android operating system closely resembles running pixel devices previously google nexus program unlike stock androids running market android one ui closely resembles pixel ui due android one software experience developed google distributed partners signup program nokia xiaomi thus overall ui intended clean possible oem partners may tweak add additional apps cameras firmware otherwise apps handled google proprietary apps update handled google internally tested oem distributed via ota update end users designed alibaba based android amazfit os mobile operating system based android develop xiaomi backed huami higher-end amazfit series smartwatch amazfit pace verge stratos due android based operating system therefore side loaded android apk file run smartwatch similar miui although amazfit os based open source aosp consists closed source proprietary software blackberry secure operating system developed blackberry based android open source project aosp officially announced name android based front-end touch interface august 2017 announcement blackberry secure running blackberry brand devices blackberry priv dtek 50/60 blackberry keyone currently blackberry plan license blackberry secure oem coloros custom front-end touch interface based android open source project aosp developed oppo electronics corp. oppo officially releases coloros every oppo device released official rom oneplus one emotion user interface emui front-end touch interface developed huawei technologies co. ltd. based google android open source project aosp emui preinstalled huawei honor devices based open source android operating system consists closed source proprietary software /e/ operating system forked source code lineageos based android supports currently 76 devices april 2019 /e/ targets android smart phone devices uses microg replacement google play services flyme os operating system developed meizu technology co. ltd. open source os based google android open source project aosp flyme os mainly installed meizu smartphones mx series however also official rom support android devices funtouch os fork android developed vivo funtouch os difference traditional android ui funtouch os includes features unavailable former customizable gestures communication drawer bottom top swipe security centre lock screen resize options long screen shot eye protection changing warmer color temperature others funtouch os respects looks similar ios made apple grapheneos formerly named android hardening variant android runs pixel 2 pixel 3 hardware mainly developed daniel micay aims focus security privacy htc sense software suite developed htc used primarily company android-based devices serving successor htc touchflo 3d software windows mobile sense modifies many aspects android user experience incorporating added features altered home screen keyboard widgets htc-developed applications redesigned applications first device sense htc hero released 2009 indus os custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp developed indus os team based india longer valid 2018indus os available micromax intex karbonn indian smartphone brands lg ux formerly named optimus ui front-end touch interface developed lg electronics partners featuring full touch user interface sometimes incorrectly identified operating system lg ux used internally lg sophisticated feature phones tablet computers available licensing external parties optimus ui 2 based android 4.1.2 released optimus k ii optimus neo 3 features refined user interface compared prior version based android 4.1.1 would include together new functionality voice shutter quick memo lineage android distribution custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp serves successor highly popular custom rom cyanogenmod forked december 2016 cyanogen inc. announced discontinuing development shut infrastructure behind project since cyanogen inc. retained rights cyanogen name project rebranded fork lineageos similar cyanogenmod include proprietary apps unless user installs allows android users longer obtain update support manufacturer continue updating os version latest one based official release google aosp heavy theme customization mifavor custom android ui developed zte smartphone running android platform similar android ui mifavor replace stock apps zte owns apps however ux still closely similar stock android mi user interface miui developed chinese electronic company xiaomi inc. mobile operating system based android open source project aosp miui mostly found xiaomi smartphones mi redmi series however also official rom support android devices although miui based aosp open source consists closed source proprietary software miui poco custom mobile operating system based miui based android open source project aosp like predecessor also develop xiaomi inc unlike original miui miui poco specifically customized poco series smartphone including difference ui frequent update compare original miui like miui based open source aosp miui poco also consists closed source proprietary software oxygenos based open source android open source project aosp developed oneplus replace cyanogen os oneplus devices oneplus one preinstalled oneplus 2 oneplus x oneplus 3 oneplus 3t oneplus 5 oneplus 5t oneplus 6 stated oneplus oxygenos focused stabilizing maintaining stock like found nexus devices consists mainly google apps minor ui customization maintain sleekness pure android pixel ui developed google based open source android unlike nexus phones google shipped stock android ui came first generation pixel phones slightly modified compared stock android part google pixel software pixel ui home launcher closed source proprietary thus available pixel family devices however third party mods allow non pixel smartphones install pixel launcher google feed integration replicant custom mobile operating system based android proprietary drivers bloat closed source software removed samsung experience formerly called touchwiz front-end touch interface developed samsung electronics partners featuring full touch user interface sometimes incorrectly identified independent operating system samsung experience used internally samsung smartphones feature phones tablet computers available licensing external parties closed source proprietary android version samsung experience also comes samsung-made apps preloaded except starting galaxy s6 removed samsung pre-loaded apps installed leaving one galaxy apps save storage space initially due removal microsd release samsung galaxy s8 s8+ samsung experience 8.1 preinstall introducing new function known samsung dex similar concept microsoft continuum samsung dex allowed high end galaxy devices s8/s8+ note 8 connect docking station extends functionality allow desktop-like functionality connecting keyboard mouse monitor samsung also announced linux galaxy allows use standard linux distribution dex platform sony xperia ui formerly known timescape ui front-end ui developed sony mobile formerly sony ericsson sony xperia series running android platform sony xperia ui mostly consists sony application sony music formerly known walkman music player albums video player time timescape ui ui different standard android ui instead traditional apps dock bottom part located four corner home screen middle screen consist widget however recent development ui closely resemble stock android zenui front-end touch interface developed asus partners featuring full touch user interface zenui used asus android phones tablet computers available licensing external parties zenui also comes preloaded asus-made apps like zenlink pc link share link party link remote link non-android operating systems listed following sections chrome os operating system designed google based linux kernel uses google chrome web browser principal user interface result chrome os primarily supports web applications google announced project july 2009 conceiving operating system applications user data reside cloud hence chrome os primarily runs web applications due increase popularity 2 1 pcs recent chromebooks introduced touch screen capability android applications starting become available operating system 2014 2016 access android apps entire google play store introduced supported chrome os devices support android applications chromebook devices positioned tablet based instead notebooks chrome os available pre-installed hardware google manufacturing partners open source equivalent chromium os compiled downloaded source code early google provided design goals chrome os otherwise released technical description fuchsia capability-based real-time operating system rtos currently developed google first discovered mysterious code post github august 2016 without official announcement contrast prior google-developed operating systems chrome os android based linux kernels fuchsia based new microkernel called zircon derived little kernel small operating system intended embedded systems upon inspection media outlets noted code post github suggested fuchsia capability run universal devices embedded systems smartphones tablets personal computers may 2017 fuchsia updated user interface along developer writing project experimental prompting media speculation google intentions operating system including possibility replacing android liteos lightweight open source real-time operating system part huawei 1+2+1 internet things solution similar google android things samsung tizen huawei liteos features lightweight low-power fast-response multi-sensor collaboration multi-protocol interconnect connectivity enabling iot terminals quickly access network huawei liteos make intelligent hardware development easier thereby accelerating realization interconnection things currently liteos introduce consumer market huawei watch gt series smartbands current liteos version list pureos debian gnu/linux derivative using free software developed purism already used purism laptops planned use librem 5 smartphone purism partnership gnome kde aims separate cpu baseband processor include hardware kill switches phone wi-fi bluetooth camera microphone baseband processor provide gnome kde plasma mobile options desktop environment sailfish os jolla open source gnu general public license gpl middleware stack core comes mer sailfish due jolla business model due alliances various partners due intentional design os internals capable adopt several layers third party software including jolla software e.g jolla ui proprietary software closed source components proprietary many different kinds licences however user replace open source components like e.g nemo ui instead jolla ui nokia abandoned 2011 meego project meego team left nokia established jolla company use meego mer business opportunities mer standard allows launched hardware kernel compatible mer 2012 linux sailfish os based meego using middleware mer core stack distribution launched public use first device jolla smartphone unveiled may 20 2013 2015 jolla tablet launched brics countries declared officially supported os jolla started licensing sailfish os 2.0 third parties devices sold updateable sailfish 2.0 limits sailfish os version release named finnish lake tizen based linux kernel mobile operating system hosted linux foundation together support tizen association guided technical steering group composed intel samsung tizen operating system devices including smartphones tablets in-vehicle infotainment ivi devices smart tvs open source system however sdk closed source proprietary aims offer consistent user experience across devices tizen main components linux kernel webkit runtime according intel tizen combines best limo meego html5 apps emphasized meego encouraging members transition tizen stating future belongs html5-based applications outside relatively small percentage apps firmly convinced investment needs shift toward html5 tizen targeted variety platforms handsets touch pc smart tvs in-vehicle entertainment may 17 2013 tizen released version 2.1 code-named nectarine tizen open source ux ui layer developed samsung mainly closed source proprietary touchwiz ui samsung z series smartphone current tizen version list ubuntu touch canonical ltd.. open source uses gpl license ubuntu touch os built using android linux kernel using android drivers services via lxc container use java-like code android desktop environment ubuntu touch planned available one default desktop options librem 5 running pureos operating system though canonical formally announced discontinuing ubuntu mobile os integral component unity8 independent german non-profit ubports community/ foundation paperwork pending local berlin-government decided take project canonical started ubuntu touch based ubuntu 15.04 vivid vervet ubports upgraded base nearest current long-term support version ubuntu 16.04 lts xenial xerus original canonical ubuntu touch version list ubports ubuntu touch version list plasma mobile kde desktop environment mobile phones intended compatible several different mobile phone operating systems including pureos running librem 5 open source mobile operating systems active development include luneos based webos postmarketos based alpine linux gnu/linux distribution maemo leste meizu pro 5 ubuntu edition meizu mx4 ubuntu edition running ubuntu touch necuno using gnu/linux distribution plasma mobile desktop kde proprietary version amazfit os develop xiaomi backed huami amazfit bip smartwatch however instead based android based proprietary operating system thus able install third party apps apks ios formerly named iphone os created apple inc second largest installed base worldwide smartphones largest profits due aggressive price competition android-based manufacturers closed source proprietary built open source darwin operating system iphone ipod touch ipad second third-generation apple tv use ios derived macos native third party applications officially supported release iphone os 2.0 july 11 2008 jailbreaking allowed third party applications installed recent years jailbreaking scene changed drastically due apple continued efforts secure operating system prevent unauthorized modifications currently jailbreaks recent iterations ios semi-untethered requires device re-jailbroken every boot exploits jailbreaks becoming increasingly hard find use currently ios devices developed apple manufactured foxconn another apple partners watchos operating system apple watch developed apple inc based ios operating system many similar features released april 24 2015 along apple watch device runs watchos currently widely used wearable operating system features focus convenience able place phone calls send texts health fitness heart rate tracking current version watchos operating system watchos 5 windows 10 personal computer operating system developed released microsoft part windows nt family operating systems released july 29 2015 like predecessors designed run across multiple microsoft product pcs tablets windows user interface revised handle transitions mouse-oriented interface touchscreen-optimized interface based available input devices‍—‌particularly 2-in-1 pcs windows 10 also introduces universal apps expanding metro-style apps apps designed run across multiple microsoft product families nearly identical code‍—‌including pcs tablets smartphones embedded systems xbox one surface hub mixed reality current windows 10 version list kaios kai based firefox os unlike mobile operating systems focus smartphones kaios developed mainly feature phones giving access advanced technologies usually found smartphones app stores wi-fi/4g capabilities blackberry 10 based qnx os blackberry smartphone os closed source proprietary runs phones tablets manufactured blackberry one dominant platforms world late 2000s global market share reduced significantly mid-2010s late 2016 blackberry announced continue support os promise release 10.3.3 therefore blackberry 10 would receive major updates blackberry partners would focus android base development current blackberry 10 version list windows 10 mobile formerly called windows phone microsoft closed source proprietary unveiled february 15 2010 windows phone includes user interface inspired microsoft metro design language integrated microsoft services onedrive office xbox music xbox video xbox live games bing also integrates many non-microsoft services facebook google accounts windows phone devices made primarily microsoft mobile/nokia also htc samsung january 21 2015 microsoft announced windows phone brand phased replaced windows 10 mobile bringing tighter integration unification pc counterpart windows 10 provide platform smartphones tablets screen sizes 8 inches october 2017 microsoft officially announced would longer push major updates windows 10 mobile instead would put maintenance mode microsoft would push bug fixes general improvements therefore windows 10 mobile would receive new feature updates current windows 10 mobile version list cyanogenmod custom mobile operating system based android open source project aosp custom rom co-developed cyanogenmod community os include proprietary apps unless user installed due open source nature cyanogenmod allowed android users could longer obtain update support manufacturer continue updating os version latest one based official releases google aosp heavy theme customization last version os cyanogenmod 13 based android asus december 24 2016 cyanogenmod announced blog would longer releasing cyanogenmod updates development moved lineageos cyanogen os based cyanogenmod maintained cyanogen inc however included proprietary apps available commercial uses firefox os project name boot gecko also known b2g mozilla open source mobile operating system released mozilla public license built android linux kernel used android drivers use java-like code android according ars technica mozilla says b2g motivated desire demonstrate standards-based open web potential competitive alternative existing single-vendor application development stacks offered dominant mobile operating systems september 2016 mozilla announced work firefox os ceased b2g-related code would removed mozilla-central meego non-profit organization linux foundation open source gpl 2010 mobile world congress barcelona nokia intel unveiled meego mobile operating system combined moblin maemo create open-sourced experience users across devices 2011 nokia announced would longer pursue meego favor windows phone nokia announced nokia n9 june 21 2011 nokia connection event singapore lg announced support platform maemo platform developed nokia smartphones internet tablets open source gpl based debian gnu/linux draws much graphical user interface gui frameworks libraries gnome project uses matchbox window manager gtk-based hildon gui application framework webos developed palm webos open source mobile operating system running linux kernel initially developed palm launched palm pre acquired hp two phones veer pre 3 tablet touchpad running webos introduced 2011 august 18 2011 hp announced webos hardware would discontinued would continue support update webos software develop webos ecosystem hp released webos open source name open webos plans update additional features february 25 2013 hp announced sale webos lg electronics used operating system smart internet-connected tvs however hp retained patents underlying webos cloud-based services app catalog 1999 research motion released first blackberry devices providing secure real-time push-email communications wireless devices services blackberry messenger provide integration communications single inbox september 2012 rim announced 200 millionth blackberry smartphone shipped september 2014 around 46 million active blackberry service subscribers early 2010s rim undergone platform transition changing company name blackberry limited making new devices new platform named blackberry 10 windows mobile discontinued operating system microsoft replaced windows phone closed source proprietary windows ce operating system windows mobile middleware widely spread asia mostly uses android two improved variants operating system windows mobile 6 professional touch screen devices windows mobile 6 standard unveiled february 2007 criticized user interface optimized touch input fingers instead usable stylus like ios mobile os supports touch screen physical bluetooth keyboard configurations microsoft phased windows mobile os focus windows phone windows phone family mobile operating systems developed microsoft smartphones replacement successor windows mobile zune windows phone features new user interface derived metro design language windows phone replaced windows 10 mobile 2015 symbian platform developed nokia models smartphones proprietary software however used ericsson sonyericsson sending benq operating system discontinued 2012 although slimmed-down version basic phones still developed july 2014 microsoft officially shelved platform favor windows phone acquisition nokia bada platform stylized bada korean 바다 operating system mobile devices smartphones tablet computers developed samsung electronics name derived 바다 bada meaning ocean sea korean ranges mid- high-end smartphones foster adoption bada os since 2011 samsung reportedly considered releasing source code open-source license expanding device support include smart tvs samsung announced june 2012 intentions merge bada tizen project would meanwhile use bada operating system parallel google android os microsoft windows phone smartphones bada-powered devices branded wave name samsung android-powered devices branded name galaxy february 25 2013 samsung announced stop developing bada moving development tizen instead bug reporting finally terminated april 2014 palm os/garnet os access co closed source proprietary webos introduced palm january 2009 successor palm os web 2.0 technologies open architecture multitasking abilities 2006 android ios exist 64 million smartphones sold 2018 q1 383.5 million smartphones sold global market share 85.9 android 14.1 ios according statcounter web use statistics proxy use smartphones alone without tablets majority use globally desktop computers used much less android particular popular windows use varies however continent smartphones way popular biggest continents i.e asia desktop still popular though north america desktop still popular many countries overall 44.9 first quarter 2017 smartphones popular even many developed countries countries continent desktop-minority european countries south america e.g haiti north america asia africa smartphone-majority poland turkey highest 57.68 62.33 respectively ireland smartphone use 45.55 outnumbers desktop use mobile whole gains majority including tablet share 9.12 spain also slightly desktop-minority range measured mobile web use varies lot country statcounter press release recognizes india amongst world leaders use mobile surf internet big countries share around 80 desktop 19.56 russia trailing 17.8 mobile use desktop rest smartphones alone without tablets first gained majority december 2016 desktop-majority lost month n't christmas-time fluke close majority smartphone majority happened march 2017 week november 7–13 2016 smartphones alone without tablets overtook desktop first time short period non-full-month mobile-majority applies countries paraguay south america poland europe turkey asia africa world still desktop-majority e.g united states 54.89 days however territories united states puerto rico desktop way majority windows 30 overtaken android october 22 2016 subsequent weekends mobile showed majority since october 27 desktop n't shown majority even weekdays smartphones alone showed majority since december 23 end year share topping 58.22 christmas day mobile -majority share smartphones tablets could added giving 63.22 majority unusually high top similarly high also happened monday april 17 2017 smartphones share slightly lower tablet share slightly higher combined 62.88 formerly according statcounter press release world turned desktop-minority 49 desktop use month mobile n't ranked higher tablet share added exceed desktop share note Target text information: browser_exploit.browser exploit browser exploit form malicious code takes advantage flaw vulnerability operating system piece software intent breach browser security alter user browser settings without knowledge malicious code may exploit activex html images java javascript web technologies cause browser run arbitrary code users whose web browsers fallen victim successful browser exploit may find homepage search page and/or favorites changed signs include internet settings options within browser altered access blocked specific functions redirection incorrectly typed url prefixes multiple ways users protect web browsers falling victim browser exploit things include installing firewall software keeping software updated cautious downloading files opening email attachments unknown sources jailbreakme series browser based exploits used jailbreak apple ios mobile operating system uses exploit browser pdf parser execute unauthorised code gain access underlying operating system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,938	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: parsing.parsing parsing syntax analysis syntactic analysis process analysing string symbols either natural language computer languages data structures conforming rules formal grammar term parsing comes latin pars orationis meaning part speech term slightly different meanings different branches linguistics computer science traditional sentence parsing often performed method understanding exact meaning sentence word sometimes aid devices sentence diagrams usually emphasizes importance grammatical divisions subject predicate within computational linguistics term used refer formal analysis computer sentence string words constituents resulting parse tree showing syntactic relation may also contain semantic information term also used psycholinguistics describing language comprehension context parsing refers way human beings analyze sentence phrase spoken language text terms grammatical constituents identifying parts speech syntactic relations etc term especially common discussing linguistic cues help speakers interpret garden-path sentences within computer science term used analysis computer languages referring syntactic analysis input code component parts order facilitate writing compilers interpreters term may also used describe split separation traditional grammatical exercise parsing sometimes known clause analysis involves breaking text component parts speech explanation form function syntactic relationship part determined large part study language conjugations declensions quite intricate heavily inflected languages parse phrase 'man bites dog involves noting singular noun 'man subject sentence verb 'bites third person singular present tense verb 'to bite singular noun 'dog object sentence techniques sentence diagrams sometimes used indicate relation elements sentence parsing formerly central teaching grammar throughout english-speaking world widely regarded basic use understanding written language however general teaching techniques longer current machine translation natural language processing systems written texts human languages parsed computer programs human sentences easily parsed programs substantial ambiguity structure human language whose usage convey meaning semantics amongst potentially unlimited range possibilities germane particular case utterance man bites dog versus dog bites man definite one detail another language might appear man dog bites reliance larger context distinguish two possibilities indeed difference concern difficult prepare formal rules describe informal behaviour even though clear rules followed order parse natural language data researchers must first agree grammar used choice syntax affected linguistic computational concerns instance parsing systems use lexical functional grammar general parsing grammars type known np-complete head-driven phrase structure grammar another linguistic formalism popular parsing community research efforts focused less complex formalisms one used penn treebank shallow parsing aims find boundaries major constituents noun phrases another popular strategy avoiding linguistic controversy dependency grammar parsing modern parsers least partly statistical rely corpus training data already annotated parsed hand approach allows system gather information frequency various constructions occur specific contexts see machine learning approaches used include straightforward pcfgs probabilistic context-free grammars maximum entropy neural nets successful systems use lexical statistics consider identities words involved well part speech however systems vulnerable overfitting require kind smoothing effective parsing algorithms natural language rely grammar 'nice properties manually designed grammars programming languages mentioned earlier grammar formalisms difficult parse computationally general even desired structure context-free kind context-free approximation grammar used perform first pass algorithms use context-free grammars often rely variant cyk algorithm usually heuristic prune away unlikely analyses save time see chart parsing however systems trade speed accuracy using e.g. linear-time versions shift-reduce algorithm somewhat recent development parse reranking parser proposes large number analyses complex system selects best option semantic parsers convert texts representations meanings psycholinguistics parsing involves assignment words categories formation ontological insights evaluation meaning sentence according rules syntax drawn inferences made word sentence known connotation normally occurs words heard read consequently psycholinguistic models parsing necessity incremental meaning build interpretation sentence processed normally expressed terms partial syntactic structure creation initially wrong structures occurs interpreting garden path sentences discourse analysis examines ways analyze language use semiotic events persuasive language may called rhetoric parser software component takes input data frequently text builds data structure – often kind parse tree abstract syntax tree hierarchical structure giving structural representation input checking correct syntax parsing may preceded followed steps may combined single step parser often preceded separate lexical analyser creates tokens sequence input characters alternatively combined scannerless parsing parsers may programmed hand may automatically semi-automatically generated parser generator parsing complementary templating produces formatted output may applied different domains often appear together scanf/printf pair input front end parsing output back end code generation stages compiler input parser often text computer language may also text natural language less structured textual data case generally certain parts text extracted rather parse tree constructed parsers range simple functions scanf complex programs frontend c++ compiler html parser web browser important class simple parsing done using regular expressions group regular expressions defines regular language regular expression engine automatically generating parser language allowing pattern matching extraction text contexts regular expressions instead used prior parsing lexing step whose output used parser use parsers varies input case data languages parser often found file reading facility program reading html xml text examples markup languages case programming languages parser component compiler interpreter parses source code computer programming language create form internal representation parser key step compiler frontend programming languages tend specified terms deterministic context-free grammar fast efficient parsers written compilers parsing done one pass multiple passes – see one-pass compiler multi-pass compiler implied disadvantages one-pass compiler largely overcome adding fix-ups provision made code relocation forward pass fix-ups applied backwards current program segment recognized completed example fix-up mechanism would useful would forward goto statement target goto unknown program segment completed case application fix-up would delayed target goto recognized conversely backward goto require fix-up location already known context-free grammars limited extent express requirements language informally reason memory language limited grammar remember presence construct arbitrarily long input necessary language example name must declared may referenced powerful grammars express constraint however parsed efficiently thus common strategy create relaxed parser context-free grammar accepts superset desired language constructs accepts invalid constructs later unwanted constructs filtered semantic analysis contextual analysis step example python following syntactically valid code following code however syntactically valid terms context-free grammar yielding syntax tree structure previous syntactically invalid terms context-sensitive grammar requires variables initialized use rather analyzed parsing stage caught checking values syntax tree hence part semantic analysis context-sensitive syntax practice often easily analyzed semantics following example demonstrates common case parsing computer language two levels grammar lexical syntactic first stage token generation lexical analysis input character stream split meaningful symbols defined grammar regular expressions example calculator program would look input codice_1 split tokens codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 codice_8 codice_9 codice_10 meaningful symbol context arithmetic expression lexer would contain rules tell characters codice_3 codice_6 codice_9 codice_4 codice_8 mark start new token meaningless tokens like codice_16 codice_17 generated next stage parsing syntactic analysis checking tokens form allowable expression usually done reference context-free grammar recursively defines components make expression order must appear however rules defining programming languages expressed context-free grammars alone example type validity proper declaration identifiers rules formally expressed attribute grammars final phase semantic parsing analysis working implications expression validated taking appropriate action case calculator interpreter action evaluate expression program compiler hand would generate kind code attribute grammars also used define actions task parser essentially determine input derived start symbol grammar done essentially two ways parsers recursive-descent parser examples top-down parsers accommodate left recursive production rules although believed simple implementations top-down parsing accommodate direct indirect left-recursion may require exponential time space complexity parsing ambiguous context-free grammars sophisticated algorithms top-down parsing created frost hafiz callaghan accommodate ambiguity left recursion polynomial time generate polynomial-size representations potentially exponential number parse trees algorithm able produce left-most right-most derivations input regard given context-free grammar important distinction regard parsers whether parser generates leftmost derivation rightmost derivation see context-free grammar parsers generate leftmost derivation lr parsers generate rightmost derivation although usually reverse algorithms designed visual programming languages parsers visual languages sometimes based graph grammars adaptive parsing algorithms used construct self-extending natural language user interfaces well known parser development tools include following also see comparison parser generators lookahead establishes maximum incoming tokens parser use decide rule use lookahead especially relevant lr lalr parsers often explicitly indicated affixing lookahead algorithm name parentheses lalr 1 programming languages primary target parsers carefully defined way parser limited lookahead typically one parse parsers limited lookahead often efficient one important change trend came 1990 terence parr created antlr ph.d. thesis parser generator efficient k parsers k fixed value lr parsers typically actions seeing token shift add token stack later reduction reduce pop tokens stack form syntactic construct end error known rule applies conflict know whether shift reduce lookahead two advantages example parsing expression programming languages except apl smalltalk algebraic formulas give higher precedence multiplication addition case correct interpretation example note rule4 semantic rule possible rewrite grammar incorporate syntax however rules translated syntax initially input 1 2 3 parse tree resulting code correct according language semantics correctly parse without lookahead three solutions parse tree generated correct simply non-lookahead parsers strategy followed lalr parsers 1-hop neighbor's text information: attribute_grammar.attribute grammar attribute grammar formal way define attributes productions formal grammar associating attributes values evaluation occurs nodes abstract syntax tree language processed parser compiler attributes divided two groups synthesized attributes inherited attributes synthesized attributes result attribute evaluation rules may also use values inherited attributes inherited attributes passed parent nodes approaches synthesized attributes used pass semantic information parse tree inherited attributes help pass semantic information across instance constructing language translation tool compiler may used assign semantic values syntax constructions also possible validate semantic checks associated grammar representing rules language explicitly imparted syntax definition attribute grammars also used translate syntax tree directly code specific machine intermediate language one strength attribute grammars transport information anywhere abstract syntax tree anywhere else controlled formal way attribute grammars invented donald knuth peter wegner donald knuth credited overall concept peter wegner invented inherited attributes conversation knuth embryonic ideas trace back work edgar t. ned irons author imp following simple context-free grammar describe language made multiplication addition integers following attribute grammar used calculate result expression written grammar note grammar uses synthesized values therefore s-attributed grammar synthesized attribute computed values attributes children since values children must computed first example bottom-up propagation formally define synthesized attribute let formula_1 formal grammar given string nonterminal symbols formula_6 attribute name formula_7 formula_8 synthesized attribute three conditions met inherited attribute node parse tree defined using attribute values parent siblings inherited attributes convenient expressing dependence programming language construct context appears example use inherited attribute keep track whether identifier appears left right side assignment order decide whether address value identifier needed contrast synthesized attributes inherited attributes take values parent and/or siblings following production get values b c. b take values c. likewise c take values b 1-hop neighbor's text information: lexical_analysis.lexical analysis computer science lexical analysis lexing tokenization process converting sequence characters computer program web page sequence tokens strings assigned thus identified meaning program performs lexical analysis may termed lexer tokenizer scanner though scanner also term first stage lexer lexer generally combined parser together analyze syntax programming languages web pages forth lexer forms first phase compiler frontend modern processing analysis generally occurs one pass older languages algol initial stage instead line reconstruction performed unstropping removed whitespace comments scannerless parsers separate lexer steps done part lexer lexers parsers often used compilers used computer language tools prettyprinters linters lexing divided two stages scanning segments input string syntactic units called lexemes categorizes token classes evaluating converts lexemes processed values lexers generally quite simple complexity deferred parser semantic analysis phases often generated lexer generator notably lex derivatives however lexers sometimes include complexity phrase structure processing make input easier simplify parser may written partly fully hand either support features performance lexeme sequence characters source program matches pattern token identified lexical analyzer instance token authors term token using token interchangeably represent string tokenized token data structure resulting putting string tokenization process word lexeme computer science defined differently lexeme linguistics lexeme computer science roughly corresponds word linguistics confused word computer architecture although cases may similar morpheme lexical token simply token string assigned thus identified meaning structured pair consisting token name optional token value token name category lexical unit common token names consider expression c programming language lexical analysis expression yields following sequence tokens token name might termed part speech linguistics specification programming language often includes set rules lexical grammar defines lexical syntax lexical syntax usually regular language grammar rules consisting regular expressions define set possible character sequences lexemes token lexer recognizes strings kind string found lexical program takes action simply producing token two important common lexical categories white space comments also defined grammar processed lexer may discarded producing tokens considered non-significant separating two tokens codice_2 instead codice_3 two important exceptions first off-side rule languages delimit blocks indenting initial whitespace significant determines block structure generally handled lexer level see phrase structure secondly uses lexers comments whitespace must preserved – examples prettyprinter also needs output comments debugging tools may provide messages programmer showing original source code 1960s notably algol whitespace comments eliminated part line reconstruction phase initial phase compiler frontend separate phase eliminated handled lexer tokenization process demarcating possibly classifying sections string input characters resulting tokens passed form processing process considered sub-task parsing input example text string string n't implicitly segmented spaces natural language speaker would raw input 43 characters must explicitly split 9 tokens given space delimiter i.e. matching string codice_5 regular expression codice_6 tokens could represented xml sentence /sentence s-expression token class represents one possible lexeme lexer often saves enough information reproduce original lexeme used semantic analysis parser typically retrieves information lexer stores abstract syntax tree necessary order avoid information loss case numbers identifiers tokens identified based specific rules lexer methods used identify tokens include regular expressions specific sequences characters termed flag specific separating characters called delimiters explicit definition dictionary special characters including punctuation characters commonly used lexers identify tokens natural use written programming languages tokens often categorized character content context within data stream categories defined rules lexer categories often involve grammar elements language used data stream programming languages often categorize tokens identifiers operators grouping symbols data type written languages commonly categorize tokens nouns verbs adjectives punctuation categories used post-processing tokens either parser functions program lexical analyzer generally nothing combinations tokens task left parser example typical lexical analyzer recognizes parentheses tokens nothing ensure matched lexer feeds tokens parser representation used typically enumerated list number representations example identifier represented 0 assignment operator 1 addition operator 2 etc tokens defined often regular expressions understood lexical analyzer generator lex lexical analyzer generated automatically tool like lex hand-crafted reads stream characters identifies lexemes stream categorizes tokens termed tokenizing lexer finds invalid token report error following tokenizing parsing interpreted data may loaded data structures general use interpretation compiling first stage scanner usually based finite-state machine fsm encoded within information possible sequences characters contained within tokens handles individual instances character sequences termed lexemes example integer lexeme may contain sequence numerical digit characters many cases first non-whitespace character used deduce kind token follows subsequent input characters processed one time reaching character set characters acceptable token termed maximal munch longest match rule languages lexeme creation rules complex may involve backtracking previously read characters example c one l character enough distinguish identifier begins l wide-character string literal lexeme however string characters known certain kind e.g. string literal sequence letters order construct token lexical analyzer needs second stage evaluator goes characters lexeme produce value lexeme type combined value properly constitutes token given parser tokens parentheses really values evaluator function return nothing type needed similarly sometimes evaluators suppress lexeme entirely concealing parser useful whitespace comments evaluators identifiers usually simple literally representing identifier may include unstropping evaluators integer literals may pass string deferring evaluation semantic analysis phase may perform evaluation involved different bases floating point numbers simple quoted string literal evaluator needs remove quotes evaluator escaped string literal incorporates lexer unescapes escape sequences example source code computer program string might converted following lexical token stream whitespace suppressed special characters value due licensing restrictions existing parsers may necessary write lexer hand practical list tokens small general lexers generated automated tools tools generally accept regular expressions describe tokens allowed input stream regular expression associated production rule lexical grammar programming language evaluates lexemes matching regular expression tools may generate source code compiled executed construct state transition table finite-state machine plugged template code compiling executing regular expressions compactly represent patterns characters lexemes might follow example english-based language identifier token might english alphabetic character underscore followed number instances ascii alphanumeric characters and/or underscores could represented compactly string means character a-z a-z followed 0 a-z a-z 0-9 regular expressions finite-state machines generate powerful enough handle recursive patterns n opening parentheses followed statement followed n closing parentheses unable keep count verify n sides unless finite set permissible values exists n takes full parser recognize patterns full generality parser push parentheses stack try pop see stack empty end see example structure interpretation computer programs book typically tokenization occurs word level however sometimes difficult define meant word often tokenizer relies simple heuristics example languages use inter-word spaces use latin alphabet programming languages approach fairly straightforward however even many edge cases contractions hyphenated words emoticons larger constructs uris purposes may count single tokens classic example new york-based naive tokenizer may break space even though better break arguably hyphen tokenization particularly difficult languages written scriptio continua exhibit word boundaries ancient greek chinese thai agglutinative languages korean also make tokenization tasks complicated ways address difficult problems include developing complex heuristics querying table common special-cases fitting tokens language model identifies collocations later processing step lexers often generated lexer generator analogous parser generators tools often come together established lex paired yacc parser generator free equivalents flex/bison generators form domain-specific language taking lexical specification – generally regular expressions markup – emitting lexer tools yield fast development important early development get working lexer language specification may change often often provide advanced features pre- post-conditions hard program hand however automatically generated lexer may lack flexibility thus may require manual modification all-manually written lexer lexer performance concern optimizing worthwhile stable languages lexer run often c html lex/flex-generated lexers reasonably fast improvements two three times possible using tuned generators hand-written lexers sometimes used modern lexer generators produce faster lexers hand-coded ones lex/flex family generators uses table-driven approach much less efficient directly coded approach latter approach generator produces engine directly jumps follow-up states via goto statements tools like re2c proven produce engines two three times faster flex produced engines general difficult hand-write analyzers perform better engines generated latter tools following lexical analysers handle unicode lexical analysis mainly segments input stream characters tokens simply grouping characters pieces categorizing however lexing may significantly complex simply lexers may omit tokens insert added tokens omitting tokens notably whitespace comments common needed compiler less commonly added tokens may inserted done mainly group tokens statements statements blocks simplify parser line continuation feature languages newline normally statement terminator often ending line backslash immediately followed newline results line continued – following line joined prior line generally done lexer backslash newline discarded rather newline tokenized examples include bash shell scripts python many languages use semicolon statement terminator often mandatory languages semicolon optional many contexts mainly done lexer level lexer outputs semicolon token stream despite one present input character stream termed semicolon insertion automatic semicolon insertion cases semicolons part formal phrase grammar language may found input text inserted lexer optional semicolons terminators separators also sometimes handled parser level notably case trailing commas semicolons semicolon insertion feature bcpl distant descendant go though absent b c. semicolon insertion present javascript though rules somewhat complex much-criticized avoid bugs recommend always using semicolons others use initial semicolons termed defensive semicolons start potentially ambiguous statements semicolon insertion languages semicolon-terminated statements line continuation languages newline-terminated statements seen complementary semicolon insertion adds token even though newlines generally generate tokens line continuation prevents token generated even though newlines generally generate tokens off-side rule blocks determined indenting implemented lexer python increasing indenting results lexer emitting indent token decreasing indenting results lexer emitting dedent token tokens correspond opening brace codice_7 closing brace codice_8 languages use braces blocks means phrase grammar depend whether braces indenting used requires lexer hold state namely current indent level thus detect changes indenting changes thus lexical grammar context-free indent–dedent depend contextual information prior indent level generally lexical grammars context-free almost thus require looking back ahead backtracking allows simple clean efficient implementation also allows simple one-way communication lexer parser without needing information flowing back lexer exceptions however simple examples include semicolon insertion go requires looking back one token concatenation consecutive string literals python requires holding one token buffer emitting see next token another string literal off-side rule python requires maintaining count indent level indeed stack indent level examples require lexical context complicate lexer somewhat invisible parser later phases complex example lexer hack c token class sequence characters determined semantic analysis phase since typedef names variable names lexically identical constitute different token classes thus hack lexer calls semantic analyzer say symbol table checks sequence requires typedef name case information must flow back parser semantic analyzer back lexer complicates design Target text information: semantic_analysis_(compilers).semantic analysis compilers semantic analysis context sensitive analysis process compiler construction usually parsing gather necessary semantic information source code usually includes type checking makes sure variable declared use impossible describe extended backus–naur form thus easily detected parsing I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,062	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: revolution_os.revolution os revolution os 2001 documentary film traces twenty-year history gnu linux open source free software movement directed j. t. s. moore film features interviews prominent hackers entrepreneurs including richard stallman michael tiemann linus torvalds larry augustin eric s. raymond bruce perens frank hecker brian behlendorf film begins glimpses raymond linux ipo torvalds idea open source perens stallman sets historical stage early days hackers computer hobbyists code shared freely discusses change came 1978 microsoft co-founder bill gates open letter hobbyists pointedly prodded hobbyists pay stallman relates struggles proprietary software vendors mit artificial intelligence lab leading departure focus development free software gnu project torvalds describes development linux kernel gnu/linux naming controversy linux evolution commercialization raymond stallman clarify philosophy free software versus communism capitalism well development stages linux michael tiemann discusses meeting stallman 1987 getting early version stallman gcc founding cygnus solutions larry augustin describes combining gnu software normal pc create unix-like workstation one third price twice power sun workstation relates early dealings venture capitalists eventual capitalization commodification linux company va linux ipo brian behlendorf one original developers apache http server explains started exchange patches ncsa web server daemon developers led release patchy webserver dubbed apache frank hecker netscape discusses events leading netscape executives releasing source code netscape browser one signal events made open source force reckoned business executives mainstream media public large point validated film release netscape source code eventually became firefox web browser reclaiming large percentage market share microsoft internet explorer film also documents scope first full-scale linuxworld summit conference appearances linus torvalds larry augustin keynote stage much footage film shot silicon valley film appeared several film festivals including south southwest atlanta film video festival boston film festival denver international film festival best documentary savannah film video festival kudzu film festival every review noted historical significance information noticed found production values high presentation history mainly dry even resembling lecture ron wells film threat found film important worthwhile well thought explaining principles free software open source concepts noting failure represent camera debate representatives proprietary software camp wells gave film 4 5 stars tv guide rated film 3 4 stars surprisingly exciting fascinating sharp looking good soundtrack daily variety saw film targeted equally techno-illiterate savvy-hacker crowd educating patting one group head canonizing strong enough enjoyable recommendation negative side new york times faulted film one-sidedness found reliance jargon fairly dense going gave recommendation internet reviews found didactic dull documentary glorifying software anarchy raging microsoft sun lacking follow-through red hat valinux stock 2007 2 peak value lots talking heads toxicuniverse.com noted revolution os blatantly serves infomercial propaganda bearded throwback sixties hacker richard stallman serves movement spiritual leader scandinavian linus torvalds acts mild mannered chief engineer developer linux kernel tim lord reviewing slashdot film interesting worthy viewing misgivings growth free software movement eventual co-option open source movement supposed linux battle microsoft movie quickly hijacked participants film lacks staple documentaries scenes multiple people later analyzed individually participants indeed much back-and-forth linux benefits notably missing w e never shown anyone using linux except unhappy users installfest debate linux vs windows missing showing origin os response proprietary expensive sun dec software hardware growth solely due apache web server lord notes film shows challenge torvalds stallman equally disingenuous remarks linux vs gnu/linux naming issue 1-hop neighbor's text information: beta_basic.beta basic beta basic basic interpreter sinclair research zx spectrum microcomputer written dr andy wright 1983 sold one-man software house betasoft betasoft also produced regular newsletter/magazine betanews originally started basic toolkit time grew full replacement beta basic completely replaced sinclair basic common time also os providing command line interface cli thus beta basic provided new improved cli editor supported sinclair idiosyncratic single-key entry system basic keywords also allowed keywords spelled letter-for-letter also removed necessity memorising sometimes arcane key combinations necessary enter less-commonly-used basic keywords however single-key entry system also extended mapping spectrum 'graphics characters beta basic new keywords switch keyword entry typed entry merely necessary type single space causing cursor mode change k keyword l lowercase c capital keywords statement could also used alter behaviour example disabling k mode editor listing could optionally automatically prettyprint code possible manually sinclair basic automatic indentation advantage highlighting certain types coding error primarily failing correctly close constructs editing improvements included automatic highlighting current-line indicator small tweak disproportionately helpful ability move cursor well left right huge boon editing long lines combined 64-column display see new functionality section improvements made beta basic much productive environment even coding standard sinclair basic making use betasoft language additions beta basic also basic interpreter right bypassing spectrum rom used library occasionally made calls rom access useful functions worth re-implementing beta basic either rom routines good enough reasons space beta basic run 48 kb memory available spectrum still leave room user code time beta basic sophisticated provided full structured programming named procedures functions complete local variables allowing programming using recursion although supported line numbers necessary offered mode operation completely suppressed display line numbers 128k spectrum machines beta basic provided extended facilities allowing programmers access machine extra memory took form ram disk well allowing programmer save load programs blocks memory screen images ram disc catalogue contents ram disk beta basic also provided commands creation use arrays held ram disk allowing programs running 30 kb free memory spectrum manipulate arrays approaching 80 kb significant extra amount space 1980s standards almost 8-bit basic generally limited 64 kb program data combined beta basic also drove spectrum 256x192 pixel display directly eliminating restrictions rom 32-column text display beta basic offered scalable screen fonts special soft font 4 pixels wide still legible meant beta basic could display 64 columns text across screen making comparable newer 8-bit machines 80-column displays user prepared tolerate characters displayed without gaps 85 column display possible readable allow easy porting basic applications designed 80-column screen text size could controlled programmatically part program display might use 64-column text part 32-column text enlarged reduced intermediate sizes special versions produced users interface 1 zx microdrive subsequently opus discovery disciple plusd disk interfaces well version amstrad spectrum +3 also consideration wright discarded project beta basic suffered limitations 8-bit microprocessors spectrum could address 64 kb contiguous memory due addressing restrictions spectrum zilog z80 cpu 16 kb taken sinclair basic rom leaving 48 kb ram screen took areas used holding interpreter internal data structures beta basic took around 11-12 kb remainder cases leaving 20 kb user programs replacement sinclair editor meant possible use 128k spectrum rom full-screen basic editor compiler available beta basic code existing sinclair basic compilers hisoft basic could handle extended keywords facilities beta basic another remaining sinclair basic limitation single-letter variable names could used strings arrays types 8-bit basic inbuilt support structured programming bbc basic beta basic named procedures need called proc keyword like bbc basic thus became new language keywords allowing language extended however bbc basic considerably quicker fastest basic interpreter time beta basic especially fast though included faster replacements particularly slow rom routines circle arc drawing code development sophisticated new successor spectrum sam coupé alan miles bruce gordon miles gordon technology approached betasoft contracted wright provide basic new machine provided complete basic interpreter drew extensively upon beta basic differently structured language right sinclair rom call upon work around sam basic largely compatible beta basic operated similar manner except areas sam hardware significantly different sam screen extended memory betasoft later released extension sam basic named masterbasic 1-hop neighbor's text information: family_basic.family basic family basic famicom basic consumer product programming nintendo family computer video game console japan family basic launched june 21 1984 consumers japan nintendo cooperation hudson soft sharp corporation second version titled family basic v3 released february 21 1985 greater memory new features first edition family basic application cartridge bundled computer style keyboard instructional textbook requires cassette tape recorder save user-generated basic programs programs saved using cassette tape drive famicom data recorder family basic designed compatible floppy disk storage famicom disk system disk system ram adapter requires use famicom cartridge slot prevents using slot family basic cartridge family basic includes dialect basic programming language enhanced game development microsoft basic-derived command set extended support sprites animation backgrounds musical sequences gamepads several visual components seen nintendo games backgrounds characters mario donkey kong series games made available family basic development componentry appear premade family basic games family basic normally used nes consoles console lacks famicom 15-pin expansion port circumvented use custom i/o adapter hooks otherwise unused nes expansion port bottom console 1990 manufacturer shenzhen named nedc developed sold clone famicom family basic china first model called fcs-90 combines famicom chipset cartridge slot pair controllers rf output making complete console used program play famicom video games nedc also translated built-in software english fcs-90 revised model fcs-92 instruction manual section programming japanese popular music family basic developed koji kondo second nintendo product tenure kondo previously initiated computer audio interests programming sounds basic home computer satoshi tajiri creator pokémon initially used family basic gateway build understanding internal operation famicom inspired create handmade famicom game development hardware make game freak debut game quinty later released mendel palace 1990 Target text information: gambas.gambas gambas name object-oriented dialect basic programming language well integrated development environment accompanies designed run linux unix-like computer operating systems name recursive acronym gambas almost means basic gambas also word prawns spanish french portuguese languages project logos derived gambas developed french programmer benoît minisini first release coming 1999 benoît grown basic language decided make free software development environment could quickly easily make programs user interfaces gambas 1.x versions featured interface made several different separate windows forms ide dialogues similar fashion interface gimp could also develop applications using qt oriented towards development applications kde last release 1.x versions gambas 1.0.19 first 2.x versions released january 2 2008 three four years development featured major redesign interface forms functions embedded single window well changes gambas syntax although part code compatibility kept featured major updates existing gambas components well addition new ones new components could use gtk+ sdl drawing utilize opengl acceleration gambas 2.x versions load run gambas 1.x projects occasional incompatibilities next major iteration gambas 3.x versions released december 31 2011 2015 benchmark published gambas website showed gambas 3.8.90 scripting faster varying degrees perl 5.20.2 outdated 2.7.10 version python many tests gambas designed build graphical programs using qt currently qt 4.x 5.x gtk+ toolkit gtk 3.x also supported 3.6.0 gambas ide written gambas gambas includes gui designer aid creating user interfaces also make command line applications gambas runtime environment needed run executables functionality provided variety components selected provide additional features drawing provided either qt gtk+ toolkits additional component designed switch drawing also provided simple directmedia layer currently version 1.x 2.x support works also utilized audio playback separate sound component component openal specification also added gpu acceleration support available opengl component well hardware functionally provided various components also components handling specialized tasks gambas developers also use databases mysql postgresql build kde qt gnome gtk+ applications dcop translate visual basic programs gambas run linux build network solutions create cgi web applications ide also includes tool creation installation packages supporting gnu autotools slackpkg pacman rpm debs latter two tailored specific distributions fedora/rhel/centos mageia mandriva opensuse debian ubuntu/mint gambas since version 3.2 ide integrated profiler started use just-in-time compilation technology gambas intended provide similar experience developing microsoft visual basic free software clone popular proprietary program author gambas makes clear similarities visual basic syntax basic programs integrated development environment gambas written start development environment seeks improve formula object model class represented file archiver package program inspired java programming language gambas intended alternative former visual basic developers decided migrate linux also important distinctions gambas visual basic one notable example gambas array indexes always start 0 whereas visual basic indexes start 0 1 gambas also supports += -= shorthand found classic visual basic features visual basic .net however several programs many forms example code written using gambas freecode formerly freshmeat listed 23 applications developed using gambas gambas wiki listed 70 several specialized sites list gambas applications code even gambas written application named gambas3 showcase acts software center download install gambas 3 applications several community sites including community forums mailing lists also exist gambas gambas included repositories number linux distributions debian fedora mandriva linux ubuntu microsoft windows version gambas run cygwin environment although version significantly less tested linux counterparts command-line cooperative linux derivatives also used well specialized linux virtual machines independent contributor françois gallo also worked porting gambas 3.x mac os x freebsd based using local versions x11 system gambas version 3.2 run raspberry pi offers just-in-time compilation november 2013 future portability gambas discussed listing main concerns linux kernel features utilized interpreter components using linux specific software libraries primarily x11-tying qt gtk+ desktop integration components however partly due need upgrade newer toolkits gtk 3 added 3.6.0 qt 5 3.8.0 future versions would less x11 tied making projects like cygwin utterly native versions platforms possible benoît minisini stated intended encapsulate x11 specific code aid attempt replace x11 support desktop component moved component 3.6.0 october 27 2016 screenshot setup guide released main page running gambas fully cygwin including components graphical toolkits complete ide relevant patches mainlined version 3.9.2 replaces prior recommended method using freenx forwarding linux server hello world program graphical user interface public sub main end program computes 100-term polynomial 500000 times repeats ten times used benchmarking private sub test x float float end public sub main end I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	6,910	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: sql.sql sql s-q-l sequel structured query language domain-specific language used programming designed managing data held relational database management system rdbms stream processing relational data stream management system rdsms particularly useful handling structured data relations different entities/variables data sql offers two main advantages older read/write apis like isam vsam first introduced concept accessing many records one single command second eliminates need specify reach record e.g without index originally based upon relational algebra tuple relational calculus sql consists many types statements may informally classed sublanguages commonly data query language dql data definition language ddl data control language dcl data manipulation language dml scope sql includes data query data manipulation insert update delete data definition schema creation modification data access control although sql often described great extent declarative language 4gl also includes procedural elements sql one first commercial languages edgar f. codd relational model model described influential 1970 paper relational model data large shared data banks despite entirely adhering relational model described codd became widely used database language sql became standard american national standards institute ansi 1986 international organization standardization iso 1987 since standard revised include larger set features despite existence standards sql code completely portable among different database systems without adjustments sql initially developed ibm donald d. chamberlin raymond f. boyce learning relational model ted codd early 1970s version initially called sequel structured english query language designed manipulate retrieve data stored ibm original quasi-relational database management system system r group ibm san jose research laboratory developed 1970s chamberlin boyce first attempt relational database language square difficult use due subscript notation moving san jose research laboratory 1973 began work sequel acronym sequel later changed sql sequel trademark uk-based hawker siddeley dynamics engineering limited company testing sql customer test sites determine usefulness practicality system ibm began developing commercial products based system r prototype including system/38 sql/ds db2 commercially available 1979 1981 1983 respectively late 1970s relational software inc. oracle corporation saw potential concepts described codd chamberlin boyce developed sql-based rdbms aspirations selling u.s. navy central intelligence agency u.s. government agencies june 1979 relational software inc. introduced first commercially available implementation sql oracle v2 version2 vax computers 1986 ansi iso standard groups officially adopted standard database language sql language definition new versions standard published 1989 1992 1996 1999 2003 2006 2008 2011 recently 2016 sql deviates several ways theoretical foundation relational model tuple calculus model table set tuples sql tables query results lists rows row may occur multiple times order rows employed queries e.g limit clause critics argue sql replaced language strictly returns original foundation example see third manifesto however known proof exists uniqueness added sql least variation sql words quite possible sql fixed least improved regard industry may switch completely different query language obtain uniqueness debate remains open /math sql language subdivided several language elements including sql designed specific purpose query data contained relational database sql set-based declarative programming language imperative programming language like c basic however extensions standard sql add procedural programming language functionality control-of-flow constructs include addition standard sql/psm extensions proprietary sql extensions procedural object-oriented programmability available many sql platforms via dbms integration languages sql standard defines sql/jrt extensions sql routines types java programming language support java code sql databases sql server 2005 uses sqlclr sql server common language runtime host managed .net assemblies database prior versions sql server restricted unmanaged extended stored procedures primarily written c. postgresql lets users write functions wide variety languages—including perl python tcl javascript pl/v8 c. sql implementations incompatible vendors necessarily completely follow standards particular date time syntax string concatenation codice_1s comparison case sensitivity vary vendor vendor particular exceptions postgresql mimer sql strive standards compliance though postgresql adhere standard folding unquoted names done folding unquoted names lower case postgresql incompatible sql standard says unquoted names folded upper case thus codice_2 equivalent codice_3 codice_4 according standard popular implementations sql commonly omit support basic features standard sql codice_5 codice_6 data types obvious examples incidentally popular commercial proprietary sql dbmss oracle whose codice_5 behaves codice_8 lacks codice_6 type ms sql server 2008 version result sql code rarely ported database systems without modifications several reasons lack portability database systems sql adopted standard american national standards institute ansi 1986 sql-86 international organization standardization iso 1987 maintained iso/iec jtc 1 information technology subcommittee sc 32 data management interchange standard commonly denoted pattern iso/iec 9075-n yyyy part n title shortcut iso/iec 9075 iso/iec 9075 complemented iso/iec 13249 sql multimedia application packages sql/mm defines sql based interfaces packages widely spread applications like video audio spatial data 1996 national institute standards technology nist data management standards program certified sql dbms compliance sql standard vendors self-certify compliance products original standard declared official pronunciation sql initialism ess cue el regardless many english-speaking database professionals including donald chamberlin use acronym-like pronunciation sequel mirroring language pre-release development name sequel sql standard gone number revisions interested parties may purchase sql standards documents iso iec ansi draft sql:2008 freely available zip archive sql standard divided ten parts iso/iec 9075 complemented iso/iec 13249 sql multimedia application packages closely related separate standard developed committee defines interfaces packages based sql aim unified access typical database applications like text pictures data mining spatial data iso/iec 9075 also accompanied series technical reports published iso/iec tr 19075 8 parts technical reports explain justification usage features sql giving examples appropriate technical reports non-normative discrepancy 9075 text 9075 holds currently available 19075 technical reports distinction made alternatives sql language alternatives relational model proposed relational alternatives sql language see navigational database nosql alternatives relational model distributed relational database architecture drda designed work group within ibm period 1988 1994 drda enables network connected relational databases cooperate fulfill sql requests interactive user program issue sql statements local rdb receive tables data status indicators reply remote rdbs sql statements also compiled stored remote rdbs packages invoked package name important efficient operation application programs issue complex high-frequency queries especially important tables accessed located remote systems messages protocols structural components drda defined distributed data management architecture chamberlin 2012 paper discusses four historical criticisms sql early specifications support major features primary keys result sets could named sub-queries defined added 1992 sql controversial null three-value logic predicates evaluated nulls return logical value unknown rather true false features outer-join depend nulls null equivalent space null represents data row another popular criticism allows duplicate rows making integration languages python whose data types might make difficult accurately represent data difficult terms parsing absence modularity avoided declaring unique constraint one fields identifies uniquely row table constraint could also become primary key table similar sense object-relational impedance mismatch mismatch declarative sql language procedural languages sql typically embedded iso/iec information technology task force publishes publicly available standards including sql technical corrigenda corrections technical reports discussion documents published sql -- part 1 framework sql/framework formal sql standards available iso ansi fee informative use opposed strict standards compliance late drafts often suffice 1-hop neighbor's text information: sparql.sparql sparql pronounced sparkle recursive acronym sparql protocol rdf query language rdf query language—that semantic query language databases—able retrieve manipulate data stored resource description framework rdf format made standard rdf data access working group dawg world wide web consortium recognized one key technologies semantic web 15 january 2008 sparql 1.0 became official w3c recommendation sparql 1.1 march 2013 sparql allows query consist triple patterns conjunctions disjunctions optional patterns implementations multiple programming languages exist exist tools allow one connect semi-automatically construct sparql query sparql endpoint example viziquer addition exist tools translate sparql queries query languages example sql xquery sparql allows users write queries loosely called key-value data specifically data follow rdf specification w3c thus entire database set subject-predicate-object triples analogous nosql databases usage term document-key-value mongodb sql relational database terms rdf data also considered table three columns – subject column predicate column object column subject rdf analogous entity sql database data elements fields given business object placed multiple columns sometimes spread across one table identified unique key rdf fields instead represented separate predicate/object rows sharing subject often unique key predicate analogous column name object actual data unlike relational databases object column heterogeneous per-cell data type usually implied specified ontology predicate value also unlike sql rdf multiple entries per predicate instance one could multiple child entries single person return collections objects like children thus sparql provides full set analytic query operations codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 data whose schema intrinsically part data rather requiring separate schema definition however schema information ontology often provided externally allow joining different datasets unambiguously addition sparql provides specific graph traversal syntax data thought graph example demonstrates simple query leverages ontology definition codice_4 friend friend specifically following query returns names emails every person dataset query joins together triples matching subject type predicate codice_5 person codice_6 person one names codice_7 mailboxes codice_8 author query chose reference subject using variable name codice_9 readable clarity since first element triple always subject author could easily used variable name codice_10 codice_11 whatever name chosen must line query signify query engine join triples subject result join set rows – codice_9 codice_13 codice_14 query returns codice_13 codice_14 codice_9 often complex uri rather human-friendly string note codice_9 may multiple mailboxes returned set codice_13 row may appear multiple times mailbox query distributed multiple sparql endpoints services accept sparql queries return results computed results gathered procedure known federated query whether federated manner locally additional triple definitions query could allow joins different subject types automobiles allow simple queries example return list names emails people drive automobiles high fuel efficiency case queries read data database sparql language specifies four different query variations different purposes query forms takes codice_24 block restrict query although case codice_23 query codice_24 optional sparql 1.1 specifies language updating database several new query forms another sparql query example models question country capitals africa variables indicated codice_27 codice_28 prefix bindings codice_29 codice_30 returned triple ends semicolon subject triple implicitly complete following pair entire triple example codice_31 short codice_32 sparql query processor search sets triples match four triple patterns binding variables query corresponding parts triple important note property orientation class matches conducted solely class-attributes properties – see duck typing make queries concise sparql allows definition prefixes base uris fashion similar turtle query prefix codice_33 stands “ nowiki http //example.com/exampleontology /nowiki ” geosparql defines filter functions geographic information system gis queries using well-understood ogc standards gml wkt etc. sparul another extension sparql enables rdf store updated declarative query language adding codice_34 codice_35 methods open source reference sparql implementations see list sparql implementations comprehensive coverage including triplestore apis storages implemented sparql standard 1-hop neighbor's text information: turing_completeness.turing completeness computability theory system data-manipulation rules computer instruction set programming language cellular automaton said turing complete computationally universal used simulate turing machine means system able recognize decide data-manipulation rule sets turing completeness used way express power data-manipulation rule set virtually programming languages today turing complete concept named english mathematician computer scientist alan turing related concept turing equivalence two computers p q called equivalent p simulate q q simulate p. church–turing thesis conjectures function whose values computed algorithm computed turing machine therefore real-world computer simulate turing machine turing equivalent turing machine universal turing machine used simulate turing machine extension computational aspects possible real-world computer show something turing complete enough show used simulate turing complete system example imperative language turing complete conditional branching e.g goto statements branch zero instruction see one instruction set computer ability change arbitrary amount memory e.g ability maintain arbitrary number data items course physical system infinite memory limitation finite memory ignored programming languages otherwise turing complete colloquial usage terms turing complete turing equivalent used mean real-world general-purpose computer computer language approximately simulate computational aspects real-world general-purpose computer computer language real computers constructed far functionally analyzed like single-tape turing machine tape corresponding memory thus associated mathematics apply abstracting operation far enough however real computers limited physical resources linear bounded automaton complete contrast universal computer defined device turing complete instruction set infinite memory infinite available time computability theory several closely related terms used describe computational power computational system abstract machine programming language turing completeness significant every real-world design computing device simulated universal turing machine church–turing thesis states law mathematics universal turing machine principle perform calculation programmable computer says nothing effort needed write program time may take machine perform calculation abilities machine may possess nothing computation charles babbage analytical engine 1830s would first turing-complete machine built time designed babbage appreciated machine capable great feats calculation including primitive logical reasoning appreciate machine could better 1830s 1940s mechanical calculating machines adders multipliers built improved could perform conditional branch therefore turing complete late 19th century leopold kronecker formulated notions computability defining primitive recursive functions functions calculated rote computation enough make universal computer instructions compute allow infinite loop early 20th century david hilbert led program axiomatize mathematics precise axioms precise logical rules deduction could performed machine soon became clear small set deduction rules enough produce consequences set axioms rules proved kurt gödel 1930 enough produce every theorem actual notion computation isolated soon starting gödel incompleteness theorem theorem showed axiom systems limited reasoning computation deduces theorems church turing independently demonstrated hilbert entscheidungsproblem decision problem unsolvable thus identifying computational core incompleteness theorem work along gödel work general recursive functions established sets simple instructions put together able produce computation work gödel showed notion computation essentially unique 1941 konrad zuse completed z3 computer first working turing-complete machine first digital computer modern sense computability theory characterizes problems computational solutions first result computability theory exist problems impossible predict turing-complete system arbitrarily long time classic example halting problem create algorithm takes input program turing-complete language b data fed program determines whether program operating input eventually stop continue forever trivial create algorithm inputs impossible general characteristic program eventual output impossible determine whether characteristic hold impossibility poses problems analyzing real-world computer programs example one write tool entirely protects programmers writing infinite loops protects users supplying input would cause infinite loops one instead limit program executing fixed period time timeout limit power flow control instructions example providing loops iterate items existing array however another theorem shows problems solvable turing-complete languages solved language finite looping abilities i.e. language guarantees every program eventually finish halt language turing complete example language programs guaranteed complete halt compute computable function produced cantor diagonal argument computable functions language computer access infinite tape data may powerful turing machine instance tape might contain solution halting problem turing-undecidable problem infinite tape data called turing oracle even turing oracle random data computable probability 1 since countably many computations uncountably many oracles computer random turing oracle compute things turing machine known laws physics consequences computable series approximations digital computer hypothesis called digital physics states accident universe computable universal turing machine would imply computer powerful universal turing machine built physically computational systems algebras calculi discussed turing complete systems intended studying theoretical computer science intended simple possible would easier understand limits computation programming languages conventional unconventional turing-complete includes rewrite systems turing-complete turing completeness abstract statement ability rather prescription specific language features used implement ability features used achieve turing completeness quite different fortran systems would use loop constructs possibly even goto statements achieve repetition haskell prolog lacking looping almost entirely would use recursion programming languages describing computations von neumann architectures memory ram register control unit two elements make architecture turing-complete even pure functional languages turing-complete turing completeness declarative sql implemented recursive common table expressions unsurprisingly procedural extensions sql plsql etc also turing complete illustrates one reason relatively powerful non-turing-complete languages rare powerful language initially complex tasks applied sooner lack completeness becomes perceived drawback encouraging extension turing complete untyped lambda calculus turing-complete many typed lambda calculi including system f value typed systems based ability represent typical computer programs detecting errors rule 110 conway game life cellular automata turing complete games software turing-complete accident video games card games zero-person games simulations computer hardware many computational languages exist turing complete one example set regular languages generated regular expressions recognized finite automata powerful still turing-complete extension finite automata category pushdown automata context-free grammars commonly used generate parse trees initial stage program compiling examples include early versions pixel shader languages embedded direct3d opengl extensions total functional programming languages charity epigram functions total must terminate charity uses type system control constructs based category theory whereas epigram uses dependent types loop language designed computes functions primitive recursive compute proper subsets total computable functions since full set total computable functions computably enumerable also since functions languages total algorithms recursively enumerable sets written languages contrast turing machines although untyped lambda calculus turing-complete simply typed lambda calculus notion turing-completeness apply languages xml html json yaml s-expressions typically used represent structured data describe computation sometimes referred markup languages properly container languages data description languages Target text information: xslt.xslt xslt extensible stylesheet language transformations language transforming xml documents xml documents formats html web pages plain text xsl formatting objects may subsequently converted formats pdf postscript png xslt 1.0 widely supported modern web browsers original document changed rather new document created based content existing one typically input documents xml files anything processor build xquery xpath data model used relational database tables geographical information systems although xslt designed special-purpose language xml transformation language turing-complete making theoretically capable arbitrary computations xslt influenced functional languages text-based pattern matching languages like snobol awk direct predecessor dsssl sgml xslt xml xslt processor takes one xml source documents plus one xslt stylesheets processes produce output document contrast widely implemented imperative programming languages like c xslt declarative basic processing paradigm pattern matching rather listing imperative sequence actions perform stateful environment template rules define handle node matching particular xpath-like pattern processor happen encounter one contents templates effectively comprise functional expressions directly represent evaluated form result tree basis processor output processor follows fixed algorithm first assuming stylesheet already read prepared processor builds source tree input xml document processes source tree root node finds best-matching template node stylesheet evaluates template contents instructions template generally direct processor either create nodes result tree process nodes source tree way root node output derives result tree xslt uses xpath identify subsets source document tree perform calculations xpath also provides range functions xslt augments xslt 1.0 uses xpath 1.0 xslt 2.0 uses xpath 2.0 xslt 3.0 work either xpath 3.0 3.1 case 1.0 2.0 xslt xpath specifications published date 3.0 however longer synchronized xpath 3.0 became recommendation april 2014 followed xpath 3.1 february 2017 xslt 3.0 followed june 2017 xslt functionalities overlap xquery initially conceived query language large collections xml documents xslt 2.0 xquery 1.0 standards developed separate working groups within w3c working together ensure common approach appropriate share data model type system function library include xpath 2.0 sublanguage two languages however rooted different traditions serve needs different communities xslt primarily conceived stylesheet language whose primary goal render xml human reader screen web web template language paper xquery primarily conceived database query language tradition sql two languages originate different communities xslt stronger handling narrative documents flexible structure xquery stronger data handling example performing relational joins codice_1 element optionally take attribute codice_2 allows one set media type mime type resulting output example codice_3 xslt 1.0 recommendation recommends general attribute types codice_4 codice_5 since long time registered media type xslt time codice_6 became de facto standard xslt 1.0 specified codice_2 values used release xslt 2.0 w3c recommended registration mime media type codice_8 later registered internet assigned numbers authority pre-1.0 working drafts xslt used codice_6 embedding examples type implemented continues promoted microsoft internet explorer msxml also widely recognized codice_10 processing instruction browsers practice therefore users wanting control transformation browser using processing instruction obliged use unregistered media type examples use following incoming xml document xslt stylesheet provides templates transform xml document evaluation results new xml document another structure processing following example xslt file xml input file shown results following xhtml whitespace adjusted clarity xhtml generates output rendered web browser order web browser able automatically apply xsl transformation xml document display xml stylesheet processing instruction inserted xml example stylesheet example 2 available example2.xsl following instruction could added original incoming xml example codice_6 technically incorrect according w3c specifications say type codice_8 media type widely supported across browsers 2009 early xslt processors interpreters recently code generation increasingly common using portable intermediate languages java bytecode .net common intermediate language target however even interpretive products generally offer separate analysis execution phases allowing optimized expression tree created memory reused perform multiple transformations gives substantial performance benefits online publishing applications transformation applied many times per second different source documents separation reflected design xslt processing apis jaxp early xslt processors optimizations stylesheet documents read document object models processor would act directly xpath engines also optimized increasingly however xslt processors use optimization techniques found functional programming languages database query languages static rewriting expression tree e.g. move calculations loops lazy pipelined evaluation reduce memory footprint intermediate results allow early exit processor evaluate expression codice_15 without complete evaluation subexpressions many processors also use tree representations significantly efficient space time general-purpose dom implementations june 2014 debbie lockett michael kay introduced open-source benchmarking framework xslt processors called xt-speedo I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	502	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: sme_server.sme server sme server formerly known e-smith linux distribution based centos offering operating system computers used web file email database servers employs comprehensive ui management-related tasks extensible templates letters sme stand small medium enterprise target market software one notable features distribution template system sme server 9.1 based centos 6.7 based red hat enterprise linux rhel version 32bit pae support 64bit available running apache 2.0 mysql 5.0 php 5 additional addons available current stable version called sme contribs core network environment easy simple access shared files printers sme server software allows easy sharing files printers windows macintosh clients information bay i-bay feature provides easy convenient information storage retrieval multiple groups via web ftp file sharing small business customers looking simple solution works different types connections internet sme server automates process connecting internet connect server supply isp account information server solution acts gateway entire network requires additional client software minimal configuration users immediately start browsing web using email access internet services pervasiveness email small businesses increasingly need support email employees sme server provides secure reliable email server allows easy creation individual group addresses greater versatility works mail client uses industry-standard imap pop3 smtp protocols secure webmail allows users access server web browser anywhere internet send receive e-mail via encrypted 128-bit ssl link top equipped clamav antivirus spamassassin reduce amount unsolicited mail security always priority company starts using internet sme server offers multi-layer architecture protecting external interface packet-filtering service restriction offers selective address port binding application-level access control lists protects internal network intrusion businesses remote branch sites telecommuting employees require remote access email resources local network sme server provides multiple tools webmail access email using browser 128-bit pptp secure client-to-server vpns open secure shell ssh provide encrypted access internal network server resources administrators companies typically require central directory email addresses users access sme server features robust directory service used email clients including outlook outlook express netscape communicator feature implemented using industry-standard ldap protocol small businesses also need secure reliable web presence intranet communicate employees sme server includes apache web server used 60 internet content easily edited updated desktop clients including dynamic content also supports use secure sockets layer ssl connections e-commerce sme server software supports hardware software disk mirroring raid 1 usb disk backup tape backup additional data protection almost packages sme server includes upstream vendors included unmodified purpose take advantage stability comes huge user base uses packages security allow automatic updates soon update available upstream vendor security updates redhat/centos available 2012 centos 4 sme server architecture explicitly supports developers making easy drop software place remove without needing modify existing files extensions easily add new features popular examples asterisk voip pbx hylafax server dansguardian web content filter joomla cms jinzorra jukebox mediawiki thin client server oscommerce online shop 1-hop neighbor's text information: mx_linux.mx linux mx linux midweight linux operating system based debian stable using core antix components additional software created packaged mx community developed cooperative venture antix former mepis communities aiming use best tools talents distributions community stated goal combine elegant efficient desktop simple configuration high stability solid performance medium-sized footprint mx linux uses xfce desktop environment kde plasma environments added available spin-off iso images mx linux began discussion future options among members mepis community december 2013 developers antix joined bringing iso build system well live-usb/dvd technology order listed distrowatch mx linux initially presented version antix received distrowatch page separate distribution release first public beta mx-16 november 2 2016 mx-14 series based debian stable wheezy used first xfce 4.10 14.4 release xfce 4.12 mx-14 versions intended fit onto cd constraint limited applications could included series saw gradual evolution mx tools collection handy utilities designed help user variety common tasks often complicated obscure mx-15 moved new debian stable jessie using systemd-shim meaning systemd installed default init sysvinit size limitation lifted enabling developers present user full turnkey product substantial expansion mx tools occurred mx-16 still based debian stable jessie many applications backported added well sources also additions refinements mx tools import advanced antix developments expanded support completely new icon/theme/wallpaper combination mx-16.1 collected bug fixes improvements since mx-16 added new kingfisher theme upgraded streamlined mx tools revised documentation new translations mx-17 changes base debian 9 stretch brings upgraded artwork new mx tools improved live operation via antix many changes detailed mx blog mx-18 continues development mx tools introduces recent kernel enables whole disk encryption adds grub themes splash functionality mx boot options new artwork improved localization included details mx blog mx linux basic tools like installer handles uefi computers gui-based method change linux kernel core antix programs mx stands distros shipping suite user-oriented tools called mx tools many tools developed specifically mx forked existing antix apps existing antix apps couple imported permission outside sources example one interesting mx-snapshot gui tool remaster live installation single .iso file quickly conveniently cloned image bootable disk usb-thumbdrive maintaining settings way installation conveniently migrated distributed new hard-disk usb-thumbdrive requiring next administrative effort since advanced method copying file system developed antix-linux utilizing bind-mounts performs heavy lifting snapshot also serves essentially complete convenient backup installation 1-hop neighbor's text information: linpus_linux.linpus linux linpus linux fedora-based operating system created taiwanese firm linpus technologies inc. linpus designed specifically fully support asian market full unicode support chinese japanese languages special version linpus lite written run devices lower-cost hardware netbooks icon tab-based simple mode designed new users conventional style pc mode wanting microsoft windows-like interface targeted handheld devices smaller screens supports resolutions low vga 640×480 acer aspire one norhtec gecko netbooks come linpus lite linux pre-installed also version acer revo 3610 3700 linpus linux pre-installed version normal desktop computers servers also available well multimedia version called linpus media center media center version offers upgrade pack purchase patent licenses mpeg-la dvd mp3 wmv codecs linpus system contains free open source operating system also acer-specific shareware users classify nagware asks register acer website purchase full version fact acer distribution contains software prevents system considered fully free/open operating system Target text information: davix.davix davix live cd based slackware purposes computer security operations distribution focuses data analysis visualization davix stands data analysis visualization linux first live cd integrate many visualization tools long-term goal distribution provide good set tools supporting complete process visual data analysis jan monsch began work cd december 2007 discussions raffael marty january 2008 jan agreed produce cd applied security visualization based list utilities raffael discussed book davix contains collection 25 free tools data processing visualization examples tools davix cd ships 15 chapter manual covers davix use customization examples screenshots additionally utilities system documentation pages davix cd based slax computer information security visualization form visualization computer graphics enterprise environments computer security information generated large volumes become difficult analyze without visual context using davix security engineer visually spot anomalies network traffic changes ip sources/destinations network protocols application protocols traffic patterns frequency volume davix released black hat briefings/def con august 2008 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,385	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: bradley_m._kuhn.bradley m. kuhn bradley m. kuhn born 1973 free software activist united states kuhn currently president software freedom conservancy previously executive director 2010 floss community liaison technology director software freedom law center sflc previously served executive director free software foundation fsf 2001 march 2005 elected fsf board directors march 2010 best known efforts gpl enforcement fsf sflc creator fsf license list original author affero general public license long proponent non-profit structures floss development leads efforts direction software freedom conservancy recipient 2012 o'reilly open source award kuhn attended loyola blakefield followed loyola college maryland graduating may 1995 summa cum laude bachelor science computer science kuhn attended graduate school computer science university cincinnati received master science degree 2001 direction graduate advisor john franco kuhn received usenix student grant scholarship thesis work. focused dynamic interoperability free software languages using port perl java virtual machine example larry wall served kuhn thesis committee kuhn thesis showed various problems regarding use stack-based virtual machines perl discovery became part justification launch parrot project kuhn active participant perl6 rfc process headed perl6-licensing committee process rfcs licensing written kuhn taught ap computer science walnut hills high school 1998-1999 academic year using linux-based lab built students kuhn volunteered free software foundation throughout graduate school hired part-time richard stallman assistant january 2000 kuhn seen posting lists professional capacity around time early employment fsf kuhn suggested creation maintained fsf license list page argued license proliferation kuhn also early active member cincinnati linux user group period serving board directors 1998 giving numerous presentations bradley kuhn computer science career briefly involved proprietary software development high school sour experience area one motivations sticking career non-profit work since graduate school kuhn worked non-profits hired full-time work fsf late 2000 promoted executive director march 2001 kuhn launched fsf associate membership campaign formalized gnu general public license gpl enforcement efforts gpl compliance labs led fsf response sco lawsuit authored affero clause original version agpl taught numerous cle classes lawyers gpl kuhn left fsf march 2005 join founding team software freedom law center eben moglen daniel ravicher subsequently established software freedom conservancy april 2006 fsf sflc kuhn involved major efforts united states enforce gpl sflc assisted eben moglen richard stallman richard fontana drafting gplv3 managed production software system gplv3 comment process called stet advocated strongly inclusion affero clause gplv3 assisted production agplv3 fsf decided write separate affero version gplv3 prior 2010 kuhn floss community liaison technical director software freedom law center president software freedom conservancy october 2010 became conservancy first executive director leadership change serves president distinguished technologist karen sandler holds executive director position 2010 kuhn founded replicant project together aaron williamson graziano sorbaioli denis ‘ gnutoo ’ carikli aiming replacing proprietary android components free software counterparts kuhn fact registrant replicant.us domain since october 2010 kuhn co-hosted sandler free freedom podcast covers legal policy issues floss world kuhn sandler previously co-hosted similar podcast software freedom law show kuhn avid poker player played professionally part-time basis 2002-2007 since january 2008 contributor pokersource gpl 'd online poker system written maintained loïc dachary 1-hop neighbor's text information: robert_j._chassell.robert j. chassell robert bob chassell one founding directors free software foundation fsf 1985 board directors chassell also treasurer fsf left fsf become full-time speaker free software topics bob born 22 august 1946 bennington vt diagnosed progressive supranuclear palsy psp 2010 died result 30 june 2017 chassell authored several books including 1-hop neighbor's text information: revolution_os.revolution os revolution os 2001 documentary film traces twenty-year history gnu linux open source free software movement directed j. t. s. moore film features interviews prominent hackers entrepreneurs including richard stallman michael tiemann linus torvalds larry augustin eric s. raymond bruce perens frank hecker brian behlendorf film begins glimpses raymond linux ipo torvalds idea open source perens stallman sets historical stage early days hackers computer hobbyists code shared freely discusses change came 1978 microsoft co-founder bill gates open letter hobbyists pointedly prodded hobbyists pay stallman relates struggles proprietary software vendors mit artificial intelligence lab leading departure focus development free software gnu project torvalds describes development linux kernel gnu/linux naming controversy linux evolution commercialization raymond stallman clarify philosophy free software versus communism capitalism well development stages linux michael tiemann discusses meeting stallman 1987 getting early version stallman gcc founding cygnus solutions larry augustin describes combining gnu software normal pc create unix-like workstation one third price twice power sun workstation relates early dealings venture capitalists eventual capitalization commodification linux company va linux ipo brian behlendorf one original developers apache http server explains started exchange patches ncsa web server daemon developers led release patchy webserver dubbed apache frank hecker netscape discusses events leading netscape executives releasing source code netscape browser one signal events made open source force reckoned business executives mainstream media public large point validated film release netscape source code eventually became firefox web browser reclaiming large percentage market share microsoft internet explorer film also documents scope first full-scale linuxworld summit conference appearances linus torvalds larry augustin keynote stage much footage film shot silicon valley film appeared several film festivals including south southwest atlanta film video festival boston film festival denver international film festival best documentary savannah film video festival kudzu film festival every review noted historical significance information noticed found production values high presentation history mainly dry even resembling lecture ron wells film threat found film important worthwhile well thought explaining principles free software open source concepts noting failure represent camera debate representatives proprietary software camp wells gave film 4 5 stars tv guide rated film 3 4 stars surprisingly exciting fascinating sharp looking good soundtrack daily variety saw film targeted equally techno-illiterate savvy-hacker crowd educating patting one group head canonizing strong enough enjoyable recommendation negative side new york times faulted film one-sidedness found reliance jargon fairly dense going gave recommendation internet reviews found didactic dull documentary glorifying software anarchy raging microsoft sun lacking follow-through red hat valinux stock 2007 2 peak value lots talking heads toxicuniverse.com noted revolution os blatantly serves infomercial propaganda bearded throwback sixties hacker richard stallman serves movement spiritual leader scandinavian linus torvalds acts mild mannered chief engineer developer linux kernel tim lord reviewing slashdot film interesting worthy viewing misgivings growth free software movement eventual co-option open source movement supposed linux battle microsoft movie quickly hijacked participants film lacks staple documentaries scenes multiple people later analyzed individually participants indeed much back-and-forth linux benefits notably missing w e never shown anyone using linux except unhappy users installfest debate linux vs windows missing showing origin os response proprietary expensive sun dec software hardware growth solely due apache web server lord notes film shows challenge torvalds stallman equally disingenuous remarks linux vs gnu/linux naming issue Target text information: brian_fox_(computer_programmer).brian fox computer programmer brian j fox born 1959 american computer programmer entrepreneur consultant author free software advocate original author gnu bash shell announced beta june 1989 continued primary maintainer bash least early 1993 fox also built first interactive online banking software u.s. wells fargo 1995 created open source election system 2008 1985 fox worked richard stallman stallman newly created free software foundation fsf fox authored gnu bash gnu makeinfo gnu info gnu finger gnu echo readline history libraries also maintainer gnu emacs time made many contributions software created gnu project 1986 1994 2008 fox collaborated alan dechert brent turner create completely open source election system system coded together parker abercrombie demonstrated linuxworld conference moscone center san francisco august 5–7 2008 fox also founding member california association voting officials cavo national association voting officials navo not-for-profit organizations promote open source voting systems use public elections fox co-wrote new york times piece 2017 former cia head r. james woolsey advocating open source election systems means securing us elections russian interference fox also wrote amacs cut-down implementation emacs apple ii series fourth born family 6 siblings composer musician donal fox thaddeus fox sister ena fox daniel fox sister sara fox-ray lives santa barbara longtime partner lissa liggett three children son physicist educator herbert fox grandson artist daniel fox creator monopoly man I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,028	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_api.windows api windows api informally winapi microsoft core set application programming interfaces apis available microsoft windows operating systems name windows api collectively refers several different platform implementations often referred names example win32 api see versions section almost windows programs interact windows api windows nt line operating systems small number programs started early windows startup process use native api developer support available form software development kit microsoft windows sdk providing documentation tools needed build software based windows api associated windows interfaces windows api win32 focused mainly programming language c exposed functions data structures described language recent versions documentation however api may used programming language compiler assembler able handle well-defined low-level data structures along prescribed calling conventions calls callbacks similarly internal implementation api function developed several languages historically despite fact c object-oriented programming language windows api windows historically described object-oriented also many wrapper classes extensions microsoft others object-oriented languages make object-oriented structure explicit microsoft foundation class library mfc visual component library vcl gdi+ etc. instance windows 8 provides windows api winrt api implemented c++ object-oriented design functions provided windows api grouped eight categories internet explorer ie web browser also exposes many apis often used applications could considered part windows api ie included operating system since windows 95 osr2 provided web-related services applications since windows 98 specifically used provide classic windows multimedia api placed winmm.dll contains functions play sound files send receive midi messages access joysticks facilitate features so-called mci subsystem windows originates multimedia extensions available windows 3.0 separately integral part operating system since windows 3.1 time located mmsystem.dll apart part every windows version since windows 95 osr2 microsoft provided directx apis—a loosely related set graphics gaming services includes microsoft also provides several apis media encoding playback windows api designed mostly interaction operating system application communication among different windows applications microsoft developed series technologies alongside main windows api started dynamic data exchange dde superseded object linking embedding ole later component object model com automation objects activex controls .net framework always clear distinction technologies much overlap variety terms basically result grouping software mechanisms relate given aspect software development automation specifically relates exporting function application component application programming interface api controlled applications instead human users .net self-contained general methodology technology develop desktop web applications written variety just-in-time jit compiled languages windows.pas pascal/delphi unit contains windows-specific api declarations pascal equivalent windows.h used c. various wrappers developed microsoft took low level functions windows api allowed applications interact api abstract manner microsoft foundation class library mfc wrapped windows api functionality c++ classes thus allows object-oriented way interact api active template library atl template oriented wrapper com windows template library wtl developed extension atl intended smaller alternative mfc application frameworks windows least partly wrap windows api thus .net framework java likewise programming languages windows contain wrapper libraries windows api code pack microsoft .net framework .net wrapper library windows api windows api always exposed large part underlying structure windows systems programmers advantage giving much flexibility power applications also creates great responsibility applications handle various low-level sometimes tedious operations associated graphical user interface example beginning c programmer often write simple hello world first assignment working part program single printf line within main subroutine overhead linking standard i/o library also one line windows version still one working line code required many many lines overhead charles petzold wrote several books programming windows api said original hello world program windows 1.0 sdk bit scandal hello.c 150 lines long hello.rc resource script another 20 lines ... veteran programmers often curled horror laughter encountering windows hello-world program years various changes additions made windows systems windows api changed grew reflect windows api windows 1.0 supported fewer 450 function calls whereas modern versions windows api support thousands however general interface remained fairly consistent old windows 1.0 application still look familiar programmer used modern windows api microsoft made effort maintain backward compatibility achieve developing new versions windows microsoft sometimes implemented workarounds allow compatibility third-party software used prior version undocumented even inadvisable way raymond chen microsoft developer works windows api said could probably write months solely bad things apps get work often spite get particularly furious people accuse microsoft maliciously breaking applications os upgrades application failed run windows 95 took personal failure one largest changes windows api transition win16 shipped windows 3.1 older win32 windows nt windows 95 win32 originally introduced windows nt 3.1 win32s allowed use win32 subset windows 95 windows 95 widespread porting applications win32 began ease transition windows 95 developers outside inside microsoft complex scheme api thunks used could allow 32-bit code call 16-bit code win16 apis vice versa flat thunks allowed 32-bit code call 16-bit libraries scheme used extensively inside windows 95 libraries avoid porting whole os win32 one batch windows nt os pure 32-bit except parts compatibility 16-bit applications generic thunks available thunk win16 win32 windows 95 platform sdk shipped compiler could produce code needed thunks versions 64-bit windows also able run 32-bit applications via wow64 syswow64 folder located windows folder os drive contains several tools support 32-bit applications almost every new version microsoft windows introduced additions changes windows api name api however remained consistent different windows versions name changes kept limited major architectural platform changes windows microsoft eventually changed name current win32 api family windows api made catch-all term past future api versions wine project provides win32 api compatibility layer unix-like platforms linux kernel api programs written windows api reactos goes step aims implement full windows operating system working closely wine project promote code re-use compatibility doswin32 hx dos extender projects emulate windows api allow executing simple windows programs dos command line odin project emulate win32 os/2 superseding original win-os/2 emulation based microsoft code minor implementations include mewel zinc libraries intended implement subset win16 api dos see list platform-independent gui libraries windows interface source environment wise licensing program microsoft allowed developers recompile run windows-based applications unix macintosh platforms wise sdks based emulator windows api could run platforms efforts toward standardization included sun public windows interface pwi win16 see also sun windows application binary interface wabi willows software application programming interface windows apiw win16 win32 see also willows twin ecma-234 attempted standardize windows api bindingly develop software uses windows api compiler must able use microsoft-specific dlls listed com-objects outside win32 assume certain vtable layout compiler must either handle header files expose interior api function names supply files language c++ zortech later symantec digital mars watcom borland produced well known commercial compilers used often win16 win32s win32 supplied memory extenders allowing win32 programs run win16 microsoft redistributable win32s dll zortech compiler probably one first stable usable c++ compilers windows programming microsoft c++ compiler certain classes applications compiler system also able handle interface description language idl files collectively prerequisites compilers tools libraries headers known microsoft platform sdk time microsoft visual studio borland integrated development system integrated development environments ides could provide although sdk downloadable free separately entire ide suite microsoft windows sdk windows 7 .net framework 4 mingw cygwin projects also provide environment based gnu compiler collection gcc using stand-alone header file set make linking win32-specific dlls simple lcc-win32 c compiler maintained jacob navia freeware non-commercial use pelles c freeware c compiler maintained pelle orinius free pascal free software object pascal compiler supports windows api masm32 package mature project providing support windows api microsoft macro assembler masm using custom made converted headers libraries platform sdk flat assembler fasm allows building windows programs without using external linker even running linux windows specific compiler support also needed structured exception handling seh system serves two purposes provides substrate language-specific exception handling implemented kernel notifies applications exceptional conditions dereferencing invalid pointer stack overflow microsoft/borland c++ compilers ability use system soon introduced windows 95 nt however actual implementation undocumented reverse engineered wine project free compilers seh based pushing exception handler frames onto stack adding linked list stored thread local storage first field thread environment block exception thrown kernel base libraries unwind stack running handlers filters encountered eventually every exception unhandled application dealt default backstop handler pops windows common crash dialog 1-hop neighbor's text information: unicode_in_microsoft_windows.unicode microsoft windows microsoft one first companies implement unicode back ucs-2 evolved utf-16 products still 2019 improving operating system support utf-8 windows nt first operating system used wide characters system calls using ucs-2 encoding scheme first upgraded utf-16 starting windows 2000 allowing representation additional planes surrogate pairs current windows versions back windows xp prior windows nt 3.x 4.0 shipped system libraries support string encoding two types 16-bit unicode utf-16 since windows 2000 sometimes multibyte encoding called code page incorrectly referred ansi code page 16-bit functions names suffixed -w wide codice_1 code page oriented functions use suffix -a ansi codice_2 conventions used apis copied systems codice_3 codice_4 split necessary many languages including c provide clean way pass 8-bit 16-bit strings function functions implemented wrapper translates text using current code page utf-16 calls w function functions return strings opposite conversion apparently put characters n't exist current locale microsoft attempted support unicode portably providing unicode switch compiler switches unsuffixed generic calls w interface converts string constants wide utf-16 versions actually work translate utf-8 outside string constants resulting code attempts open files compiling earlier independent unicode switch windows also provides mbcs api switch changes functions n't work mbcs codice_5 mbcs-aware one codice_6 notice lot microsoft documentation uses term unicode mean 8-bit text windows ce utf-16 used almost exclusively api mostly missing limited set ansi api available windows ce 5.0 use reduced set locales may selectively built onto runtime image 2001 microsoft released special supplement microsoft ’ old windows 9x systems includes dynamic link library unicows.dll 240 kb containing 16-bit flavor ones letter w end basic functions windows api microsoft windows code page designated utf-8 code page 65001 prior windows 10 insider build 17035 november 2017 impossible set locale code page 65001 leaving code page available microsoft claimed utf-8 locale might break functions possible example _mbsrev written assume multibyte encodings used 2 bytes per character thus code pages bytes gb 18030 cp54936 utf-8 could set locale means narrow functions particular codice_8 opens files called utf-8 strings fact way open possible files using codice_8 matter locale set and/or bytes put string none available locales produce possible utf-16 characters problem also applies api takes returns 8 bit strings including windows ones codice_10 modern non-windows platforms string passed codice_8 effectively utf-8 produces incompatibility platforms windows normal work-around add windows-specific code convert utf-8 utf-16 using multibytetowidechar call wide function another popular work-around convert name 8.3 filename equivalent necessary codice_8 inside library function takes string filename altered proposals add new apis portable libraries boost necessary conversion adding new functions opening renaming files functions would pass filenames unchanged unix translate utf-16 windows would allow code portable required many code changes calling wide functions insider build 17035 april 2018 update nominal build 17134 windows 10 beta use unicode utf-8 worldwide language support checkbox appeared setting locale code page utf-8 allows calling narrow functions including codice_8 codice_2 utf-8 strings microsoft compilers often fail producing utf-8 string constants utf-8 source files reliable method turn unicode mark input file utf-8 i.e use bom arrange string constants utf-8 bytes bom added microsoft compiler interpret strings utf-8 convert utf-16 convert back current locale thus destroying utf-8 without bom using single-byte locale microsoft compilers leave bytes quoted string unchanged Target text information: microsoft_layer_for_unicode.microsoft layer unicode microsoft layer unicode mslu software library windows software developers simplify creating unicode-aware applications windows 95 windows 98 windows also known unicows unicode windows 95/98/me systems unicows.dll even cows microsoft describes providing layer win32 api windows 95/98/me write single unicode version application run properly platforms previously software developers either provide two separate versions application perform complex string translations api decisions runtime mslu announced march 2001 first available july 2001 edition microsoft platform sdk arguably long peak popularity windows 95/98/me codename godot reference play waiting godot centered around failure man named godot appear endless wait felt long overdue normally windows api provides ansi w wide-character versions functions windows 95/98/me versions implemented attempting call w version fail error code indicates function unimplemented windows nt/2000/xp/2003 w versions implemented however operating system generally internally implements w version natively version usually translation thunk w version adding unicows.lib link command-line kernel32.lib advapi32.lib supported win32 system link library linker resolve referenced symbols one provided unicows.lib instead wide-character function called first time runtime function stub unicows.lib first receives control decides running windows 95/98/me system technique application linked mslu windows 95/98/me systems need unicows.dll runtime operating systems slight performance penalty first function call common problem encountered occurs updaters uninstallers rename delete file oledlg.dll preventing operating system loading unicows.dll results applications openoffice.org reporting application start one required libraries found occurs even unicows.dll installed system I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,840	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: public-key_cryptography.public-key cryptography public-key cryptography asymmetric cryptography cryptographic system uses pairs keys public keys may disseminated widely private keys known owner generation keys depends cryptographic algorithms based mathematical problems produce one-way functions effective security requires keeping private key private public key openly distributed without compromising security system person encrypt message using receiver public key encrypted message decrypted receiver private key robust authentication also possible sender combine message private key create short digital signature message anyone corresponding public key combine message putative digital signature known public key verify whether signature valid i.e made owner corresponding private key public key algorithms fundamental security ingredients modern cryptosystems applications protocols assuring confidentiality authenticity non-repudiability electronic communications data storage underpin various internet standards transport layer security tls s/mime pgp gpg public key algorithms provide key distribution secrecy e.g. diffie–hellman key exchange provide digital signatures e.g. digital signature algorithm provide e.g. rsa mid-1970s cipher systems using symmetric key algorithms cryptographic key used underlying algorithm sender recipient must keep secret necessity key every system exchanged communicating parties secure way prior use system – secure channel requirement never trivial rapidly becomes unmanageable number participants increases secure channels n't available key exchange sensible cryptographic practice keys frequently changed particular messages meant secure users separate key required possible pair users contrast public key system public keys disseminated widely openly private key needs kept secure owner two best-known uses public key cryptography one important issue confidence/proof particular public key authentic i.e correct belongs person entity claimed tampered replaced malicious third party several possible approaches including public key infrastructure pki one third parties – known certificate authorities – certify ownership key pairs tls relies upon web trust decentralizes authentication using individual endorsements link user public key pgp uses approach well lookup domain name system dns dkim system digitally signing emails also uses approach obvious application public key encryption system encrypting communication provide confidentiality – message sender encrypts using recipient public key decrypted recipient paired private key another application public key cryptography digital signature digital signature schemes used sender authentication non-repudiation system use digital signatures ensure one party successfully dispute authorship document communication applications built foundation include digital cash password-authenticated key agreement time-stamping services non-repudiation protocols etc asymmetric key algorithms nearly always much computationally intensive symmetric ones many cases common exchange key using key-exchange algorithm transmit data using key symmetric key algorithm pgp ssh ssl/tls family schemes use procedure thus called hybrid cryptosystems like security-related systems important identify potential weaknesses public key schemes theory susceptible brute-force key search attack attacks however impractical amount computation needed succeed – termed work factor claude shannon – reach potential attackers many cases work factor increased simply choosing longer key algorithms may much lower work factors making resistance brute-force attack irrelevant special specific algorithms developed aid attacking public key encryption algorithms – rsa elgamal encryption known attacks much faster brute-force approach major weaknesses found several formerly promising asymmetric key algorithms knapsack packing algorithm found insecure development new attack recently attacks based careful measurements exact amount time takes known hardware encrypt plain text used simplify search likely decryption keys side-channel attack great deal active research currently underway discover protect new attack algorithms another potential security vulnerability using asymmetric keys possibility man-in-the-middle attack communication public keys intercepted third party man middle modified provide different public keys instead encrypted messages responses must also intercepted decrypted re-encrypted attacker using correct public keys different communication segments instances avoid suspicion attack may seem difficult implement practice impossible using insecure media e.g. public networks internet wireless forms communications – example malicious staff member internet service provider isp might find quite easy carry one approach prevent attacks involves use public key infrastructure pki set roles policies procedures needed create manage distribute use store revoke digital certificates manage public-key encryption however turn potential weaknesses example certificate authority issuing certificate must trusted properly checked identity key-holder must ensure correctness public key issues certificate must secure computer piracy must made arrangements participants check certificates protected communications begin web browsers instance supplied long list self-signed identity certificates pki providers – used check bona fides certificate authority second step certificates potential communicators attacker could subvert single one certificate authorities issuing certificate bogus public key could mount man-in-the-middle attack easily certificate scheme used alternate scenario rarely discussed attacker penetrated authority servers obtained store certificates keys public private would able spoof masquerade decrypt forge transactions without limit despite theoretical potential problems approach widely used examples include tls predecessor ssl commonly used provide security web browser transactions example securely send credit card details online store aside resistance attack particular key pair security certification hierarchy must considered deploying public key systems certificate authority – usually purpose-built program running server computer – vouches identities assigned specific private keys producing digital certificate public key digital certificates typically valid several years time associated private keys must held securely time private key used certificate creation higher pki server hierarchy compromised accidentally disclosed man-in-the-middle attack possible making subordinate certificate wholly insecure examples well-regarded asymmetric key techniques varied purposes include examples asymmetric key algorithms widely adopted include examples notable – yet insecure – asymmetric key algorithms include examples protocols using asymmetric key algorithms include early history cryptography two parties would rely upon key would exchange means secure non-cryptographic method face-to-face meeting trusted courier key parties kept absolutely secret could used exchange encrypted messages number significant practical difficulties arise approach distributing keys 1874 book principles science william stanley jevons wrote reader say two numbers multiplied together produce number 8616460799 think unlikely anyone ever know described relationship one-way functions cryptography went discuss specifically factorization problem used create trapdoor function july 1996 mathematician solomon w. golomb said jevons anticipated key feature rsa algorithm public key cryptography although certainly invent concept public key cryptography 1970 james h. ellis british cryptographer uk government communications headquarters gchq conceived possibility non-secret encryption called public key cryptography could see way implement 1973 colleague clifford cocks implemented become known rsa encryption algorithm giving practical method non-secret encryption 1974 another gchq mathematician cryptographer malcolm j. williamson developed known diffie–hellman key exchange scheme also passed usa national security agency military focus low computing power power public key cryptography unrealised organisations judged important military use ... share key rapidly electronically major advantage opponent end evolution berners-lee designing open internet architecture cern adaptation adoption arpanet ... public key cryptography realise full potential —ralph benjamin discovery publicly acknowledged 27 years research declassified british government 1997 1976 asymmetric key cryptosystem published whitfield diffie martin hellman influenced ralph merkle work public key distribution disclosed method public key agreement method key exchange uses exponentiation finite field came known diffie–hellman key exchange first published practical method establishing shared secret-key authenticated confidential communications channel without using prior shared secret merkle public key-agreement technique became known merkle puzzles invented 1974 published 1978 1977 generalization cocks scheme independently invented ron rivest adi shamir leonard adleman mit latter authors published work 1978 algorithm came known rsa initials rsa uses exponentiation modulo product two large primes encrypt decrypt performing public key encryption public key digital signature security connected extreme difficulty factoring large integers problem known efficient general technique since 1970s large number variety encryption digital signature key agreement techniques developed field public key cryptography including rabin cryptosystem elgamal encryption dsa elliptic curve cryptography 1-hop neighbor's text information: certificate_authority.certificate authority cryptography certificate authority certification authority ca entity issues digital certificates digital certificate certifies ownership public key named subject certificate allows others relying parties rely upon signatures assertions made private key corresponds certified public key ca acts trusted third party—trusted subject owner certificate party relying upon certificate format certificates specified x.509 standard one particularly common use certificate authorities sign certificates used https secure browsing protocol world wide web another common use issuing identity cards national governments use electronically signing documents trusted certificates used create secure connections server via internet certificate essential order circumvent malicious party happens route target server acts target scenario commonly referred man-in-the-middle attack client uses ca certificate authenticate ca signature server certificate part authorizations launching secure connection usually client software—for example browsers—include set trusted ca certificates makes sense many users need trust client software malicious compromised client skip security check still fool users believing otherwise clients ca server supervisors call certificate servers bestow users commercial cas charge issue certificates customers anticipate ca certificate contained within majority web browsers safe connections certified servers work efficiently out-of-the-box quantity internet browsers devices applications trust particular certificate authority referred ubiquity mozilla non-profit business issues several commercial ca certificates products mozilla developed policy ca/browser forum developed similar guidelines ca trust single ca certificate may shared among multiple cas resellers root ca certificate may base issue multiple intermediate ca certificates varying validation requirements addition commercial cas non-profits issue digital certificates public without charge notable examples cacert let encrypt large organizations government bodies may pkis public key infrastructure containing cas site using self-signed certificates acts ca browsers clients sorts characteristically allow users add away ca certificates server certificates regularly last relatively short period ca certificates extended repeatedly visited servers less error-prone importing trusting ca issued rather confirm security exemption time server certificate renewed less often trustworthy certificates used encrypting signing messages cas dispense end-user certificates used s/mime however encryption entails receiver public key since authors receivers encrypted messages apparently know one another usefulness trusted third party remains confined signature verification messages sent public mailing lists worldwide certificate authority business fragmented national regional providers dominating home market many uses digital certificates legally binding digital signatures linked local law regulations accreditation schemes certificate authorities however market globally trusted tls/ssl server certificates largely held small number multinational companies market significant barriers entry due technical requirements legally required new providers may choose undergo annual security audits webtrust certificate authorities north america etsi europe included trusted root web browser operating system 180 root certificates trusted mozilla firefox web browser representing approximately eighty organizations 200 root certificates trusted macos android 4.2 jelly bean android currently contains 100 cas updated release november 18 2014 group companies nonprofit organizations including electronic frontier foundation mozilla cisco akamai announced let encrypt nonprofit certificate authority provides free domain validated x.509 certificates well software enable installation maintenance certificates let encrypt operated newly formed internet security research group california nonprofit recognized tax-exempt section 501 c 3 according netcraft may 2015 industry standard monitoring active tls certificates states although global tls ecosystem competitive dominated handful major cas — three certificate authorities symantec comodo godaddy account three-quarters issued tls certificates public-facing web servers top spot held symantec verisign purchased symantec ever since survey began currently accounting third certificates illustrate effect differing methodologies amongst million busiest sites symantec issued 44 valid trusted certificates use — significantly overall market share w3techs survey may 2015 shows w3techs survey november 2017 shows w3techs survey may 2018 shows identrust cross-signer let encrypt intermediates risen popular ssl certificate authority symantec dropped chart due security services acquired digicert commercial cas issue bulk certificates https servers typically use technique called domain validation authenticate recipient certificate techniques used domain validation vary cas general domain validation techniques meant prove certificate applicant controls given domain name information applicant identity many certificate authorities also offer extended validation ev certificates rigorous alternative domain validated certificates extended validation intended verify control domain name additional identity information included certificate browsers display additional identity information green box url bar one limitation ev solution weaknesses domain validation attackers could still obtain domain validated certificate victim domain deploy attack occurred difference observable victim user would absence green bar company name question whether users would likely recognise absence indicative attack progress test using internet explorer 7 2009 showed absence ie7 ev warnings noticed users however microsoft current browser edge shows significantly greater difference ev domain validated certificates domain validated certificates hollow grey lock domain validation suffers certain structural security limitations particular always vulnerable attacks allow adversary observe domain validation probes cas send include attacks dns tcp bgp protocols lack cryptographic protections tls/ssl compromise routers attacks possible either network near ca near victim domain one common domain validation techniques involves sending email containing authentication token link email address likely administratively responsible domain could technical contact email address listed domain whois entry administrative email like admin administrator webmaster hostmaster postmaster domain certificate authorities may accept confirmation using root info support domain theory behind domain validation legitimate owner domain would able read emails sent administrative addresses domain validation implementations sometimes source security vulnerabilities one instance security researchers showed attackers could obtain certificates webmail sites ca willing use email address like ssladmin domain.com domain.com webmail systems reserved ssladmin username prevent attackers registering prior 2011 standard list email addresses could used domain validation clear email administrators addresses needed reserved first version ca/browser forum baseline requirements adopted november 2011 specified list addresses allowed mail hosts reserve addresses administrative use though precautions still universal january 2015 finnish man registered username hostmaster finnish version microsoft live able obtain domain-validated certificate live.fi despite owner domain name ca issues digital certificates contain public key identity owner matching private key made available publicly kept secret end user generated key pair certificate also confirmation validation ca public key contained certificate belongs person organization server entity noted certificate ca obligation schemes verify applicant credentials users relying parties trust information ca certificates cas use variety standards tests essence certificate authority responsible saying yes person say ca certify user trusts ca verify ca signature also assume certain public key indeed belong whoever identified certificate public-key cryptography used encrypt data communicated two parties typically happen user logs site implements http secure protocol example let us suppose user logs bank homepage www.bank.example online banking user opens www.bank.example homepage receive public key along data web-browser displays public key could used encrypt data client server safe procedure use protocol determines temporary shared symmetric encryption key messages key exchange protocol enciphered bank public key way bank server private key read rest communication proceeds using new disposable symmetric key user enters information bank page submits page sends information back bank data user entered page encrypted web browser therefore even someone access encrypted data communicated user www.bank.example eavesdropper read decipher mechanism safe user sure bank see web browser user types www.bank.example communication hijacked fake website pretends bank website sends page information back user browser fake web-page send fake public key user fake site owns matching private key user fill form personal data submit page fake web-page get access user data certificate authority mechanism intended prevent certificate authority ca organization stores public keys owners every party communication trusts organization knows public key user web browser receives public key www.bank.example also receives digital signature key information so-called x.509 certificate browser already possesses public key ca consequently verify signature trust certificate public key since www.bank.example uses public key certification authority certifies fake www.bank.example use public key since fake www.bank.example know corresponding private key create signature needed verify authenticity difficult assure correctness match data entity data presented ca perhaps electronic network credentials person/company/program asking certificate likewise presented commercial cas often use combination authentication techniques including leveraging government bureaus payment infrastructure third parties databases services custom heuristics enterprise systems local forms authentication kerberos used obtain certificate turn used external relying parties notaries required cases personally know party whose signature notarized higher standard reached many cas according american bar association outline online transaction management primary points us federal state statutes enacted regarding digital signatures prevent conflicting overly burdensome local regulation establish electronic writings satisfy traditional requirements associated paper documents us e-sign statute suggested ueta code help ensure despite security measures undertaken correctly verify identities people companies risk single ca issuing bogus certificate imposter also possible register individuals companies similar names may lead confusion minimize hazard certificate transparency initiative proposes auditing certificates public unforgeable log could help prevention phishing large-scale deployments alice may familiar bob certificate authority perhaps different ca server bob certificate may also include ca public key signed different ca presumably recognizable alice process typically leads hierarchy mesh cas ca certificates authority revocation list arl form certificate revocation list crl containing certificates issued certificate authorities contrary crls contain revoked end-entity certificates ca/browser forum publishes baseline requirements list policies technical requirements cas follow requirement inclusion certificate stores firefox safari ca subverted security entire system lost potentially subverting entities trust compromised ca example suppose attacker eve manages get ca issue certificate claims represent alice certificate would publicly state represents alice might include information alice information alice employer name might true increasing certificate credibility eve however would all-important private key associated certificate eve could use certificate send digitally signed email bob tricking bob believing email alice bob might even respond encrypted email believing could read alice eve actually able decrypt using private key notable case ca subversion like occurred 2001 certificate authority verisign issued two certificates person claiming represent microsoft certificates name microsoft corporation could used spoof someone believing updates microsoft software came microsoft actually fraud detected early 2001 microsoft verisign took steps limit impact problem 2011 fraudulent certificates obtained comodo diginotar allegedly iranian hackers evidence fraudulent diginotar certificates used man-in-the-middle attack iran 2012 became known trustwave issued subordinate root certificate used transparent traffic management man-in-the-middle effectively permitted enterprise sniff ssl internal network traffic using subordinate certificate attacker steals certificate authority private keys able forge certificates ca without needed ongoing access ca systems key theft therefore one main risks certificate authorities defend publicly trusted cas almost always store keys hardware security module hsm allows sign certificates key generally prevent extraction key physical software controls cas typically take precaution keeping key long-term root certificates hsm kept offline except needed sign shorter-lived intermediate certificates intermediate certificates stored online hsm day-to-day work signing end-entity certificates keeping revocation information date cas sometimes use key ceremony generating signing keys order ensure keys tampered copied critical weakness way current x.509 scheme implemented ca trusted particular party issue certificates domain choose certificates accepted valid trusting party whether legitimate authorized serious shortcoming given commonly encountered technology employing x.509 trusted third parties https protocol major web browsers distributed end-users pre-configured list trusted cas numbers dozens means one pre-approved trusted cas issue valid certificate domain whatsoever industry response muted given contents browser pre-configured trusted ca list determined independently party distributing causing installed browser application really nothing cas issue driving impetus behind development dns-based authentication named entities dane protocol adopted conjunction domain name system security extensions dnssec dane greatly reduce completely eliminate role trusted third parties domain pki various software available operate certificate authority generally software required sign certificates maintain revocation information operate ocsp crl services examples 1-hop neighbor's text information: public_key_certificate.public key certificate cryptography public key certificate also known digital certificate identity certificate electronic document used prove ownership public key certificate includes information key information identity owner called subject digital signature entity verified certificate contents called issuer signature valid software examining certificate trusts issuer use key communicate securely certificate subject email encryption code signing e-signature systems certificate subject typically person organization however transport layer security tls certificate subject typically computer device though tls certificates may identify organizations individuals addition core role identifying devices tls sometimes called older name secure sockets layer ssl notable part https protocol securely browsing web typical public-key infrastructure pki scheme certificate issuer certificate authority ca usually company charges customers issue certificates contrast web trust scheme individuals sign keys directly format performs similar function public key certificate common format public key certificates defined x.509 x.509 general format constrained profiles defined certain use cases public key infrastructure x.509 defined nowiki rfc 5280 /nowiki tls updated replacement ssl server required present certificate part initial connection setup client connecting server perform certification path validation algorithm primary hostname domain name website listed common name subject field certificate certificate may valid multiple hostnames multiple websites certificates commonly called subject alternative name san certificates unified communications certificates ucc certificates contain field subject alternative name though many cas also put subject common name field backward compatibility hostnames contain asterisk certificate may also called wildcard certificate tls server may configured self-signed certificate case clients generally unable verify certificate terminate connection unless certificate checking disabled per applications ssl certificates classified three types- client certificates less common server certificates used authenticate client connecting tls service instance provide access control services provide access individuals rather devices client certificates contain email address personal name rather hostname also authentication usually managed service provider client certificates usually issued public ca provides server certificates instead operator service requires client certificates usually operate internal ca issue client certificates supported many web browsers services use passwords cookies authenticate users instead client certificates client certificates common rpc systems used authenticate devices ensure authorized devices make certain rpc calls s/mime protocol secure email senders need discover public key use given recipient get information email certificate publicly trusted certificate authorities provide email certificates commonly s/mime used communicating within given organization organization runs ca trusted participants email system certificates also used validate signatures programs ensure tampered delivery certificate identifying individual typically electronic signature purposes commonly used europe eidas regulation standardizes requires recognition self-signed certificate used sign certificates also sometimes called trust anchor certificate used sign certificates intermediate certificate must signed another intermediate certificate root certificate certificate used sign certificates instance tls/ssl server client certificates email certificates code signing certificates qualified certificates end-entity certificates certificate subject matches issuer signature verified public key types certificate self-signed self-signed certificates also often called snake oil certificates emphasize untrustworthiness common fields certificates certificates contain number fields listed note terms certificate x.509 representation certificate flat contains fields nested various structures within certificate european union electronic signatures legal documents commonly performed using digital signatures accompanying identity certificates largely signatures granted enforceability handwritten signatures eidas eu regulation x.509 trust model certificate authority ca responsible signing certificates certificates act introduction two parties means ca acts trusted third party ca processes requests people organizations requesting certificates called subscribers verifies information potentially signs end-entity certificate based information perform role effectively ca needs one broadly trusted root certificates intermediate certificates corresponding private keys cas may achieve broad trust root certificates included popular software obtaining cross-signature another ca delegating trust cas trusted within relatively small community like business distributed mechanisms like windows group policy certificate authorities also responsible maintaining up-to-date revocation information certificates issued indicating whether certificates still valid provide information online certificate status protocol ocsp and/or certificate revocation lists crls major software contains list certificate authorities trusted default makes easier end-users validate certificates easier people organizations request certificates know certificate authorities issue certificate broadly trusted particularly important https web site operator generally wants get certificate trusted nearly potential visitors web site policies processes provider uses decide certificate authorities software trust called root programs influential root programs browsers firefox generally use operating system facilities decide certificate authorities trusted instance chrome windows trusts certificate authorities included microsoft root program macos ios chrome trusts certificate authorities apple root program edge safari use respective operating system trust stores well available single os firefox uses mozilla root program trust store platforms mozilla root program operated publicly certificate list part open source firefox web browser broadly used outside firefox instance common linux root program many linux distributions like debian include package periodically copies contents firefox trust list used applications root programs generally provide set valid purposes certificates include instance cas may considered trusted issuing tls server certificates code signing certificates indicated set trust bits root certificate storage system common use certificates https-based web sites web browser validates https web server authentic user feel secure his/her interaction web site eavesdroppers web site claims security important electronic commerce practice web site operator obtains certificate applying certificate authority certificate signing request certificate request electronic document contains web site name company information public key certificate provider signs request thus producing public certificate web browsing public certificate served web browser connects web site proves web browser provider believes issued certificate owner web site example user connects codice_1 browser browser give certificate warning message user theoretically sure interacting codice_1 equivalent interacting entity contact email address listed public registrar example.com even though email address may displayed anywhere web site surety kind implied relationship purchaser certificate operator web site generator web site content may tenuous guaranteed best certificate guarantees uniqueness web site provided web site compromised hacked certificate issuing process subverted certificate provider opt issue three types certificates requiring degree vetting rigor order increasing rigor naturally cost domain validation organization validation extended validation rigors loosely agreed upon voluntary participants ca/browser forum certificate provider issue domain validation dv class certificate purchaser purchaser demonstrate one vetting criterion right administratively manage domain name certificate provider issue organization validation ov class certificate purchaser purchaser meet two criteria right administratively manage domain name question perhaps organization actual existence legal entity certificate provider publishes ov vetting criteria certificate policy acquire extended validation ev certificate purchaser must persuade certificate provider legal identity including manual verification checks human ov certificates certificate provider publishes ev vetting criteria certificate policy browsers generally offer users visual indication legal identity site presents ev certificate browsers show legal name domain use bright green color highlight change way user see legal identity owner verified web browser give warning user web site suddenly presents different certificate even certificate lower number key bits even different provider even previous certificate expiry date far future however change ev certificate non-ev certificate apparent green bar longer displayed certificate providers jurisdiction governments governments may freedom order provider generate certificate purposes law enforcement subsidiary wholesale certificate providers also freedom generate certificate web browsers come extensive built-in list trusted root certificates many controlled organizations may unfamiliar user organizations free issue certificate web site guarantee web browsers include root certificates accept genuine instance end users must rely developer browser software manage built-in list certificates certificate providers behave correctly inform browser developer problematic certificates uncommon incidents fraudulent certificates issued cases browsers detected fraud others time passed browser developers removed certificates software list built-in certificates also limited provided browser developer users degree applications free extend list special purposes company intranets means someone gains access machine install new root certificate browser browser recognize websites use inserted certificate legitimate provable security reliance something external system consequence public key certification scheme rely special setup assumption existence certificate authority spite limitations described certificate-authenticated tls considered mandatory security guidelines whenever web site hosts confidential information performs material transactions practice spite weaknesses described web sites secured public key certificates still secure unsecured http // web sites national institute standards technology nist computer security division provides guidance documents public key certificates Target text information: key_ring_file.key ring file key ring file contains multiple public keys certificate authority ca key ring file necessary secure sockets layer ssl connection web securely stored server hosts website contains public/private key pair particular website also contains public/private key pairs various certificate authorities trusted root certificate various certification authorities entity website administrator send certificate signing request csr ca ca returns signed certificate entity certificate received ca stored key ring I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,882	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: unix-like.unix-like unix-like sometimes referred unx nix operating system one behaves manner similar unix system necessarily conforming certified version single unix specification unix-like application one behaves like corresponding unix command shell standard defining term difference opinion possible degree given operating system application unix-like term include free open-source operating systems inspired bell labs unix designed emulate features commercial proprietary work-alikes even versions based licensed unix source code may sufficiently unix-like pass certification bear unix trademark open group owns unix trademark administers single unix specification unix name used certification mark approve construction unix-like consider misuse trademark guidelines require unix presented uppercase otherwise distinguished surrounding text strongly encourage using branding adjective generic word system discourage use hyphenated phrases parties frequently treat unix genericized trademark add wildcard character name make abbreviation like unx nix since unix-like systems often unix-like names aix a/ux hp-ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix xinu xnu patterns literally match many system names still generally recognized refer unix descendant work-alike system even completely dissimilar names darwin/macos illumos/solaris freebsd 2007 wayne r. gray sued dispute status unix trademark lost case lost appeal court upholding trademark ownership unix-like systems started appear late 1970s early 1980s many proprietary versions idris 1978 unos 1982 coherent 1983 uniflex 1985 aimed provide businesses functionality available academic users unix allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing unix 1979 variety proprietary systems developed based including aix hp-ux irix sunos tru64 ultrix xenix largely displaced proprietary clones growing incompatibility among systems led creation interoperability standards including posix single unix specification various free low-cost unrestricted substitutes unix emerged 1980s 1990s including 4.4bsd linux minix turn basis commercial unix-like systems bsd/os macos several versions mac os x/macos running intel-based mac computers certified single unix specification bsd variants descendants unix developed university california berkeley unix source code bell labs however bsd code base evolved since replacing code since bsd variants certified compliant single unix specification referred unix-like rather unix dennis ritchie one original creators unix expressed opinion unix-like systems linux de facto unix systems eric s. raymond rob landley suggested three kinds unix-like systems systems historical connection codebase commercial unix systems fall category bsd systems descendants work done university california berkeley late 1970s early 1980s systems original code still trace ancestry designs systemslargely commercial naturehave determined open group meet single unix specification allowed carry unix name systems commercial derivatives system v code base one form another although apple macos 10.5 later bsd variant certified systems ibm z/os earned trademark posix compatibility layer otherwise inherently unix systems many ancient unix systems longer meet definition broadly unix-like system behaves manner roughly consistent unix specification including program manages login command line sessions specifically refer systems linux minix behave similarly unix system genetic trademark connection code base free/open-source implementations unix design whether genetic unix fall restricted definition third category due expense obtaining open group certification costs thousands dollars commercial closed source systems around 2001 linux given opportunity get certification including free help posix chair andrew josey symbolic price one dollar activities make linux posix-compliant josey prepared list differences posix standard linux standard base specification august 2005 project shut missing interest lsb work group non-unix-like operating systems provide unix-like compatibility layer variable degrees unix-like functionality means windows-unix interoperability include 1-hop neighbor's text information: iso_13490.iso 13490 iso/iec 13490 also known ecma-168 successor iso 9660 level 3 intended describe file system cd-rom cd-r. iso 13490 several improvements predecessor fully addresses filename posix attribute multibyte character issues handled iso 9660 also efficient format permits incremental recording permits iso 9660 format iso/iec 13490 format co-exist media also specifies use multisession properly derived frankfurt group formed 1990 many cd-rom cd-wo hardware media manufacturers cd-rom data publishers users cd-roms major computer companies proposal fully supports orange book media iso 13490 define rule operating systems read multiple-session iso 9660 volume cd-r instead looking volume descriptor offset 32,768 sector number 16 cd start disc would default behavior iso 9660 programs accessing disc start reading 16th sector first track latest session sector numbers form contiguous sequence starting first session continue added sessions gaps hence cd mastering program wants add single file cd-r iso 9660 volume append session containing least updated copy entire directory tree plus new file duplicated directory entries still reference data files previous session similar way file data updated even removed removal however virtual removed content appear directory shown user still physically present disc therefore recovered takes space cd become full even though appearing still unused space though originally intended multisession support apply mode 2 form 1 formatted discs cd writing software supported multisession writing mode 1 format discs since early disc drives supported multisession mode 1 discs many cases second following sessions would become unreachable drives older cd writing software nero burning rom would import previous session data inserted disc could thus write subsequent session disc computer written previous sessions previous session data saved writing software closed 1-hop neighbor's text information: iso_9660.iso 9660 iso 9660 file system optical disc media published international organization standardization iso file system considered international technical standard since specification available anybody purchase implementations written many operating systems iso 9660 traces roots high sierra format file system high sierra arranged file information dense sequential layout minimize nonsequential access using hierarchical eight levels directories deep tree file system arrangement similar unix fat facilitate cross platform compatibility defined minimal set common file attributes directory ordinary file time recording name attributes name extension version used separate system use area future optional extensions file may specified high sierra adopted december 1986 changes international standard ecma international ecma-119 submitted fast tracking iso eventually accepted iso 9660:1988 2013 iso published amendment 1 iso 9660 standard introducing new data structures relaxed file name rules intended bring harmonization iso 9660 widely used 'joliet specification december 2017 3rd edition ecma-119 published technically identical iso 9660 amendment 1 following rough overall structure iso 9660 file system system area first 32,768 data bytes disc 16 sectors 2,048 bytes unused iso 9660 therefore available uses example cd-rom may contain alternative file system descriptor area often used hybrid cds offer classic mac os-specific macos-specific content multi-byte values stored twice little-endian big-endian format either one-after-another specification calls both-byte orders duplicated data structures path table structures designed unaligned members endian encoding however help implementors data structures need read byte-wise convert properly aligned data data area begins set one volume descriptors terminated volume descriptor set terminator collectively volume descriptor set acts header data area describing content similar bios parameter block used fat hpfs ntfs formatted disks volume descriptor set terminator simply particular type volume descriptor purpose marking end set structures volume descriptor 2048 bytes size fitting perfectly single mode 1 mode 2 form 1 sector following structure data field volume descriptor may subdivided several fields exact content depending type standard volume descriptor types following iso 9660 compliant disc contains least one primary volume descriptor describing file system volume descriptor set terminator indicating end descriptor sequence primary volume descriptor provides information volume characteristics metadata including root directory record indicates sector root directory located fields contain description name volume information created application size logical blocks file system uses segment volume also stored field inside primary volume descriptor well amount space occupied volume measured number logical blocks addition primary volume descriptor supplementary volume descriptors enhanced volume descriptors may present supplementary volume descriptors describe volume primary volume descriptor normally used providing additional code page support standard code tables insufficient standard specifies iso 2022 used managing code sets wider 8 bytes iso 2375 escape sequences used identify particular code page used consequently iso 9660 supports international single-byte multi-byte character sets provided fit framework referenced standards however iso 9660 specify code pages guaranteed supported use code tables defined standard subject agreement originator recipient volume enhanced volume descriptors introduced iso 9660 amendment 1 relax requirements volume descriptors directory records referenced example directory depth exceed eight file identifiers need contain file version number length file directory identifier maximized 207 redundant copies volume descriptor also included case first copy descriptor becomes corrupt directory entries stored following location root directory entry evaluation filenames begun directories files stored extents sequential series sectors files directories differentiated file attribute indicates nature similar unix attributes file stored directory entry describes file optionally extended attribute record locate file directory names file path checked sequentially going location directory obtain location subsequent subdirectory however file also located path table provided file system path table stores information directory parent location disc since path table stored contiguous region searched much faster jumping particular locations directory file path thus reducing seek time standard specifies three nested levels interchange paraphrased section 10 additional restrictions body standard depth directory hierarchy must exceed 8 root directory level 1 path length file must exceed 255 section 6.8.2.1 standard also specifies following name restrictions sections 7.5 7.6 path tables summarize directory structure relevant directory hierarchy providing directory identifier location extent directory recorded length extended attributes associated directory index parent directory path table entry restrictions filename length 8 characters plus 3 character extension interchange level 1 directory depth 8 levels including root directory serious limitation iso 9660 file system rock ridge extension works around eight-directory depth limit folding paths practice however drivers oses care directory depth rule often ignored addition restrictions mentioned cd-rom producer may choose one lower levels interchange specified chapter 10 standard restrict file name length 30 characters 8+3 file identifiers 8 directory identifiers order promote interchangeability implementations implement full standard sometimes mistakenly interpreted restriction iso 9660 standard numbers iso 9660 file systems except single byte value used gmt offset unsigned numbers length file extent disc stored 32 bit value allows maximum length 4.2 gb precisely one byte less 4 gib note older operating systems may handle values incorrectly i.e signed instead unsigned would make impossible access files larger 2 gb size latter holds true also operating systems without large file support based often assumed file iso 9660 formatted disc larger 2-1 size file size stored unsigned 32 bit value 2-1 maximum however possible circumvent limitation using multi-extent fragmentation feature iso 9660 level 3 create iso 9660 file systems single files 8 tib files larger 4 gib split multiple extents sequential series sectors exceeding 4 gib limit example free software infrarecorder imgburn mkisofs well roxio toast able create iso 9660 file systems use multi-extent files store files larger 4 gib appropriate media recordable dvds empirical tests 4.2 gb fragmented file dvd media shown microsoft windows xp supports mac os x 10.4.8 handle case properly case mac os x driver appears support file fragmentation i.e supports iso 9660 level 2 level 3 linux supports multiple extents another limitation number directories iso image structure called path table directory image path table provides number parent directory entry problem parent directory number 16-bit number limiting range 1 65,535 content directory written also different place making path table redundant suitable fast searching operating systems e.g windows use path table others e.g linux iso image disc consists 65,535 directories readable linux early windows versions files additional directories visible show empty zero length software tools problems managing path table directory limit exceeded popular application using iso format mkisofs aborts path table overflow nero burning rom windows pinnacle instant cd/dvd check whether problem occurs produce invalid iso file disc without warning several extensions iso 9660 relax limitations operating systems support extensions name translation file trans.tbl must used located every directory including root directory obsolete since operating systems use today iso 13490 standard extension iso 9660 format adds support multiple sessions disc since iso 9660 design read-only pre-mastered file system data written one go session medium written provision altering stored content iso 13490 created allow adding files writeable disc cd-r multiple sessions iso 13346/ecma-167 standard designed conjunction iso 13490 standard address shortcomings iso 9660 subset evolved udf format adopted dvds jis x 0606:1998 also known iso 9660:1999 japanese industrial standard draft created japanese national body jtc1 n4222 order make improvements remove limitations original iso 9660 standard draft submitted 1998 ratified iso standard yet changes includes removal restrictions imposed original standard extending maximum file name length 207 characters removing eight-level maximum directory nesting limit removing special meaning dot character filenames operating systems allow relaxations well reading optical discs several disc authoring tools nero burning rom mkisofs imgburn support so-called iso 9660:1999 mode sometimes called iso 9660 v2 iso 9660 level 4 mode removes restrictions following guidelines iso 9660:1999 draft iso 9660 file system images iso images common way electronically transfer contents cd-roms often filename extension codice_1 codice_2 less common also use commonly referred isos operating systems support reading iso 9660 formatted discs new versions support extensions rock ridge joliet operating systems support extensions usually show basic non-extended features plain iso 9660 disc operating systems support iso 9660 extensions include following Target text information: rock_ridge.rock ridge rock ridge interchange protocol rrip ieee p1282 extension iso 9660 volume format commonly used cd-rom dvd media adds posix file system semantics availability extension properties allows better integration unix unix-like operating systems standard takes name fictional town rock ridge mel brooks film blazing saddles rrip extensions briefly rrip extensions built upon related standard system use sharing protocol susp ieee p1281 susp provides generic way including additional properties directory entry reachable primary volume descriptor pvd iso 9660 volume every directory entry optional system use area whose contents undefined left interpreted system susp defines method subdivide area multiple system use fields identified two-character signature tag idea behind susp would enable number independent extensions iso 9660 rrip created included volume without conflicting also allows inclusion property data would otherwise large fit within limits system use area susp defines several common tags system use fields rrip defines additional susp tags support posix semantics along format meaning corresponding system use fields known susp fields include linux kernel built config_zisofs transparently decompresses data files marked additionally libburnia project proposed aaip would add following susp tag note apple iso 9660 extensions technically follow susp standard however basic structure aa ab fields defined apple forward compatible susp care volume use apple extensions well rrip extensions amiga rock ridge similar rrip except provides additional properties used amiga operating system built susp standard defining -tagged system use field thus amiga rock ridge posix rrip may used simultaneously volume specific properties supported extension additional amiga-bits files support attribute p stands pure bit indicating re-entrant command attribute script bit indicating batch file includes protection flags plus optional comment field extensions introduced angela schmidt help andrew young primary author rock ridge interchange protocol system use sharing protocol first publicly available software master cd-rom amiga extensions makecd amiga software angela schmidt developed together patrick ohly masteriso also recognizes extension also supported frying pan support latter one program uncredited amiga cd-rom filesystems supporting extensions amicdfs asimcdfs cachecdfs babelcdromfs users want access comments protection bits amiga files present cds could simply mount new logical units associated physical unit using one cd-rom filesystems mentioned I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	8,110	test
[''] Target text information: national_interop.national interop national interop systems integration company earliest experience radio ip technologies deployed public safety communications company founded public safety personnel one principals company testified u.s. senate 2007 applicability radio ip roip alternative expensive statewide interoperable radio systems proposed funding federal government costs us 1b per state company designed implemented roip-powered system air evac lifeteam spanning 14 states 80+ radio towers 24x7 9-1-1 type dispatch center well numerous smaller roip systems national interop works roip technologies may best suited particular public safety application I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,056	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: kernelcare.kernelcare kernelcare live kernel patching service provides security patches bugfixes range popular linux kernels installed without rebooting system kernelcare software released gpl2 first beta introduced march 2014 commercially launched may 2014 kernelcare supports centos/rhel 5.x 6.x 7.x cloudlinux 5.x 6.x 7.x parallels cloud server oracle linux/rhel 6.x 7.x amazon linux virtuozzo openvz rhel6/rhel proxmox 3.x 4.x 5.x virt-sig/xen4centos debian 6.x 7.x 8.x 9.x ubuntu 14.04 lts 16.04 lts 18.04 lts kernelcare agent resides user server periodically checks kernelcare distribution servers new patches available currently running kernel kernelcare agent downloads applies patches running kernel kernelcare patch piece code used substitute vulnerable buggy code kernel arbitrary code line modification missing security check set functions even modified data structures patch compiled usual generated code additional information changed code pieces caused original source code modification information apply code pieces resulting code modifications safely applied running kernel special kernelcare kernel module applies patches loads patches kernel address space sets relocations i.e. fixes references original kernel code data safely switches execution path original code updated code blocks code ensures patch applied safely cpu n't execute original code blocks moment switching new version 1-hop neighbor's text information: zfs.zfs zfs combined file system logical volume manager designed sun microsystems zfs scalable includes extensive protection data corruption support high storage capacities efficient data compression integration concepts filesystem volume management snapshots copy-on-write clones continuous integrity checking automatic repair raid-z native nfsv4 acls precisely configured two main implementations oracle openzfs project extremely similar making zfs widely available within unix-like systems zfs name stands nothing—briefly assigned backronym zettabyte file system longer considered initialism originally zfs proprietary closed-source software developed internally sun part solaris team led cto sun storage business unit sun fellow jeff bonwick 2005 bulk solaris including zfs licensed open-source software common development distribution license cddl opensolaris project zfs became standard feature solaris 10 june 2006 2010 sun microsystems acquired oracle zfs became registered trademark belonging oracle oracle stopped releasing updated source code new opensolaris zfs development effectively reverting oracle zfs closed source response illumos project founded maintain enhance existing open source solaris 2013 openzfs founded coordinate development open source zfs openzfs maintains manages core zfs code organizations using zfs maintain specific code validation processes required zfs integrate within systems openzfs widely used unix-like systems 2017 one analyst described openzfs proven open source data-validating enterprise file system management stored data generally involves two aspects physical volume management one block storage devices hard drives sd cards organization logical block devices seen operating system often involving volume manager raid controller array manager suitable device driver management data files stored logical block devices file system data storage zfs unusual unlike storage systems unifies roles acts volume manager file system therefore complete knowledge physical disks volumes including condition status logical arrangement volumes also files stored zfs designed ensure subject suitable hardware data stored disks lost due physical errors misprocessing hardware operating system bit rot events data corruption may happen time complete control storage system used ensure every step whether related file management disk management verified confirmed corrected needed optimized way storage controller cards separate volume file managers achieve zfs also includes mechanism dataset pool level snapshots replication including snapshot cloning described freebsd documentation one powerful features features even file systems snapshot functionality lack large numbers snapshots taken without degrading performance allowing snapshots used prior risky system operations software changes entire production live file system fully snapshotted several times hour order mitigate data loss due user error malicious activity snapshots rolled back live previous file system states viewed even large file systems leading savings comparison formal backup restore processes snapshots also cloned form new independent file systems pool level snapshot known checkpoint available allows rollback operations may affect entire pool structure add remove entire datasets examples features specific zfs include unlike many file systems zfs intended work towards specific aims primary targets enterprise standard data management commercial environments hardware capable supporting zfs capabilities data resilience resources needed serve data efficiently system configuration poorly matched zfs zfs may underperform significantly 2017 zfs benchmarks zfs developers calomel stated common system design failures include zfs acts volume manager file system terminology layout zfs storage covers two aspects many terms particular zfs list covers zfs commands allow examination physical storage terms devices vdevs organized data pools stored across vdevs various ways various commands expose in-depth statistics zfs internal status internal performance/statistics data allow settings optimized physical devices used zfs hard drives hdds ssds organized groups known vdevs virtual devices used store data vdevs fundamental part zfs conceived groups disks provide redundancy failure physical devices vdev must able maintain integrity data holds must contain enough disks risk data loss within acceptably tiny vdev become unreadable due disk errors otherwise entire pool part also fail see data recovery vdev one vdev acts independent unit redundant storage devices might vdev unused spare disks disks formatted non-zfs filing systems offline disks cache devices physical structure pool defined configuring many vdevs type adding pool zfs exposes manages individual disks within system well vdevs pools datasets volumes organized within pool data automatically distributed zfs across vdevs making pool zfs stripes data pool across vdevs pool speed efficiency vdev user defines completely independent every vdev different types vdev mixed arbitrarily single zfs system data redundancy required data protected physical device failure ensured user organize devices vdevs either using mirrored vdev raidz vdev data single device vdev may lost device develops fault data mirrored raidz vdev lost enough disks fail time system resilvered replacements due recent disk failures zfs vdev continue function service capable providing least one copy data stored although may become slower due error fixing resilvering part self-repair data integrity processes however zfs designed become unreasonably slow due self-repair unless directed administrator since one goals capable uninterrupted continual use even self checking self repair since zfs device redundancy vdev level also means pool stored across several vdevs one vdevs completely fails entire pool content lost similar raid redundancy systems require data stored capable reconstruction enough devices ensure data unlikely lost due physical devices failing therefore intended vdevs made either mirrored devices raidz array devices sufficient redundancy important data zfs automatically limit possible avoid data loss device fails backups replication also expected part data protection vdevs manipulated active use single disk additional devices added create mirrored vdev mirrored vdev physical devices added removed leave larger smaller number mirrored devices single device raidz vdev converted mirror although additional vdevs always added expand storage capacity kind including raidz device vdev marked removal zfs de-allocate data allow removed replaced note devices vdev size zfs may use full capacity disks vdev larger others applies devices within single vdev vdevs independent zfs care different vdevs different sizes built different devices also vdev shrunk size common set aside small amount unused space example 1-2gb multi-tb disk disk needs replacing possible allow slight manufacturing variances replace another disk nominal capacity slightly smaller actual capacity addition devices used main data storage zfs also allows manages devices used caching purposes single devices multiple mirrored devices fully dedicated type cache designated cache usage detailed settings fully deleted created modified without limit live use list zfs cache types given zfs handle devices formatted partitions certain purposes common use generally caches data pools given complete devices multiple complete devices top level data management zfs pool zpool zfs system multiple pools defined vdevs used pool specified pool created others added later zfs use specified vdevs maximize performance storing data – form striping across vdevs therefore important ensure vdev sufficiently redundant loss vdev pool would cause loss pool striping zfs pool expanded time adding new vdevs including system 'live storage space vdevs already allocated pool shrunk data stored across vdevs pool even yet full however explained individual vdevs modified time within stated limits new vdevs added time since addition removal mirrors marking redundant disk offline affect ability vdev store data within pools zfs recognizes two types data store since volumes presented block devices also formatted file system add zfs features file system although usual practice example zfs volume created block device presents partitioned formatted file system ext4 ntfs done either locally network using iscsi similar resulting file system accessible normal also gain zfs benefits data resilience data integrity/scrubbing snapshots additional option data compression snapshots integral feature zfs provide immutable read copies file system single point time even large file systems snapshotted many times every hour sustain tens thousands snapshots snapshot versions individual files entire dataset pool easily accessed searched restored entire snapshot cloned create new copy copied separate server replicated backup pool dataset quickly rolled back specific snapshot snapshots also compared current data check modified data.snapshots take much disk space data deleted space marked free data longer referenced current system snapshot snapshots also easy way avoid impact ransomware generally zfs expect reduce size pool tools reduce set vdevs pool stored tools remove vdevs rolled oracle zfs also exist derivatives openzfs yet generally released openzfs platforms generally therefore 2018 remove entire vdev active use reduce size pool data stored must moved another pool temporary copy made easier deleted later restored backups/copies devices making vdev freed use pool deleted recreated using fewer vdevs smaller size additional capacity added pool time simply adding devices needed defining unused devices vdevs adding new vdevs pool capacity individual vdev generally fixed defined one exception rule single drive mirrored vdevs expanded larger smaller capacities without affecting vdev operation adding larger disks replacing/removing smaller disks shown example pool expanded unused space datasets volumes within pool likewise expanded use unused pool space datasets need fixed size dynamically grow data stored volumes block devices need size defined user must manually resized required done 'live resizing example one major feature distinguishes zfs file systems designed focus data integrity protecting user data disk silent data corruption caused data degradation current spikes bugs disk firmware phantom writes previous write make disk misdirected reads/writes disk accesses wrong block dma parity errors array server memory driver since checksum validates data inside array driver errors data winds wrong buffer inside kernel accidental overwrites swapping live file system etc 1999 study showed neither then-major widespread filesystems ufs ext xfs jfs ntfs hardware raid issues data integrity provided sufficient protection data corruption problems initial research indicates zfs protects data better earlier efforts also faster ufs seen replacement within zfs data integrity achieved using fletcher-based checksum sha-256 hash throughout file system tree block data checksummed checksum value saved pointer block—rather actual block next block pointer checksummed value saved pointer checksumming continues way file system data hierarchy root node also checksummed thus creating merkle tree in-flight data corruption phantom reads/writes data written/read checksums correctly actually wrong undetectable filesystems store checksum data zfs stores checksum block parent block pointer entire pool self-validates block accessed regardless whether data meta-data checksum calculated compared stored checksum value checksums match data passed programming stack process asked values match zfs heal data storage pool provides data redundancy internal mirroring assuming copy data undamaged matching checksums optionally possible provide additional in-pool redundancy specifying means data stored twice three times disk effectively halving reducing one third storage capacity disk additionally kinds data used zfs manage pool stored multiple times default safety even default copies=1 setting copies damaged data exist reconstructed checksums parity data zfs use copy data recreate via raid recovery mechanism recalculate checksum—ideally resulting reproduction originally expected value data passes integrity check system update faulty copies known-good data redundancy restored consistency data held memory cached data arc checked default zfs expected run enterprise quality hardware error correcting ram capability check in-memory data exists enabled using debug flags zfs able guarantee data integrity needs multiple copies data usually spread across multiple disks typically achieved using either raid controller so-called soft raid built file system zfs work hardware raid devices zfs usually work efficiently greater protection data raw access storage devices disks connected system using hardware firmware soft raid controller modifies usual zfs-to-disk i/o path zfs relies disk honest view determine moment data confirmed safely written numerous algorithms designed optimize use caching cache flushing disk handling third-party device performs caching presents drives zfs single system without low level view zfs relies upon much greater chance system perform less optimally failure preventable zfs quickly fully recovered zfs example hardware raid card used zfs may able determine condition disks whether raid array degraded rebuilding may know data corruption place data optimally across disks make selective repairs control repairs balanced ongoing use may able make repairs even could usually hardware raid card interfere raid controllers also usually add controller-dependent data drives prevents software raid accessing user data possible read data compatible hardware raid controller n't always possible controller card develops fault replacement may available cards may understand manufacturer custom data needed manage restore array new card therefore unlike systems raid cards similar used offload resources processing enhance performance reliability zfs strongly recommended methods used typically reduce system performance reliability disks must connected raid controller recommended use plain hba host adapter fanout card configure card jbod mode i.e turn raid caching functions allow devices attached zfs-to-disk i/o pathway unchanged raid card jbod mode may still interfere cache depending upon design may detach drives respond time seen many energy-efficient consumer-grade hard drives may require time-limited error recovery tler /cctl/erc-enabled drives prevent drive dropouts cards suitable even raid functions disabled instead hardware raid zfs employs soft raid offering raid-z parity based like raid 5 similar disk mirroring similar raid 1 schemes highly flexible raid-z data/parity distribution scheme like raid-5 uses dynamic stripe width every block raid stripe regardless blocksize resulting every raid-z write full-stripe write combined copy-on-write transactional semantics zfs eliminates write hole error raid-z also faster traditional raid 5 need perform usual read-modify-write sequence stripes different sizes raid-z reconstruction traverse filesystem metadata determine actual raid-z geometry would impossible filesystem raid array separate products whereas becomes feasible integrated view logical physical structure data going metadata means zfs validate every block 256-bit checksum goes whereas traditional raid products usually addition handling whole-disk failures raid-z also detect correct silent data corruption offering self-healing data reading raid-z block zfs compares checksum data disks return right answer zfs reads parity figures disk returned bad data repairs damaged data returns good data requestor raid-z mirroring require special hardware need nvram reliability need write buffering good performance data protection raid-z zfs provides fast reliable storage using cheap commodity disks five different raid-z modes raid-z0 similar raid 0 offers redundancy raid-z1 similar raid 5 allows one disk fail raid-z2 similar raid 6 allows two disks fail raid-z3 raid 7 configuration allows three disks fail mirroring similar raid 1 allows one disk fail need raid-z3 arose early 2000 muti-terabyte capacity drives became common increase capacity without corresponding increase throughput speeds meant rebuilding array due failed drive could take weeks even months complete time older disks array stressed additional workload could result data corruption drive failure increasing parity raid-z3 reduces chance data loss simply increasing redundancy zfs tool equivalent fsck standard unix linux data checking repair tool file systems instead zfs built-in scrub function regularly examines data repairs silent corruption problems differences official recommendation sun/oracle scrub enterprise-level disks month cheaper commodity disks week zfs 128-bit file system address 1.84 × 10 times data 64-bit systems btrfs maximum limits zfs designed large never encountered practice instance fully populating single zpool 2 bits data would require 3×10 tb hard disk drives theoretical limits zfs oracle solaris encryption capability zfs embedded i/o pipeline writes block may compressed encrypted checksummed deduplicated order policy encryption set dataset level datasets file systems zvols created wrapping keys provided user/administrator changed time without taking file system offline default behaviour wrapping key inherited child data sets data encryption keys randomly generated dataset creation time descendant datasets snapshots clones share data encryption keys command switch new data encryption key clone time provided—this re-encrypt already existing data instead utilising encrypted master-key mechanism zfs automatically allocate data storage across vdevs pool devices vdev way generally maximises performance pool zfs also update write strategy take account new disks added pool added general rule zfs allocates writes across vdevs based free space vdev ensures vdevs proportionately less data already given writes new data stored helps ensure pool becomes used situation develop vdevs become full forcing writes occur limited number devices also means data read reads much frequent writes uses different parts data read many disks possible time giving much higher read performance therefore general rule pools vdevs managed new storage added situation arise vdevs pool almost full others almost empty make pool less efficient pools hot spares compensate failing disks mirroring block devices grouped according physical chassis filesystem continue case failure entire chassis storage pool composition limited similar devices consist ad-hoc heterogeneous collections devices zfs seamlessly pools together subsequently doling space needed arbitrary storage device types added existing pools expand size storage capacity vdevs available file system instances zpool quota set limit amount space file system instance occupy reservation set guarantee space available file system instance zfs uses different layers disk cache speed read write operations ideally data stored ram usually expensive therefore data automatically cached hierarchy optimize performance versus cost often called hybrid storage pools frequently accessed data stored ram less frequently accessed data stored slower media solid state drives ssds data often accessed cached left slow hard drives old data suddenly read lot zfs automatically move ssds ram zfs caching mechanisms include one reads writes case two levels caching exist one computer memory ram one fast storage usually solid state drives ssds total four caches number caches cache divisions queues also exist within zfs example vdev data cache arc cache divided data stored user metadata used zfs control balance zfs uses copy-on-write transactional object model block pointers within filesystem contain 256-bit checksum 256-bit hash currently choice fletcher-2 fletcher-4 sha-256 target block verified block read blocks containing active data never overwritten place instead new block allocated modified data written metadata blocks referencing similarly read reallocated written reduce overhead process multiple updates grouped transaction groups zil intent log write cache used synchronous write semantics required blocks arranged tree checksums see merkle signature scheme advantage copy-on-write zfs writes new data blocks containing old data retained allowing snapshot version file system maintained zfs snapshots consistent reflect entire data existed single point time created extremely quickly since data composing snapshot already stored entire storage pool often snapshotted several times per hour also space efficient since unchanged data shared among file system snapshots snapshots inherently read-only ensuring modified creation although relied sole means backup entire snapshots restored also files directories within snapshots writeable snapshots clones also created resulting two independent file systems share set blocks changes made clone file systems new data blocks created reflect changes unchanged blocks continue shared matter many clones exist implementation copy-on-write principle zfs file systems moved pools also remote hosts network send command creates stream representation file system state stream either describe complete contents file system given snapshot delta snapshots computing delta stream efficient size depends number blocks changed snapshots provides efficient strategy e.g. synchronizing offsite backups high availability mirrors pool dynamic striping across devices maximize throughput means additional devices added zpool stripe width automatically expands include thus disks pool used balances write load across zfs uses variable-sized blocks 128 kb default size available features allow administrator tune maximum block size used certain workloads perform well large blocks data compression enabled variable block sizes used block compressed fit smaller block size smaller size used disk use less storage improve io throughput though cost increased cpu use compression decompression operations zfs filesystem manipulation within storage pool easier volume manipulation within traditional filesystem time effort required create expand zfs filesystem closer making new directory volume manipulation systems pools associated zfs file systems moved different platform architectures including systems implementing different byte orders zfs block pointer format stores filesystem metadata endian-adaptive way individual metadata blocks written native byte order system writing block reading stored endianness match endianness system metadata byte-swapped memory affect stored data usual posix systems files appear applications simple arrays bytes applications creating reading data remain responsible way independent underlying system endianness data deduplication capabilities added zfs source repository end october 2009 relevant opensolaris zfs development packages available since december 3 2009 build 128 effective use deduplication may require large ram capacity recommendations range 1 5 gb ram every tb storage accurate assessment memory required deduplication made referring number unique blocks pool number bytes disk ram core required store record figures reported inbuilt commands zpool zdb insufficient physical memory lack zfs cache result virtual memory thrashing using deduplication cause performance plummet result complete memory starvation deduplication occurs write-time also cpu-intensive also significantly slow system storage vendors use modified versions zfs achieve high data compression ratios two examples 2012 greenbytes tegile may 2014 oracle bought greenbytes zfs deduplication replication technology described deduplication usually recommended due heavy resource requirements especially ram impact performance especially writing specific circumstances system data well-suited space-saving technique authors 2010 study examined ability file systems detect prevent data corruption particular focus zfs observed zfs effective detecting correcting data errors storage devices assumes data ram safe prone error study comments single bit flip memory causes small non-negligible percentage runs experience failure probability committing bad data disk varying 0 3.6 according workload zfs caches pages stores copies metadata ram holds data dirty cache writing disk test made whether checksums still match data point use much risk mitigated one two ways zfs protect data disk failure needs configured redundant storage either raid-z mirrored data copied least two disks single disk used redundant copies data enabled duplicates data logical drive far less safe since vulnerable failure single disk using zfs copies good feature use notebooks desktop computers since disks large least provides limited redundancy single drive historically zfs shipped tools fsck repair damaged file systems file system designed self-repair long built sufficient attention design storage redundancy data pool compromised poor hardware inadequate design redundancy unfortunate mishap point zfs unable mount pool traditionally tools allowed end-user attempt partial salvage stored data led threads online forums zfs developers sometimes tried provide ad-hoc help home small scale users facing loss data due inadequate design poor system management modern zfs improved considerably situation time continues zfs part sun solaris operating system thus available sparc x86-based systems oracle solaris 11 express release os/net consolidation main os code made proprietary closed-source zfs upgrades implementations inside solaris encryption compatible non-proprietary implementations use previous versions zfs creating new zfs pool retain ability use access pool non-proprietary solaris-based distributions recommended upgrade solaris 11 express opensolaris snv_134b thereby stay zfs version 28 opensolaris 2008.05 2008.11 2009.06 use zfs default filesystem dozen 3rd-party distributions nearly dozen mentioned openindiana illumos two new distributions included opensolaris distribution reference page openindiana uses openzfs feature flags implemented illumos zfs version 28 used version 151a3 upgrading opensolaris snv_134 openindiana solaris 11 express one also ability upgrade separately boot solaris 11 express zfs pool one install solaris 11 express first zfs incompatibilities introduced oracle past zfs version 28 openzfs osx abbreviated o3x implementation zfs macos o3x active development close relation zfs linux illumos zfs implementation maintaining feature flag compatibility zfs linux o3x implements zpool version 5000 includes solaris porting layer spl originally written maczfs enhanced include memory management layer based illumos kmem vmem allocators o3x fully featured supporting lz4 compression deduplication arc l2arc slog maczfs free software providing support zfs macos stable legacy branch provides zfs pool version 8 zfs filesystem version 2 development branch based zfs linux openzfs provides updated zfs functionality zfs zpool version 5000 feature flags proprietary implementation zfs zevo available cost greenbytes inc. implementing zfs file system version 5 zfs pool version 28 zevo offered limited zfs feature set pending commercial development sold oracle 2014 unknown future plans edward o'callaghan started initial port zfs dragonflybsd netbsd zfs port started part 2007 google summer code august 2009 code merged netbsd source tree paweł jakub dawidek ported zfs freebsd part freebsd since version 7.0 includes zfsboot allows booting freebsd directly zfs volume freebsd zfs implementation fully functional missing features kernel cifs server iscsi latter added using externally available packages samba used provide userspace cifs server freebsd 7-stable updates series versions 7.x committed uses zpool version 6 freebsd 8 includes much-updated implementation zfs zpool version 13 supported zpool version 14 support added 8-stable branch january 11 2010 included freebsd release 8.1. zpool version 15 supported release 8.2 8-stable branch gained support zpool version v28 zfs version 5 early june 2011 changes released mid-april 2012 freebsd 8.3 freebsd 9.0-release uses zfs pool version 28 freebsd 9.2-release first freebsd version use new feature flags based implementation thus pool version 5000 midnightbsd desktop operating system derived freebsd supports zfs storage pool version 6 0.3-release derived code included freebsd 7.0-release update storage pool 28 progress 0.4-current based 9-stable sources around freebsd 9.1-release code trueos formerly known pc-bsd desktop-oriented distribution freebsd inherits zfs support freenas embedded open source network-attached storage nas distribution based freebsd zfs support freebsd pc-bsd zfs guru embedded open source network-attached storage nas distribution based freebsd pfsense open source bsd based router supports zfs including installation booting zfs pools version 2.4 nas4free embedded open source network-attached storage nas distribution based freebsd zfs support freebsd zfs storage pool version 5000 project continuation freenas 7 series project based freebsd kernel debian gnu/kfreebsd zfs support kernel however additional userland tools required possible zfs root /boot file system case required grub configuration performed debian installer since wheezy release 31 january 2013 zpool version available 14 squeeze release 28 wheezy-9 release although zfs filesystem supports linux-based operating systems difficulties arise linux distribution maintainers wishing provide native support zfs products due potential legal incompatibilities cddl license used zfs code gpl license used linux kernel enable zfs support within linux loadable kernel module containing cddl-licensed zfs code must compiled loaded kernel according free software foundation wording gpl license legally prohibits redistribution resulting product derivative work though viewpoint caused controversy one potential workaround licensing incompatibility trialed 2006 experimental port zfs code linux fuse system filesystem ran entirely userspace instead integrated linux kernel therefore considered derivative work kernel approach functional suffered significant performance penalties compared integrating filesystem native kernel module running kernel space 2016 zfs fuse project appears defunct native port zfs linux produced lawrence livermore national laboratory llnl released march 2013 following key events zfs linux uses openzfs pool version number 5000 indicates features supports defined via feature flags pool version unchanging number expected never conflict version numbers given oracle another native port linux developed kq infotech 2010 port used zvol implementation lawrence livermore national laboratory starting point release supporting zpool v28 announced january 2011 april 2011 kq infotech acquired stec inc. work zfs ceased source code port found github work kq infotech ultimately integrated llnl native port zfs linux license incompatibility may arise distribution compiled binaries containing zfs code generally agreed distribution source code affected gentoo configuring zfs root filesystem well documented required packages installed package repository slackware also provides documentation supporting zfs kernel module built kernel question cddl license compatibility gpl license resurfaced 2015 linux distribution ubuntu announced intended make precompiled openzfs binary kernel modules available end-users directly distribution official package repositories 2016 ubuntu announced legal review resulted conclusion providing support zfs via binary kernel module violation provisions gpl license others software freedom law center followed ubuntu conclusion fsf sfc reiterated opposing view ubuntu 16.04 lts xenial xerus released april 21 2016 allows user install openzfs binary packages directly ubuntu software repositories legal challenge brought canonical regarding distribution packages 2019 ubuntu support install zfs root filesystem maas allows zfs installed root filesystem port open source zfs attempted 2010 hiatus one year development ceased 2012 october 2017 new port openzfs announced jörgen lundman openzfs developer summit list operating systems distributions add-ons support zfs zpool version supports solaris build based zfs designed implemented team sun led jeff bonwick bill moore matthew ahrens announced september 14 2004 development started 2001 source code zfs integrated main trunk solaris development october 31 2005 released part build 27 opensolaris november 16 2005 sun announced zfs included 6/06 update solaris 10 june 2006 one year opening opensolaris community name one point said stand zettabyte file system 2006 longer considered abbreviation zfs file system store 256 quadrillion zettabytes zb september 2007 netapp sued sun claiming zfs infringed netapp patents write anywhere file layout sun counter-sued october year claiming opposite lawsuits ended 2010 undisclosed settlement following list events development open-source zfs implementations first indication apple inc. interest zfs april 2006 post opensolaris.org zfs-discuss mailing list apple employee mentioned interested porting zfs mac os x operating system release version mac os x 10.5 zfs available read-only mode command line lacks possibility create zpools write 10.5 release apple released zfs beta seed v1.1 allowed read-write access creation zpools however installer zfs beta seed v1.1 reported work version 10.5.0 updated version 10.5.1 august 2007 apple opened zfs project mac os forge web site site apple provided source code binaries port zfs includes read-write access installer available third-party developer created one october 2009 apple announced shutdown zfs project mac os forge say hosting involvement zfs summarily discontinued explanation given following statement zfs project discontinued mailing list repository also removed shortly apple would eventually release legally required cddl-derived portion source code final public beta zfs code named 10a286 complete zfs support advertised feature snow leopard server mac os x server 10.6 however time operating system released references feature silently removed features page apple commented regarding omission apple 10a286 source code release versions previously released source binaries preserved new development adopted group enthusiasts maczfs project acted quickly mirror public archives apple project materials would disappeared internet resume development elsewhere maczfs community curated matured project supporting zfs mac os releases since 10.5 project active mailing list july 2012 maczfs implements zpool version 8 zfs version 2 october 2008 release solaris additional historical information commentary found maczfs web site faq 17th september 2013 launch openzfs included zfs-osx become new version maczfs distribution darwin zfs oracle solaris new features introduced version numbers pool file system incremented designate format features available features available specific file system versions require specific pool version distributed development openzfs involves feature flags pool version 5000 unchanging number expected never conflict version numbers given oracle legacy version numbers still exist pool versions 1–28 implied version 5000 illumos uses pool version 5000 purpose future on-disk format changes enabled disabled independently via feature flags note solaris version development sun since release solaris 10 2005 codenamed 'nevada derived opensolaris codebase 'solaris nevada codename next-generation solaris os eventually succeed solaris 10 new code pulled successively new opensolaris 'nevada snapshot builds opensolaris discontinued openindiana forked final build b134 opensolaris published oracle 2010-nov-12 upgrade path solaris 11 express 1-hop neighbor's text information: microkernel.microkernel computer science microkernel often abbreviated μ-kernel near-minimum amount software provide mechanisms needed implement operating system os mechanisms include low-level address space management thread management inter-process communication ipc hardware provides multiple rings cpu modes microkernel may software executing privileged level generally referred supervisor kernel mode traditional operating system functions device drivers protocol stacks file systems typically removed microkernel instead run user space terms source code size microkernels often smaller monolithic kernels minix 3 microkernel example approximately 12,000 lines code microkernels trace roots back danish computer pioneer per brinch hansen tenure danish computer company regnecentralen led software development efforts rc 4000 computer 1967 regnecentralen installing rc 4000 prototype polish fertilizer plant puławy computer used small real-time operating system tailored needs plant brinch hansen team became concerned lack generality reusability rc 4000 system feared installation would require different operating system started investigate novel general ways creating software rc 4000 1969 effort resulted completion rc 4000 multiprogramming system nucleus provided inter-process communication based message-passing 23 unprivileged processes 8 time protected one another implemented scheduling time slices programs executed parallel initiation control program execution request running programs initiation data transfers peripherals besides elementary mechanisms built-in strategy program execution resource allocation strategy implemented hierarchy running programs parent processes complete control child processes acted operating systems following brinch hansen work microkernels developed since 1970s term microkernel first appeared later 1981 microkernels meant response changes computer world several challenges adapting existing mono-kernels new systems new device drivers protocol stacks file systems low-level systems developed time code normally located monolithic kernel thus required considerable work careful code management work microkernels developed idea services would implemented user-space programs like allowing worked monolithically started stopped like program would allow services easily worked also separated kernel code allow finely tuned without worrying unintended side effects moreover would allow entirely new operating systems built common core aiding os research microkernels hot topic 1980s first usable local area networks introduced mechanisms allowed kernel distributed user space also allowed system distributed across network links first microkernels notably mach proved disappointing performance inherent advantages appeared great major line research late 1990s however time speed computers grew greatly relation networking systems disadvantages performance came overwhelm advantages development terms many attempts made adapt existing systems better performance overhead always considerable efforts required user-space programs moved back kernel 2000 large-scale mach-like efforts ended although apple macos released 2001 uses hybrid kernel called xnu combines heavily modified hybrid osfmk 7.3 kernel code bsd unix kernel also used ios tvos watchos mach-based gnu hurd also functional included testing versions arch linux debian although major work microkernels largely ended experimenters continued development since shown many performance problems earlier designs fundamental limitation concept instead due designer desire use single-purpose systems implement many services possible using pragmatic approach problem including assembly code relying processor enforce concepts normally supported software led new series microkernels dramatically improved performance microkernels closely related exokernels also much common hypervisors latter make claim minimality specialized supporting virtual machines indeed l4 microkernel frequently finds use hypervisor capacity early operating system kernels rather small partly computer memory limited capability computers grew number devices kernel control also grew throughout early history unix kernels generally small even though contained various device drivers file system implementations address spaces increased 16 32 bits kernel design longer constrained hardware architecture kernels began grow larger berkeley software distribution bsd unix began era larger kernels addition operating basic system consisting cpu disks printers bsd added complete tcp/ip networking system number virtual devices allowed existing programs work 'invisibly network growth continued many years resulting kernels millions lines source code result growth kernels prone bugs became increasingly difficult maintain microkernel intended address growth kernels difficulties resulted theory microkernel design allows easier management code due division user space services also allows increased security stability resulting reduced amount code running kernel mode example networking service crashed due buffer overflow networking service memory would corrupted leaving rest system still functional inter-process communication ipc mechanism allows separate processes communicate usually sending messages shared memory strictly speaking also inter-process communication mechanism abbreviation ipc usually refers message passing latter particularly relevant microkernels ipc allows operating system built number small programs called servers used programs system invoked via ipc support peripheral hardware handled fashion servers device drivers network protocol stacks file systems graphics etc ipc synchronous asynchronous asynchronous ipc analogous network communication sender dispatches message continues executing receiver checks polls availability message alerted via notification mechanism asynchronous ipc requires kernel maintains buffers queues messages deals buffer overflows also requires double copying messages sender kernel kernel receiver synchronous ipc first party sender receiver blocks party ready perform ipc require buffering multiple copies implicit rendezvous make programming tricky programmers prefer asynchronous send synchronous receive first-generation microkernels typically supported synchronous well asynchronous ipc suffered poor ipc performance jochen liedtke assumed design implementation ipc mechanisms underlying reason poor performance l4 microkernel pioneered methods lowered ipc costs order magnitude include ipc system call supports send well receive operation making ipc synchronous passing much data possible registers furthermore liedtke introduced concept direct process switch ipc execution incomplete context switch performed sender directly receiver l4 part message passed registers transfers in-register part message without copying furthermore overhead invoking scheduler avoided especially beneficial common case ipc used rpc-type fashion client invoking server another optimization called lazy scheduling avoids traversing scheduling queues ipc leaving threads block ipc ready queue scheduler invoked moves threads appropriate waiting queue many cases thread gets unblocked next scheduler invocation approach saves significant work similar approaches since adopted qnx minix 3 series experiments chen bershad compared memory cycles per instruction mcpi monolithic ultrix microkernel mach combined 4.3bsd unix server running user space results explained mach poorer performance higher mcpi demonstrated ipc alone responsible much system overhead suggesting optimizations focused exclusively ipc limited impact liedtke later refined chen bershad results making observation bulk difference ultrix mach mcpi caused capacity cache-misses concluding drastically reducing cache working set microkernel solve problem client-server system communication essentially synchronous even using asynchronous primitives typical operation client invoking server waiting reply also lends efficient implementation microkernels generally followed l4 lead provided synchronous ipc primitive asynchronous ipc could implemented top using helper threads however experience shown utility synchronous ipc dubious synchronous ipc forces multi-threaded design onto otherwise simple systems resulting synchronization complexities moreover rpc-like server invocation sequentializes client server avoided running separate cores versions l4 deployed commercial products therefore found necessary add asynchronous notification mechanism better support asynchronous communication signal-like mechanism carry data therefore require buffering kernel two forms ipc nonetheless violated principle minimality versions l4 switched asynchronous ipc completely synchronous ipc blocks first party ready unrestricted use could easily lead deadlocks furthermore client could easily mount denial-of-service attack server sending request never attempting receive reply therefore synchronous ipc must provide means prevent indefinite blocking many microkernels provide timeouts ipc calls limit blocking time practice choosing sensible timeout values difficult systems almost inevitably use infinite timeouts clients zero timeouts servers consequence trend towards providing arbitrary timeouts flag indicates ipc fail immediately partner ready approach effectively provides choice two timeout values zero infinity recent versions l4 minix gone path older versions l4 used timeouts qnx avoids problem requring client specify reply buffer part message send call server replies kernel copies data client buffer without wait client receive response explicitly microkernel servers essentially daemon programs like others except kernel grants privileges interact parts physical memory otherwise limits programs allows servers particularly device drivers interact directly hardware basic set servers general-purpose microkernel includes file system servers device driver servers networking servers display servers user interface device servers set servers drawn qnx provides roughly set services offered unix monolithic kernel necessary servers started system startup provide services file network device access ordinary application programs servers running environment user application server development similar ordinary application development rather build-and-boot process needed kernel development additionally many crashes corrected simply stopping restarting server however part system state lost failing server hence approach requires applications cope failure good example server responsible tcp/ip connections server restarted applications experience lost connection normal occurrence networked system services failure less expected may require changes application code qnx restart capability offered qnx high availability toolkit device drivers frequently perform direct memory access dma therefore write arbitrary locations physical memory including various kernel data structures drivers must therefore trusted common misconception means must part kernel fact driver inherently less trustworthy part kernel running device driver user space necessarily reduce damage misbehaving driver cause practice beneficial system stability presence buggy rather malicious drivers memory-access violations driver code opposed device may still caught memory-management hardware furthermore many devices dma-capable drivers made untrusted running user space recently increasing number computers feature iommus many used restrict device access physical memory also allows user-mode drivers become untrusted user-mode drivers actually predate microkernels michigan terminal system mts 1967 supported user space drivers including file system support first operating system designed capability historically drivers less problem number devices small trusted anyway kernel simplified design avoided potential performance problems led traditional driver-in-the-kernel style unix linux windows nt proliferation various kinds peripherals amount driver code escalated modern operating systems dominates kernel code size microkernel must allow building arbitrary operating system services top must provide core functionality minimum includes minimal design pioneered brinch hansen nucleus hypervisor ibm vm since formalised liedtke minimality principle concept tolerated inside microkernel moving outside kernel i.e. permitting competing implementations would prevent implementation system required functionality everything else done usermode program although device drivers implemented user programs may processor architectures require special privileges access i/o hardware related minimality principle equally important microkernel design separation mechanism policy enables construction arbitrary systems top minimal kernel policy built kernel overwritten user level therefore limits generality microkernel policy implemented user-level servers changed replacing servers letting application choose competing servers offering similar services efficiency microkernels contain schedulers manage timers violation minimality principle principle policy-mechanism separation start booting microkernel-based system requires device drivers part kernel typically means packaged kernel boot image kernel supports bootstrap protocol defines drivers located started traditional bootstrap procedure l4 microkernels microkernels simplify placing key drivers inside kernel violation minimality principle lynxos original minix examples even include file system kernel simplify booting microkernel-based system may boot via multiboot compatible boot loader systems usually load statically-linked servers make initial bootstrap mount os image continue bootstrapping key component microkernel good ipc system virtual-memory-manager design allows implementing page-fault handling swapping usermode servers safe way since services performed usermode programs efficient means communication programs essential far monolithic kernels design ipc system makes breaks microkernel effective ipc system must low overhead also interact well cpu scheduling mainstream processors obtaining service inherently expensive microkernel-based system monolithic system monolithic system service obtained single system call requires two mode switches changes processor ring cpu mode microkernel-based system service obtained sending ipc message server obtaining result another ipc message server requires context switch drivers implemented processes function call implemented procedures addition passing actual data server back may incur extra copying overhead monolithic system kernel directly access data client buffers performance therefore potential issue microkernel systems indeed experience first-generation microkernels mach chorusos showed systems based performed poorly however jochen liedtke showed mach performance problems result poor design implementation specifically mach excessive cache footprint liedtke demonstrated l4 microkernel careful design implementation especially following minimality principle ipc costs could reduced order magnitude compared mach l4 ipc performance still unbeaten across range architectures results demonstrate poor performance systems based first-generation microkernels representative second-generation kernels l4 constitutes proof microkernel-based systems built good performance shown monolithic linux server ported l4 exhibits percent overhead native linux however single-server system exhibits advantages microkernels supposed provide structuring operating system functionality separate servers number commercial multi-server systems exist particular real-time systems qnx integrity comprehensive comparison performance relative monolithic systems published multiserver systems furthermore performance seem overriding concern commercial systems instead emphasize reliably quick interrupt handling response times qnx simplicity sake robustness attempt build high-performance multiserver operating system ibm sawmill linux project however project never completed shown meantime user-level device drivers come close performance in-kernel drivers even high-throughput high-interrupt devices gigabit ethernet seems imply high-performance multi-server systems possible security benefits microkernels frequently discussed context security minimality principle microkernels argued direct consequence principle least privilege according code privileges needed provide required functionality minimality requires system trusted computing base tcb kept minimal kernel code executes privileged mode hardware unvetted access data thus violate integrity confidentiality kernel always part tcb minimizing natural security-driven design consequently microkernel designs used systems designed high-security applications including keykos eros military systems fact common criteria cc highest assurance level evaluation assurance level eal 7 explicit requirement target evaluation simple acknowledgment practical impossibility establishing true trustworthiness complex system unfortunately term simple misleading ill-defined least department defense trusted computer system evaluation criteria introduced somewhat precise verbiage b3/a1 classes recent work microkernels focusing formal specifications kernel api formal proofs api security properties implementation correctness first example mathematical proof confinement mechanisms eros based simplified model eros api recently comprehensive set machine-checked proofs performed properties protection model version l4 led referred third-generation microkernels characterised security-oriented api resource access controlled capabilities virtualization first-class concern novel approaches kernel resource management design goal suitability formal analysis besides usual goal high performance examples coyotos nova redox fiasco.oc case sel4 complete formal verification implementation achieved i.e mathematical proof kernel implementation consistent formal specification provides guarantee properties proved api actually hold real kernel degree assurance goes beyond even cc eal7 followed proofs security-enforcement properties api proof demonstrating executable binary code correct translation c implementation taking compiler tcb taken together proofs establish end-to-end proof security properties kernel term nanokernel picokernel historically referred also least one case term nanokernel used refer small kernel one supports nanosecond clock resolution Target text information: file_system.file system computing file system filesystem often abbreviated fs controls data stored retrieved without file system information placed storage medium would one large body data way tell one piece information stops next begins separating data pieces giving piece name information easily isolated identified taking name way paper-based information systems named group data called file structure logic rules used manage groups information names called file system many different kinds file systems one different structure logic properties speed flexibility security size file systems designed used specific applications example iso 9660 file system designed specifically optical discs file systems used numerous different types storage devices use different kinds media 2019 hard disk drives key storage devices projected remain foreseeable future kinds media used include ssds magnetic tapes optical discs cases tmpfs computer main memory random-access memory ram used create temporary file system short-term use file systems used local data storage devices others provide file access via network protocol example nfs smb 9p clients file systems virtual meaning supplied files called virtual files computed request procfs sysfs merely mapping different file system used backing store file system manages access content files metadata files responsible arranging storage space reliability efficiency tuning regard physical storage medium important design considerations advent computers term file system used describe method storing retrieving paper documents 1961 term applied computerized filing alongside original meaning 1964 general use file system consists two three layers sometimes layers explicitly separated sometimes functions combined logical file system responsible interaction user application provides application program interface api file operations — codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 etc. passes requested operation layer processing logical file system manage open file table entries per-process file descriptors layer provides file access directory operations security protection second optional layer virtual file system interface allows support multiple concurrent instances physical file systems called file system implementation third layer physical file system layer concerned physical operation storage device e.g disk processes physical blocks read written handles buffering memory management responsible physical placement blocks specific locations storage medium physical file system interacts device drivers channel drive storage device note applies file systems used storage devices file systems allocate space granular manner usually multiple physical units device file system responsible organizing files directories keeping track areas media belong file used example apple dos early 1980s 256-byte sectors 140 kilobyte floppy disk used track/sector map results unused space file exact multiple allocation unit sometimes referred slack space 512-byte allocation average unused space 256 bytes 64 kb clusters average unused space 32 kb size allocation unit chosen file system created choosing allocation size based average size files expected file system minimize amount unusable space frequently default allocation may provide reasonable usage choosing allocation size small results excessive overhead file system contain mostly large files file system fragmentation occurs unused space single files contiguous file system used files created modified deleted file created file system allocates space data file systems permit require specifying initial space allocation subsequent incremental allocations file grows files deleted space allocated eventually considered available use files creates alternating used unused areas various sizes free space fragmentation file created area contiguous space available initial allocation space must assigned fragments file modified becomes larger may exceed space initially allocated another allocation must assigned elsewhere file becomes fragmented operating systems system administrator may use disk quotas limit allocation disk space filename file name used identify storage location file system file systems restrictions length filenames file systems filenames case sensitive i.e. names codice_4 codice_5 refer file others filenames case sensitive i.e. names codice_4 codice_7 codice_5 refer three separate files modern file systems allow filenames contain wide range characters unicode character set however may restrictions use certain special characters disallowing within filenames characters might used indicate device device type directory prefix file path separator file type file systems typically directories also called folders allow user group files separate collections may implemented associating file name index table contents inode unix-like file system directory structures may flat i.e linear allow hierarchies directories may contain subdirectories first file system support arbitrary hierarchies directories used multics operating system native file systems unix-like systems also support arbitrary directory hierarchies example apple hierarchical file system successor hfs+ classic mac os fat file system ms-dos 2.0 later versions ms-dos microsoft windows ntfs file system windows nt family operating systems ods-2 on-disk structure-2 higher levels files-11 file system openvms bookkeeping information typically associated file within file system length data contained file may stored number blocks allocated file byte count time file last modified may stored file timestamp file systems might store file creation time time last accessed time file metadata changed time file last backed information include file device type e.g block character socket subdirectory etc owner user id group id access permissions file attributes e.g whether file read-only executable etc. file system stores metadata associated file—including file name length contents file location file folder hierarchy—separate contents file file systems store names files one directory one place—the directory table directory—which often stored like file many file systems put metadata file directory table rest metadata file completely separate structure inode file systems also store metadata associated one particular file metadata includes information unused regions—free space bitmap block availability map—and information bad sectors often information allocation group stored inside allocation group additional attributes associated file systems ntfs xfs ext2 ext3 versions ufs hfs+ using extended file attributes file systems provide user defined attributes author document character encoding document size image file systems allow different data collections associated one file name separate collections may referred streams forks apple long used forked file system macintosh microsoft supports streams ntfs file systems maintain multiple past revisions file single file name filename retrieves recent version prior saved version accessed using special naming convention filename 4 filename -4 access version four saves ago see comparison file systems metadata details file systems support kinds metadata cases file system may make use storage device used organize represent access data whether stored dynamically generated e.g procfs file systems include utilities initialize alter parameters remove instance file system include ability extend truncate space allocated file system directory utilities may used create rename delete directory entries also known dentries singular dentry alter metadata associated directory directory utilities may also include capabilities create additional links directory hard links unix rename parent links .. unix-like operating systems create bidirectional links files file utilities create list copy move delete files alter metadata may able truncate data truncate extend space allocation append move modify files in-place depending underlying structure file system may provide mechanism prepend truncate beginning file insert entries middle file delete entries file utilities free space deleted files file system provides undelete function also belong category file systems defer operations reorganization free space secure erasing free space rebuilding hierarchical structures providing utilities perform functions times minimal activity example file system defragmentation utilities important features file system utilities involve supervisory activities may involve bypassing ownership direct access underlying device include high-performance backup recovery data replication reorganization various data structures allocation tables within file system several mechanisms used file systems control access data usually intent prevent reading modifying files user group users another reason ensure data modified controlled way access may restricted specific program examples include passwords stored metadata file elsewhere file permissions form permission bits access control lists capabilities need file system utilities able access data media level reorganize structures provide efficient backup usually means effective polite users effective intruders methods encrypting file data sometimes included file system effective since need file system utilities know encryption seed effectively manage data risks relying encryption include fact attacker copy data use brute force decrypt data losing seed means losing data one significant responsibility file system ensure regardless actions programs accessing data structure remains consistent includes actions taken program modifying data terminates abnormally neglects inform file system completed activities may include updating metadata directory entry handling data buffered yet updated physical storage media failures file system must deal include media failures loss connection remote systems event operating system failure soft power failure special routines file system must invoked similar individual program fails file system must also able correct damaged structures may occur result operating system failure os unable notify file system power failure reset file system must also record events allow analysis systemic issues well problems specific files directories important purpose file system manage user data includes storing retrieving updating data file systems accept data storage stream bytes collected stored manner efficient media program retrieves data specifies size memory buffer file system transfers data media buffer runtime library routine may sometimes allow user program define record based library call specifying length user program reads data library retrieves data via file system returns record file systems allow specification fixed record length used writes reads facilitates locating n record well updating records identification record also known key makes sophisticated file system user program read write update records without regard location requires complicated management blocks media usually separating key blocks data blocks efficient algorithms developed pyramid structure locating records utilities language specific run-time libraries user programs use file system apis make requests file system include data transfer positioning updating metadata managing directories managing access specifications removal frequently retail systems configured single file system occupying entire storage device another approach partition disk several file systems different attributes used one file system use browser cache might configured small allocation size additional advantage keeping frantic activity creating deleting files typical browser activity narrow area disk interfering allocations files similar partition might created email another partition file system might created storage audio video files relatively large allocation one file systems may normally set read-only periodically set writable third approach mostly used cloud systems use disk images house additional file systems attributes within another host file system file common example virtualization one user run experimental linux distribution using ext4 file system virtual machine his/her production windows environment using ntfs ext4 file system resides disk image treated file multiple files depending hypervisor settings ntfs host file system multiple file systems single system additional benefit event corruption single partition remaining file systems frequently still intact includes virus destruction system partition even system boot file system utilities require dedicated access effectively completed piecemeal addition defragmentation may effective several system maintenance utilities virus scans backups also processed segments example necessary backup file system containing videos along files none added since last backup image files one easily spin differential images contain new data written master original image differential images used safety concerns disposable system quickly restored destroyed contaminated virus old image removed new image created matter seconds even without automated procedures quick virtual machine deployment since differential images quickly spawned using script batches file systems functional limit defines maximum storable data capacity within system functional limits best-guess effort designer based large storage systems right large storage systems likely become future disk storage continued increase near exponential rates see moore law years file systems kept reaching design limitations require computer users repeatedly move newer system ever-greater capacity file system complexity typically varies proportionally available storage capacity file systems early 1980s home computers 50 kb 512 kb storage would reasonable choice modern storage systems hundreds gigabytes capacity likewise modern file systems would reasonable choice early systems since complexity modern file system structures would quickly consume even exceed limited capacity early storage systems file system types classified disk/tape file systems network file systems special-purpose file systems disk file system takes advantages ability disk storage media randomly address data short amount time additional considerations include speed accessing data following initially requested anticipation following data may also requested permits multiple users processes access various data disk without regard sequential location data examples include fat fat12 fat16 fat32 exfat ntfs hfs hfs+ hpfs apfs ufs ext2 ext3 ext4 xfs btrfs iso 9660 files-11 veritas file system vmfs zfs reiserfs udf disk file systems journaling file systems versioning file systems iso 9660 universal disk format udf two common formats target compact discs dvds blu-ray discs mount rainier extension udf supported since 2.6 series linux kernel since windows vista facilitates rewriting dvds flash file system considers special abilities performance restrictions flash memory devices frequently disk file system use flash memory device underlying storage media much better use file system specifically designed flash device tape file system file system tape format designed store files tape self-describing form magnetic tapes sequential storage media significantly longer random data access times disks posing challenges creation efficient management general-purpose file system disk file system typically master file directory map used free data regions file additions changes removals require updating directory used/free maps random access data regions measured milliseconds system works well disks tape requires linear motion wind unwind potentially long reels media tape motion may take several seconds several minutes move read/write head one end tape consequently master file directory usage map extremely slow inefficient tape writing typically involves reading block usage map find free blocks writing updating usage map directory add data advancing tape write data correct spot additional file write requires updating map directory writing data may take several seconds occur file tape file systems instead typically allow file directory spread across tape intermixed data referred streaming time-consuming repeated tape motions required write new data however side effect design reading file directory tape usually requires scanning entire tape read scattered directory entries data archiving software works tape storage store local copy tape catalog disk file system adding files tape done quickly without rescan tape media local tape catalog copy usually discarded used specified period time point tape must re-scanned used future ibm developed file system tape called linear tape file system ibm implementation file system released open-source ibm linear tape file system — single drive edition ltfs-sde product linear tape file system uses separate partition tape record index meta-data thereby avoiding problems associated scattering directory entries across entire tape writing data tape erasing formatting tape often significantly time-consuming process take several hours large tapes many data tape technologies necessary format tape over-writing new data tape due inherently destructive nature overwriting data sequential media time take format tape typically tapes pre-formatted tape user need spend time preparing new tape use usually necessary write identifying media label tape use even automatically written software new tape used first time another concept file management idea database-based file system instead addition hierarchical structured management files identified characteristics like type file topic author similar rich metadata ibm db2 formerly known db2/400 db2 i5/os database file system part object based ibm operating system formerly known os/400 i5/os incorporating single level store running ibm power systems formerly known as/400 iseries designed frank g. soltis ibm former chief scientist ibm around 1978 1988 frank g. soltis team ibm rochester successfully designed applied technologies like database file system others like microsoft later failed accomplish technologies informally known 'fortress rochester basic aspects extended early mainframe technologies many ways advanced technological perspective projects n't pure database file systems use aspects database file system programs need either make multiple file system changes one changes fail reason make none changes example program installing updating software may write executables libraries and/or configuration files writing fails software left partially installed updated software may broken unusable incomplete update key system utility command shell may leave entire system unusable state transaction processing introduces atomicity guarantee ensuring operations inside transaction either committed transaction aborted system discards partial results means crash power failure recovery stored state consistent either software completely installed failed installation completely rolled back unusable partial install left system transactions also provide isolation guarantee meaning operations within transaction hidden threads system transaction commits interfering operations system properly serialized transaction windows beginning vista added transaction support ntfs feature called transactional ntfs use discouraged number research prototypes transactional file systems unix systems including valor file system amino lfs transactional ext3 file system txos kernel well transactional file systems targeting embedded systems tffs ensuring consistency across multiple file system operations difficult impossible without file system transactions file locking used concurrency control mechanism individual files typically protect directory structure file metadata instance file locking prevent tocttou race conditions symbolic links file locking also automatically roll back failed operation software upgrade requires atomicity journaling file systems one technique used introduce transaction-level consistency file system structures journal transactions exposed programs part os api used internally ensure consistency granularity single system call data backup systems typically provide support direct backup data stored transactional manner makes recovery reliable consistent data sets difficult backup software simply notes files changed since certain time regardless transactional state shared across multiple files overall dataset workaround database systems simply produce archived state file containing data point backup software backs interact directly active transactional databases recovery requires separate recreation database state file file restored backup software network file system file system acts client remote file access protocol providing access files server programs using local interfaces transparently create manage access hierarchical directories files remote network-connected computers examples network file systems include clients nfs afs smb protocols file-system-like clients ftp webdav shared disk file system one number machines usually servers access external disk subsystem usually san file system arbitrates access subsystem preventing write collisions examples include gfs2 red hat gpfs ibm sfs dataplow cxfs sgi stornext quantum corporation special file system presents non-file elements operating system files acted using file system apis commonly done unix-like operating systems devices given file names non-unix-like operating systems well device file system represents i/o devices pseudo-devices files called device files examples unix-like systems include devfs linux 2.6 systems udev non-unix-like systems tops-10 operating systems influenced full filename pathname file include device prefix devices containing file systems referred device prefix specifying device without anything following 1970s disk digital tape devices expensive early microcomputer users inexpensive basic data storage system devised used common audio cassette tape system needed write data user notified press record cassette recorder press return keyboard notify system cassette recorder recording system wrote sound provide time synchronization modulated sounds encoded prefix data checksum suffix system needed read data user instructed press play cassette recorder system would listen sounds tape waiting burst sound could recognized synchronization system would interpret subsequent sounds data data read complete system would notify user press stop cassette recorder primitive worked lot time data stored sequentially usually unnamed format although systems commodore pet series computers allow files named multiple sets data could written located fast-forwarding tape observing tape counter find approximate start next data region tape user might listen sounds find right spot begin playing next data region implementations even included audible sounds interspersed data flat file system subdirectories directory entries files stored single directory floppy disk media first available type file system adequate due relatively small amount data space available cp/m machines featured flat file system files could assigned one 16 user areas generic file operations narrowed work one instead defaulting work user areas special attributes associated files necessary define specific quota areas files could added groups long still free storage space disk early apple macintosh also featured flat file system macintosh file system unusual file management program macintosh finder created illusion partially hierarchical filing system top emfs structure required every file unique name even appeared separate folder ibm dos/360 os/360 store entries files disk pack volume directory pack called volume table contents vtoc simple flat file systems become awkward number files grows makes difficult organize data related groups files recent addition flat file system family amazon s3 remote storage service intentionally simplistic allow users ability customize data stored constructs buckets imagine disk drive unlimited size objects similar identical standard concept file advanced file management allowed able use nearly character including '/ object name ability select subsets bucket content based identical prefixes many operating systems include support one file system sometimes os file system tightly interwoven difficult separate file system functions needs interface provided operating system software user file system interface textual provided command line interface unix shell openvms dcl graphical provided graphical user interface file browsers graphical metaphor folder containing documents files nested folders often used see also directory folder unix-like operating systems create virtual file system makes files devices appear exist single hierarchy means systems one root directory every file existing system located somewhere unix-like systems use ram disk network shared resource root directory unix-like systems assign device name device files device accessed instead gain access files another device operating system must first informed directory tree files appear process called mounting file system example access files cd-rom one must tell operating system take file system cd-rom make appear such-and-such directory directory given operating system called mount point – might example /media /media directory exists many unix systems specified filesystem hierarchy standard intended specifically use mount point removable media cds dvds usb drives floppy disks may empty may contain subdirectories mounting individual devices generally administrator i.e root user may authorize mounting file systems unix-like operating systems often include software tools assist mounting process provide new functionality strategies coined auto-mounting reflection purpose linux supports numerous file systems common choices system disk block device include ext* family ext2 ext3 ext4 xfs jfs btrfs raw flash without flash translation layer ftl memory technology device mtd ubifs jffs2 yaffs among others squashfs common compressed read-only file system solaris earlier releases defaulted non-journaled non-logging ufs bootable supplementary file systems solaris defaulted supported extended ufs support file systems significant enhancements added time including veritas software corp. journaling vxfs sun microsystems clustering qfs sun microsystems journaling ufs sun microsystems open source poolable 128 bit compressible error-correcting zfs kernel extensions added solaris allow bootable veritas vxfs operation logging journaling added ufs sun solaris 7 releases solaris 10 solaris express opensolaris open source variants solaris operating system later supported bootable zfs logical volume management allows spanning file system across multiple devices purpose adding redundancy capacity and/or throughput legacy environments solaris may use solaris volume manager formerly known solstice disksuite multiple operating systems including solaris may use veritas volume manager modern solaris based operating systems eclipse need volume management leveraging virtual storage pools zfs macos formerly mac os x uses apple file system apfs recently replaced file system inherited classic mac os called hfs plus hfs+ apple also uses term mac os extended hfs+ hfs plus metadata-rich case-preserving usually case-insensitive file system due unix roots macos unix permissions added hfs plus later versions hfs plus added journaling prevent corruption file system structure introduced number optimizations allocation algorithms attempt defragment files automatically without requiring external defragmenter filenames 255 characters hfs plus uses unicode store filenames macos filetype come type code stored file metadata filename extension hfs plus three kinds links unix-style hard links unix-style symbolic links aliases aliases designed maintain link original file even moved renamed interpreted file system file manager code userland macos 10.13 high sierra announced june 5 2017 apple wwdc event uses apple file system solid-state drives macos also supported ufs file system derived bsd unix fast file system via nextstep however mac os x leopard macos could longer installed ufs volume pre-leopard system installed ufs volume upgraded leopard mac os x lion ufs support completely dropped newer versions macos capable reading writing legacy fat file systems 16 32 common windows also capable reading newer ntfs file systems windows order write ntfs file systems macos versions prior mac os x snow leopard third party software necessary mac os x 10.6 snow leopard later allow writing ntfs file systems non-trivial system setting change third party software exists automates finally macos supports reading writing exfat file system since mac os x snow leopard starting version 10.6.5 os/2 1.2 introduced high performance file system hpfs hpfs supports mixed case file names different code pages long file names 255 characters efficient use disk space architecture keeps related items close disk volume less fragmentation data extent-based space allocation b+ tree structure directories root directory located midpoint disk faster average access journaled filesystem jfs shipped 1999 pc-bsd desktop version freebsd inherits freebsd zfs support similarly freenas new graphical installer pc-bsd handle root zfs raid-z pool installs disk encryption using geli right start easy convenient gui way current pc-bsd 9.0+ 'isotope edition zfs filesystem version 5 zfs storage pool version 28 plan 9 bell labs treats everything file accesses objects file would accessed i.e. ioctl mmap networking graphics debugging authentication capabilities encryption services accessed via i/o operations file descriptors 9p protocol removes difference local remote files file systems plan 9 organized help private per-process namespaces allowing process different view many file systems provide resources distributed system inferno operating system shares concepts plan 9 windows makes use fat ntfs exfat live file system refs file systems last supported usable windows server 2012 windows server 2016 windows 8 windows 8.1 windows 10 windows boot windows uses drive letter abstraction user level distinguish one disk partition another example path c \windows represents directory windows partition represented letter c. drive c commonly used primary hard disk drive partition windows usually installed boots tradition become firmly ingrained bugs exist many applications make assumptions drive operating system installed c. use drive letters tradition using c drive letter primary hard disk drive partition traced ms-dos letters b reserved two floppy disk drives turn derived cp/m 1970s ultimately ibm cp/cms 1967 family fat file systems supported almost operating systems personal computers including versions windows ms-dos/pc dos os/2 dr-dos pc dos oem version ms-dos ms-dos originally based scp 86-dos dr-dos based digital research concurrent dos successor cp/m-86 fat file systems therefore well-suited universal exchange format computers devices type age fat file system traces roots back incompatible 8-bit fat precursor standalone disk basic short-lived mdos/midas project years file system expanded fat12 fat16 fat32 various features added file system including subdirectories codepage support extended attributes long filenames third parties digital research incorporated optional support deletion tracking volume/directory/file-based multi-user security schemes support file directory passwords permissions read/write/execute/delete access rights extensions supported windows fat12 fat16 file systems limit number entries root directory file system restrictions maximum size fat-formatted disks partitions fat32 addresses limitations fat12 fat16 except file size limit close 4 gb remains limited compared ntfs fat12 fat16 fat32 also limit eight characters file name three characters extension .exe commonly referred 8.3 filename limit vfat optional extension fat12 fat16 fat32 introduced windows 95 windows nt 3.5 allowed long file names lfn stored fat file system backwards compatible fashion ntfs introduced windows nt operating system 1993 allowed acl-based permission control features also supported ntfs include hard links multiple file streams attribute indexing quota tracking sparse files encryption compression reparse points directories working mount-points file systems symlinks junctions remote storage links exfat proprietary patent-protected file system certain advantages ntfs regard file system overhead exfat backward compatible fat file systems fat12 fat16 fat32 file system supported newer windows systems windows server 2003 windows vista windows 2008 windows 7 windows 8 recently support added windows xp exfat supported macos starting version 10.6.5 snow leopard support operating systems sparse since microsoft published specifications file system implementing support exfat requires license exfat file system fully supported macos windows hold files larger 4 gb prior introduction vsam os/360 systems implemented unusual hybrid file system system designed easily support removable disk packs information relating files one disk volume ibm terminology stored disk flat system file called volume table contents vtoc vtoc stores metadata file later hierarchical directory structure imposed introduction system catalog optionally catalog files datasets resident removable volumes catalog contains information relate dataset specific volume user requests access dataset offline volume suitable privileges system attempt mount required volume cataloged non-cataloged datasets still accessed using information vtoc bypassing catalog required volume id provided open request still later vtoc indexed speed access ibm conversational monitor system cms component vm/370 uses separate flat file system virtual disk minidisk file data control information scattered intermixed anchor record called master file directory mfd always located fourth block disk originally cms used fixed-length 800-byte blocks later versions used larger size blocks 4k access data record requires two levels indirection file directory entry called file status table fst entry points blocks containing list addresses individual records data as/400 successors consists system objects mapped system virtual address space single-level store many types as/400 objects defined including directories files found file systems file objects along types objects form basis as/400 support integrated relational database may advantageous necessary files different file system currently exist reasons include need increase space requirements beyond limits current file system depth path may need increased beyond restrictions file system may performance reliability considerations providing access another operating system support existing file system another reason cases conversion done in-place although migrating file system conservative involves creating copy data recommended windows fat fat32 file systems converted ntfs via convert.exe utility reverse linux ext2 converted ext3 converted back ext3 converted ext4 back ext3 ext4 converted btrfs converted back undo information deleted conversions possible due using format file data relocating metadata empty space cases using sparse file support migration disadvantage requiring additional space although may faster best case unused space media contain final file system example migrate fat32 file system ext2 file system first create new ext2 file system copy data file system delete fat32 file system alternative sufficient space retain original file system new one created use work area removable media takes longer backup data nice side effect hierarchical file systems files accessed means path branching list directories containing file different file systems different limits depth path file systems also limit length individual filename copying files long names located paths significant depth one file system another may cause undesirable results depends utility copying handles discrepancy I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	9,762	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: database.database database organized collection data generally stored accessed electronically computer system databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques database management system dbms software interacts end users applications database capture analyze data dbms software additionally encompasses core facilities provided administer database sum total database dbms associated applications referred database system often term database also used loosely refer dbms database system application associated database computer scientists may classify database-management systems according database models support relational databases became dominant 1980s model data rows columns series tables vast majority use sql writing querying data 2000s non-relational databases became popular referred nosql use different query languages formally database refers set related data way organized access data usually provided database management system dbms consisting integrated set computer software allows users interact one databases provides access data contained database although restrictions may exist limit access particular data dbms provides various functions allow entry storage retrieval large quantities information provides ways manage information organized close relationship term database often used casually refer database dbms used manipulate outside world professional information technology term database often used refer collection related data spreadsheet card index size usage requirements typically necessitate use database management system existing dbmss provide various functions allow management database data classified four main functional groups database dbms conform principles particular database model database system refers collectively database model database management system database physically database servers dedicated computers hold actual databases run dbms related software database servers usually multiprocessor computers generous memory raid disk arrays used stable storage raid used recovery data disks fail hardware database accelerators connected one servers via high-speed channel also used large volume transaction processing environments dbmss found heart database applications dbmss may built around custom multitasking kernel built-in networking support modern dbmss typically rely standard operating system provide functions since dbmss comprise significant market computer storage vendors often take account dbms requirements development plans databases dbmss categorized according database model support relational xml type computer run server cluster mobile phone query language used access database sql xquery internal engineering affects performance scalability resilience security sizes capabilities performance databases respective dbmss grown orders magnitude performance increases enabled technology progress areas processors computer memory computer storage computer networks development database technology divided three eras based data model structure navigational sql/relational post-relational two main early navigational data models hierarchical model codasyl model network model relational model first proposed 1970 edgar f. codd departed tradition insisting applications search data content rather following links relational model employs sets ledger-style tables used different type entity mid-1980s computing hardware become powerful enough allow wide deployment relational systems dbmss plus applications early 1990s however relational systems dominated large-scale data processing applications remain dominant ibm db2 oracle mysql microsoft sql server searched dbms dominant database language standardised sql relational model influenced database languages data models object databases developed 1980s overcome inconvenience object-relational impedance mismatch led coining term post-relational also development hybrid object-relational databases next generation post-relational databases late 2000s became known nosql databases introducing fast key-value stores document-oriented databases competing next generation known newsql databases attempted new implementations retained relational/sql model aiming match high performance nosql compared commercially available relational dbmss introduction term database coincided availability direct-access storage disks drums mid-1960s onwards term represented contrast tape-based systems past allowing shared interactive use rather daily batch processing oxford english dictionary cites 1962 report system development corporation california first use term data-base specific technical sense computers grew speed capability number general-purpose database systems emerged mid-1960s number systems come commercial use interest standard began grow charles bachman author one product integrated data store ids founded database task group within codasyl group responsible creation standardization cobol 1971 database task group delivered standard generally became known codasyl approach soon number commercial products based approach entered market codasyl approach relied manual navigation linked data set formed large network applications could find records one three methods later systems added b-trees provide alternate access paths many codasyl databases also added straightforward query language however final tally codasyl complex required significant training effort produce useful applications ibm also dbms 1966 known information management system ims ims development software written apollo program system/360 ims generally similar concept codasyl used strict hierarchy model data navigation instead codasyl network model concepts later became known navigational databases due way data accessed bachman 1973 turing award presentation programmer navigator ims classified ibm hierarchical database idms cincom systems total database classified network databases ims remains use edgar codd worked ibm san jose california one offshoot offices primarily involved development hard disk systems unhappy navigational model codasyl approach notably lack search facility 1970 wrote number papers outlined new approach database construction eventually culminated groundbreaking relational model data large shared data banks paper described new system storing working large databases instead records stored sort linked list free-form records codasyl codd idea use table fixed-length records table used different type entity linked-list system would inefficient storing sparse databases data one record could left empty relational model solved splitting data series normalized tables relations optional elements moved main table would take room needed data may freely inserted deleted edited tables dbms whatever maintenance needed present table view application/user relational model also allowed content database evolve without constant rewriting links pointers relational part comes entities referencing entities known one-to-many relationship like traditional hierarchical model many-to-many relationship like navigational network model thus relational model express hierarchical navigational models well native tabular model allowing pure combined modeling terms three models application requires instance common use database system track information users name login information various addresses phone numbers navigational approach data would placed single record unused items would simply placed database relational approach data would normalized user table address table phone number table instance records would created optional tables address phone numbers actually provided linking information back together key system relational model bit information used key uniquely defining particular record information collected user information stored optional tables would found searching key instance login name user unique addresses phone numbers user would recorded login name key simple re-linking related data back single collection something traditional computer languages designed navigational approach would require programs loop order collect records relational approach would require loops collect information one record codd suggestions set-oriented language would later spawn ubiquitous sql using branch mathematics known tuple calculus demonstrated system could support operations normal databases inserting updating etc well providing simple system finding returning sets data single operation codd paper picked two people berkeley eugene wong michael stonebraker started project known ingres using funding already allocated geographical database project student programmers produce code beginning 1973 ingres delivered first test products generally ready widespread use 1979 ingres similar system r number ways including use language data access known quel time ingres moved emerging sql standard ibm one test implementation relational model prtv production one business system 12 discontinued honeywell wrote mrds multics two new implementations alphora dataphor rel dbms implementations usually called relational actually sql dbmss 1970 university michigan began development micro information management system based d.l childs set-theoretic data model micro used manage large data sets us department labor u.s. environmental protection agency researchers university alberta university michigan wayne state university ran ibm mainframe computers using michigan terminal system system remained production 1998 1970s 1980s attempts made build database systems integrated hardware software underlying philosophy integration would provide higher performance lower cost examples ibm system/38 early offering teradata britton lee inc. database machine another approach hardware support database management icl cafs accelerator hardware disk controller programmable search capabilities long term efforts generally unsuccessful specialized database machines could keep pace rapid development progress general-purpose computers thus database systems nowadays software systems running general-purpose hardware using general-purpose computer data storage however idea still pursued certain applications companies like netezza oracle exadata ibm started working prototype system loosely based codd concepts system r early 1970s first version ready 1974/5 work started multi-table systems data could split data record optional stored single large chunk subsequent multi-user versions tested customers 1978 1979 time standardized query language – sql – added codd ideas establishing workable superior codasyl pushing ibm develop true production version system r known sql/ds later database 2 db2 larry ellison oracle database simply oracle started different chain based ibm papers system r. though oracle v1 implementations completed 1978 n't oracle version 2 ellison beat ibm market 1979 stonebraker went apply lessons ingres develop new database postgres known postgresql postgresql often used global mission critical applications .org .info domain name registries use primary data store many large companies financial institutions sweden codd paper also read mimer sql developed mid-1970s uppsala university 1984 project consolidated independent enterprise another data model entity–relationship model emerged 1976 gained popularity database design emphasized familiar description earlier relational model later entity–relationship constructs retrofitted data modeling construct relational model difference two become irrelevant 1980s ushered age desktop computing new computers empowered users spreadsheets like lotus 1-2-3 database software like dbase dbase product lightweight easy computer user understand box c. wayne ratliff creator dbase stated dbase different programs like basic c fortran cobol lot dirty work already done data manipulation done dbase instead user user concentrate rather mess dirty details opening reading closing files managing space allocation dbase one top selling software titles 1980s early 1990s 1990s along rise object-oriented programming saw growth data various databases handled programmers designers began treat data databases objects say person data database person attributes address phone number age considered belong person instead extraneous data allows relations data relations objects attributes individual fields term object-relational impedance mismatch described inconvenience translating programmed objects database tables object databases object-relational databases attempt solve problem providing object-oriented language sometimes extensions sql programmers use alternative purely relational sql programming side libraries known object-relational mappings orms attempt solve problem xml databases type structured document-oriented database allows querying based xml document attributes xml databases mostly used applications data conveniently viewed collection documents structure vary flexible highly rigid examples include scientific articles patents tax filings personnel records nosql databases often fast require fixed table schemas avoid join operations storing denormalized data designed scale horizontally recent years strong demand massively distributed databases high partition tolerance according cap theorem impossible distributed system simultaneously provide consistency availability partition tolerance guarantees distributed system satisfy two guarantees time three reason many nosql databases using called eventual consistency provide availability partition tolerance guarantees reduced level data consistency newsql class modern relational databases aims provide scalable performance nosql systems online transaction processing read-write workloads still using sql maintaining acid guarantees traditional database system databases used support internal operations organizations underpin online interactions customers suppliers see enterprise software databases used hold administrative information specialized data engineering data economic models examples include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems many content management systems store websites collections webpages database one way classify databases involves type contents example bibliographic document-text statistical multimedia objects another way application area example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing insurance third way technical aspect database structure interface type section lists adjectives used characterize different kinds databases connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database dbms acronym sometime extended indicated underlying database model rdbms relational oodbms ordbms object orientated model ordbms object-relational extensions indicate characteristic ddbms distributed database management systems functionality provided dbms vary enormously core functionality storage retrieval update data codd proposed following functions services fully-fledged general purpose dbms provide also generally expected dbms provide set utilities purposes may necessary administer database effectively including import export monitoring defragmentation analysis utilities core part dbms interacting database application interface sometimes referred database engine often dbmss configuration parameters statically dynamically tuned example maximum amount main memory server database use trend minimise amount manual configuration cases embedded databases need target zero-administration paramount large major enterprise dbmss tended increase size functionality involved thousands human years development effort lifetime early multi-user dbms typically allowed application reside computer access via terminals terminal emulation software client–server architecture development application resided client desktop database server allowing processing distributed evolved multitier architecture incorporating application servers web servers end user interface via web browser database directly connected adjacent tier general-purpose dbms provide public application programming interfaces api optionally processor database languages sql allow applications written interact database special purpose dbms may use private api specifically customised linked single application example email system performing many functions general-purpose dbms message insertion message deletion attachment handling blocklist lookup associating messages email address forth however functions limited required handle email external interaction database via application program interfaces dbms range database tool allows users execute sql queries textually graphically web site happens use database store search information programmer code interactions database sometimes referred datasource via application program interface api via database language particular api language chosen need supported dbms possible indirectly via pre-processor bridging api api aim database independent odbc commonly known example common api include jdbc ado.net database languages special-purpose languages allow one following tasks sometimes distinguished sublanguages database languages specific particular data model notable examples include database language may also incorporate features like database storage container physical materialization database comprises internal physical level database architecture also contains information needed e.g. metadata data data internal data structures reconstruct conceptual level external level internal level needed putting data permanent storage generally responsibility database engine a.k.a storage engine though typically accessed dbms underlying operating system often using operating systems file systems intermediates storage layout storage properties configuration setting extremely important efficient operation dbms thus closely maintained database administrators dbms operation always database residing several types storage e.g. memory external storage database data additional needed information possibly large amounts coded bits data typically reside storage structures look completely different way data look conceptual external levels ways attempt optimize best possible levels reconstruction needed users programs well computing additional types needed information data e.g. querying database dbmss support specifying character encoding used store data multiple encodings used database various low-level database storage structures used storage engine serialize data model written medium choice techniques indexing may used improve performance conventional storage row-oriented also column-oriented correlation databases often storage redundancy employed increase performance common example storing materialized views consist frequently needed external views query results storing views saves expensive computing time needed downsides materialized views overhead incurred updating keep synchronized original updated database data cost storage redundancy occasionally database employs storage redundancy database objects replication one copies increase data availability improve performance simultaneous multiple end-user accesses database object provide resiliency case partial failure distributed database updates replicated object need synchronized across object copies many cases entire database replicated database security deals various aspects protecting database content owners users ranges protection intentional unauthorized database uses unintentional database accesses unauthorized entities e.g. person computer program database access control deals controlling person certain computer program allowed access information database information may comprise specific database objects e.g. record types specific records data structures certain computations certain objects e.g. query types specific queries using specific access paths former e.g. using specific indexes data structures access information database access controls set special authorized database owner personnel uses dedicated protected security dbms interfaces may managed directly individual basis assignment individuals privileges groups elaborate models assignment individuals groups roles granted entitlements data security prevents unauthorized users viewing updating database using passwords users allowed access entire database subsets called subschemas example employee database contain data individual employee one group users may authorized view payroll data others allowed access work history medical data dbms provides way interactively enter update database well interrogate capability allows managing personal databases data security general deals protecting specific chunks data physically i.e. corruption destruction removal e.g. see physical security interpretation parts meaningful information e.g. looking strings bits comprise concluding specific valid credit-card numbers e.g. see data encryption change access logging records accessed attributes changed changed logging services allow forensic database audit later keeping record access occurrences changes sometimes application-level code used record changes rather leaving database monitoring set attempt detect security breaches database transactions used introduce level fault tolerance data integrity recovery crash database transaction unit work typically encapsulating number operations database e.g. reading database object writing acquiring lock etc abstraction supported database also systems transaction well defined boundaries terms program/code executions included transaction determined transaction programmer via special transaction commands acronym acid describes ideal properties database transaction atomicity consistency isolation durability database built one dbms portable another dbms i.e. dbms run however situations desirable migrate database one dbms another reasons primarily economical different dbmss may different total costs ownership tcos functional operational different dbmss may different capabilities migration involves database transformation one dbms type another transformation maintain possible database related application i.e. related application programs intact thus database conceptual external architectural levels maintained transformation may desired also aspects architecture internal level maintained complex large database migration may complicated costly one-time project factored decision migrate spite fact tools may exist help migration specific dbmss typically dbms vendor provides tools help importing databases popular dbmss designing database application next stage building database typically appropriate general-purpose dbms selected used purpose dbms provides needed user interfaces used database administrators define needed application data structures within dbms respective data model user interfaces used select needed dbms parameters like security related storage allocation parameters etc. database ready data structures needed components defined typically populated initial application data database initialization typically distinct project many cases using specialized dbms interfaces support bulk insertion making operational cases database becomes operational empty application data data accumulated operation database created initialised populated needs maintained various database parameters may need changing database may need tuned tuning better performance application data structures may changed added new related application programs may written add application functionality etc sometimes desired bring database back previous state many reasons e.g. cases database found corrupted due software error updated erroneous data achieve backup operation done occasionally continuously desired database state i.e. values data embedding database data structures kept within dedicated backup files many techniques exist effectively decided database administrator bring database back state e.g. specifying state desired point time database state files used restore state static analysis techniques software verification applied also scenario query languages particular *abstract interpretation framework extended field query languages relational databases way support sound approximation techniques semantics query languages tuned according suitable abstractions concrete domain data abstraction relational database system many interesting applications particular security purposes fine grained access control watermarking etc dbms features might include increasingly calls single system incorporates core functionalities build test deployment framework database management source control borrowing developments software industry market offerings devops database first task database designer produce conceptual data model reflects structure information held database common approach develop entity-relationship model often aid drawing tools another popular approach unified modeling language successful data model accurately reflect possible state external world modeled example people one phone number allow information captured designing good conceptual data model requires good understanding application domain typically involves asking deep questions things interest organization like customer also supplier product sold two different forms packaging product different products plane flies new york dubai via frankfurt one flight two maybe even three answers questions establish definitions terminology used entities customers products flights flight segments relationships attributes producing conceptual data model sometimes involves input business processes analysis workflow organization help establish information needed database left example help deciding whether database needs hold historic data well current data produced conceptual data model users happy next stage translate schema implements relevant data structures within database process often called logical database design output logical data model expressed form schema whereas conceptual data model theory least independent choice database technology logical data model expressed terms particular database model supported chosen dbms terms data model database model often used interchangeably article use data model design specific database database model modeling notation used express design popular database model general-purpose databases relational model precisely relational model represented sql language process creating logical database design using model uses methodical approach known normalization goal normalization ensure elementary fact recorded one place insertions updates deletions automatically maintain consistency final stage database design make decisions affect performance scalability recovery security like depend particular dbms often called physical database design output physical data model key goal stage data independence meaning decisions made performance optimization purposes invisible end-users applications two types data independence physical data independence logical data independence physical design driven mainly performance requirements requires good knowledge expected workload access patterns deep understanding features offered chosen dbms another aspect physical database design security involves defining access control database objects well defining security levels methods data database model type data model determines logical structure database fundamentally determines manner data stored organized manipulated popular example database model relational model sql approximation relational uses table-based format common logical data models databases include object-relational database combines two related structures physical data models include models include specialized models optimized particular types data database management system provides three views database data typically one conceptual logical physical internal view data number different external views allows users see database information business-related way rather technical processing viewpoint example financial department company needs payment details employees part company expenses need details employees interest human resources department thus different departments need different views company database three-level database architecture relates concept data independence one major initial driving forces relational model idea changes made certain level affect view higher level example changes internal level affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces reduces impact making physical changes improve performance conceptual view provides level indirection internal external one hand provides common view database independent different external view structures hand abstracts away details data stored managed internal level principle every level even every external view presented different data model practice usually given dbms uses data model external conceptual levels e.g. relational model internal level hidden inside dbms depends implementation requires different level detail uses types data structure types separating external conceptual internal levels major feature relational database model implementations dominate 21st century databases database technology active research topic since 1960s academia research development groups companies example ibm research research activity includes theory development prototypes notable research topics included models atomic transaction concept related concurrency control techniques query languages query optimization methods raid database research area several dedicated academic journals example acm transactions database systems -tods data knowledge engineering -dke annual conferences e.g. acm sigmod acm pods vldb ieee icde 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_query_management_facility.ibm query management facility ibm db2 query management facility qmf z/os business analytics software solution developed ibm originally created reporting interface ibm db2 z/os database used many customers generate reports key business decisions inception qmf ’ reports green-screen reports could accessed online qmf modern visual dashboarding analytical solution handles data db2 z/os also structured unstructured data sources oracle teradata adabas hadoop webpages dashboards reports deployed via workstation gui browser tablet embedded within applications 1 official ibm site Target text information: ibm_spufi.ibm spufi sql processor using file input database facility invented ibm interfacing db2 system accessed within tso ispf db2i primary option menu spufi allows direct input sql commands tso environment rather embedded within program set spufi defaults unlikely changed values similar across installations typical example shown although essentially interactive tool spufi operates using pair datasets dataset z/os equivalent file operating systems main spufi screen one specifies input dataset output dataset specified reused repeatedly user moves main screen standard ispf editor opened input dataset point user enter required sql statements using familiar editor exiting editor main spufi screen reappears user moves time contents input dataset executed results placed output dataset ispf editor opened read-only browse mode output user reads results interactive use spufi continues around steps summary cycle spufi uses normal datasets commands output possible pre-populate commands operate output accessing datasets independently spufi tool using datasets also means possibly-complicated set sql commands persist session session rather lost user exits tool simple query comments typical result type query output dataset contains resultant rows case select along additional details like number rows affected sql query sqlcode returned execution sql query case sql errors details error given db2 developer guide craig mullins sams publishing I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	8,154	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: hp-ux.hp-ux hp-ux hewlett packard unix hewlett packard enterprise proprietary implementation unix operating system based unix system v initially system iii first released 1984 recent versions support hp 9000 series computer systems based pa-risc instruction set architecture hp integrity systems based intel itanium architecture earlier versions hp-ux supported hp integral pc hp 9000 series 200 300 400 computer systems based motorola 68000 series processors well hp 9000 series 500 computers based hp proprietary focus architecture hp-ux first unix offer access control lists file access permissions alternative standard unix permissions system hp-ux also among first unix systems include built-in logical volume manager hp long partnership veritas software uses vxfs primary file system one six commercial operating systems versions certified open group unix 03 standard others macos solaris inspur k-ux huawei euleros aix hp-ux 11i offers common shared disks clustered file system hp serviceguard cluster solution hp-ux hp global workload management adjusts workloads optimize performance integrates instant capacity demand installed resources paid 30-minute increments needed peak workload demands hp-ux offers operating system-level virtualization features hardware partitions isolated os virtual partitions cell-based servers hp integrity virtual machines hpvm integrity servers hpvm supports guests running hp-ux 11i v3 hosts – guests run linux windows openvms 8.4 hp-ux hp supports online vm guest migration encryption secure guest contents migration hp-ux 11i v3 scales follows superdome 2 32 intel itanium 9560 processors 11i v2 release introduced kernel-based intrusion detection strong random number generation stack buffer overflow protection security partitioning role-based access management various open-source security tools hp classifies operating system security features three categories data system identity release 6.x together 3.x introduced context dependent files cdf feature method allowing fileserver serve different configurations binaries even architectures different client machines heterogeneous environment directory containing files suid bit set made hidden ordinary root processes normal use scheme sometimes exploited intruders hide malicious programs data cdfs cdf filesystem dropped release 10.0 hp-ux operating systems supports variety pa-risc systems 11.0 added support integrity-based servers transition pa-risc itanium hp-ux 11i v1.5 first version supported itanium introduction hp-ux 11i v2 operating system supported architectures hp-ux 11i supports hp integrity servers hp bl server blade family servers use intel itanium architecture hp-ux 11i v2 11i v3 support hp cx series servers cx stands carrier grade used mainly telco industry -48v dc support nebs certified systems contain itanium mad6m processors discontinued hp-ux supports hp rx series servers prior release hp-ux version 11.11 hp used decimal version numbering scheme first number giving major release number following decimal showing minor release 11.11 hp made marketing decision name releases 11 followed v decimal-number version intended indicate os internet-enabled effective result dual version-numbering scheme hp bundles hp-ux 11i programs packages call operating environments oes following lists currently available hp-ux 11i v3 oes 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: timit.timit timit corpus phonemically lexically transcribed speech american english speakers different sexes dialects transcribed element delineated time timit designed acoustic-phonetic knowledge automatic speech recognition systems commissioned darpa corpus design joint effort massachusetts institute technology sri international texas instruments ti speech recorded ti transcribed mit verified prepared publishing national institute standards technology nist also telephone bandwidth version called ntimit network timit timit ntimit freely available — either membership linguistic data consortium monetary payment required access dataset Target text information: wavesurfer.wavesurfer wavesurfer audio editor widely used studies acoustic phonetics simple fairly powerful program interactive display sound pressure waveforms spectral sections spectrograms pitch tracks transcriptions read write number transcription file formats used industrial speech research including timit wavesurfer free software distributed permissive free software licence wavesurfer provides basic audio editing operations excision copying pasting zero-crossing adjustment effects fading normalization echo inversion reversal replacement silence dc-removal view scientific orientation offer effects interest musicians flange wavesurfer written tcl/tk using snack audio library therefore runs platforms including microsoft windows mac os x linux solaris hp-ux freebsd irix scriptable supports plugins I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	10,965	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: ultrasparc_iv.ultrasparc iv ultrasparc iv jaguar follow-up ultrasparc iv+ panther microprocessors designed sun microsystems manufactured texas instruments fourth generation ultrasparc microprocessors implement 64-bit sparc v9 instruction set architecture isa ultrasparc iv originally succeeded ultrasparc v millennium canceled announcement niagara ultrasparc t1 microprocessor early 2004 instead succeeded fujitsu-designed sparc64 vi ultrasparc iv developed part sun throughput computing initiative included ultrasparc v millennium gemini ultrasparc t1 niagara microprocessors four original designs initiative two reached production ultrasparc iv ultrasparc t1 whereas millennium niagara implemented block multithreading also known coarse-grained multithreading ultrasparc iv implemented chip-multithreading cmp — multiple single-thread cores ultrasparc iv first multi-core sparc processor released march 2004 internally implements two modified ultrasparc iii cores physical packaging identical ultrasparc iii exception one pin ultrasparc iii cores improved variety ways instruction fetch store bandwidth data prefetching optimized floating-point adder implements additional hardware handle number nan underflow cases avoid exceptions cores share l2 cache capacity 16 mb l2 cache tags ultrasparc iv contains 66 million transistors measures 22.1 mm 16.1 mm 356 mm fabricated texas instruments 0.13 µm process ultrasparc iv+ released mid-2005 also dual-core design featuring enhanced processor cores on-chip l2 cache fabricated 90 nanometer manufacturing process initial speed ultrasparc iv+ 1.5 ghz 0.3 ghz less intended 1.8 ghz april 2007 increased 2.1 ghz contains 295 million transistors servers using ultrasparc iv released september 2004 ultrasparc iv+ released sun servers september 2005 sun fire v490 v890 e2900 e4900 e6900 e20k e25k systems use ultrasparc iv iv+ processors systems range 4 72 processor sockets 8 144 cores servers powered ultrasparc iv+ processor well received allowing sun regain revenue lead risc/unix server market 2006 1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_ultra_series.sun ultra series sun ultra series discontinued line workstation server computers developed sold sun microsystems comprising two distinct generations original line introduced 1995 discontinued 2001 generation partially replaced sun blade 2000 line replaced sun java workstation—an amd opteron system—in 2004 sync transition x86-64-architecture processors 2005 ultra brand later revived launch ultra 20 ultra 40 albeit confusion since longer based ultrasparc processors original ultra workstations ultra enterprise later sun enterprise servers ultrasparc-based systems produced 1995 2001 replacing earlier sparcstation sparccenter/sparcserver series respectively introduced 64-bit ultrasparc processor later versions lower-cost pc-derived technology pci ata buses initial ultra 1 2 models retained sbus predecessors original ultra range sold dot com boom became one biggest selling series computers ever developed sun microsystems many companies organisations—including sun itself—relying sun ultra products years successor products released ultra brand revived 2005 launch ultra 20 ultra 40 x86-64-architecture x64-based ultra systems remained sun portfolio five years last one intel xeon-based ultra 27 retired june 2010 thereby concluding history sun workstation vendor sparc-based ultra 3 mobile workstation laptop released 2005 well would prove short-lived design retired next year release coincide rest line brand already moved x86 additionally new ultra 25 ultra 45 desktop ultrasparc iiii-based systems introduced 2006 october 2008 sun discontinued effectively ending production sparc architecture workstations original ultra/enterprise series later replaced sun blade workstation sun fire server ranges note enterprise 220r ultra 60 motherboard rack-mountable server chassis hot-swappable power supplies similarly enterprise 420r ultra 80 motherboard server chassis intervening time gap sun workstations named sun blade sun java workstation a60 ultra-3 rebadged tadpole sparcle 550 650 mhz viper 1.2 ghz laptops a61 ultra-3 physically different based naturetech 888p 550/650 mhz mesostation 999 1.28 ghz two lines unrelated systems otherwise 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_cpu_microarchitectures.comparison cpu microarchitectures following comparison cpu microarchitectures Target text information: sparc_t3.sparc t3 sparc t3 microprocessor previously known ultrasparc t3 codenamed rainbow falls also known ultrasparc kt niagara-3 development multithreading multi-core cpu produced oracle corporation previously sun microsystems officially launched 20 september 2010 member sparc family successor ultrasparc t2 overall single socket multi-socket throughput increased t3 processor systems providing superior throughput half cpu socket requirements predecessor throughput spec cint2006 rate increased single socket t3-1 platform comparison predecessor t2+ processor dual-socket t5240 platform simulated web serving workloads dual-socket based sparc t3 systems benchmarked better performance quad-socket previous generation ultrasparc t2+ systems well competing dual quad socket contemporary systems online publication register incorrectly reported june 2008 microprocessor would 16 cores 16 threads september 2009 published roadmap instead showed 8 threads per core hot chips 21 conference sun revealed chip total 16 cores 128 threads according isscc 2010 presentation 16-core sparc soc processor enables 512 threads 4-way glueless system maximize throughput 6mb l2 cache 461gb/s 308-pin serdes i/o 2.4tb/s support required bandwidth six clock four voltage domains well power management circuit techniques optimize performance power variability yield trade-offs across 377mm die support ultrasparc t3 confirmed july 16 2010 arcbot twitter noted unpublished psarc/2010/274 revealed new -xtarget value ultrasparc t3 included opensolaris oracle openworld san francisco september 20 2010 processor officially launched sparc t3 dropping ultra prefix name accompanied new systems new reported benchmarks claiming world-record performance varied real-world application benchmarks released full system disclosures internationally recognized spec benchmarks also released full system disclosures oracle disclosed sparc t3 built 40 nm process sparc t3 features include release sparc t3 chip new brand oracle sparc t-series servers introduced market effectively replacing cmt ultrasparc t2/t2 plus machines previous sparc enterprise product line fewer physical products former server line refreshed t3 chip reducing total number servers respectively four like prior t1 t2 t2+ processors t3 supports hyper-privileged execution mode t3 supports 128 oracle vm server sparc domains feature formerly known logical domains sparc t3 processor effectively two t2+ processors single die t3 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	2,731	test
[''] Target text information: event_bubbling.event bubbling event bubbling type event propagation event first triggers innermost target element successively triggers ancestors parents target element nesting hierarchy till reaches outermost dom element document object provided handler initialized one way events handled browser events actions done user button click changing field etc event handlers used perform methods according event occurred e.g steps need done button clicked webpage completes loading etc consider dom structure 3 elements nested following order element 1 div element 2 span element 3 button whose on-click handlers handler1 handler2 handler3 respectively button clicked event handler element 3 triggered first event bubbles handler immediate parent element element 2 called followed handler element 1 till reaches outermost dom element event handling order handler3 handler2 handler1 innermost element event triggered called target element browsers consider event bubbling default way event propagation however another approach event propagation known event capturing direct opposite event bubbling event handling starts outermost element document dom structure goes way target element executing target element handler last order event handlers consider event bubbling default way event handling user manually select way propagation specifying last parameter addeventlistener element javascript capturemode false event handled using event bubbling capturemode true event handled using event capturing user ’ specify value capturemode argument default considered event bubbling.most browser support event bubbling event capturing except ie 9 opera 7.0 support event capturing javascript also provides event property called bubbles check whether event bubbling event returns boolean value true false depending whether event bubble parent elements dom structure isbubblepossible true event bubble ancestors isbubblepossible false event bubble handle cases one event one handler event bubbling concept implemented.the major use event bubbling registration default functions present program recent times many developers use event capturing bubbling particular necessary implement event bubbling may become complicated users keep track actions getting executed event since browsers default support event bubbling sometimes useful stop event bubbling user might get confused single trigger one element lead multiple triggers ancestors simple individual requirement user wants one event one element another another bubbling event necessity stop event bubbling user use following approaches 1 stoppropagation method stops propagation particular event parents invoking event handler target element although supported w3c compliant browsers method ’ work internet explorer version 9 lesser ie 9 stop bubbling using following code w3c compliant browsers 2 stopimmediatepropagation method stop propagation also stops handler target event executing dom multiple handlers event independent stopping execution one event handler generally ’ affect handlers target stopimmediatepropagation method prevents execution handler target w3c compliant browsers another approach stop event bubbling cancelling event preventdefault return false .but prevents target handler execution well therefore advisable use aim prevent event bubbling user still wants actions associated target element I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	8,996	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: motorola_56000.motorola 56000 motorola dsp56000 also known 56k family digital signal processor dsp chips produced motorola semiconductor later known freescale semiconductor acquired nxp starting 1986 still produced advanced models 2010s 56k series quite popular time number computers including next atari falcon030 sgi indigo workstations using 56001 upgraded 56k versions still used audio equipment radars communications devices like mobile phones various embedded dsp applications 56000 also used basis updated 96000 commercially successful dsp56000 uses fixed-point arithmetic 24-bit program words 24-bit data words includes two 24-bit registers also referred single 48-bit register also includes two 56-bit accumulators 8-bit extension aka headroom otherwise accumulators similar 24/48-bit registers modified harvard architecture processor 56k three memory spaces+buses on-chip memory banks models program memory space/bus two data memory space/bus 24 bits selected basic word length gave system reasonable number range precision processing audio sound 56000 main concern 24 bits correspond large dynamic range sufficient 1980s analog-to-digital converters adcs digital-to-analog converters dacs rarely exceeded 20 bits one example adsl applications filters typically require 20 bits accuracy leftmost four bits considered ample headroom calculations processor capable carrying 16.5 million instructions per second mips maximum specified clock speed hardware support block-floating point fft uses ttl levels consumes approximately designs 56000 dedicated one single task digital signal processing using special hardware mostly real-time allow interruption somewhat mildly demanding tasks time-critical simple if-then type designers normally use separate cpu mcu 56000 execute 1024-point complex fast fourier transform fft takes rate 555 operations per second allowing realtime decoding encoding of/to reasonably advanced audio codecs mp3 direct-to-disc recording purposes addition simd instructions desktop computer cpus meant dedicated dsp chips like 56000 partly retreated application fields continue used widely communications professional uses end 56800 series added complete mcu created single-chip dspcontroller solution opposite occurred 68456—a 68000 56000 still quite prevalent model 56000 third generation 563xx family developed 2000s features several models special applications hard- firmware built-in like pci interface logic crc processors audio companders core clock frequencies ranged 1-hop neighbor's text information: next.next next inc. later next computer inc. next software inc. american computer software company founded 1985 apple computer co-founder steve jobs name usually pronounced next based redwood city california company developed manufactured series computer workstations intended higher education business markets next founded jobs fired apple along several co-workers next introduced first next computer 1988 smaller nextstation 1990 next computers experienced relatively limited sales estimates 50,000 units shipped total nevertheless innovative object-oriented nextstep operating system development environment interface builder highly influential first major outside investment ross perot invested seeing segment next entrepreneurs 1987 invested 20 million exchange 16 percent next stock subsequently joined board directors 1988 next later released much nextstep system programming environment standard called openstep next withdrew hardware business 1993 concentrate marketing openstep mach openstep implementation several original equipment manufacturers oems next also developed webobjects one first enterprise web application frameworks webobjects never became popular initial high price 50,000 remains prominent early example web server based dynamic page generation rather static content apple purchased next 1997 429 million equivalent million 1.5 million shares apple stock part agreement steve jobs chairman ceo next software returned apple company co-founded 1976 founder promised merge software next apple hardware platforms eventually resulting macos ios watchos tvos operating systems completely based upon nextstep openstep foundation 1985 apple co-founder steve jobs led apple supermicro division responsible development macintosh lisa personal computers macintosh successful university campuses partly apple university consortium allowed students institutions buy computers discount consortium earned 50 million computers february 1984 chairman jobs visited university departments faculty members sell macintosh jobs met paul berg nobel laureate chemistry luncheon held silicon valley honor françois mitterrand president france berg frustrated expense teaching students recombinant dna textbooks instead wet laboratories used testing analysis chemicals drugs materials biological matter wet labs prohibitively expensive lower-level courses complex simulated personal computers time berg suggested jobs use influence apple create 3m computer workstation higher education featuring least one megabyte random-access memory ram megapixel display megaflops performance hence name 3m jobs intrigued berg concept workstation contemplated starting higher education computer company fall 1985 amidst increasing turmoil apple jobs division release upgraded versions macintosh much macintosh office system result sales plummeted apple forced write millions dollars unsold inventory apple chief executive officer ceo john sculley ousted jobs day-to-day role apple replacing jean-louis gassée 1985 later year jobs began power struggle regain control company board directors sided sculley jobs took business visit western europe soviet union behalf apple several months sidelined jobs resigned apple september 13 1985 told board leaving set new computer company would taking several apple employees supermicro division also told board new company would compete apple might even consider licensing designs back market macintosh brand jobs named new company next inc. number former apple employees followed next including joanna hoffman bud tribble george crow rich page susan barnes susan kare dan l lewin consulting major educational buyers around country including follow-up meeting paul berg tentative specification workstation drawn designed powerful enough run wet lab simulations cheap enough college students use dormitory rooms specifications finished however apple sued next nefarious schemes take advantage cofounders insider information jobs remarked hard think 2 billion company 4,300-plus people could n't compete six people blue jeans suit eventually dismissed trial 1986 jobs recruited famous graphic designer paul rand create brand identity costing 100,000 jobs recalled asked would come options said 'no solve problem pay ’ use solution want options go talk people rand created 20-page brochure detailing brand including precise angle used logo 28° new company name spelling next next changed business plan mid-1986 company decided develop computer hardware software instead low-end workstation team led avie tevanian joined company working one mach kernel engineers carnegie mellon university develop nextstep operating system hardware division led rich page — one cofounders previously led apple lisa team — designed developed hardware next first factory completed fremont california 1987 capable producing 150,000 machines per year next first workstation officially named next computer although widely termed cube distinctive case 1 ft magnesium cube designed apple iic case designer frogdesign accordance edict jobs original design team anticipated releasing computer us 3,000 spring 1987 ready sale summer year next computer received standing ovations revealed lavish invitation-only gala event next introduction — introduction next generation computers education louise m. davies symphony hall san francisco california wednesday october 12 1988 following day selected educators software developers invited 100 registration fee attend first public technical overview next computer event called next day held san francisco hilton event gave developers interested developing next software insight software architecture object-oriented programming developing next computer luncheon speaker steve jobs first machines tested 1989 next started selling limited numbers universities beta version nextstep operating system installed initially next computer targeted u.s. higher education establishments base price 6,500 machine widely reviewed magazines generally concentrating hardware asked upset computer debut delayed several months jobs responded late computer five years ahead time next computer based new 25 mhz motorola 68030 central processing unit cpu motorola 88000 risc chip originally considered available sufficient quantities included 8 64 mb random-access memory ram 256 mb magneto-optical mo drive 40 mb swap-only 330 mb 660 mb hard disk drive 10base2 ethernet nubus 17-inch megapixel grayscale display measuring 1120 832 pixels 1989 typical new pc macintosh amiga computer included megabytes ram 640×480 16-color 320x240 4000-color display 10 20 megabyte hard drive networking capabilities also first computer ship general-purpose dsp chip motorola 56001 motherboard used support sophisticated music sound processing including music kit software magneto-optical drive manufactured canon inc. used primary mass storage device drives relatively new market next first computer use cheaper hard drives blank media especially though cost 150 canon jobs negotiations saw canon agree retail 50 apiece slower average seek time 96 ms design made impossible move files computers without network since next computer one mo drive disk could removed without shutting system storage options proved challenging first next computers magneto-optical media relatively expensive performance reliability problems despite faster floppy drive drive sufficient run primary medium running nextstep operating system terms speed capacity 1989 next struck deal former compaq reseller businessland sell next computers select markets nationwide selling retailer major change next original business model selling directly students educational institutions businessland founder david norman predicted sales next computer would surpass sales compaq computers 12 months 1989 canon invested us 100 million next giving 16.67 percent stake making next worth almost 600 million canon invested next condition would able use nextstep environment workstations would mean greatly expanded market software next exited hardware business canon produced line pcs called object.station including models 31 41 50 52 specifically designed run nextstep/intel canon also served next distributor japan next computers first released retail market 1990 9,999 next original investor ross perot resigned board directors june 1991 dedicate time perot systems plano texas-based systems integrator next released second generation workstations 1990 new range included revised next computer renamed nextcube nextstation nicknamed slab pizza box case form-factor jobs explicit ensuring next staff use latter terminology lest next machines compared competing sun workstations already nickname magneto-optical drive replaced 2.88 mb floppy drive 2.88 mb floppy disks expensive technology supplant 1.44 mb floppy realizing next utilized cd-rom drive eventually became industry standard storage color graphics available nextstation color nextdimension graphics processor hardware nextcube new computers cheaper faster predecessors new motorola 68040 processor 1992 next launched turbo variants nextcube nextstation 33 mhz 68040 processor maximum ram capacity increased 128 mb next sold 20,000 computers 1992 next counted upgraded motherboards back order system sales — small number compared competitors however company reported sales 140 million year encouraging canon invest 30 million keep company afloat total 50,000 next machines sold including thousands super secret national reconnaissance office located chantilly virginia next long-term aim migrate risc reduced instruction set computing architecture processor design strategy intended increase performance project known next risc workstation nrw initially nrw based motorola 88110 processor due lack confidence motorola commitment 88000-series architecture later redesigned around dual powerpc 601s next produced motherboards enclosures exited hardware business full production next computers delivered mathematica pre-installed several developers used next platform write pioneering programs tim berners-lee used next computer 1990 create first web browser web server accordingly next instrumental development world wide web next used professors scientific engineering applications developing finished newspaper layouts using news george mason university early 1990s set next workstations publishing well silicon graphics cad/gl mathematica astrophysics games doom quake developed id software next machines games based doom engine heretic raven software well strife rogue entertainment also developed next hardware using id tools commercial programs released next computers including altsys virtuoso vector drawing program page-layout features ported mac os microsoft windows aldus freehand v4 lotus improv spreadsheet program systems bundled number smaller built-in applications merriam-webster collegiate dictionary oxford quotations complete works william shakespeare digital librarian search engine access next started porting nextstep operating system ibm pc compatible computers using intel 80486 processor late 1991 change business strategy withdraw hardware business entirely demonstration port displayed nextworld expo january 1992 mid-1993 product complete version 3.1 also known nextstep 486 released prior release chrysler planned buy 3,000 copies 1992 nextstep 3.x later ported pa-risc sparc-based platforms total four versions nextstep/next next 68k black boxes nextstep/intel nextstep/pa-risc nextstep/sparc although ports widely used nextstep gained popularity institutions first chicago nbd swiss bank corporation o'connor company organizations owing programming model used many american federal agencies united states naval research laboratory national security agency advanced research projects agency central intelligence agency national reconnaissance office ibm pc clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions delivered running nextstep intel elonex nextstation canon object.station 41 next withdrew hardware business 1993 company renamed next software inc consequently 300 540 staff employees laid next negotiated sell hardware business including fremont factory canon later pulled deal work powerpc machines stopped along hardware production ceo sun microsystems scott mcnealy announced plans invest 10 million 1993 use next software future sun systems next partnered sun create openstep nextstep application layer hosted third party operating system exiting hardware business next focused operating systems effect returning original business plan new products based openstep released including openstep enterprise version microsoft windows nt company launched webobjects platform building large-scale dynamic web applications many large businesses including dell disney worldcom bbc used webobjects short time eventually webobjects used solely power apple itunes store corporate website discontinuing apple computer announced intention acquire next december 20 1996 apple paid 429 million cash went initial investors 1.5 million apple shares went steve jobs deliberately given cash part deal main purpose acquisition use nextstep foundation replace dated classic mac os instead beos in-development copland deal finalized february 7 1997 bringing jobs back apple consultant later appointed interim ceo 2000 jobs took ceo position permanent assignment holding position resignation august 24 2011 jobs died six weeks later october 5 2011 complications relapsed pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor several next executives replaced apple counterparts steve jobs restructured company board directors next five years nextstep operating system ported powerpc architecture time intel port openstep enterprise toolkit windows produced operating system code named rhapsody toolkit development platforms called yellow box backwards compatibility apple added blue box rhapsody allowing existing mac applications run self-contained cooperative multitasking environment server version new operating system released mac os x server 1.0 1999 first consumer version mac os x 10.0 2001 openstep developer toolkit renamed cocoa rhapsody blue box renamed classic environment changed run applications full-screen without requiring separate window apple included updated version original macintosh toolbox called carbon gave existing mac applications access environment without constraints blue box nextstep interface features used mac os x including dock services menu finder column view cocoa text system nextstep processor-independent capabilities retained mac os x leading powerpc intel x86 versions although powerpc versions publicly available 2006 apple moved intel processors august 2006 jobs created different corporate culture next terms facilities salaries benefits jobs experimented structural changes apple next abandoned conventional corporate structures instead making community members instead employees two different salaries next early 1990s team members joined 1986 paid 75,000 joined afterwards paid 50,000 caused awkward situations managers paid less employees employees given performance reviews raises every six months spartan salary plans foster openness employees full access payrolls although employees ever took advantage privilege next health insurance plan offered benefits married couples unmarried couples same-sex couples although latter privilege later withdrawn due insurance complications payroll schedule also different companies silicon valley time instead getting paid twice month arrears end pay period employees would get paid month advance beginning words jobs found office space palo alto california 3475 deer creek road occupying glass concrete building featured staircase designed architect i. m. pei first floor used hardwood flooring large worktables workstations would assembled avoid inventory errors next used just-in-time jit inventory strategy company contracted major components mainboards cases finished components shipped first floor assembly second floor office space open floor plan enclosed rooms jobs office conference rooms next expanded office space needed company rented office 800 900 chesapeake drive redwood city also designed pei architectural centerpiece floating staircase visible supports open floor plan retained although furnishings became luxurious 5,000 chairs 10,000 sofas ansel adams prints next first campus palo alto subsequently occupied sap ag second campus redwood city occupied apnicure oncomed pharmaceuticals inc first issue nextworld magazine printed 1991 published san francisco integrated media edited michael miley later dan ruby mainstream periodical discuss next computers operating system next software publication discontinued 1994 four volumes nextworld expo followed developer conference held 1991 1992 san francisco civic center 1993 1994 moscone center san francisco steve jobs keynote speaker though profitable company wide-ranging impact computer industry object-oriented programming graphical user interfaces became common 1988 release nextcube nextstep technologically successful platform often held trendsetter companies started emulate success next object-oriented system widely seen response next microsoft announced cairo project 1991 cairo specification included similar object-oriented user interface features coming consumer version windows nt although cairo ultimately abandoned elements integrated projects 1994 microsoft next collaborating windows nt port openstep never released 1993 taligent considered press competitor objects operating systems even without product release next main point comparison first years taligent theoretical newness often compared next older mature commercially established platform taligent debut release 1995 called little late especially compared next webobjects failed achieve wide popularity partly initial high price us 50,000 remains first prominent early example web application server enabled dynamic page generation based user interactions opposed static content webobjects bundled macos server xcode 1-hop neighbor's text information: objective-c.objective-c objective-c general-purpose object-oriented programming language adds smalltalk-style messaging c programming language main programming language supported apple macos ios ipados operating systems respective application programming interfaces apis cocoa cocoa touch introduction swift programming language objective-c originally developed early 1980s selected main language used next nextstep operating system macos ios derived portable objective-c programs use cocoa cocoa touch libraries using parts may ported reimplemented systems also compiled system supported gnu compiler collection gcc clang objective-c source code 'implementation program files usually filename extensions objective-c 'header/interface files extensions c header files objective-c++ files denoted file extension objective-c created primarily brad cox tom love early 1980s company stepstone introduced smalltalk itt corporation programming technology center 1981 earliest work objective-c traces back around time cox intrigued problems true reusability software design programming realized language like smalltalk would invaluable building development environments system developers itt however tom love also recognized backward compatibility c critically important itt telecom engineering milieu cox began writing pre-processor c add abilities smalltalk soon working implementation object-oriented extension c language called oopc object-oriented pre-compiler love hired schlumberger research 1982 opportunity acquire first commercial copy smalltalk-80 influenced development brainchild order demonstrate real progress could made cox showed making interchangeable software components really needed practical changes existing tools specifically needed support objects flexible manner come supplied usable set libraries allow code resources needed code bundled one cross-platform format love cox eventually formed new venture productivity products international ppi commercialize product coupled objective-c compiler class libraries 1986 cox published main description objective-c original form book object-oriented programming evolutionary approach although careful point problem reusability language objective-c often found compared feature feature languages 1988 next licensed objective-c stepstone new name ppi owner objective-c trademark extended gcc compiler support objective-c. next developed appkit foundation kit libraries nextstep user interface interface builder based next workstations failed make great impact marketplace tools widely lauded industry led next drop hardware production focus software tools selling nextstep openstep platform custom programming order circumvent terms gpl next originally intended ship objective-c frontend separately allowing user link gcc produce compiler executable initially accepted richard m. stallman plan rejected stallman consulted gnu lawyers next agreed make objective-c part gcc work extend gcc led steve naroff joined next stepstone compiler changes made available per gpl license terms runtime libraries rendering open source contribution unusable general public led parties developing runtime libraries open source license later steve naroff also principal contributor work apple build objective-c frontend clang gnu project started work free software implementation cocoa named gnustep based openstep standard dennis glatting wrote first gnu objective-c runtime 1992 gnu objective-c runtime use since 1993 one developed kresten krab thorup university student denmark thorup also worked next 1993 1996 acquiring next 1996 apple computer used openstep then-new operating system mac os x included objective-c next objective-c-based developer tool project builder interface design tool interface builder merged one application xcode apple current cocoa api based openstep interface objects significant objective-c environment used active development wwdc 2014 apple introduced new language swift characterized objective-c without c objective-c thin layer atop c strict superset c meaning possible compile c program objective-c compiler freely include c language code within objective-c class objective-c derives object syntax smalltalk syntax non-object-oriented operations including primitive variables pre-processing expressions function declarations function calls identical c syntax object-oriented features implementation smalltalk-style messaging objective-c model object-oriented programming based message passing object instances objective-c one call method one sends message unlike simula-style programming model used c++ difference two concepts code referenced method message name executed simula-style language method name cases bound section code target class compiler smalltalk objective-c target message resolved runtime receiving object interpreting message method identified selector — unique identifier message name often -terminated string representing name — resolved c method pointer implementing consequence message-passing system type checking object message directed — receiver — guaranteed respond message raises exception sending message object pointed pointer would require following code c++ obj- method argument objective-c written follows obj method argument styles programming strengths weaknesses object-oriented programming simula c++ style allows multiple inheritance faster execution using compile-time binding whenever possible support dynamic binding default also forces methods corresponding implementation unless abstract smalltalk-style programming used objective-c allows messages go unimplemented method resolved implementation runtime example message may sent collection objects expected respond without fear producing runtime errors message passing also require object defined compile time implementation still required method called derived object see dynamic typing section advantages dynamic late binding objective-c requires interface implementation class separately declared code blocks convention developers place interface header file implementation code file header files normally suffixed .h similar c header files implementation method files normally suffixed .m similar c code files called class declaration interface class usually defined header file common convention name header file name class e.g would contain interface class interface declaration takes form interface classname superclassname classmethod1 return_type classmethod2 return_type classmethod3 param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod1with1parameter param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod2with2parameters param1_type param1_varname param2_callname param2_type param2_varname end plus signs denote class methods methods called class instance minus signs denote instance methods called particular instance class class methods also access instance variables code roughly equivalent following c++ interface class classname public superclassname note demonstrates interleaving selector segments argument expressions direct equivalent c/c++ return types standard c type pointer generic objective-c object pointer specific type object nsarray nsimage nsstring pointer class method belongs instancetype default return type generic objective-c type method arguments begin name labeling argument part method name followed colon followed expected argument type parentheses argument name label omitted void setrangestart int start end int end void importdocumentwithname nsstring name withspecifiedpreferences preferences prefs beforepage int insertpage interface declares class interface methods actual code written implementation file implementation method files normally file extension codice_1 originally signified messages implementation classname return_type classmethod return_type instancemethod end methods written using interface declarations comparing objective-c c int method int int function int syntax allows pseudo-naming arguments void changetored float red green float green blue float blue //called like mycolor changecolortored:5.0 green:2.0 blue:6.0 internal representations method vary different implementations objective-c mycolor class instance method might internally labeled refer instance method class method names appended colons changed underscores order parameters part method name changed suit coding style expression true named parameters however internal names function rarely used directly generally messages converted function calls defined objective-c runtime library necessarily known link time method called class receiver object sent message need known runtime objective-c class written instantiated done first allocating uninitialized instance class object initializing object fully functional steps completed steps accomplished one line code never allocated object n't undergone initialization unwise keep intermediate result since codice_2 return different object called instantiation default no-parameter initializer myobject foo end interface integer display id showstars id showint end implementation integer display id showstars id showint end int main void compilation performed example one experiment leaving lines omitting compilation program still run means possible mix-and-match added categories needed category need ability simply compile objective-c permits class wholly replace another class within program replacing class said pose target class class posing declared deprecated mac os x v10.5 unavailable 64-bit runtime similar functionality achieved using method swizzling categories swaps one method implementation another signature versions still supporting posing messages sent target class instead received posing class several restrictions posing similarly categories allows global augmentation existing classes posing permits two features absent categories example interface customnsapplication nsapplication end implementation customnsapplication void setmainmenu nsmenu menu end class_poseas customnsapplication class nsapplication class intercepts every invocation setmainmenu nsapplication c language codice_3 pre-compile directive always causes file contents inserted source point objective-c codice_4 directive equivalent except file included per compilation unit obviating need include guards objective-c features often allow flexible often easy solutions programming issues objective-c++ language variant accepted front-end gnu compiler collection clang compile source files use combination c++ objective-c syntax objective-c++ adds c++ extensions objective-c adds c. nothing done unify semantics behind various language features certain restrictions apply 2006 worldwide developers conference apple announced release objective-c 2.0 revision objective-c language include modern garbage collection syntax enhancements runtime performance improvements 64-bit support mac os x v10.5 released october 2007 included objective-c 2.0 compiler gcc 4.6 supports many new objective-c features declared synthesized properties dot syntax fast enumeration optional protocol methods method/protocol/class attributes class extensions new gnu objective-c runtime api objective-c 2.0 provided optional conservative generational garbage collector run backwards-compatible mode runtime turned reference counting operations retain release no-ops objects subject garbage collection garbage collection enabled regular c pointers could qualified __strong also trigger underlying write-barrier compiler intercepts thus participate garbage collection zero-ing weak subsystem also provided pointers marked __weak set zero object simply gc memory collected garbage collector exist ios implementation objective-c 2.0 garbage collection objective-c runs low-priority background thread halt user events intention keeping user experience responsive garbage collection deprecated mac os x v10.8 favor automatic reference counting arc objective-c ios 7 running arm64 uses 19 bits 64-bit word store reference count form tagged pointers objective-c 2.0 introduces new syntax declare instance variables properties optional attributes configure generation accessor methods properties sense public instance variables declaring instance variable property provides external classes access possibly limited e.g read property property may declared readonly may provided storage semantics codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 default properties considered codice_8 results lock preventing multiple threads accessing time property declared codice_9 removes lock interface person nsobject property copy nsstring name property readonly int age id initwithage int age end properties implemented way codice_10 keyword generates getter setter read-only methods according property declaration alternatively getter setter methods must implemented explicitly codice_11 keyword used indicate accessor methods provided means compiled using clang 3.1 higher properties explicitly declared codice_11 marked codice_13 complete user-implemented getter setter automatically implicitly codice_10 'd implementation person synthesize name id initwithage int initage int age end properties accessed using traditional message passing syntax dot notation key-value coding name via valueforkey setvalue forkey methods person aperson person alloc initwithage 53 aperson.name steve // note dot notation uses synthesized setter nslog access message dot notation property name direct instance variable access order use dot notation invoke property accessors within instance method self keyword used void introducemyselfwithproperties bool usegetter // note getter vs. ivar access class protocol properties may dynamically type introspection\|introspected int int propertycount 0 objc_property_t propertylist class_copypropertylist aperson class propertycount 0 propertycount i++ objective-c 2.0 provides non-fragile instance variables supported runtime i.e building code 64-bit macos ios modern runtime extra layer indirection added instance variable access allowing dynamic linker adjust instance layout runtime feature allows two important improvements objective-c code instead using nsenumerator object indices iterate collection objective-c 2.0 offers fast enumeration syntax objective-c 2.0 following loops functionally equivalent different performance traits // using nsenumerator nsenumerator enumerator thepeople objectenumerator person p p enumerator nextobject nil // using indexes int 0 thepeople count i++ // using fast enumeration person p thepeople fast enumeration generates efficient code standard enumeration method calls enumerate objects replaced pointer arithmetic using nsfastenumeration protocol class extension syntax category declaration category name methods properties declared added directly main class mostly used alternative category add methods class without advertising public headers advantage class extensions compiler checks privately declared methods actually implemented objective-c applications developed macos make use improvements objective-c 2.0 incompatible operating systems prior 10.5 leopard since fast enumeration generate exactly binaries standard enumeration use cause application crash mac os x version 10.4 earlier blocks nonstandard extension objective-c c programming language \|c c++ uses special syntax create closure programming \|closures blocks supported mac os x snow leopard\|mac os x 10.6 snow leopard later ios 4 later gnustep libobjc2 1.7 compiling clang 3.1 later typedef int ^intblock intblock makecounter int start int increment int main void /* output automatic reference counting arc compile-time feature eliminates need programmers manually manage retain counts using codice_7 codice_16 unlike garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection occurs run time arc eliminates overhead separate process managing retain counts arc manual memory management mutually exclusive programmers continue use non-arc code arc-enabled projects disabling arc individual code files xcode also attempt automatically upgrade project arc next apple obj-c runtimes long included short-form way create new strings using literal syntax codice_17 drop corefoundation constants codice_18 codice_19 codice_20 boolean values using format saves programmer use longer codice_21 similar methods certain operations using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries numbers codice_22 codice_23 codice_20 classes also created using literal syntax instead methods example without literals nsarray myarray nsarray arraywithobjects object1 object2 object3 nil nsdictionary mydictionary1 nsdictionary dictionarywithobject someobject forkey key nsdictionary mydictionary2 nsdictionary dictionarywithobjectsandkeys object1 key1 object2 key2 nil nsnumber mynumber nsnumber numberwithint myint nsnumber mysumnumber= nsnumber numberwithint 2 3 nsnumber myboolnumber nsnumber numberwithbool yes example literals nsarray myarray object1 object2 object3 nsdictionary mydictionary1 key someobject nsdictionary mydictionary2 key1 object1 key2 object2 nsnumber mynumber myint nsnumber mysumnumber 2+3 nsnumber myboolnumber yes nsnumber *myintegernumber 8 however different string literal compile constants executable literals compile code equivalent method calls particular manually reference-counted memory management objects autoreleased requires added care e.g. used function-static variables kinds globals using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries codice_22 codice_23 classes manipulated using subscripting subscripting used retrieve values indexes array keys dictionary mutable objects also used set objects indexes keys code subscripting represented using brackets codice_27 example without subscripting id object1 somearray objectatindex:0 id object2 somedictionary objectforkey key somemutablearray replaceobjectatindex:0 withobject object3 somemutabledictionary setobject object4 forkey key example subscripting id object1 somearray 0 id object2 somedictionary key somemutablearray 0 object3 somemutabledictionary key object4 purchase next apple attempts made make language acceptable programmers familiar java programming language \|java smalltalk one attempts introducing dubbed modern syntax objective-c time opposed current classic syntax change behaviour merely alternative syntax instead writing method invocation like instead written similarly declarations went form modern syntax longer supported current dialects objective-c language besides gnu compiler collection\|gcc next apple inc.\|apple implementation added several extensions original stepstone implementation another free open source software\|free open-source objective-c implementation called portable object compiler also exists set extensions implemented portable object compiler differs gcc/next/apple implementation particular includes smalltalk -like blocks objective-c lacks protocols categories two features used extensively openstep derivatives relatives overall poc represents older pre-next stage language evolution roughly conformant brad cox 1991 book also includes runtime library called objectpak based cox original icpak101 library turn derives smalltalk-80 class library quite radically different openstep foundationkit geos 16-bit operating system \|pc geos system used programming language known geos objective-c goc despite name similarity two languages similar overall concept use keywords prefixed sign clang compiler suite part llvm project implements objective-c languages winobjc also known bridge open-source objc compiler project started microsoft github way allow reuse ios application code inside windows universal applications windows objective-c development tools provided download gnustep website gnustep development system consists following packages gnustep msys system gnustep core gnustep devel gnustep cairo projectcenter ide like xcode complex gorm interface builder like xcode nib builder objective-c today often used tandem fixed library standard objects often known kit framework cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep objfw libraries often come operating system gnustep libraries often come linux -based distributions cocoa comes macos programmer forced inherit functionality existing base class nsobject ofobject objective-c allows declaration new root classes inherit existing functionality originally objective-c-based programming environments typically offered object class base class almost classes inherited introduction openstep next created new base class named nsobject offered additional features object emphasis using object references reference counting instead raw pointers example almost classes cocoa inherit nsobject renaming serve differentiate new default behavior classes within openstep api allowed code used object—the original base class used nextstep less objective-c class libraries —to co-exist runtime code used nsobject limitations introduction two letter prefix also became simplistic form namespaces objective-c lacks using prefix create informal packaging identifier became informal coding standard objective-c community continues day recently package managers started appearing cocoapods aims package manager repository packages lot open-source objective-c code written last years installed using cocoapods objective-c implementations use thin run time system\|runtime system written c adds little size application contrast object-oriented systems time created used large virtual machine runtimes programs written objective-c tend much larger size code libraries generally need included software distribution contrast smalltalk systems large amount memory used open window objective-c applications tend larger similar c c++ applications objective-c dynamic typing allow methods stripped inlined since programmer freedom delegate forward calls build selectors fly pass runtime system objective-c compiler assume safe remove unused methods inline calls likewise language implemented atop extant c compilers gnu compiler collection\|gcc first preprocessor module rather new compiler allows objective-c leverage huge existing collection c code libraries tools etc existing c libraries wrapped objective-c adapter pattern\|wrappers provide oo-style interface aspect similar gobject library vala programming language \|vala language widely used development gtk applications practical changes lowered barriers entry\|barrier entry likely biggest problem widespread acceptance smalltalk 1980s common criticism objective-c language support namespaces instead programmers forced add prefixes class names traditionally shorter namespace names thus prone collisions 2007 macos classes functions cocoa software \|cocoa programming environment prefixed ns e.g nsobject nsbutton identify belonging macos ios core ns derives names classes defined development nextstep since objective-c strict superset c treat c primitive types first-class object s. unlike c++ objective-c support operator overloading also unlike c++ objective-c allows object directly inherit one class forbidding multiple inheritance however cases categories protocols may used alternative ways achieve results objective-c uses dynamic runtime typing method calls function calls cases syscalls many common performance optimizations applied objective-c methods example inlining constant propagation interprocedural optimizations scalar replacement aggregates limits performance objective-c abstractions relative similar abstractions languages c++ optimizations possible first versions objective-c support garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection time decision matter debate many people considered long dead times smalltalk performed collection render entire system unusable 3rd party implementations added feature notably gnustep apple implemented mac os x v10.5 however recent versions macos ios garbage collection deprecated favor automatic reference counting arc introduced 2011 arc compiler inserts retain release calls automatically objective-c code based static program analysis\|static code analysis automation relieves programmer write memory management code arc also adds weak references objective-c language design implementation c++ objective-c represent fundamentally different approaches extending c. addition c style procedural programming c++ directly supports certain forms object-oriented programming generic programming metaprogramming c++ also comes c++ standard library\|a large standard library includes sequence container c++ \|several container classes similarly objective-c adds polymorphism object-oriented programming\|object-oriented programming dynamic typing reflection computer science \|reflection c. objective-c provide standard library per se places objective-c used used openstep -like library openstep cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep provides functionality similar c++ standard library one notable difference objective-c provides runtime support reflection computer science \|reflective features whereas c++ adds small amount runtime support c. objective-c object queried properties e.g. whether respond certain message c++ possible without use external libraries use reflection part wider distinction dynamic run-time features static compile-time features language although objective-c c++ employ mix features objective-c decidedly geared toward run-time decisions c++ geared toward compile-time decisions tension dynamic static programming involves many classic trade-offs programming dynamic features add flexibility static features add speed type checking generic programming metaprogramming implemented languages using runtime polymorphism c++ takes form virtual function runtime type identification objective-c offers dynamic typing reflection objective-c lacks compile-time polymorphism generic function entirely c++ supports via function overloading template c++ \|templates category c programming language family category class-based programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category gnustep category next category object-oriented programming languages category objective-c category programming languages created 1986 Target text information: music_kit.music kit music kit software package next computer system first developed david a. jaffe julius o. smith supported motorola 56001 dsp included next computer motherboard also first architecture unify music-n midi paradigms thus combined generality former interactivity performance capabilities latter music kit integrated sound kit first demonstrated 1988 davies symphony hall 1.0 release shipped 1989 next computer included objective-c library creating music sound applications score language included expression evaluation midi sound dsp drivers several command-line utilities simple score-playing application called scoreplayer music kit integrated variety music applications including finale creation station also used video games even document processors 2.0 release next computer included additional bundled applications including ensemble fractal-based improvisation tool developed michael mcnabb others involved next music kit project included douglas fulton documentation demos doug keislar third-party support greg kellogg drivers lee boynton drivers sound kit dana massie development addition consultants brought early included andy moorer dsp software architecture roger dannenberg data structures john strawn dsp software 1992 next 3.0 release music kit un-bundled next software released copyrighted open source package stanford center computer research music acoustics ccrma julius o. smith professor stanford university hired david a. jaffe consultant continue develop music kit among additions time support airel quintprocessor five-dsp board nextcube support audio directly via dsp56001 serial port brought back next cube support nextstep use dsp processing using turtle beach dsp56001 card set eight motorola evaluation boards combined chassis prototype frankenstein platform used sondius program stanford office technology licensing develop physical models musical instruments addition jaffe hired third party add midi time code support music kit sondius group later spun independent company staccato systems inc. funding yamaha stanford university staccato systems inc. acquired analog devices 2000 recent ports music kit done leigh smith stephen brandon I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,454	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: greenbutton.greenbutton greenbutton new zealand-based software firm company specialized moving independent software vendors isvs enterprises cloud computing founded 2006 greenbutton based wellington new zealand additional offices palo alto california seattle greenbutton acquired microsoft 2 may 2014 technologies integrated azure service greenbutton founded intergrid 2006 wellington new zealand provide small scale customers access job processors company helped software vendors use cloud computing offering service called greenbutton july 2010 2011 company renamed greenbutton joined microsoft partner network 2011 greenbutton declared microsoft corp ’ windows azure isv partner year 2011 new zealand partner year award microsoft new zealand may 2011 greenbutton entered alliance microsoft included investment reported us 1 million adding mark canepa board directors greenbutton bizspark partner year software exporter year awards ms new zealand 2011 dave fellows greenbutton solutions architect year award year december 2011 greenbutton opened two offices united states office palo alto california functioned us headquarters second sales office seattle greenbutton finalists new zealand hi-tech awards company total turnover 1.5 million fiscal year 2011-12 greenbutton partnered pixar animation studios microsoft cloud computing platform windows azure rendering service renderman image generating software announced january 2012 service enhances renderman interface specification june 2012 greenbutton announced partnership gns science new zealand american based stillwater group cloud computing seismic processing company promoted software integrated seismic processing amazon web services aws cloud service seismic processing part oil natural gas exploration process requires heavy processing data 2012 greenbutton entered partnership numerix american company develops software risk analysis financial derivatives award 2012 wellington gold awards 2 may 2014 greenbutton announced acquisition microsoft technology integrated microsoft azure greenbutton stopped accepting new customers day acquisition greenbutton operates microsoft azure product line azure batch 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_microsoft_operating_systems.list microsoft operating systems following list microsoft written published operating systems codenames microsoft gave operating systems see microsoft codenames another list versions microsoft windows see list microsoft windows versions releases windows windows 2000 part windows nt family 1-hop neighbor's text information: turbochannel.turbochannel turbochannel open computer bus developed dec late 1980s early 1990s although open vendor implement systems mostly used digital systems mips-based decstation decsystem systems vaxstation 4000 alpha-based dec 3000 axp digital abandoned use turbochannel favor eisa pci buses late 1994 introduction alphastation alphaserver systems turbochannel developed late 1980s digital continuously revised early 1990s turbochannel industry group industry group set digital develop promote bus turbochannel open bus beginning specification publicly available initial purchase cost reproduction material third-party implementation mechanical specifications implementation systems options turbochannel selected failed ace advanced computing environment use industry standard bus arc advanced risc computing compliant machines digital initially expected turbochannel gain widespeard industry acceptance due status arc standard although ultimately digital major user turbochannel dec 3000 axp decstation 5000 series decsystem vaxstation 4000 systems third parties implemented turbochannel systems implement numerous turbochannel option modules digital systems although main developer promoter turbochannel turbochannel industry group digital tri/add program initiative provide technical marketing support third parties implementing peripherals based open interfaces futurebus+ scsi vme turbochannel digital systems also involved promoting turbochannel implementation sales tri/add program discontinued 15 december 1992 except japan early 1990s digital expected turbochannel bus face serious competition buses vendors hp sun ibm therefore announced intended update existing turbochannel specification permit transfer 200 mb/s using similar hardware upgrade protocol backwards compatible digital later canceled intended update turbochannel towards end 1994 became clear pci become dominant turbochannel 32-bit address data multiplexed bus clocked frequencies 12.5 25 mhz maximum theoretical usable bandwidth 90 mb/s bus however differs others time point point control lines firmware contained within turbochannel cards mips machine code remnant bus original use mips-based systems later systems used bus alpha-based dec 3000 axp used emulator contained system firmware properly initialize turbochannel synchronous asymmetrical i/o channel asymmetrical sense option modules digital terminology expansion card communicate system module digital terminology motherboard option modules simple protocol used make turbochannel efficient turbochannel bus permit bus mastering turbochannel connected device wishes communicate another must first transfer information memory device read turbochannel protocol specifies option physical address space address space used address registers memory option maximum amount specified 16 gb although implementation amount anywhere amount digital systems used anywhere 4 mb early decstation 5000s 128 mb high-end dec 3000 axp models turbochannel bus uses 32-bit data address multiplexed bus transferring data addresses every turbochannel option slot set seven point-to-point control lines five lines universal control arbitration point-to-point control lines connected directly turbochannel interface turbochannel interface defined turbochannel specification although digital introduced three possible schemes example asic three possible schemes divided low-cost mid-range high performance system implementations system either time-multiplex multiple option slots order use single memory port share bandwidth dedicate memory port option slot turbochannel option modules uses 96-pin din connector specifically din 41612 option modules mounted inline system module option module single- double- triple-width although double triple width options used one turbochannel connector mean bandwidth doubled tripled slots still sharing single bus double- triple-width option modules used mechanically accommodate larger option modules supplying power mechanical specification option modules also flexible limitations attaching daughterboards simm modules used graphics options components could mounted sides option module components bottom restricted height ensure option module could fit system module maintaining enough airflow cooling airflow 150 lfms required option module airflow 50 lfms required option module slot 44 signal pins 32 used data addressing turbochannel slot supplies +5 +12v power rails provides maximum 26 watts power following table shows many amperes supplied power rail turbochannel bus extended turbochannel extender tce box options 3d graphics accelerators may require power board space single slot provide often double- triple-width option modules option modules consume additional space slots inside system presence may limit number even prevent installation turbochannel option modules turbochannel extender box used reduce number slots required inside system double triple width options turbochannel extender box contains pcb three turbochannel slots power supply supplying required power slots turbochannel option module installation host accompanies tce box external cable connects tce box option module bringing data addressing control lines turbochannel extender box performance loss associated use tce box although tce boxes support one option module regardless many remaining slots Target text information: jazz_(computer).jazz computer jazz computer architecture motherboard chipset design originally developed microsoft use developing windows nt design eventually used basis mips-based windows nt systems part microsoft intended nt portable various microprocessor architectures mips risc architecture chosen one first development platforms nt project late 1980s/early 1990s however around 1990 existing mips-based systems turbochannel-equipped decstation sgi indigo varied drastically standard intel personal computers ibm at—for example neither used isa bus common intel 386-class machines reasons microsoft decided design mips-based hardware platform develop nt resulted jazz architecture later microsoft sold architecture design mips computer systems inc. became mips magnum jazz architecture includes design simple enough powerful enough majority windows nt-capable mips systems based modified versions jazz architecture list systems less based jazz includes jazz systems designed partially comply advanced risc computing arc standard used arc firmware boot windows nt operating systems also ported various jazz implementations risc/os mips magnum also mips systems designed run windows nt comply arc standard nevertheless based jazz platform I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	7,215	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: fortran.fortran fortran formerly fortran derived formula translation general-purpose compiled imperative programming language especially suited numeric computation scientific computing originally developed ibm 1950s scientific engineering applications fortran came dominate area programming early continuous use six decades computationally intensive areas numerical weather prediction finite element analysis computational fluid dynamics computational physics crystallography computational chemistry popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers fortran encompasses lineage versions evolved add extensions language usually retaining compatibility prior versions successive versions added support structured programming processing character-based data fortran 77 array programming modular programming generic programming fortran 90 high performance fortran fortran 95 object-oriented programming fortran 2003 concurrent programming fortran 2008 fortran design basis many programming languages among better known basic based fortran ii number syntax cleanups notably better logical structures changes work easily interactive environment names earlier versions language fortran 77 conventionally spelled all-capitals fortran 77 last version use lowercase letters keywords strictly non-standard capitalization dropped referring newer versions beginning fortran 90 official language standards refer language fortran rather all-caps fortran late 1953 john w. backus submitted proposal superiors ibm develop practical alternative assembly language programming ibm 704 mainframe computer backus historic fortran team consisted programmers richard goldberg sheldon f. best harlan herrick peter sheridan roy nutt robert nelson irving ziller harold stern lois haibt david sayre concepts included easier entry equations computer idea developed j. halcombe laning demonstrated laning zierler system 1952 programmers chess players chosen work ibm thought logical minds draft specification ibm mathematical formula translating system completed november 1954 first manual fortran appeared october 1956 first fortran compiler delivered april 1957 first optimizing compiler customers reluctant use high-level programming language unless compiler could generate code performance comparable hand-coded assembly language community skeptical new method could possibly outperform hand-coding reduced number programming statements necessary operate machine factor 20 quickly gained acceptance john backus said 1979 interview think ibm employee magazine much work come lazy n't like writing programs working ibm 701 writing programs computing missile trajectories started work programming system make easier write programs language widely adopted scientists writing numerically intensive programs encouraged compiler writers produce compilers could generate faster efficient code inclusion complex number data type language made fortran especially suited technical applications electrical engineering 1960 versions fortran available ibm 709 650 1620 7090 computers significantly increasing popularity fortran spurred competing computer manufacturers provide fortran compilers machines 1963 40 fortran compilers existed reasons fortran considered first widely used cross-platform programming language development fortran paralleled early evolution compiler technology many advances theory design compilers specifically motivated need generate efficient code fortran programs initial release fortran ibm 704 contained 32 statements including arithmetic statement reminiscent readily implementable three-way comparison instruction cas compare accumulator storage available 704 statement provided way compare numbers testing difference attendant risk overflow deficiency later overcome logical facilities introduced fortran iv statement used originally optionally give branch probabilities three branch cases arithmetic statement first fortran compiler used weighting perform compile time monte carlo simulation generated code results used optimize placement basic blocks memory sophisticated optimization time monte carlo technique documented backus et al paper original implementation fortran automatic coding system fundamental unit program basic block basic block stretch program one entry point one exit point purpose section 4 prepare section 5 table predecessors pred table enumerates basic blocks lists every basic block basic blocks immediate predecessor flow together absolute frequency basic block link table obtained running program monte-carlo fashion outcome conditional transfers arising if-type statements computed go determined random number generator suitably weighted according whatever frequency statements provided many years later statement effect code treated comment statement since compilers longer kind compile-time simulation similar fate befallen compiler hints several programming languages example c keyword first fortran compiler reported diagnostic information halting program error found outputting error code console code could looked programmer error messages table operator manual providing brief description problem later error handling subroutine handle users error division zero developed nasa incorporated giving users feedback line code error appeared development disk files text editors terminals programs often entered keypunch keyboard onto 80-column punched cards one line card resulting deck cards would fed card reader compiled punched card codes included lower-case letters many special characters special versions ibm 026 keypunch offered would correctly print re-purposed special characters used fortran reflecting punched card input practice fortran programs originally written fixed-column format first 72 columns read twelve 36-bit words letter c column 1 caused entire card treated comment ignored compiler otherwise columns card divided four fields columns 73 80 could therefore used identification information punching sequence number text could used re-order cards stack cards dropped though practice reserved stable production programs ibm 519 could used copy program deck add sequence numbers early compilers e.g. ibm 650 additional restrictions due limitations card readers keypunches could programmed tab column 7 skip column 72 later compilers relaxed fixed-format restrictions requirement eliminated fortran 90 standard within statement field whitespace characters blanks ignored outside text literal allowed omitting spaces tokens brevity including spaces within identifiers clarity example valid identifier equivalent 101010do101i=1,101 valid statement equivalent 10101 101 1 101 zero column 6 treated space 101010do101i=1.101 instead 10101 do101i 1.101 assignment 1.101 variable called do101i note slight visual difference comma period hollerith strings originally allowed format data statements prefixed character count letter h e.g. allowing blanks retained within character string miscounts problem ibm fortran ii appeared 1958 main enhancement support procedural programming allowing user-written subroutines functions returned values parameters passed reference common statement provided way subroutines access common global variables six new statements introduced next years fortran ii would also add support data types early fortran compilers supported recursion subroutines early computer architectures supported concept stack directly support subroutine calls return location often stored one fixed location adjacent subroutine code e.g ibm 1130 specific machine register ibm 360 et seq allows recursion stack maintained software return address stored stack call made restored call returns although specified fortran 77 many f77 compilers supported recursion option burroughs mainframes designed recursion built-in default became standard fortran 90 via new keyword recursive program heron formula reads data tape reel containing three 5-digit integers b c input type declarations available variables whose name starts j k l n fixed-point i.e integers otherwise floating-point since integers processed example names variables start letter name variable must start letter continue letters digits limit six characters fortran ii b c represent sides triangle plane geometry program execution end error code stop 1 otherwise output line printed showing input values b c followed computed area triangle floating-point number occupying ten spaces along line output showing 2 digits decimal point .2 f10.2 format statement label 601 c area triangle standard square root function c input tape reader unit 5 integer input c output line printer unit 6 real output c input error display error output code 1 job control listing c ia ib ic may negative zero c furthermore sum two sides triangle c must greater third side check c using heron formula calculate c area triangle ibm also developed fortran iii 1958 allowed inline assembly code among features however version never released product like 704 fortran fortran ii fortran iii included machine-dependent features made code written unportable machine machine early versions fortran provided vendors suffered disadvantage fortran provided ibm 1401 computer innovative 63-phase compiler ran entirely core memory 8000 six-bit characters compiler could run tape 2200-card deck used tape disk storage kept program memory loaded overlays gradually transformed place executable form described haines article reprinted edited editions anatomy compiler ibm manual fortran specifications operating procedures ibm 1401 executable form entirely machine language rather floating-point arithmetic sub-scripting input/output function references interpreted preceding ucsd pascal p-code two decades ibm later provided fortran iv compiler 1400 series computers starting 1961 result customer demands ibm began development fortran iv removed machine-dependent features fortran ii adding new features data type logical boolean expressions logical statement alternative arithmetic statement fortran iv eventually released 1962 first ibm 7030 stretch computer followed versions ibm 7090 ibm 7094 later ibm 1401 1966 1965 fortran iv supposed compliant standard developed american standards association x3.4.3 fortran working group 1966 1968 ibm offered several fortran iv compilers system/360 named letters indicated minimum amount memory complier needed run letters f g h matched codes used system/360 model numbers indicate memory size letter increment factor two larger time fortran iv started become important educational tool implementations university waterloo watfor watfiv created simplify complex compile link processes earlier compilers perhaps significant development early history fortran decision american standards association american national standards institute ansi form committee sponsored bema business equipment manufacturers association develop american standard fortran resulting two standards approved march 1966 defined two languages fortran based fortran iv served de facto standard basic fortran based fortran ii stripped machine-dependent features fortran defined first standard officially denoted x3.9-1966 became known fortran 66 although many continued term fortran iv language standard largely based fortran 66 effectively became first industry-standard version fortran fortran 66 included release fortran 66 standard compiler vendors introduced several extensions standard fortran prompting ansi committee x3j3 1969 begin work revising 1966 standard sponsorship cbema computer business equipment manufacturers association formerly bema final drafts revised standard circulated 1977 leading formal approval new fortran standard april 1978 new standard called fortran 77 officially denoted x3.9-1978 added number significant features address many shortcomings fortran 66 revision standard number features removed altered manner might invalidate formerly standard-conforming programs removal allowable alternative x3j3 time since concept deprecation yet available ansi standards 24 items conflict list see appendix a2 x3.9-1978 addressed loopholes pathological cases permitted prior standard rarely used small number specific capabilities deliberately removed dimension 10,5 control data corporation computers another version fortran 77 called minnesota fortran mnf designed especially student use variations output constructs special uses commons data statements optimizations code levels compiling detailed error listings extensive warning messages debugs development revised standard succeed fortran 77 would repeatedly delayed standardization process struggled keep rapid changes computing programming practice meantime standard fortran nearly fifteen years fortran 77 would become historically important dialect important practical extension fortran 77 release mil-std-1753 1978 specification developed u.s. department defense standardized number features implemented fortran 77 compilers included ansi fortran 77 standard features would eventually incorporated fortran 90 standard ieee 1003.9 posix standard released 1991 provided simple means fortran 77 programmers issue posix system calls 100 calls defined document allowing access posix-compatible process control signal handling file system control device control procedure pointing stream i/o portable manner much-delayed successor fortran 77 informally known fortran 90 prior fortran 8x finally released iso/iec standard 1539:1991 1991 ansi standard 1992 addition changing official spelling fortran fortran major revision added many new features reflect significant changes programming practice evolved since 1978 standard unlike prior revision fortran 90 removed features appendix b.1 says list deleted features standard empty standard-conforming fortran 77 program also standard-conforming fortran 90 either standard usable define behavior small set features identified obsolescent expected removed future standard functionalities early version features performed new fortran 95 features kept simplify porting old programs may eventually deleted fortran 95 published officially iso/iec 1539-1:1997 minor revision mostly resolve outstanding issues fortran 90 standard nevertheless fortran 95 also added number extensions notably high performance fortran specification number intrinsic functions extended example argument added intrinsic several features noted fortran 90 obsolescent removed fortran 95 important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15581 enhanced data type facilities informally known allocatable tr specification defined enhanced use arrays prior availability fully fortran 2003-compliant fortran compilers uses include arrays derived type components procedure dummy argument lists function return values arrays preferable -based arrays arrays guaranteed fortran 95 deallocated automatically go scope eliminating possibility memory leakage addition elements allocatable arrays contiguous aliasing issue optimization array references allowing compilers generate faster code case pointers another important supplement fortran 95 iso technical report tr-15580 floating-point exception handling informally known ieee tr specification defined support ieee floating-point arithmetic floating point exception handling addition mandatory base language defined iso/iec 1539-1 1997 fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules together compose multi-part international standard iso/iec 1539 according standards developers optional parts describe self-contained features requested substantial body users and/or implementors deemed sufficient generality required standard-conforming fortran compilers nevertheless standard-conforming fortran provide options must provided accordance description facilities appropriate part standard fortran 2003 officially published iso/iec 1539-1:2004 major revision introducing many new features comprehensive summary new features fortran 2003 available fortran working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg5 official web site article major enhancements revision include important supplement fortran 2003 iso technical report tr-19767 enhanced module facilities fortran report provided sub-modules make fortran modules similar modula-2 modules similar ada private child sub-units allows specification implementation module expressed separate program units improves packaging large libraries allows preservation trade secrets publishing definitive interfaces prevents compilation cascades iso/iec 1539-1:2010 informally known fortran 2008 approved september 2010 fortran 95 minor upgrade incorporating clarifications corrections fortran 2003 well introducing select new capabilities new capabilities include final draft international standard fdis available document n1830 important supplement fortran 2008 iso technical specification ts 29113 interoperability fortran c submitted iso may 2012 approval specification adds support accessing array descriptor c allows ignoring type rank arguments latest revision language fortran 2018 earlier referred fortran 2015 significant revision released november 28 2018 fortran 2018 incorporates two previously published technical specifications additional changes new features include support iso/iec/ieee 60559:2011 latest version ieee floating point standard 2019 hexadecimal input/output implicit none enhancements changes although 1968 journal article authors basic already described fortran old-fashioned fortran use several decades vast body fortran software daily use throughout scientific engineering communities jay pasachoff wrote 1984 physics astronomy students simply learn fortran much exists fortran seems unlikely scientists change pascal modula-2 whatever 1993 cecil e. leith called fortran mother tongue scientific computing adding replacement possible language may remain forlorn hope primary language intensive super-computing tasks astronomy climate modeling computational chemistry computational economics computational fluid dynamics computational physics data analysis hydrological modeling numerical linear algebra numerical libraries lapack imsl nag optimization satellite simulation structural engineering weather prediction many floating-point benchmarks gauge performance new computer processors cfp2006 floating-point component spec cpu2006 benchmarks written fortran apart modern codes computational science generally use large program libraries metis graph partitioning petsc trilinos linear algebra capabilities dune fenics mesh finite element support generic libraries since early 2000s many widely used support libraries also implemented c recently c++ hand high-level languages matlab python r become popular particular areas computational science consequently growing fraction scientific programs also written higher-level languages reason facilities inter-operation c added fortran 2003 enhanced iso/iec technical specification 29113 incorporated fortran 2018 shift popularity programming languages also evident selection applications spec cpu 2000 spec cpu 2006 floating point benchmarks software nasa probes voyager 1 voyager 2 originally written fortran 5 later ported fortran 77. software still written fortran ported c. precise characteristics syntax fortran 95 discussed fortran 95 language features portability problem early days agreed upon standard even ibm reference manual computer companies vied differentiate offerings others providing incompatible features standards improved portability 1966 standard provided reference syntax semantics vendors continued provide incompatible extensions although careful programmers coming realize use incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems therefore using programs pfort verifier 1977 standard national bureau standards nist published fips pub 69 processors purchased u.s. government required diagnose extensions standard rather offer two processors essentially every compiler eventually least option diagnose extensions incompatible extensions portability problem numerical calculations important take account characteristics arithmetic addressed fox et al context 1966 standard port library ideas therein became widely used eventually incorporated 1990 standard way intrinsic inquiry functions widespread almost universal adoption ieee 754 standard binary floating-point arithmetic essentially removed problem access computing environment e.g. program command line environment variables textual explanation error conditions remained problem addressed 2003 standard large collections library software could described loosely related engineering scientific calculations graphics libraries written c therefore access presented portability problem addressed incorporation c interoperability 2003 standard possible relatively easy write entirely portable program fortran even without recourse preprocessor fortran 5 marketed data general corp late 1970s early 1980s nova eclipse mv line computers optimizing compiler quite good minicomputers time language closely resembles fortran 66 name pun earlier fortran iv fortran v distributed control data corporation 1968 cdc 6600 series language based upon fortran iv univac also offered compiler 1100 series known fortran v. spinoff univac fortran v athena fortran fortran 6 visual fortran 2001 licensed compaq microsoft licensed compaq visual fortran provided visual studio 5 environment interface compaq v6 v6.1 vendors high-performance scientific computers e.g. burroughs control data corporation cdc cray honeywell ibm texas instruments univac added extensions fortran take advantage special hardware features instruction cache cpu pipelines vector arrays example one ibm fortran compilers h extended iup level optimization reordered machine code instructions keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously another example cfd special variant fortran designed specifically illiac iv supercomputer running nasa ames research center ibm research labs also developed extended fortran-based language called vectran processing vectors matrices object-oriented fortran object-oriented extension fortran data items grouped objects instantiated executed parallel available sun iris ipsc ncube longer supported machine-specific extensions either disappeared time elements incorporated main standards major remaining extension openmp cross-platform extension shared memory programming one new extension coarray fortran intended support parallel programming transit name reduced version ibm 704 fortran language implemented ibm 650 using translator program developed carnegie late 1950s following comment appears ibm reference manual transit automatic coding system c28-4038 copyright 1957 1959 ibm fortran system designed complex machine 650 consequently 32 statements found fortran programmer reference manual acceptable transit system addition certain restrictions fortran language added however none restrictions make source program written transit incompatible fortran system 704 permissible statements ten subroutines could used one program transit statements limited columns 7 56 punched cards used input output ibm 650 three passes required translate source code language compile statements soap assembly language finally produce object program could loaded machine run program using punched cards data input outputting results onto punched cards two versions existed 650s 2000 word memory drum transit transit ii latter machines equipped indexing registers automatic floating point decimal bi-quinary arithmetic appendix manual included wiring diagrams ibm 533 card reader/punch control panel prior fortran 77 number preprocessors commonly used provide friendlier language advantage preprocessed code could compiled machine standard fortran compiler preprocessors would typically support structured programming variable names longer six characters additional data types conditional compilation even macro capabilities popular preprocessors included flecs iftran mortran sftran s-fortran ratfor ratfiv ratfor ratfiv example implemented c-like language outputting preprocessed code standard fortran 66 despite advances fortran language preprocessors continue used conditional compilation macro substitution one earliest versions fortran introduced '60s popularly used colleges universities developed supported distributed university waterloo watfor based largely fortran iv student using watfor could submit batch fortran job syntax errors program would move straight execution simplification allowed students concentrate program syntax semantics execution logic flow rather dealing submission job control language jcl compile/link-edit/execution successive process es complexities mainframe/minicomputer environment side simplified environment watfor good choice programmers needing expanded abilities host processor e.g. watfor typically limited access i/o devices watfor succeeded watfiv later versions lrltran developed lawrence radiation laboratory provide support vector arithmetic dynamic storage among extensions support systems programming distribution included ltss operating system fortran-95 standard includes optional part 3 defines optional conditional compilation capability capability often referred coco many fortran compilers integrated subsets c preprocessor systems simscript application specific fortran preprocessor modeling simulating large discrete systems f programming language designed clean subset fortran 95 attempted remove redundant unstructured deprecated features fortran statement f retains array features added fortran 90 removes control statements made obsolete structured programming constructs added fortran 77 fortran 90 f described creators compiled structured array programming language especially well suited education scientific computing lahey fujitsu teamed create fortran microsoft .net framework silverfrost ftn95 also capable creating .net code following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation array-based operations two features introduced fortran 90 particularly noteworthy absence loops statements manipulating array mathematical operations applied array whole also apparent use descriptive variable names general code formatting conform contemporary programming style example computes average data entered interactively program average end program average fortran standards committee meeting name fortran 77 chosen satirical technical proposal incorporated official distribution bearing title letter considered harmful proposal purported address confusion sometimes arises letter numeral zero eliminating letter allowable variable names however method proposed eliminate letter character set entirely thereby retaining 48 number lexical characters colon increased 49 considered beneficial would promote structured programming making impossible use notorious statement troublesome statements would also eliminated noted might invalidate existing programs probably non-conforming anyway assumed-length arrays added dispute appropriate character separate upper lower bounds comment examining arguments dr. walt brainerd penned article entitled astronomy vs. gastroenterology proponents suggested using star asterisk others favored colon fortran 77 earlier versions variable names beginning letters i–n default type integer variables starting letters defaulted real although programmers could override defaults explicit declaration led joke fortran god real unless declared integer 1-hop neighbor's text information: advanced_continuous_simulation_language.advanced continuous simulation language advanced continuous simulation language acsl pronounced axle computer language designed modeling evaluating performance continuous systems described time-dependent nonlinear differential equations like simcos tutsim acsl dialect continuous system simulation language cssl originally designed simulation councils inc sci 1967 attempt unify continuous simulations field acsl equation-oriented language consisting set arithmetic operators standard functions set special acsl statements macro capability allows extension special acsl statements acsl intended provide simple method representing mathematical models digital computer working equation description problem block diagram user writes acsl statements describe system investigation important feature acsl sorting continuous model equations contrast general purpose programming languages fortran program execution depends critically statement order applications acsl new areas developed constantly typical areas acsl currently applied include control system design aerospace simulation chemical process dynamics power plant dynamics plant animal growth toxicology models vehicle handling microprocessor controllers robotics acslx family products aegis technologies group inc modular modeling system mms nhance technologies inc Target text information: simcos.simcos simcos acronym standing simulation continuous systems computer language development environment computer simulation 1989 developed slovenian experts led borut zupančič purpose language simulation dynamic mathematical models systems given set ordinary differential equations equation oriented compiler type language despite name used discrete simulation well language suits well cssl'67 standard simulation languages portability among languages conforming standard e.g tutsim acsl etc quite simple dos based software occasionally slightly modified run actual versions microsoft windows apart simulation also perform parametrisation series simulations different values parameters linearisation models optimisation finding values parameters criterion function minimised simulation scheme must prepared must described simcos language drawn similarly analogue computer using enclosed block library graphics tool contains basic elements integrators amplifiers summators basic input signals etc often entered program using one text editors e.g edit enclosed dos whichever form entry model used first phase simulation reprocesses space states form rewrites program fortran prepares files input parameters fortran program compiled executable file .exe executed executable program reads parameter values input files performs simulation writes requested calculated values another file terminates simcos takes control display results graphic plot heart executable function integ solve differential equations using one several numerical methods first reads necessary values e.g values parameters initial conditions files calls function deriv model actually described series functions derivatives returned values used selected numerical method requested calculated results written file whole procedure repeated termination condition satisfied continuous simulation dead time laplace transform formula_1 trivial task usually use one padé approximations simulate padé approximation 2nd order 4th order input signal unit step communication interval equals 0.01s length simulation run 5s results compared output built-in discrete function delay requires additional array del case appropriate size y1 result simulation padé approximation 2nd order y2 result simulation padé approximation 4th order y3 result discrete function delay transfer functions padé approximation developed using one simulation schemes model described following program simulation run finished results displayed plots possible trace values plots select plots display turning grid zoom etc slovenian language I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	3,104	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: world_wide_web.world wide web world wide web www commonly known web information system documents web resources identified uniform resource locators urls nowiki https //www.example.com/ /nowiki may interlinked hypertext accessible internet resources www may accessed users software application called web browser english scientist tim berners-lee invented world wide web 1989 wrote first web browser 1990 employed cern near geneva switzerland browser released outside cern 1991 first research institutions starting january 1991 general public august 1991 world wide web central development information age primary tool billions people use interact internet web resources may type downloaded media web pages hypertext media formatted hypertext markup language html formatting allows embedded hyperlinks contain urls permit users navigate web resources addition text web pages may contain images video audio software components rendered user web browser coherent pages multimedia content multiple web resources common theme common domain name make website websites stored computers running program called web server responds requests made internet web browsers running user computer website content largely provided publisher interactively users contribute content content depends upon users actions websites may provided myriad informative entertainment commercial governmental non-governmental reasons tim berners-lee vision global hyperlinked information system became possibility second half 1980s 1985 global internet began proliferate europe domain name system upon uniform resource locator built came 1988 first direct ip connection europe north america made berners-lee began openly discuss possibility web-like system cern working cern berners-lee became frustrated inefficiencies difficulties posed finding information stored different computers march 12 1989 submitted memorandum titled information management proposal management cern system called mesh referenced enquire database software project built 1980 used term web described elaborate information management system based links embedded text imagine references document associated network address thing referred reading document could skip click mouse system explained could referred using one existing meanings word hypertext term says coined 1950s reason proposal continues hypertext links could encompass multimedia documents including graphics speech video berners-lee goes use term hypermedia help colleague fellow hypertext enthusiast robert cailliau published formal proposal 12 november 1990 build hypertext project called worldwideweb one word web hypertext documents viewed browsers using client–server architecture point html http already development two months first web server month completing first successful test proposal estimated read-only web would developed within three months would take six months achieve creation new links new material readers authorship becomes universal well automatic notification reader new material interest him/her become available read-only goal met accessible authorship web content took longer mature wiki concept webdav blogs web 2.0 rss/atom proposal modelled sgml reader dynatext electronic book technology spin-off institute research information scholarship brown university dynatext system licensed cern key player extension sgml iso 8879:1986 hypermedia within hytime considered expensive inappropriate licensing policy use general high energy physics community namely fee document document alteration next computer used berners-lee world first web server also write first web browser worldwideweb 1990 christmas 1990 berners-lee built tools necessary working web first web browser web editor well first web server first web site described project published 20 december 1990 first web page may lost paul jones unc-chapel hill north carolina announced may 2013 berners-lee gave says oldest known web page 1991 visit unc jones stored magneto-optical drive next computer 6 august 1991 berners-lee published short summary world wide web project newsgroup alt.hypertext date sometimes confused public availability first web servers occurred months earlier another example confusion several news media reported first photo web published berners-lee 1992 image cern house band les horribles cernettes taken silvano de gennaro gennaro disclaimed story writing media totally distorting words sake cheap sensationalism first server outside europe installed stanford linear accelerator center slac palo alto california host spires-hep database accounts differ substantially date event world wide web consortium timeline says december 1992 whereas slac claims december 1991 w3c document titled little history world wide web underlying concept hypertext originated previous projects 1960s hypertext editing system hes brown university ted nelson project xanadu douglas engelbart on-line system nls nelson engelbart turn inspired vannevar bush microfilm-based memex described 1945 essay may think berners-lee breakthrough marry hypertext internet book explains repeatedly suggested marriage two technologies possible members technical communities one took invitation finally assumed project process developed three essential technologies world wide web several differences hypertext systems available time web required unidirectional links rather bidirectional ones making possible someone link another resource without action owner resource also significantly reduced difficulty implementing web servers browsers comparison earlier systems turn presented chronic problem link rot unlike predecessors hypercard world wide web non-proprietary making possible develop servers clients independently add extensions without licensing restrictions 30 april 1993 cern announced world wide web would free anyone fees due coming two months announcement server implementation gopher protocol longer free use produced rapid shift away gopher towards web early popular web browser violawww unix x window system scholars generally agree turning point world wide web began introduction mosaic web browser 1993 graphical browser developed team national center supercomputing applications university illinois urbana–champaign ncsa-uiuc led marc andreessen funding mosaic came us high-performance computing communications initiative high performance computing act 1991 one several computing developments initiated us senator al gore prior release mosaic graphics commonly mixed text web pages web popularity less older protocols use internet gopher wide area information servers wais mosaic graphical user interface allowed web become far popular internet protocol world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered internet year later second site founded inria french national computer research lab support european commission dg infso 1996 third continental site created japan keio university end 1994 total number websites still relatively small many notable websites already active foreshadowed inspired today popular services connected internet websites created around world motivated international standards development protocols formatting berners-lee continued stay involved guiding development web standards markup languages compose web pages advocated vision semantic web world wide web enabled spread information internet easy-to-use flexible format thus played important role popularising use internet although two terms sometimes conflated popular use world wide web synonymous internet web information space containing hyperlinked documents resources identified uris implemented client server software using internet protocols tcp/ip http berners-lee knighted 2004 queen elizabeth ii services global development internet never patented invention terms internet world wide web often used without much distinction however two terms mean thing internet global system interconnected computer networks contrast world wide web global collection documents resources linked hyperlinks uris web resources accessed using http https application-level internet protocols use internet transport protocols viewing web page world wide web normally begins either typing url page web browser following hyperlink page resource web browser initiates series background communication messages fetch display requested page 1990s using browser view web pages—and move one web page another hyperlinks—came known 'browsing 'web surfing channel surfing 'navigating web early studies new behaviour investigated user patterns using web browsers one study example found five user patterns exploratory surfing window surfing evolved surfing bounded navigation targeted navigation following example demonstrates functioning web browser accessing page url codice_1 browser resolves server name url codice_2 internet protocol address using globally distributed domain name system dns lookup returns ip address 203.0.113.4 2001 db8:2e :7334 browser requests resource sending http request across internet computer address requests service specific tcp port number well known http service receiving host distinguish http request network protocols may servicing http protocol normally uses port number 80 https protocol normally port number 443 content http request simple two lines text computer receiving http request delivers web server software listening requests port 80 web server fulfil request sends http response back browser indicating success followed content requested page hypertext markup language html basic web page might look like web browser parses html interprets markup paragraph surrounds words format text screen many web pages use html reference urls resources images embedded media scripts affect page behaviour cascading style sheets affect page layout browser makes additional http requests web server internet media types receives content web server browser progressively renders page onto screen specified html additional resources hypertext markup language html standard markup language creating web pages web applications cascading style sheets css javascript forms triad cornerstone technologies world wide web web browsers receive html documents web server local storage render documents multimedia web pages html describes structure web page semantically originally included cues appearance document html elements building blocks html pages html constructs images objects interactive forms may embedded rendered page html provides means create structured documents denoting structural semantics text headings paragraphs lists links quotes items html elements delineated tags written using angle brackets tags directly introduce content page tags surround provide information document text may include tags sub-elements browsers display html tags use interpret content page html embed programs written scripting language javascript affects behavior content web pages inclusion css defines look layout content world wide web consortium w3c maintainer html css standards encouraged use css explicit presentational html web pages contain hyperlinks related pages perhaps downloadable files source documents definitions web resources underlying html hyperlink looks like collection useful related resources interconnected via hypertext links dubbed web information publication internet created tim berners-lee first called worldwideweb original camelcase subsequently discarded november 1990 hyperlink structure www described webgraph nodes web graph correspond web pages urls directed edges hyperlinks time many web resources pointed hyperlinks disappear relocate replaced different content makes hyperlinks obsolete phenomenon referred circles link rot hyperlinks affected often called dead links ephemeral nature web prompted many efforts archive web sites internet archive active since 1996 best known efforts many hostnames used world wide web begin www long-standing practice naming internet hosts according services provide hostname web server often www way may ftp ftp server news nntp usenet news server host names appear domain name system dns subdomain names www.example.com use www required technical policy standard many web sites use first web server nxoc01.cern.ch according paolo palazzi worked cern along tim berners-lee popular use www subdomain accidental world wide web project page intended published www.cern.ch info.cern.ch intended cern home page however dns records never switched practice prepending www institution website domain name subsequently copied many established websites still use prefix employ subdomain names www2 secure en special purposes many web servers set main domain name e.g. example.com www subdomain e.g. www.example.com refer site others require one form may map different web sites use subdomain name useful load balancing incoming web traffic creating cname record points cluster web servers since currently subdomain used cname result achieved using bare domain root user submits incomplete domain name web browser address bar input field web browsers automatically try adding prefix www beginning possibly .com .org .net end depending might missing example entering may transformed nowiki http //www.microsoft.com/ /nowiki 'openoffice nowiki http //www.openoffice.org /nowiki feature started appearing early versions firefox still working title 'firebird early 2003 earlier practice browsers lynx reported microsoft granted us patent idea 2008 mobile devices english www usually read double-u double-u double-u users pronounce dub-dub-dub particularly new zealand stephen fry podgrams series podcasts pronounces wuh wuh wuh english writer douglas adams quipped independent sunday 1999 world wide web thing know whose shortened form takes three times longer say short mandarin chinese world wide web commonly translated via phono-semantic matching wàn wéi wǎng satisfies www literally means myriad dimensional net translation reflects design concept proliferation world wide web tim berners-lee web-space states world wide web officially spelled three separate words capitalised intervening hyphens use www prefix declining especially web 2.0 web applications sought brand domain names make easily pronounceable mobile web grew popularity services like gmail.com outlook.com myspace.com facebook.com twitter.com often mentioned without adding www indeed .com domain scheme specifiers codice_3 codice_4 start web uri refer hypertext transfer protocol http secure respectively specify communication protocol use request response http protocol fundamental operation world wide web added encryption layer https essential browsers send retrieve confidential data passwords banking information web browsers usually automatically prepend nowiki http // /nowiki user-entered uris omitted web page also written webpage document suitable world wide web web browsers web browser displays web page monitor mobile device term web page usually refers visible may also refer contents computer file usually text file containing hypertext written html comparable markup language typical web pages provide hypertext browsing web pages via hyperlinks often referred links web browsers frequently access multiple web resource elements reading style sheets scripts images presenting web page network web browser retrieve web page remote web server web server may restrict access private network corporate intranet web browser uses hypertext transfer protocol http make requests web server static web page delivered exactly stored web content web server file system contrast dynamic web page generated web application usually driven server-side software dynamic web pages help browser client enhance web page user input server static web page sometimes called flat page/stationary page web page delivered user exactly stored contrast dynamic web pages generated web application consequently static web page displays information users contexts subject modern capabilities web server negotiate content-type language document versions available server configured server-side dynamic web page web page whose construction controlled application server processing server-side scripts server-side scripting parameters determine assembly every new web page proceeds including setting client-side processing client-side dynamic web page processes web page using html scripting running browser loads javascript scripting languages determine way html received page parsed document object model dom represents loaded web page client-side techniques dynamically update change dom way dynamic web page reloaded user computer program change variable content updating information could come server changes made page dom may may truncate browsing history create saved version go back dynamic web page update using ajax technologies neither create page go back truncate web browsing history forward displayed page using ajax technologies end user gets one dynamic page managed single page web browser actual web content rendered page vary ajax engine sits browser requesting parts dom dom client application server dhtml umbrella term technologies methods used create web pages static web pages though fallen common use since popularization ajax term rarely used client-side-scripting server-side scripting combination make dynamic web experience browser javascript scripting language initially developed 1995 brendan eich netscape use within web pages standardised version ecmascript make web pages interactive web applications also use javascript techniques ajax asynchronous javascript xml client-side script delivered page make additional http requests server either response user actions mouse movements clicks based elapsed time server responses used modify current page rather creating new page response server needs provide limited incremental information multiple ajax requests handled time users interact page data retrieved web pages may also regularly poll server check whether new information available website collection related web resources including web pages multimedia content typically identified common domain name published least one web server notable examples wikipedia.org google.com amazon.com website may accessible via public internet protocol ip network internet private local area network lan referencing uniform resource locator url identifies site websites many functions used various fashions website personal website corporate website company government website organization website etc websites typically dedicated particular topic purpose ranging entertainment social networking providing news education publicly accessible websites collectively constitute world wide web private websites company website employees typically part intranet web pages building blocks websites documents typically composed plain text interspersed formatting instructions hypertext markup language html xhtml may incorporate elements websites suitable markup anchors web pages accessed transported hypertext transfer protocol http may optionally employ encryption http secure https provide security privacy user user application often web browser renders page content according html markup instructions onto display terminal hyperlinking web pages conveys reader site structure guides navigation site often starts home page containing directory site web content websites require user registration subscription access content examples subscription websites include many business sites news websites academic journal websites gaming websites file-sharing websites message boards web-based email social networking websites websites providing real-time stock market data well sites providing various services end users access websites range devices including desktop laptop computers tablet computers smartphones smart tvs web browser commonly referred browser software user agent accessing information world wide web connect website server display pages user needs web browser program program user runs download format display web page user computer addition allowing users find displaying moving web pages web browser usually features like keeping bookmarks recording history managing cookies see home pages may facilities recording passwords logging web sites popular browsers chrome firefox safari internet explorer edge web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers also frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems http cookie also called web cookie internet cookie browser cookie simply cookie small piece data sent website stored user computer user web browser user browsing cookies designed reliable mechanism websites remember stateful information items added shopping cart online store record user browsing activity including clicking particular buttons logging recording pages visited past also used remember arbitrary pieces information user previously entered form fields names addresses passwords credit card numbers cookies perform essential functions modern web perhaps importantly authentication cookies common method used web servers know whether user logged account logged without mechanism site would know whether send page containing sensitive information require user authenticate logging security authentication cookie generally depends security issuing website user web browser whether cookie data encrypted security vulnerabilities may allow cookie data read hacker used gain access user data used gain access user credentials website cookie belongs see cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery examples tracking cookies especially third-party tracking cookies commonly used ways compile long-term records individuals browsing histories potential privacy concern prompted european u.s. lawmakers take action 2011 european law requires websites targeting european union member states gain informed consent users storing non-essential cookies device google project zero researcher jann horn describes ways cookies read intermediaries like wi-fi hotspot providers recommends use browser incognito mode circumstances web search engine internet search engine software system designed carry web search internet search means search world wide web systematic way particular information specified web search query search results generally presented line results often referred search engine results pages serps information may mix web pages images videos infographics articles research papers types files search engines also mine data available databases open directories unlike web directories maintained human editors search engines also maintain real-time information running algorithm web crawler internet content capable searched web search engine generally described deep web deep web invisible web hidden web parts world wide web whose contents indexed standard web search engines opposite term deep web surface web accessible anyone using internet computer scientist michael k. bergman credited coining term deep web 2001 search indexing term content deep web hidden behind http forms includes many common uses web mail online banking services users must pay protected paywall video demand online magazines newspapers among others content deep web located accessed direct url ip address may require password security access past public website page web cache server computer located either public internet within enterprise stores recently accessed web pages improve response time users content requested within certain time original request web browsers also implement browser cache writing recently obtained data local data storage device http requests browser may ask data changed since last access web pages resources may contain expiration information control caching secure sensitive data online banking facilitate frequently updated sites news media even sites highly dynamic content may permit basic resources refreshed occasionally web site designers find worthwhile collate resources css data javascript site-wide files cached efficiently enterprise firewalls often cache web resources requested one user benefit many users search engines store cached content frequently accessed websites criminals web become venue spread malware engage range cybercrimes including identity theft fraud espionage intelligence gathering web-based vulnerabilities outnumber traditional computer security concerns measured google one ten web pages may contain malicious code web-based attacks take place legitimate websites measured sophos hosted united states china russia common malware threats sql injection attacks websites html uris web vulnerable attacks like cross-site scripting xss came introduction javascript exacerbated degree web 2.0 ajax web design favours use scripts today one estimate 70 websites open xss attacks users phishing another common threat web february 2013 rsa security division emc estimated global losses phishing 1.5 billion 2012 two well-known phishing methods covert redirect open redirect proposed solutions vary large security companies like mcafee already design governance compliance suites meet post-9/11 regulations like finjan recommended active real-time inspection programming code content regardless source argued enterprises see web security business opportunity rather cost centre others call ubiquitous always-on digital rights management enforced infrastructure replace hundreds companies secure data networks jonathan zittrain said users sharing responsibility computing safety far preferable locking internet every time client requests web page server identify request ip address usually logs also unless set web browsers record requested web pages viewable history feature usually cache much content locally unless server-browser communication uses https encryption web requests responses travel plain text across internet viewed recorded cached intermediate systems another way hide personally identifiable information using vpn vpn encrypts online traffic masks original ip address lowering chance user identification web page asks user supplies personally identifiable information—such real name address e-mail address etc.—web-based entities associate current web traffic individual website uses http cookies username password authentication tracking techniques relate web visits identifiable information provided way possible web-based organisation develop build profile individual people use site sites may able build record individual includes information leisure activities shopping interests profession aspects demographic profile profiles obviously potential interest marketeers advertisers others depending website terms conditions local laws apply information profiles may sold shared passed organisations without user informed many ordinary people means little unexpected e-mails in-box uncannily relevant advertising future web page others mean time spent indulging unusual interest result deluge targeted marketing may unwelcome law enforcement counter terrorism espionage agencies also identify target track individuals based interests proclivities web social networking sites try get users use real names interests locations rather pseudonyms executives believe makes social networking experience engaging users hand uploaded photographs unguarded statements identified individual may regret exposure employers schools parents relatives may influenced aspects social networking profiles text posts digital photos posting individual intend audiences on-line bullies may make use personal information harass stalk users modern social networking websites allow fine grained control privacy settings individual posting complex easy find use especially beginners photographs videos posted onto websites caused particular problems add person face on-line profile modern potential facial recognition technology may possible relate face previously anonymous images events scenarios imaged elsewhere due image caching mirroring copying difficult remove image world wide web web standards include many interdependent standards specifications govern aspects internet world wide web even web-focused standards directly indirectly affect development administration web sites web services considerations include interoperability accessibility usability web pages web sites web standards broader sense consist following web standards fixed sets rules constantly evolving set finalized technical specifications web technologies web standards developed standards organizations—groups interested often competing parties chartered task standardization—not technologies developed declared standard single individual company crucial distinguish specifications development ones already reached final development status case w3c specifications highest maturity level methods accessing web alternative mediums formats facilitate use individuals disabilities disabilities may visual auditory physical speech-related cognitive neurological combination accessibility features also help people temporary disabilities like broken arm ageing users abilities change web receives information well providing information interacting society world wide web consortium claims essential web accessible provide equal access equal opportunity people disabilities tim berners-lee noted power web universality access everyone regardless disability essential aspect many countries regulate web accessibility requirement websites international co-operation w3c web accessibility initiative led simple guidelines web content authors well software developers use make web accessible persons may may using assistive technology w3c internationalisation activity assures web technology works languages scripts cultures beginning 2004 2005 unicode gained ground eventually december 2007 surpassed ascii western european web frequently used character encoding originally allowed resources identified uri subset us-ascii allows characters—any character universal character set—and resource identified iri language 1-hop neighbor's text information: user_datagram_protocol.user datagram protocol computer networking user datagram protocol udp one core members internet protocol suite protocol designed david p. reed 1980 formally defined udp computer applications send messages case referred datagrams hosts internet protocol ip network prior communications required order set communication channels data paths udp uses simple connectionless communication model minimum protocol mechanisms udp provides checksums data integrity port numbers addressing different functions source destination datagram handshaking dialogues thus exposes user program unreliability underlying network guarantee delivery ordering duplicate protection error-correction facilities needed network interface level application may use transmission control protocol tcp stream control transmission protocol sctp designed purpose udp suitable purposes error checking correction either necessary performed application udp avoids overhead processing protocol stack time-sensitive applications often use udp dropping packets preferable waiting packets delayed due retransmission may option real-time system udp simple message-oriented transport layer protocol documented although udp provides integrity verification via checksum header payload provides guarantees upper layer protocol message delivery udp layer retains state udp messages sent reason udp sometimes referred unreliable datagram protocol transmission reliability desired must implemented user application number udp attributes make especially suited certain applications applications use datagram sockets establish host-to-host communications application binds socket endpoint data transmission combination ip address port way udp provides application multiplexing port software structure identified port number 16 bit integer value allowing port numbers 0 65535 port 0 reserved permissible source port value sending process expect messages response internet assigned numbers authority iana divided port numbers three ranges port numbers 0 1023 used common well-known services unix-like operating systems using one ports requires superuser operating permission port numbers 1024 49151 registered ports used iana-registered services ports 49152 65535 dynamic ports officially designated specific service may used purpose may also used ephemeral ports software running host may use dynamically create communications endpoints needed udp header consists 4 fields 2 bytes 16 bits use checksum source port fields optional ipv4 pink background table ipv6 source port field optional method used compute checksum defined words 16-bit words summed using one complement arithmetic add 16-bit values addition carry-out 17th bit produced swing 17th carry bit around add least significant bit running total finally sum one complemented yield value udp checksum field checksum calculation results value zero 16 bits 0 sent one complement 1s zero-value checksum indicates checksum calculated difference ipv4 ipv6 pseudo header used compute checksum checksum optional ipv6 udp runs ipv4 checksum computed using pseudo header contains information real ipv4 header pseudo header real ipv4 header used send ip packet used checksum calculation source destination addresses ipv4 header protocol udp see list ip protocol numbers 17 0x11 udp length field length udp header data field data stands transmitted data udp checksum computation optional ipv4 checksum used set value zero udp runs ipv6 checksum mandatory method used compute changed documented computing checksum pseudo header used mimics real ipv6 header source address one ipv6 header destination address final destination ipv6 packet contain routing header destination address ipv6 header otherwise originating node address last element routing header receiving node destination address ipv6 header value next header field protocol value udp 17 udp length field length udp header data lacking reliability udp applications must generally willing accept loss errors duplication applications tftp may add rudimentary reliability mechanisms application layer needed often udp applications employ reliability mechanisms may even hindered streaming media real-time multiplayer games voice ip voip examples applications often use udp particular applications loss packets usually fatal problem application requires high degree reliability protocol transmission control protocol may used instead voip example latency jitter primary concerns use tcp would cause jitter packets lost tcp provide subsequent data application requesting re-sending missing data using udp end user applications must provide necessary handshaking real time confirmation message received numerous key internet applications use udp including domain name system dns queries must fast consist single request followed single reply packet simple network management protocol snmp routing information protocol rip dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp voice video traffic generally transmitted using udp real-time video audio streaming protocols designed handle occasional lost packets slight degradation quality occurs rather large delays lost packets retransmitted tcp udp run network many businesses finding recent increase udp traffic real-time applications hindering performance applications using tcp point sale accounting database systems tcp detects packet loss throttle back data rate usage since real-time business applications important businesses developing quality service solutions seen crucial vpn systems openvpn may use udp implementing reliable connections error checking application level transmission control protocol connection-oriented protocol means requires handshaking set end-to-end communications connection set user data may sent bi-directionally connection user datagram protocol simpler message-based connectionless protocol connectionless protocols set dedicated end-to-end connection communication achieved transmitting information one direction source destination without verifying readiness state receiver 1-hop neighbor's text information: url.url uniform resource locator url colloquially termed web address reference web resource specifies location computer network mechanism retrieving url specific type uniform resource identifier uri although many people use two terms interchangeably urls occur commonly reference web pages http also used file transfer ftp email mailto database access jdbc many applications web browsers display url web page page address bar typical url could form codice_1 indicates protocol codice_2 hostname codice_3 file name codice_4 uniform resource locators defined 1994 tim berners-lee inventor world wide web uri working group internet engineering task force ietf outcome collaboration started ietf living documents birds feather session 1992 format combines pre-existing system domain names created 1985 file path syntax slashes used separate directory filenames conventions already existed server names could prefixed complete file paths preceded double slash codice_5 berners-lee later expressed regret use dots separate parts domain name within uris wishing used slashes throughout also said given colon following first component uri two slashes domain name unnecessary early 1993 draft html specification referred universal resource locators dropped time june 1994 rfc 1630 october 1994 draft-ietf-uri-url-08.txt every http url conforms syntax generic uri web browser usually dereference url performing http request specified host default port number 80 urls using codice_6 scheme require requests responses made secure connection website internet users distributed throughout world using wide variety languages alphabets expect able create urls local alphabets internationalized resource identifier iri form url includes unicode characters modern browsers support iris parts url requiring special treatment different alphabets domain name path domain name iri known internationalized domain name idn web internet software automatically convert domain name punycode usable domain name system example chinese url codice_7 becomes codice_8 codice_9 indicates character originally ascii url path name also specified user local writing system already encoded converted utf-8 characters part basic url character set escaped hexadecimal using percent-encoding example japanese url codice_10 becomes codice_11 target computer decodes address displays page protocol-relative links prl also known protocol-relative urls prurl urls protocol specified example codice_12 use protocol current page either http https Target text information: url_subscription_architecture.url subscription architecture url subscription architecture urlsa open system subscribing frequently updated digital content web blogs news stories private conversations designed alternative rss supports social subscribing private subscriptions rich content urlsa users subscribe users url content subscribed notified content url updated users typically maintain list subscriptions everything news stories conversations architecture allows users generate private content conversation photo album fly subscribe users fact urlsa content-less architecture users subscribe url content rather content means virtually type content addressable url made subscribable urlsa specifies strict protocol behavior followed creating updating cancelling subscriptions contrast rss data format architecturally urlsa activity happens two types independent applications subscription managers host user accounts content providers provide subscribable urls interact mainly via set well-defined web service calls user subscribes url subscription manager contacts url content provider establishes subscription urlsa user also subscribe another user url assuming subscribing user given permission user subscribes someone else url subscription manager contacts user subscription manager initiates subscribing mechanism behalf user user subscribed url content provider notify updates content url update happens content provider immediately pushes notification users subscribed url time user may unsubscribe url time updates cease interprocess communication urlsa conducted via web services exception updates transmitted udp datagrams reasons efficiency I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	8,392	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: undefined_behavior.undefined behavior computer programming undefined behavior ub result executing computer code whose behavior prescribed language specification code adheres current state program happens translator source code makes certain assumptions assumptions satisfied execution behavior programming languages—most famously c c++—is undefined cases standards languages semantics certain operations described undefined cases typically represent unambiguous bugs code example indexing array outside bounds implementation allowed assume operations never occur correct standard-conforming program code case c/c++ compiler allowed give compile-time diagnostic cases required implementation considered correct whatever cases analogous don't-care terms digital logic responsibility programmer write code never invokes undefined behavior although compiler implementations allowed issue diagnostics happens assumption make various program transformations valid simplify proof correctness giving flexibility implementation result compiler often make optimizations also allows compile-time checks compilers static program analysis c community undefined behavior may humorously referred nasal demons comp.std.c post explained undefined behavior allowing compiler anything chooses even make demons fly nose circumstances specific restrictions undefined behavior example instruction set specifications cpu might leave behavior forms instruction undefined cpu supports memory protection specification probably include blanket rule stating user-accessible instruction may cause hole operating system security actual cpu would permitted corrupt user registers response instruction would allowed example switch supervisor mode documenting operation undefined behavior allows compilers assume operation never happen conforming program gives compiler information code information lead optimization opportunities example c language value codice_1 negative given signed integer overflow undefined behavior c compiler assume codice_2 always false thus codice_3 statement including call function codice_4 ignored compiler since test expression codice_3 side effects condition never satisfied code therefore semantically equivalent compiler forced assume signed integer overflow wraparound behavior transformation would legal optimizations become hard spot humans code complex optimizations like inlining take place another benefit allowing signed integer overflow undefined makes possible store manipulate variable value processor register larger size variable source code example type variable specified source code narrower native register width int 64-bit machine common scenario compiler safely use signed 64-bit integer variable machine code produces without changing defined behavior code program depended behavior 32-bit integer overflow compiler would insert additional logic compiling 64-bit machine overflow behavior machine instructions depends register width important benefit undefined signed integer overflow enables though require erroneous overflows detected compile-time static program analysis run-time checks clang gcc sanitizers valgrind overflow defined semantics wrap-around compile-time checks would possible c c++ standards several forms undefined behavior throughout offer increased liberty compiler implementations compile-time checks expense undefined run-time behavior present particular iso c standard appendix listing common sources undefined behavior moreover compilers required diagnose code relies undefined behavior hence common programmers even experienced ones rely undefined behavior either mistake simply well-versed rules language span hundreds pages result bugs exposed different compiler different settings used testing fuzzing dynamic undefined behavior checks enabled e.g clang sanitizers help catch undefined behavior diagnosed compiler static analyzers scenarios security critical undefined behavior lead security vulnerabilities software gcc developers changed compiler 2008 omitted certain overflow checks relied undefined behavior cert issued warning newer versions compiler linux weekly news pointed behavior observed pathscale c microsoft visual c++ 2005 several compilers warning later amended warn various compilers major forms undefined behavior c broadly classified spatial memory safety violations temporal memory safety violations integer overflow strict aliasing violations alignment violations unsequenced modifications data races loops neither perform i/o terminate c use automatic variable initialized yields undefined behavior integer division zero signed integer overflow indexing array outside defined bounds see buffer overflow null pointer dereferencing general instance undefined behavior leaves abstract execution machine unknown state causes behavior entire program undefined attempting modify string literal causes undefined behavior ref name= c++03 2.13.4/2 iso/iec 2003 iso/iec 14882:2003 e programming languages c++ §2.13.4 string literals lex.string para 2 /ref integer division zero results undefined behavior ref name= c++03 5.6/4 iso/iec 2003 iso/iec 14882:2003 e programming languages c++ §5.6 multiplicative operators expr.mul para 4 /ref certain pointer operations may result undefined behavior ref name= c++03 5.6/5 iso/iec 2003 iso/iec 14882:2003 e programming languages c++ §5.7 additive operators expr.add para 5 /ref c c++ comparison pointers objects strictly defined pointers point members object elements array. ref name= c++03 5.9/2 iso/iec 2003 iso/iec 14882:2003 e programming languages c++ §5.9 relational operators expr.rel para 2 /ref example reaching end value-returning function main without return statement results undefined behavior value function call used caller ref name= c99 6.9.1/12 iso/iec 2007 iso/iec 9899:2007 e programming languages c §6.9 external definitions para 1 /ref modifying object two sequence points produces undefined behavior considerable changes causes undefined behavior relation sequence points c++11 following example however cause undefined behavior c++ c. modifying object two sequence points reading value object purpose determining value stored also undefined behavior. ref name= c99 6.5/2 iso/iec 1999 iso/iec 9899:1999 e programming languages c §6.5 expressions para 2 /ref c/c++ bitwise shifting value number bits either negative number greater equal total number bits value results undefined behavior safest way regardless compiler vendor always keep number bits shift right operand « » bitwise operators within range codice_6 1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_microsystems.sun microsystems sun microsystems inc. american company sold computers computer components software information technology services created java programming language solaris operating system zfs network file system nfs sparc sun contributed significantly evolution several key computing technologies among unix risc processors thin client computing virtualized computing sun founded february 24 1982 height sun headquarters santa clara california part silicon valley former west campus agnews developmental center april 20 2009 announced oracle corporation would acquire sun 7.4 billion deal completed january 27 2010 sun products included computer servers workstations built risc-based sparc processor architecture well x86-based amd opteron intel xeon processors sun also developed storage systems suite software products including solaris operating system developer tools web infrastructure software identity management applications technologies included java platform nfs general sun proponent open systems particularly unix also major contributor open-source software evidenced 1 billion purchase 2008 mysql open-source relational database management system various times sun manufacturing facilities several locations worldwide including newark california hillsboro oregon linlithgow scotland however time company acquired oracle outsourced manufacturing responsibilities initial design became sun first unix workstation sun-1 conceived andy bechtolsheim graduate student stanford university palo alto california bechtolsheim originally designed sun workstation stanford university network communications project personal cad workstation designed around motorola 68000 processor advanced memory management unit mmu support unix operating system virtual memory support built first ones spare parts obtained stanford department computer science silicon valley supply houses february 24 1982 scott mcnealy andy bechtolsheim vinod khosla stanford graduate students founded sun microsystems bill joy berkeley primary developer berkeley software distribution bsd joined soon counted one original founders sun name derived initials stanford university network sun profitable first quarter july 1982 1983 sun known producing 68k-based systems high-quality graphics computers dec vax run 4.2bsd licensed computer design manufacturers typically used build multibus-based systems running unix unisoft sun initial public offering 1986 stock symbol sunw sun workstations later sun worldwide symbol changed 2007 java sun stated brand awareness associated java platform better represented company current strategy sun logo features four interleaved copies word sun form rotationally symmetric ambigram designed professor vaughan pratt also stanford initial version logo orange sides oriented horizontally vertically subsequently rotated stand one corner re-colored purple later blue dot-com bubble sun began making much money shares rose dramatically also began spending much hiring workers building genuine demand much web start-up companies anticipating business would never happen 2000 bubble burst sales sun important hardware division went free-fall customers closed shop auctioned high-end servers several quarters steep losses led executive departures rounds layoffs cost cutting december 2001 stock fell 1998 pre-bubble level 100 kept falling faster many tech companies year later dipped 10 tenth even 1990 bounced back 20 mid-2004 sun closed newark california factory consolidated manufacturing hillsboro oregon 2006 rest newark campus put market 2004 sun canceled two major processor projects emphasized high instruction-level parallelism operating frequency instead company chose concentrate processors optimized multi-threading multiprocessing ultrasparc t1 processor codenamed niagara company also announced collaboration fujitsu use japanese company processor chips mid-range high-end sun servers servers announced april 17 2007 m-series part sparc enterprise series february 2005 sun announced sun grid grid computing deployment offered utility computing services priced us 1 per cpu/hour processing per gb/month storage offering built upon existing 3,000-cpu server farm used internal r 10 years sun marketed able achieve 97 utilization august 2005 first commercial use grid announced financial risk simulations later launched first software service product january 2005 sun reported net profit 19 million fiscal 2005 second quarter first time three years followed net loss 9 million gaap basis third quarter 2005 reported april 14 2005 january 2007 sun reported net gaap profit 126 million revenue 3.337 billion fiscal second quarter shortly following news announced kohlberg kravis roberts kkr would invest 700 million company sun engineering groups bangalore beijing dublin grenoble hamburg prague st. petersburg tel aviv tokyo trondheim 2007–2008 sun posted revenue 13.8 billion 2 billion cash first-quarter 2008 losses 1.68 billion revenue fell 7 12.99 billion sun stock lost 80 value november 2007 november 2008 reducing company market value 3 billion falling sales large corporate clients sun announced plans lay 5,000 6,000 workers 15–18 work force expected save 700 million 800 million year result moves also taking 600 million charges may 11 2009 following shareholders held 100,000 common shares sun 9.50 per share offered oracle received amounts indicated acquisition closed first decade sun history company positioned products technical workstations competing successfully low-cost vendor workstation wars 1980s shifted hardware product line emphasize servers storage high-level telecom control systems operational support systems service predominantly used sun equipment sun originally used motorola 68000 family central processing units sun-1 sun-3 computer series sun-1 employed 68000 cpu sun-2 series 68010 sun-3 series based 68020 later sun-3x using 68030 1987 company began using sparc risc processor architecture design computer systems starting sun-4 line sparc initially 32-bit architecture sparc v7 introduction sparc v9 architecture 1995 added 64-bit extensions sun developed several generations sparc-based computer systems including sparcstation ultra sun blade series workstations sparcserver netra enterprise sun fire line servers early 1990s company began extend product line include large-scale symmetric multiprocessing servers starting four-processor sparcserver 600mp followed 8-processor sparcserver 1000 20-processor sparccenter 2000 based work done conjunction xerox parc 1995 company introduced sun ultra series machines equipped first 64-bit implementation sparc processors ultrasparc late 1990s transformation product line favor large 64-bit smp systems accelerated acquisition cray business systems division silicon graphics 32-bit 64-processor cray superserver 6400 related sparccenter led 64-bit sun enterprise 10000 high-end server otherwise known starfire september 2004 sun made available systems ultrasparc iv first multi-core sparc processor followed ultrasparc iv+ september 2005 revisions higher clock speeds 2007 cpus used powerful enterprise class high-end cc-numa servers developed sun sun fire e25k november 2005 sun launched ultrasparc t1 notable ability concurrently run 32 threads execution 8 processor cores intent drive efficient use cpu resources particular importance data centers increasing need reduce power air conditioning demands much comes heat generated cpus t1 followed 2007 ultrasparc t2 extended number threads per core 4 8 sun open sourced design specifications t1 t2 processors via opensparc project 2006 sun ventured blade server high density rack-mounted systems market sun blade distinct sun blade workstation april 2007 sun released sparc enterprise server products jointly designed sun fujitsu based fujitsu sparc64 vi later processors m-class sparc enterprise systems include high-end reliability availability features later t-series servers also badged sparc enterprise rather sun fire april 2008 sun released servers ultrasparc t2 plus smp capable version ultrasparc t2 available 2 4 processor configurations first coolthreads cpu multi-processor capability made possible build standard rack-mounted servers could simultaneously process massive 256 cpu threads hardware sun sparc enterprise t5440 considered record industry since 2010 development sun machines based sparc architecture including new sparc t-series servers sparc t3 t4 chips done part oracle corporation hardware division late 1980s sun also marketed intel 80386-based machine sun386i designed hybrid system running sunos time supporting dos applications remained market brief time follow-up 486i upgrade announced prototype units ever manufactured sun brief first foray x86 systems ended early 1990s decided concentrate sparc retire last motorola systems 386i products move dubbed mcnealy wood behind one arrowhead even sun kept hand x86 world release solaris pc compatibles began shipping 1993 1997 sun acquired diba inc. followed later acquisition cobalt networks 2000 aim building network appliances single function computers meant consumers sun also marketed network computer term popularized eventually trademarked oracle javastation diskless system designed run java applications although none business initiatives particularly successful cobalt purchase gave sun toehold return x86 hardware market 2002 sun introduced first general purpose x86 system lx50 based part previous cobalt system expertise also sun first system announced support linux well solaris 2003 sun announced strategic alliance amd produce x86/x64 servers based amd opteron processor followed shortly sun acquisition kealia startup founded original sun founder andy bechtolsheim focusing high-performance amd-based servers following year sun launched opteron-based sun fire v20z v40z servers java workstation w1100z w2100z workstations september 12 2005 sun unveiled new range opteron-based servers sun fire x2100 x4100 x4200 servers designed scratch team led bechtolsheim address heat power consumption issues commonly faced data centers july 2006 sun fire x4500 x4600 systems introduced extending line x64 systems support solaris also linux microsoft windows january 22 2007 sun announced broad strategic alliance intel intel endorsed solaris mainstream operating system mission critical unix xeon processor-based systems contributed engineering resources opensolaris sun began using intel xeon processor x64 server line starting sun blade x6250 server module introduced june 2007 may 5 2008 amd announced operating system research center osrc expanded focus include optimization sun opensolaris xvm virtualization products amd based processors although sun initially known hardware company software history began founding 1982 co-founder bill joy one leading unix developers time contributed vi editor c shell significant work developing tcp/ip bsd unix os sun later developed software java programming language acquired software staroffice virtualbox mysql sun used community-based open-source licensing major technologies support products open source technologies gnome-based desktop software called java desktop system originally code-named madhatter distributed solaris operating system one point linux sun supported java enterprise system middleware stack linux released source code solaris open-source common development distribution license via opensolaris community sun positioning includes commitment indemnify users software intellectual property disputes concerning software offers support services variety pricing bases including per-employee per-socket 2006 report prepared eu unu-merit stated sun largest corporate contributor open source movements world according report sun open source contributions exceed combined total next five largest commercial contributors sun best known unix systems reputation system stability consistent design philosophy sun first workstation shipped unisoft v7 unix later 1982 sun began providing sunos customized 4.1bsd unix operating system workstations late 1980s tapped sun help develop next release branded unix 1988 announced would purchase 20 stake sun unix system v release 4 svr4 jointly developed sun sun used svr4 foundation solaris 2.x became successor sunos 4.1.x later retrospectively named solaris 1.x mid-1990s ensuing unix wars largely subsided sold unix interests relationship two companies significantly reduced 1992 sun also sold interactive unix operating system acquired bought interactive systems corporation eastman kodak company popular unix variant pc platform major competitor market leader sco unix sun focus interactive unix diminished favor solaris sparc x86 systems dropped product 2001 sun dropped solaris 2.x version numbering scheme solaris 2.6 release 1997 following version branded solaris 7 first 64-bit release intended new ultrasparc cpus based sparc v9 architecture within next four years successors solaris 8 solaris 9 released 2000 2002 respectively following several years difficult competition loss server market share competitors linux-based systems sun began include linux part strategy 2002 sun supported red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server x64 systems companies canonical ltd. wind river systems montavista also supported versions linux sun sparc-based systems 2004 cultivated reputation one microsoft vocal antagonists sun entered joint relationship resolving various legal entanglements two companies receiving us 1.95 billion settlement payments sun supported microsoft windows x64 systems announced collaborative agreements microsoft including plans support virtualization environments 2005 company released solaris 10 new version included large number enhancements operating system well novel features previously unseen industry solaris 10 update releases continued next 8 years last release sun microsystems solaris 10 10/09 following updates released oracle new license agreement final release solaris 10 1/13 previously sun offered separate variant solaris called trusted solaris included augmented security features multilevel security least privilege access model solaris 10 included many capabilities trusted solaris time initial release solaris 10 11/06 included solaris trusted extensions give remaining capabilities needed make functional successor trusted solaris releasing solaris 10 source code opened cddl free software license developed open contributing opensolaris community sxce used svr4 .pkg packaging supported opensolaris releases used ips following acquisition sun oracle opensolaris continued develop open illumos illumos distributions oracle corporation continued develop opensolaris next solaris release changing back license proprietary released oracle solaris 11 november 2011 java platform developed sun james gosling early 1990s objective allowing programs function regardless device used sparking slogan write run anywhere wora objective entirely achieved prompting riposte write debug everywhere java regarded largely hardware- operating system-independent java initially promoted platform client-side applets running inside web browsers early examples java applications hotjava web browser hotjava views suite however since java successful server side internet platform consists three major parts java programming language java virtual machine jvm several java application programming interfaces apis design java platform controlled vendor user community java community process jcp java object-oriented programming language since introduction late 1995 became one world popular programming languages java programs compiled byte code executed jvm regardless environment java apis provide extensive set library routines apis evolved standard edition java se provides basic infrastructure gui functionality enterprise edition java ee aimed large software companies implementing enterprise-class application servers micro edition java used build software devices limited resources mobile devices november 13 2006 sun announced would licensing java implementation gnu general public license released java compiler jvm time february 2009 sun entered battle microsoft adobe systems promoted rival platforms build software applications internet javafx development platform music video applications builds java programming language 1999 sun acquired german software company star division office suite staroffice sun later released openoffice.org gnu lgpl sissl sun industry standards source license openoffice.org supported microsoft office file formats though perfectly available many platforms primarily linux microsoft windows mac os x solaris used open source community principal differences staroffice openoffice.org staroffice supported sun available either single-user retail box kit per-user blocks licensing enterprise included wider range fonts document templates commercial quality spellchecker staroffice also contained commercially licensed functions add-ons openoffice.org either replaced open-source free variants present packages native support opendocument format 2007 sun announced sun xvm virtualization datacenter automation product suite commodity hardware sun also acquired virtualbox 2008 earlier virtualization technologies sun like dynamic system domains dynamic reconfiguration specifically designed high-end sparc servers logical domains supports ultrasparc t1/t2/t2 plus server platforms sun marketed sun ops center provisioning software datacenter automation client side sun offered virtual desktop solutions desktop environments applications could hosted datacenter users accessing environments wide range client devices including microsoft windows pcs sun ray virtual display clients apple macintoshes pdas combination supported devices variety networks supported lan wan public internet virtual desktop products included sun ray server software sun secure global desktop sun virtual desktop infrastructure sun acquired mysql ab developer mysql database 2008 us 1 billion ceo jonathan schwartz mentioned blog optimizing performance mysql one priorities acquisition february 2008 sun began publish results mysql performance optimization work sun contributed postgresql project java platform sun contributed supported java db sun offered software products software development infrastructure services many developed house others came acquisitions including tarantella waveset technologies seebeyond vaau sun acquired many netscape non-browser software products part deal involving netscape merger aol software products initially offered iplanet brand sun-netscape alliance ended re-branded sun one sun open network environment sun java system sun middleware product branded java enterprise system jes marketed web application serving communication calendaring directory identity management service-oriented architecture sun open esb software suites available free charge systems running solaris red hat enterprise linux hp-ux windows support available optionally sun developed data center management software products included solaris cluster high availability software grid management package called sun grid engine firewall software sunscreen network equipment providers telecommunications customers sun developed sun netra high-availability suite sun produced compilers development tools sun studio brand building developing solaris linux applications sun entered software service saas market zembly social cloud-based computing platform project kenai open-source project hosting service sun sold storage systems complement system offerings also made several storage-related acquisitions june 2 2005 sun announced would purchase storage technology corporation storagetek us 4.1 billion cash 37.00 per share deal completed august 2005 2006 sun introduced sun storagetek 5800 system first application-aware programmable storage solution 2008 sun contributed source code storagetek 5800 system bsd license sun announced sun open storage platform 2008 built open source technologies late 2008 sun announced sun storage 7000 unified storage systems codenamed amber road transparent placement data systems solid-state drives ssd conventional hard drives managed zfs take advantage speed ssds economy conventional hard disks storage products included sun fire x4500 storage server sam-qfs filesystem storage management software sun marketed sun constellation system high-performance computing hpc even introduction sun constellation system 2007 sun products use many top500 systems supercomputing centers sun hpc clustertools product set message passing interface mpi libraries tools running parallel jobs solaris hpc clusters beginning version 7.0 sun switched implementation mpi open mpi donated engineering resources open mpi project sun participant openmp language committee sun studio compilers tools implemented openmp specification shared memory parallelization 2006 sun built tsubame supercomputer june 2008 fastest supercomputer asia sun built ranger texas advanced computing center tacc 2007 ranger peak performance 500 tflops 6th powerful supercomputer top500 list november 2008 sun announced opensolaris distribution integrated sun hpc products others notable sun employees included john gilmore whitfield diffie radia perlman marc tremblay sun early advocate unix-based networked computing promoting tcp/ip especially nfs reflected company motto network computer coined john gage james gosling led team developed java programming language jon bosak led creation xml specification w3c sun staff published articles company blog site staff encouraged use site blog aspect work personal life restrictions placed staff commercially confidential material jonathan i. schwartz one first ceos large companies regularly blog postings frequently quoted analyzed press 2005 sun microsystems one first fortune 500 companies instituted formal social media program sun sold oracle corporation 2009 5.6b sun staff asked share anecdotes experiences sun web site containing videos stories photographs 27 years sun made available september 2 2009 october sun announced second round thousands employees laid blamed partially delays approval merger transaction completed early 2010 january 2011 oracle agreed pay 46 million settle charges submitted false claims us federal government agencies paid kickbacks systems integrators february 2011 sun former menlo park california campus sold announced would become headquarters facebook sprawling facility built around enclosed courtyard nicknamed sun quentin september 1 2011 sun india legally became part oracle delayed due legal issues indian court 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: peter_van_der_linden.peter van der linden peter van der linden born 1963 dutch technologist author worked companies sun microsystems apple computer written books java c linux practical jokes currently 2010 android technology evangelist motorola mobility I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,278	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: database_forensics.database forensics database forensics branch digital forensic science relating forensic study databases related metadata discipline similar computer forensics following normal forensic process applying investigative techniques database contents metadata cached information may also exist servers ram requiring live analysis techniques forensic examination database may relate timestamps apply update time row relational table inspected tested validity order verify actions database user alternatively forensic examination may focus identifying transactions within database system application indicate evidence wrongdoing fraud software tools used manipulate analyse data tools also provide audit logging capabilities provide documented proof tasks analysis forensic examiner performed database currently many database software tools general reliable precise enough used forensic work demonstrated first paper published database forensics currently single book published field though destined additionally subsequent sql server forensics book kevvie fowler named sql server forensics well regarded also forensic study relational databases requires knowledge standard used encode data computer disk documentation standards used encode information well-known brands db sql server oracle contributed public domain others include apex analytix forensic analysis database executed isolation technological framework within subject database exists crucial understanding resolving questions data authenticity integrity especially relates database users 1-hop neighbor's text information: foremost_(software).foremost software foremost forensic data recovery program linux used recover files using headers footers data structures process known file carving although written law enforcement use freely available used general data recovery tool foremost created march 2001 duplicate functionality dos program carvthis use linux platform foremost originally written special agents kris kendall jesse kornblum u.s. air force office special investigations 2005 program modified nick mikus research associate naval postgraduate school center information systems security studies research part master thesis modifications included improvements foremost accuracy extraction rates foremost designed ignore type underlying filesystem directly read copy portions drive computer memory takes portions one segment time using process known file carving searches memory file header type matches ones found foremost configuration file match found writes header data following file stopping either footer found file size limit reached foremost used command-line interface graphical user interface option available able recover specific filetypes including jpg gif png bmp avi exe mpg wav riff wmv mov pdf ole doc zip rar htm cpp configuration file usually found /usr/local/etc/foremost.conf used define additional file types foremost used recover data image files directly hard drives use ext3 ntfs fat filesystems foremost also used via computer recover data iphones 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_digital_forensics_tools.list digital forensics tools 1980s digital forensic investigations consisted live analysis examining digital media directly using non-specialist tools 1990s several freeware proprietary tools hardware software created allow investigations take place without modifying media first set tools mainly focused computer forensics although recent years similar tools evolved field mobile device forensics list includes notable examples digital forensic tools memory forensics tools used acquire analyze computer volatile memory ram often used incident response situations preserve evidence memory would lost system shut quickly detect stealthy malware directly examining operating system running software memory mobile forensics tools tend consist hardware software component mobile phones come diverse range connectors hardware devices support number different cables perform role write blocker computer devices software forensics science analyzing software source code binary code determine whether intellectual property infringement theft occurred centerpiece lawsuits trials settlements companies dispute issues involving software patents copyrights trade secrets software forensics tools compare code determine correlation measure used guide software forensics expert Target text information: ptk_forensics.ptk forensics ptk forensics ptk non-free commercial gui old versions digital forensics tool sleuth kit tsk also includes number software modules investigating digital media software developed anymore ptk runs gui interface sleuth kit acquiring indexing digital media investigation indexes stored sql database searching part digital investigation ptk calculates hash signature using sha-1 md5 acquired media verification consistency purposes I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,099	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: pyspark.pyspark apache spark open-source distributed general-purpose cluster-computing framework released support python spark pyspark provides interface programming entire clusters implicit data parallelism fault tolerance following sub-packages provided following classes marked core classes sample code may look like follows 1-hop neighbor's text information: gustafson's_law.gustafson law computer architecture gustafson law gustafson–barsis law gives theoretical speedup latency execution task fixed execution time expected system whose resources improved named computer scientist john l. gustafson colleague edwin h. barsis presented article reevaluating amdahl law 1988 gustafson estimated speedup gained using n processors instead one task serial fraction benefit parallelism follows using different variables gustafson law formulated following way gustafson law addresses shortcomings amdahl law based assumption fixed problem size execution workload change respect improvement resources gustafson law instead proposes programmers tend set size problems fully exploit computing power becomes available resources improve therefore faster equipment available larger problems solved within time impact gustafson law shift research goals select reformulate problems solving larger problem amount time would possible way law redefines efficiency due possibility limitations imposed sequential part program may countered increasing total amount computation task executed system whose resources improved compared initial similar system split two parts example — computer program processes files disk part program may scan directory disk create list files internally memory another part program passes file separate thread processing part scans directory creates file list sped parallel computer part processes files execution workload whole task improvement resources system denoted formula_3 includes execution workload part benefit improvement resources execution workload one benefits fraction execution workload would benefit improvement resources denoted formula_4 fraction concerning part would benefit therefore execution part benefits improvement resources sped factor formula_6 improvement resources consequently execution workload part benefit remains theoretical execution workload formula_7 whole task improvement resources gustafson law gives theoretical speedup latency execution whole task fixed time formula_9 yields amdahl law presupposes computing requirements stay given increased processing power words analysis data take less time given computing power gustafson hand argues computing power cause data carefully fully analyzed pixel pixel unit unit rather larger scale would possible practical simulate impact nuclear detonation every building car contents including furniture structure strength etc calculation would taken time available provide answer increase computing power prompt researchers add data fully simulate variables giving accurate result amdahl law reveals limitation example ability multiple cores reduce time takes computer boot operating system ready use assuming boot process mostly parallel quadrupling computing power system took one minute load might reduce boot time fifteen seconds greater greater parallelization would eventually fail make bootup go faster part boot process inherently sequential gustafson law argues fourfold increase computing power would instead lead similar increase expectations system capable one-minute load time acceptable users starting point increase features functions system time taken boot operating system i.e one minute new system would include graphical user-friendly features problems fundamentally larger datasets example processing one data point per world citizen gets larger percent per year principal point gustafson law problems likely fruitful applications parallelism algorithms nonlinear runtimes may find hard take advantage parallelism exposed gustafson law snyder points n algorithm means double concurrency gives 26 increase problem size thus may possible occupy vast concurrency may bring little advantage original less concurrent solution—however practice still considerable improvements hill marty emphasize also methods speeding sequential execution still needed even multicore machines point locally inefficient methods globally efficient reduce sequential phase furthermore woo lee studied implication energy power future many-core processors based amdahl law showing asymmetric many-core processor achieve best possible energy efficiency activating optimal number cores given amount parallelism known prior execution 1-hop neighbor's text information: memory-level_parallelism.memory-level parallelism memory-level parallelism mlp term computer architecture referring ability pending multiple memory operations particular cache misses translation lookaside buffer tlb misses time single processor mlp may considered form instruction-level parallelism ilp however ilp often conflated superscalar ability execute one instruction time e.g processor intel pentium pro five-way superscalar ability start executing five different microinstructions given cycle handle four different cache misses 20 different load microinstructions time possible machine superscalar nevertheless high mlp arguably machine ilp superscalar executes one instruction time non-pipelined manner performs hardware prefetching software instruction-level prefetching exhibits mlp due multiple prefetches outstanding ilp multiple memory operations outstanding instructions instructions often conflated operations furthermore multiprocessor multithreaded computer systems may said exhibit mlp ilp due parallelism—but intra-thread single process ilp mlp often however restrict terms mlp ilp refer extracting parallelism appears non-parallel single threaded code Target text information: race_condition.race condition race condition race hazard behavior electronics software system system substantive behavior dependent sequence timing uncontrollable events becomes bug one possible behaviors undesirable term race condition already use 1954 example david a. huffman doctoral thesis synthesis sequential switching circuits race conditions occur especially logic circuits multithreaded distributed software programs typical example race condition may occur logic gate combines signals traveled along different paths source inputs gate change slightly different times response change source signal output may brief period change unwanted state settling back designed state certain systems tolerate glitches output functions clock signal systems contain memory example system rapidly depart designed behaviour effect temporary glitch becomes permanent glitch consider example two-input gate fed logic signal one input negation another input theory output never true however changes value take longer propagate second input first changes false true brief period ensue inputs true gate output also true design techniques karnaugh maps encourage designers recognize eliminate race conditions cause problems often logic redundancy added eliminate kinds races well problems logic elements enter metastable states create problems circuit designers critical race condition occurs order internal variables changed determines eventual state state machine end non-critical race condition occurs order internal variables changed determine eventual state state machine end static race condition occurs signal complement combined together dynamic race condition occurs results multiple transitions one intended due interaction gates eliminated using two levels gating essential race condition occurs input two transitions less total feedback propagation time sometimes cured using inductive delay line elements effectively increase time duration input signal race conditions arise software application depends sequence timing processes threads operate properly electronics critical race conditions result invalid execution bugs critical race conditions often happen processes threads depend shared state operations upon shared states critical sections must mutually exclusive failure obey rule opens possibility corrupting shared state concept called data race type race condition data races important parts various formal memory models notably memory model defined c11 c++11 standards specify c c++ program containing data race undefined behavior race conditions reputation difficult reproduce debug since end result nondeterministic depends relative timing interfering threads problems occurring production systems therefore disappear running debug mode additional logging added attaching debugger often referred heisenbug therefore better avoid race conditions careful software design rather attempting fix afterwards simple example let us assume two threads want increment value global integer variable one ideally following sequence operations would take place case shown final value 2 expected however two threads run simultaneously without locking synchronization outcome operation could wrong alternative sequence operations demonstrates scenario case final value 1 instead expected result 2 occurs increment operations mutually exclusive mutually exclusive operations interrupted accessing resource memory location regard data races subset race conditions precise definition data race specific formal concurrency model used typically refers situation memory operation one thread could potentially attempt access memory location time memory operation another thread writing memory location context dangerous implies data race different race condition possible nondeterminism due timing even program without data races example program memory accesses use atomic operations dangerous many platforms two threads write memory location time may possible memory location end holding value arbitrary meaningless combination bits representing values thread attempting write could result memory corruption resulting value one neither thread attempted write sometimes called 'torn write similarly one thread reads location another thread writing may possible read return value arbitrary meaningless combination bits representing value memory location held write bits representing value written many platforms special memory operations provided simultaneous access cases typically simultaneous access using special operations safe simultaneous access using memory operations dangerous sometimes special operations safe simultaneous access called atomic synchronization operations whereas ordinary operations unsafe simultaneous access called data operations probably term data race many platforms race condition involving synchronization operations race may nondeterministic otherwise safe data race could lead memory corruption undefined behavior precise definition data race differs across formal concurrency models matters concurrent behavior often non-intuitive formal reasoning sometimes applied c++ standard draft n4296 2014-11-19 defines data race follows section 1.10.23 page 14 two actions potentially concurrent execution program contains data race contains two potentially concurrent conflicting actions least one atomic neither happens except special case signal handlers described omitted data race results undefined behavior parts definition relating signal handlers idiosyncratic c++ typical definitions data race paper detecting data races weak memory systems provides different definition two memory operations conflict access location least one write operation ... two memory operations x sequentially consistent execution form race 〈x y〉 iff x conflict ordered hb1 relation execution race 〈x y〉 data race iff least one x data operation two memory operations accessing location one write hb1 relation defined elsewhere paper example typical happens-before relation intuitively prove situation one memory operation x guaranteed executed completion another memory operation begins say x happens-before neither x happens-before happens-before x say x ordered hb1 relation clause ... ordered hb1 relation execution intuitively translated ... x potentially simultaneous paper considers dangerous situations least one memory operations data operation parts paper paper also defines class synchronization operations safe potentially simultaneous use contrast data operations java language specification provides different definition two accesses reads writes variable said conflicting least one accesses write ... program contains two conflicting accesses §17.4.1 ordered happens-before relationship said contain data race ... data race cause incorrect behavior returning wrong length array critical difference c++ approach java approach c++ data race undefined behavior whereas java data race merely affects inter-thread actions means c++ attempt execute program containing data race could still adhering spec crash could exhibit insecure bizarre behavior whereas java attempt execute program containing data race may produce undesired concurrency behavior otherwise assuming implementation adheres spec safe important facet data races contexts program free data races guaranteed execute sequentially consistent manner greatly easing reasoning concurrent behavior program formal memory models provide guarantee said exhibit sc drf sequential consistency data race freedom property approach said achieved recent consensus presumably compared approaches guarantee sequential consistency cases approaches guarantee example java guarantee directly specified program correctly synchronized sequentially consistent executions free data races program correctly synchronized executions program appear sequentially consistent §17.4.3 extremely strong guarantee programmers programmers need reason reorderings determine code contains data races therefore need reason reorderings determining whether code correctly synchronized determination code correctly synchronized made programmer need worry reorderings affect code program must correctly synchronized avoid kinds counterintuitive behaviors observed code reordered use correct synchronization ensure overall behavior program correct however use allow programmer reason possible behaviors program simple way behavior correctly synchronized program much less dependent possible reorderings without correct synchronization strange confusing counterintuitive behaviors possible contrast draft c++ specification directly require sc drf property merely observes exists theorem providing note shown programs correctly use mutexes memory_order_seq_cst operations prevent data races use synchronization operations behave operations executed constituent threads simply interleaved value computation object taken last side effect object interleaving normally referred “ sequential consistency ” however applies data-race-free programs data-race-free programs observe program transformations change single-threaded program semantics fact single-threaded program transformations continue allowed since program behaves differently result must perform undefined operation.— end note note c++ draft specification admits possibility programs valid use synchronization operations memory_order memory_order_seq_cst case result may program correct guarantee sequentially consistency provided words c++ correct programs sequentially consistent approach thought give c++ programmers freedom choose faster program execution cost giving ease reasoning program various theorems often provided form memory models provide sc drf guarantees given various contexts premises theorems typically place constraints upon memory model therefore upon implementation also upon programmer say typically case programs meet premises theorem could guaranteed execute sequentially consistent manner drf1 memory model provides sc drf allows optimizations wo weak ordering rcsc release consistency sequentially consistent special operations vax memory model data-race-free-0 memory models plpc memory model provides sc drf allows optimizations tso total store order pso pc processor consistency rcpc release consistency processor consistency special operations models drfrlx provides sketch sc drf theorem presence relaxed atomics many software race conditions associated computer security implications race condition allows attacker access shared resource cause actors utilize resource malfunction resulting effects including denial service privilege escalation specific kind race condition involves checking predicate e.g authentication acting predicate state change time check time use kind bug exists security-sensitive code security vulnerability called time-of-check-to-time-of-use tocttou bug created race conditions also intentionally used create hardware random number generators physically unclonable functions pufs created designing circuit topologies identical paths node relying manufacturing variations randomly determine paths complete first measuring manufactured circuit specific set race condition outcomes profile collected circuit kept secret order later verify circuit identity two programs may collide attempts modify access file system result data corruption privilege escalation file locking provides commonly used solution cumbersome remedy involves organizing system way one unique process running daemon like exclusive access file processes need access data file via interprocess communication one process requires synchronization process level different form race condition exists file systems unrelated programs may affect suddenly using available resources disk space memory space processor cycles software carefully designed anticipate handle race situation may become unpredictable risk may overlooked long time system seems reliable eventually enough data may accumulate enough software may added critically destabilize many parts system example occurred near loss mars rover spirit long landing solution software request reserve resources need beginning task request fails task postponed avoiding many points failure could occurred alternatively points equipped error handling success entire task verified afterwards continuing common approach simply verify enough system resources available starting task however may adequate complex systems actions running programs unpredictable networking consider distributed chat network like irc user starts channel automatically acquires channel-operator privileges two users different servers different ends network try start same-named channel time user respective server grant channel-operator privileges user since neither server yet received server signal allocated channel problem largely solved various irc server implementations case race condition concept shared resource covers state network channels exist well users started therefore privileges server freely change long signals servers network changes update conception state network however latency across network makes possible kind race condition described case heading race conditions imposing form control access shared resource—say appointing one server control holds privileges—would mean turning distributed network centralized one least one part network operation race conditions also exist computer program written non-blocking sockets case performance program dependent speed network link software flaws life-critical systems disastrous race conditions among flaws therac-25 radiation therapy machine led death least three patients injuries several another example energy management system provided ge energy used ohio-based firstenergy corp among power facilities race condition existed alarm subsystem three sagging power lines tripped simultaneously condition prevented alerts raised monitoring technicians delaying awareness problem software flaw eventually led north american blackout 2003 ge energy later developed software patch correct previously undiscovered error neuroscience demonstrating race conditions occur mammal rat brains well many software tools exist help detect race conditions software largely categorized two groups static analysis tools dynamic analysis tools thread safety analysis static analysis tool annotation-based intra-procedural static analysis originally implemented branch gcc reimplemented clang supporting pthreads dynamic analysis tools include several benchmarks designed evaluate effectiveness data race detection tools I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,184	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: tcl.tcl tcl pronounced tickle tee cee ell high-level general-purpose interpreted dynamic programming language designed goal simple powerful tcl casts everything mold command even programming constructs like variable assignment procedure definition tcl supports multiple programming paradigms including object-oriented imperative functional programming procedural styles commonly used embedded c applications rapid prototyping scripted applications guis testing tcl interpreters available many operating systems allowing tcl code run wide variety systems tcl compact language used embedded systems platforms full form several small-footprint versions popular combination tcl tk extension referred tcl/tk enables building graphical user interface gui natively tcl tcl/tk included standard python installation form tkinter tcl programming language created spring 1988 john ousterhout working university california berkeley originally born frustration according author programmers devising languages intended embedded applications tcl gained acceptance ousterhout awarded acm software system award 1997 tcl/tk name originally comes tool command language conventionally spelled tcl rather tcl tcl conferences workshops held united states europe tcl features include safe-tcl subset tcl restricted features tcl scripts harm hosting machine application file system access limited arbitrary system commands prevented execution uses dual interpreter model untrusted interpreter running code untrusted script designed nathaniel borenstein marshall rose include active messages e-mail safe-tcl included e-mail application/safe-tcl multipart/enabled-mail supported functionality safe-tcl since incorporated part standard tcl/tk releases syntax semantics tcl covered twelve rules known dodekalogue tcl script consists series command invocations command invocation list words separated whitespace terminated newline semicolon first word name command may built language found available library defined script subsequent words serve arguments command following example uses puts command display string text host console sends string hello world standard output device along appended newline character variables results commands substituted strings example uses set expr commands store result calculation variable note tcl use codice_3 assignment operator uses puts short put string print result together explanatory text codice_4 character introduces comment comments appear anywhere interpreter expecting command name seen examples one basic construct language command quoting mechanisms substitution rules determine arguments command processed one special substitution occurs parsing commands arguments final character line i.e. immediately newline backslash backslash-newline combination spaces tabs immediately following newline replaced single space provides line continuation mechanism whereby long lines source code wrapped next line convenience readers continuing normal argument processing word begins double-quote character codice_5 extends next double-quote character word thus contain whitespace semicolons without characters interpreted special meaning i.e. treated normal text characters word begins opening curly-brace character codice_6 extends next closing curly-brace character codice_7 inside curly braces forms substitution suppressed except previously mentioned backslash-newline elimination words enclosed either construct known bare words bare double-quoted words three types substitution may occur substitution proceeds left-to-right single scan word substituted text scanned possible substitutions however number substitutions appear single word tcl 8.5 onwards word may prefixed codice_12 causes word split apart constituent sub-words purposes building command invocation similar codice_13 sequence lisp quasiquote feature consequence rules result command may used argument command also operator command string concatenation language concatenates directly note unlike unix command shells tcl reparse string unless explicitly directed makes interactive use cumbersome scripted use predictable e.g. presence spaces filenames cause difficulties single equality sign codice_3 serves special role language double equality sign codice_15 test equality used expression contexts codice_16 command first argument codice_17 commands part standard library special place library replaced desired majority tcl commands especially standard library variadic codice_18 constructor scripted command procedures allows one define default values unspecified arguments catch-all argument allow code process arbitrary numbers arguments tcl statically typed variable may contain integers floats strings lists command names dictionaries value values reinterpreted subject syntactic constraints types demand however values immutable operations appear change actually return new value instead important commands refer program execution data operations usual execution control commands looping commands additionally controlled following commands codice_1 allows command script executed scope current innermost scope stack command script may call procedures use uplevel command net effect transforming call stack call tree originally implemented permit tcl procedures reimplement built-in commands like still ability manipulate local variables example following tcl script reimplementation command omitting exception handling codice_2 arranges one local variables current procedure refer variables enclosing procedure call global variables upvar command simplifies implementation call-by-name procedure calling also makes easier build new control constructs tcl procedures decr command works like built-in codice_54 command except subtracts value variable instead adding tcl 8.6 added built-in dynamic object system tcloo 2012 includes features tcl object oriented oo syntax 2012 various extension packages emerged enable object-oriented programming widespread existing tcl source code popular extensions include tcloo added build strong object oriented system also enable extension packages build object oriented abstractions using foundation release tcloo incr tcl updated use tcloo foundation tcl web server pure-tcl implementation http protocol server runs script top vanilla tcl interpreter apache rivet open source programming system apache http server allows developers use tcl scripting language creating dynamic web applications rivet similar php asp jsp rivet primarily developed damon courtney david welton massimo manghi harald oehlmann karl lehenbauer rivet use thousands publicly available tcl packages offer countless features database interaction oracle postgresql mysql sqlite etc interfaces popular applications gd graphics library tcl interfaces natively c language originally written framework providing syntactic front-end commands written c commands language including things might otherwise keywords codice_17 codice_25 implemented way command implementation function passed array values describe already substituted arguments command free interpret values sees fit digital logic simulators often include tcl scripting interface simulating verilog vhdl systemverilog hardware languages tools exist e.g swig ffidl automatically generate necessary code connect arbitrary c functions tcl runtime critcl reverse allowing embedding arbitrary c code inside tcl script compiling runtime dll tcl language always allowed extension packages provide additional functionality gui terminal-based application automation database access commonly used extensions include 1-hop neighbor's text information: impromptu_(programming_environment).impromptu programming environment impromptu mac os x programming environment live coding impromptu built around scheme language member lisp family languages source code core opened extempore project environment allows make changes program runtime variables functions may redefined changes take effect immediately programmer also create schedule code future execution well data events notes graphics objects event scheduled execution continues looping performed using idiom called temporal recursion works function asynchronously schedule future call final action library allows communicating audio units audio synthesis graphics layers quicktime quartz core image opengl video composition code written objective-c called editor also objective-c frameworks perform calls scheme interpreter impromptu scheme interpreter initially built tinyscheme 1.35 baseline substantially modified since better suit live coding context real-time garbage collector objective-c integration added also new statically typed language called extempore language integrated system language syntactically scheme-like semantically closer c designed real-time sound synthesis computationally heavy tasks provides type inference compiled machine language llvm study keith live coding performance impromptu andrew sorensen first two minutes 1:56 silent performer writes program produce introduction piece modifies code fly evolve composition core impromptu released extempore bsd style licence runs linux mac os x includes scheme interpreter extempore language compiler scheduler bindings apple libraries absent environment interface dynamic libraries 1-hop neighbor's text information: dart_(programming_language).dart programming language dart client-optimized programming language fast apps multiple platforms developed google used build mobile desktop backend web applications dart object-oriented class defined garbage-collected language using c-style syntax transcompiles optionally javascript supports interfaces mixins abstract classes reified generics static typing sound type system dart unveiled goto conference aarhus denmark october 10–12 2011 project founded lars bak kasper lund dart 1.0 released november 14th 2013 august 2018 dart 2.0 released language changes including sound type system ecma international formed technical committee tc52 work standardizing dart inasmuch dart compiled standard javascript works effectively modern browser ecma international approved dart language specification first edition july 2014 107th general assembly second edition december 2014 latest specification available dart language specification three main ways run dart code achieve concurrency dart uses isolates independent workers share memory instead use message passing similar erlang processes see also actor model every dart program uses least one isolate main isolate since dart 2 dart web platform longer supports isolates suggests developers use web workers instead snapshots core part dart vm snapshots files store objects runtime data google introduced flutter native mobile app development android ios flutter mobile app sdk complete framework widgets tools gives developers way build deploy mobile apps written dart flutter works firebase mobile app sdks open source dart sdk contains two dart-to-javascript compilers development dartdevc supports quick refresh cycles final version app dart2js produces deployable javascript first compiler generate javascript dart code dartc deprecated second dart-to-javascript compiler frog written dart never implemented full semantics language third dart-to-javascript compiler dart2js evolution earlier compilers dart2js written dart intended implement full dart language specification semantics march 28 2013 dart team posted update blog addressing dart code compiled javascript dart2js compiler stating runs faster handwritten javascript chrome v8 javascript engine deltablue benchmark november 18 2011 google released dart editor open-source program based eclipse components mac os x windows linux-based operating systems editor supports syntax highlighting code completion javascript compiling running web server dart applications debugging august 13 2012 google announced release eclipse plugin dart development april 18 2015 google announced dart editor would retired favor jetbrains integrated development environment ide recommended ide language dart plugin available intellij idea pycharm phpstorm webstorm plugin supports many features syntax highlighting code completion analysis refactoring debugging plugins available editors like sublime text atom emacs vim visual studio code 2013 chromium team began work open source chrome app-based development environment reusable library gui widgets codenamed spark project later renamed chrome dev editor built dart contained spark powered polymer june 2015 google transferred cde project github free software project ceased active investment cde april 2019 chrome dev editor longer active development dart team created dartpad start 2015 provide easier way start using dart fully online editor users experiment dart application programming interfaces apis run dart code provides syntax highlighting code analysis code completion documentation html css editing 2013 john mccutchan announced created performant interface single instruction multiple data simd instruction sets dart interface consists two types instances types immutable optimized code mapped directly simd registers operations expressed dart typically compiled one instruction overhead similar c c++ intrinsics benchmarks 4×4 matrix multiplication 3d vertex transformation mandelbrot set visualization show near 400 speedup compared scalar code written dart hello world example main function calculate nth fibonacci number int fib int n n 2 fib n 1 fib n 2 1 // fibonacci function implementation ternary operator dart // code shall read // int n 2 return fib n 1 fib n 2 // otherwise return int 1 result void main simple class // import math library get access sqrt function import 'dart math math // create class point class point // dart programs start main void main dart descendant algol language family alongside c java c javascript others method cascade syntax provides syntactic shortcut invoking several methods one another object adopted smalltalk dart mixins influenced strongtalk ruby dart makes use isolates concurrency security unit structuring applications isolate concept builds upon actor model famously implemented erlang mirror api performing controlled secure reflection first proposed paper gilad bracha member dart team david ungar originally implemented self dart initially mixed reception dart initiative criticized fragmenting web due original plans include dart vm chrome plans dropped focus instead compiling dart javascript Target text information: objective-c.objective-c objective-c general-purpose object-oriented programming language adds smalltalk-style messaging c programming language main programming language supported apple macos ios ipados operating systems respective application programming interfaces apis cocoa cocoa touch introduction swift programming language objective-c originally developed early 1980s selected main language used next nextstep operating system macos ios derived portable objective-c programs use cocoa cocoa touch libraries using parts may ported reimplemented systems also compiled system supported gnu compiler collection gcc clang objective-c source code 'implementation program files usually filename extensions objective-c 'header/interface files extensions c header files objective-c++ files denoted file extension objective-c created primarily brad cox tom love early 1980s company stepstone introduced smalltalk itt corporation programming technology center 1981 earliest work objective-c traces back around time cox intrigued problems true reusability software design programming realized language like smalltalk would invaluable building development environments system developers itt however tom love also recognized backward compatibility c critically important itt telecom engineering milieu cox began writing pre-processor c add abilities smalltalk soon working implementation object-oriented extension c language called oopc object-oriented pre-compiler love hired schlumberger research 1982 opportunity acquire first commercial copy smalltalk-80 influenced development brainchild order demonstrate real progress could made cox showed making interchangeable software components really needed practical changes existing tools specifically needed support objects flexible manner come supplied usable set libraries allow code resources needed code bundled one cross-platform format love cox eventually formed new venture productivity products international ppi commercialize product coupled objective-c compiler class libraries 1986 cox published main description objective-c original form book object-oriented programming evolutionary approach although careful point problem reusability language objective-c often found compared feature feature languages 1988 next licensed objective-c stepstone new name ppi owner objective-c trademark extended gcc compiler support objective-c. next developed appkit foundation kit libraries nextstep user interface interface builder based next workstations failed make great impact marketplace tools widely lauded industry led next drop hardware production focus software tools selling nextstep openstep platform custom programming order circumvent terms gpl next originally intended ship objective-c frontend separately allowing user link gcc produce compiler executable initially accepted richard m. stallman plan rejected stallman consulted gnu lawyers next agreed make objective-c part gcc work extend gcc led steve naroff joined next stepstone compiler changes made available per gpl license terms runtime libraries rendering open source contribution unusable general public led parties developing runtime libraries open source license later steve naroff also principal contributor work apple build objective-c frontend clang gnu project started work free software implementation cocoa named gnustep based openstep standard dennis glatting wrote first gnu objective-c runtime 1992 gnu objective-c runtime use since 1993 one developed kresten krab thorup university student denmark thorup also worked next 1993 1996 acquiring next 1996 apple computer used openstep then-new operating system mac os x included objective-c next objective-c-based developer tool project builder interface design tool interface builder merged one application xcode apple current cocoa api based openstep interface objects significant objective-c environment used active development wwdc 2014 apple introduced new language swift characterized objective-c without c objective-c thin layer atop c strict superset c meaning possible compile c program objective-c compiler freely include c language code within objective-c class objective-c derives object syntax smalltalk syntax non-object-oriented operations including primitive variables pre-processing expressions function declarations function calls identical c syntax object-oriented features implementation smalltalk-style messaging objective-c model object-oriented programming based message passing object instances objective-c one call method one sends message unlike simula-style programming model used c++ difference two concepts code referenced method message name executed simula-style language method name cases bound section code target class compiler smalltalk objective-c target message resolved runtime receiving object interpreting message method identified selector — unique identifier message name often -terminated string representing name — resolved c method pointer implementing consequence message-passing system type checking object message directed — receiver — guaranteed respond message raises exception sending message object pointed pointer would require following code c++ obj- method argument objective-c written follows obj method argument styles programming strengths weaknesses object-oriented programming simula c++ style allows multiple inheritance faster execution using compile-time binding whenever possible support dynamic binding default also forces methods corresponding implementation unless abstract smalltalk-style programming used objective-c allows messages go unimplemented method resolved implementation runtime example message may sent collection objects expected respond without fear producing runtime errors message passing also require object defined compile time implementation still required method called derived object see dynamic typing section advantages dynamic late binding objective-c requires interface implementation class separately declared code blocks convention developers place interface header file implementation code file header files normally suffixed .h similar c header files implementation method files normally suffixed .m similar c code files called class declaration interface class usually defined header file common convention name header file name class e.g would contain interface class interface declaration takes form interface classname superclassname classmethod1 return_type classmethod2 return_type classmethod3 param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod1with1parameter param1_type param1_varname return_type instancemethod2with2parameters param1_type param1_varname param2_callname param2_type param2_varname end plus signs denote class methods methods called class instance minus signs denote instance methods called particular instance class class methods also access instance variables code roughly equivalent following c++ interface class classname public superclassname note demonstrates interleaving selector segments argument expressions direct equivalent c/c++ return types standard c type pointer generic objective-c object pointer specific type object nsarray nsimage nsstring pointer class method belongs instancetype default return type generic objective-c type method arguments begin name labeling argument part method name followed colon followed expected argument type parentheses argument name label omitted void setrangestart int start end int end void importdocumentwithname nsstring name withspecifiedpreferences preferences prefs beforepage int insertpage interface declares class interface methods actual code written implementation file implementation method files normally file extension codice_1 originally signified messages implementation classname return_type classmethod return_type instancemethod end methods written using interface declarations comparing objective-c c int method int int function int syntax allows pseudo-naming arguments void changetored float red green float green blue float blue //called like mycolor changecolortored:5.0 green:2.0 blue:6.0 internal representations method vary different implementations objective-c mycolor class instance method might internally labeled refer instance method class method names appended colons changed underscores order parameters part method name changed suit coding style expression true named parameters however internal names function rarely used directly generally messages converted function calls defined objective-c runtime library necessarily known link time method called class receiver object sent message need known runtime objective-c class written instantiated done first allocating uninitialized instance class object initializing object fully functional steps completed steps accomplished one line code never allocated object n't undergone initialization unwise keep intermediate result since codice_2 return different object called instantiation default no-parameter initializer myobject foo end interface integer display id showstars id showint end implementation integer display id showstars id showint end int main void compilation performed example one experiment leaving lines omitting compilation program still run means possible mix-and-match added categories needed category need ability simply compile objective-c permits class wholly replace another class within program replacing class said pose target class class posing declared deprecated mac os x v10.5 unavailable 64-bit runtime similar functionality achieved using method swizzling categories swaps one method implementation another signature versions still supporting posing messages sent target class instead received posing class several restrictions posing similarly categories allows global augmentation existing classes posing permits two features absent categories example interface customnsapplication nsapplication end implementation customnsapplication void setmainmenu nsmenu menu end class_poseas customnsapplication class nsapplication class intercepts every invocation setmainmenu nsapplication c language codice_3 pre-compile directive always causes file contents inserted source point objective-c codice_4 directive equivalent except file included per compilation unit obviating need include guards objective-c features often allow flexible often easy solutions programming issues objective-c++ language variant accepted front-end gnu compiler collection clang compile source files use combination c++ objective-c syntax objective-c++ adds c++ extensions objective-c adds c. nothing done unify semantics behind various language features certain restrictions apply 2006 worldwide developers conference apple announced release objective-c 2.0 revision objective-c language include modern garbage collection syntax enhancements runtime performance improvements 64-bit support mac os x v10.5 released october 2007 included objective-c 2.0 compiler gcc 4.6 supports many new objective-c features declared synthesized properties dot syntax fast enumeration optional protocol methods method/protocol/class attributes class extensions new gnu objective-c runtime api objective-c 2.0 provided optional conservative generational garbage collector run backwards-compatible mode runtime turned reference counting operations retain release no-ops objects subject garbage collection garbage collection enabled regular c pointers could qualified __strong also trigger underlying write-barrier compiler intercepts thus participate garbage collection zero-ing weak subsystem also provided pointers marked __weak set zero object simply gc memory collected garbage collector exist ios implementation objective-c 2.0 garbage collection objective-c runs low-priority background thread halt user events intention keeping user experience responsive garbage collection deprecated mac os x v10.8 favor automatic reference counting arc objective-c ios 7 running arm64 uses 19 bits 64-bit word store reference count form tagged pointers objective-c 2.0 introduces new syntax declare instance variables properties optional attributes configure generation accessor methods properties sense public instance variables declaring instance variable property provides external classes access possibly limited e.g read property property may declared readonly may provided storage semantics codice_5 codice_6 codice_7 default properties considered codice_8 results lock preventing multiple threads accessing time property declared codice_9 removes lock interface person nsobject property copy nsstring name property readonly int age id initwithage int age end properties implemented way codice_10 keyword generates getter setter read-only methods according property declaration alternatively getter setter methods must implemented explicitly codice_11 keyword used indicate accessor methods provided means compiled using clang 3.1 higher properties explicitly declared codice_11 marked codice_13 complete user-implemented getter setter automatically implicitly codice_10 'd implementation person synthesize name id initwithage int initage int age end properties accessed using traditional message passing syntax dot notation key-value coding name via valueforkey setvalue forkey methods person aperson person alloc initwithage 53 aperson.name steve // note dot notation uses synthesized setter nslog access message dot notation property name direct instance variable access order use dot notation invoke property accessors within instance method self keyword used void introducemyselfwithproperties bool usegetter // note getter vs. ivar access class protocol properties may dynamically type introspection\|introspected int int propertycount 0 objc_property_t propertylist class_copypropertylist aperson class propertycount 0 propertycount i++ objective-c 2.0 provides non-fragile instance variables supported runtime i.e building code 64-bit macos ios modern runtime extra layer indirection added instance variable access allowing dynamic linker adjust instance layout runtime feature allows two important improvements objective-c code instead using nsenumerator object indices iterate collection objective-c 2.0 offers fast enumeration syntax objective-c 2.0 following loops functionally equivalent different performance traits // using nsenumerator nsenumerator enumerator thepeople objectenumerator person p p enumerator nextobject nil // using indexes int 0 thepeople count i++ // using fast enumeration person p thepeople fast enumeration generates efficient code standard enumeration method calls enumerate objects replaced pointer arithmetic using nsfastenumeration protocol class extension syntax category declaration category name methods properties declared added directly main class mostly used alternative category add methods class without advertising public headers advantage class extensions compiler checks privately declared methods actually implemented objective-c applications developed macos make use improvements objective-c 2.0 incompatible operating systems prior 10.5 leopard since fast enumeration generate exactly binaries standard enumeration use cause application crash mac os x version 10.4 earlier blocks nonstandard extension objective-c c programming language \|c c++ uses special syntax create closure programming \|closures blocks supported mac os x snow leopard\|mac os x 10.6 snow leopard later ios 4 later gnustep libobjc2 1.7 compiling clang 3.1 later typedef int ^intblock intblock makecounter int start int increment int main void /* output automatic reference counting arc compile-time feature eliminates need programmers manually manage retain counts using codice_7 codice_16 unlike garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection occurs run time arc eliminates overhead separate process managing retain counts arc manual memory management mutually exclusive programmers continue use non-arc code arc-enabled projects disabling arc individual code files xcode also attempt automatically upgrade project arc next apple obj-c runtimes long included short-form way create new strings using literal syntax codice_17 drop corefoundation constants codice_18 codice_19 codice_20 boolean values using format saves programmer use longer codice_21 similar methods certain operations using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries numbers codice_22 codice_23 codice_20 classes also created using literal syntax instead methods example without literals nsarray myarray nsarray arraywithobjects object1 object2 object3 nil nsdictionary mydictionary1 nsdictionary dictionarywithobject someobject forkey key nsdictionary mydictionary2 nsdictionary dictionarywithobjectsandkeys object1 key1 object2 key2 nil nsnumber mynumber nsnumber numberwithint myint nsnumber mysumnumber= nsnumber numberwithint 2 3 nsnumber myboolnumber nsnumber numberwithbool yes example literals nsarray myarray object1 object2 object3 nsdictionary mydictionary1 key someobject nsdictionary mydictionary2 key1 object1 key2 object2 nsnumber mynumber myint nsnumber mysumnumber 2+3 nsnumber myboolnumber yes nsnumber *myintegernumber 8 however different string literal compile constants executable literals compile code equivalent method calls particular manually reference-counted memory management objects autoreleased requires added care e.g. used function-static variables kinds globals using apple llvm compiler 4.0 later arrays dictionaries codice_22 codice_23 classes manipulated using subscripting subscripting used retrieve values indexes array keys dictionary mutable objects also used set objects indexes keys code subscripting represented using brackets codice_27 example without subscripting id object1 somearray objectatindex:0 id object2 somedictionary objectforkey key somemutablearray replaceobjectatindex:0 withobject object3 somemutabledictionary setobject object4 forkey key example subscripting id object1 somearray 0 id object2 somedictionary key somemutablearray 0 object3 somemutabledictionary key object4 purchase next apple attempts made make language acceptable programmers familiar java programming language \|java smalltalk one attempts introducing dubbed modern syntax objective-c time opposed current classic syntax change behaviour merely alternative syntax instead writing method invocation like instead written similarly declarations went form modern syntax longer supported current dialects objective-c language besides gnu compiler collection\|gcc next apple inc.\|apple implementation added several extensions original stepstone implementation another free open source software\|free open-source objective-c implementation called portable object compiler also exists set extensions implemented portable object compiler differs gcc/next/apple implementation particular includes smalltalk -like blocks objective-c lacks protocols categories two features used extensively openstep derivatives relatives overall poc represents older pre-next stage language evolution roughly conformant brad cox 1991 book also includes runtime library called objectpak based cox original icpak101 library turn derives smalltalk-80 class library quite radically different openstep foundationkit geos 16-bit operating system \|pc geos system used programming language known geos objective-c goc despite name similarity two languages similar overall concept use keywords prefixed sign clang compiler suite part llvm project implements objective-c languages winobjc also known bridge open-source objc compiler project started microsoft github way allow reuse ios application code inside windows universal applications windows objective-c development tools provided download gnustep website gnustep development system consists following packages gnustep msys system gnustep core gnustep devel gnustep cairo projectcenter ide like xcode complex gorm interface builder like xcode nib builder objective-c today often used tandem fixed library standard objects often known kit framework cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep objfw libraries often come operating system gnustep libraries often come linux -based distributions cocoa comes macos programmer forced inherit functionality existing base class nsobject ofobject objective-c allows declaration new root classes inherit existing functionality originally objective-c-based programming environments typically offered object class base class almost classes inherited introduction openstep next created new base class named nsobject offered additional features object emphasis using object references reference counting instead raw pointers example almost classes cocoa inherit nsobject renaming serve differentiate new default behavior classes within openstep api allowed code used object—the original base class used nextstep less objective-c class libraries —to co-exist runtime code used nsobject limitations introduction two letter prefix also became simplistic form namespaces objective-c lacks using prefix create informal packaging identifier became informal coding standard objective-c community continues day recently package managers started appearing cocoapods aims package manager repository packages lot open-source objective-c code written last years installed using cocoapods objective-c implementations use thin run time system\|runtime system written c adds little size application contrast object-oriented systems time created used large virtual machine runtimes programs written objective-c tend much larger size code libraries generally need included software distribution contrast smalltalk systems large amount memory used open window objective-c applications tend larger similar c c++ applications objective-c dynamic typing allow methods stripped inlined since programmer freedom delegate forward calls build selectors fly pass runtime system objective-c compiler assume safe remove unused methods inline calls likewise language implemented atop extant c compilers gnu compiler collection\|gcc first preprocessor module rather new compiler allows objective-c leverage huge existing collection c code libraries tools etc existing c libraries wrapped objective-c adapter pattern\|wrappers provide oo-style interface aspect similar gobject library vala programming language \|vala language widely used development gtk applications practical changes lowered barriers entry\|barrier entry likely biggest problem widespread acceptance smalltalk 1980s common criticism objective-c language support namespaces instead programmers forced add prefixes class names traditionally shorter namespace names thus prone collisions 2007 macos classes functions cocoa software \|cocoa programming environment prefixed ns e.g nsobject nsbutton identify belonging macos ios core ns derives names classes defined development nextstep since objective-c strict superset c treat c primitive types first-class object s. unlike c++ objective-c support operator overloading also unlike c++ objective-c allows object directly inherit one class forbidding multiple inheritance however cases categories protocols may used alternative ways achieve results objective-c uses dynamic runtime typing method calls function calls cases syscalls many common performance optimizations applied objective-c methods example inlining constant propagation interprocedural optimizations scalar replacement aggregates limits performance objective-c abstractions relative similar abstractions languages c++ optimizations possible first versions objective-c support garbage collection computer science \|garbage collection time decision matter debate many people considered long dead times smalltalk performed collection render entire system unusable 3rd party implementations added feature notably gnustep apple implemented mac os x v10.5 however recent versions macos ios garbage collection deprecated favor automatic reference counting arc introduced 2011 arc compiler inserts retain release calls automatically objective-c code based static program analysis\|static code analysis automation relieves programmer write memory management code arc also adds weak references objective-c language design implementation c++ objective-c represent fundamentally different approaches extending c. addition c style procedural programming c++ directly supports certain forms object-oriented programming generic programming metaprogramming c++ also comes c++ standard library\|a large standard library includes sequence container c++ \|several container classes similarly objective-c adds polymorphism object-oriented programming\|object-oriented programming dynamic typing reflection computer science \|reflection c. objective-c provide standard library per se places objective-c used used openstep -like library openstep cocoa api \|cocoa gnustep provides functionality similar c++ standard library one notable difference objective-c provides runtime support reflection computer science \|reflective features whereas c++ adds small amount runtime support c. objective-c object queried properties e.g. whether respond certain message c++ possible without use external libraries use reflection part wider distinction dynamic run-time features static compile-time features language although objective-c c++ employ mix features objective-c decidedly geared toward run-time decisions c++ geared toward compile-time decisions tension dynamic static programming involves many classic trade-offs programming dynamic features add flexibility static features add speed type checking generic programming metaprogramming implemented languages using runtime polymorphism c++ takes form virtual function runtime type identification objective-c offers dynamic typing reflection objective-c lacks compile-time polymorphism generic function entirely c++ supports via function overloading template c++ \|templates category c programming language family category class-based programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category gnustep category next category object-oriented programming languages category objective-c category programming languages created 1986 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	10,470	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: series_30+.series 30+ series 30+ abbreviated s30+ software platform application user interface used nokia-branded mobile devices platform introduced nokia september 2013 first appearing nokia 108 main nokia feature phone operating system end series 30 series 40 platforms 2014 despite similar name user interface s30+ technically completely different unrelated s30 many s30+ devices support maui runtime environment mre developed mediatek later devices included support j2me applications even models n't support java j2me applications still capable running built-in online applications opera mini browser bing search msn weather skype groupme chat s30+ models also come online shop would allow downloading new apps games platform taken nokia microsoft mobile 2014 hmd global 2016 although devices still selling brand nokia following feature phones use series 30+ platform available single dual sim models maximum accepted video resolution 854×480 1-hop neighbor's text information: oma_instant_messaging_and_presence_service.oma instant messaging presence service oma instant messaging presence service imps open mobile alliance enabler instant messaging presence wireless village consortium developed first cut specifications wireless village merged oma specs became oma imps 1.0 specifications imps widely deployed necessarily marketed interworking several operators imps platforms performed gsma initiative encourages interworking deployment instant messaging vanilla terminals often imps clients nokia chat client accessed via presence menu sony ericsson called friends motorola called im phones chat clients generally designed provider neutral put wireless village server settings phone n't inbuilt chat client might still able get third-party chat application runs phone symbian java brew application environment need get chat client wireless village compliant presence-enabled note still necessary operator provide im service and/or one connect third party server connection others im'ing partial list 1-hop neighbor's text information: ios_sdk.ios sdk ios sdk software development kit formerly iphone sdk software development kit developed apple inc kit allows development mobile apps apple ios operating system originally developing iphone prior unveiling 2007 apple then-ceo steve jobs intend let third-party developers build native apps ios instead directing make web applications safari web browser however backlash developers prompted company reconsider jobs announcing october 2007 apple would software development kit available developers february 2008 sdk released march 6 2008 sdk free download users mac personal computers available microsoft windows pcs sdk contains sets giving developers access various functions services ios devices hardware software attributes also contains iphone simulator mimic look feel device computer developing new versions sdk accompany new versions ios order test applications get technical support distribute apps app store developers required subscribe apple developer program combined xcode ios sdk helps developers write ios apps using officially supported programming languages including swift objective-c. companies also created tools allow development native ios apps using respective programming languages originally developing iphone prior unveiling 2007 apple then-ceo steve jobs intend let third-party developers build native apps ios operating system instead directing make web applications safari web browser however backlash developers prompted company reconsider jobs announcing october 17 2007 apple would software development kit sdk available developers february 2008 sdk released march 6 2008 ios sdk free download mac users available microsoft windows personal computers test application get technical support distribute applications app store developers required subscribe apple developer program sdk contents separated following sets sdk also contains iphone simulator program used simulate look feel iphone developer computer new sdk versions accompany new ios versions ios sdk combined xcode helps developers write ios applications using officially supported programming languages including swift objective-c. .ipa ios app store package file ios application archive file stores ios app 2008 sun microsystems announced plans release java virtual machine jvm ios based java platform micro edition version java would enable java applications run iphone ipod touch soon announcement developers familiar sdk terms agreement believed allowing third-party applications run background answer phone call still run application example allowing application download code another source allowing application interact third-party application sun development efforts could hindered without apple cooperation sun also worked third-party company called innaworks attempts get java iphone despite apparent lack interest apple firmware leak 2007 iphone release revealed arm chip processor jazelle support embedded java execution novell announced september 2009 successfully developed monotouch software framework let developers write native iphone applications c .net programming languages still maintaining compatibility apple requirements xamarin.ios visual studio tools xamarin open-source app development platform lets build apps many operating systems single shared .net code base xamarin allows write apps take full advantage power features performance platform xamarin.ios one xamarin frameworks use create fully native ios apps using c visual studio ios support adobe flash although adobe two versions software – flash flash lite – apple views neither suitable iphone claiming full flash slow useful flash lite capable used web october 2009 adobe announced upcoming update creative suite would feature component let developers build native iphone apps using company flash development tools software officially released part company creative suite 5 collection professional applications april 2010 apple made controversial changes iphone developer agreement requiring developers use approved programming languages order publish apps app store banning applications used third-party development tools developer backlash news potential antitrust investigation apple revised agreement september allowing use third-party development tools Target text information: java_platform,_micro_edition.java platform micro edition java platform micro edition java computing platform development deployment portable code embedded mobile devices micro-controllers sensors gateways mobile phones personal digital assistants tv set-top boxes printers java formerly known java 2 platform micro edition j2me platform uses object-oriented java programming language part java software-platform family java designed sun microsystems acquired oracle corporation 2010 platform replaced similar technology personaljava originally developed java community process jsr 68 different flavors java evolved separate jsrs oracle provides reference implementation specification tended provide free binary implementations java runtime environment mobile devices rather relying third parties provide 22 december 2006 java source code licensed gnu general public license released project name phoneme 2008 java platforms currently restricted jre 1.3 features use version class file format internally known version 47.0 oracle ever declare new round java configuration versions support later class file formats language features corresponding jre 1.5 1.6 notably generics entail extra work part platform vendors update jres java devices implement profile common mobile information device profile aimed mobile devices cell phones personal profile aimed consumer products embedded devices like set-top boxes pdas profiles subsets configurations currently two connected limited device configuration cldc connected device configuration cdc 2.1 billion java enabled mobile phones pdas popular sub- 200 devices nokia series 40 also used bada operating system symbian os along native software users windows ce windows mobile maemo meego android download java respective environments proof-of-concept android connected limited device configuration cldc contains strict subset java-class libraries minimum amount needed java virtual machine operate cldc basically used classifying myriad devices fixed configuration configuration provides basic set libraries virtual-machine features must present implementation j2me environment coupled one profiles connected limited device configuration gives developers solid java platform creating applications consumer embedded devices configuration designed devices 160kb 512kb total memory minimum 160kb rom 32kb ram available java platform designed mobile phones mobile information device profile includes gui data storage api midp 2.0 includes basic 2d gaming api applications written profile called midlets almost new cell phones come midp implementation de facto standard downloadable cell phone games however many cellphones run midlets approved carrier especially north america jsr 271 mobile information device profile 3 final release 09 dec 2009 specified 3rd generation mobile information device profile midp3 expanding upon functionality areas well improving interoperability across devices key design goal midp3 backward compatibility midp2 content information module profile imp profile embedded headless devices vending machines industrial embedded applications security systems similar devices either simple display limited network connectivity originally introduced siemens mobile nokia jsr-195 imp 1.0 strict subset midp 1.0 except n't include user interface apis — words n't include support java package codice_1 jsr-228 also known imp-ng imp next generation based midp 2.0 leveraging midp 2.0 new security networking types apis apis codice_2 codice_3 n't include ui apis game api connected device configuration subset java se containing almost libraries gui related richer cldc foundation profile java connected device configuration cdc profile profile intended used devices requiring complete implementation java virtual machine including entire java platform standard edition api typical implementations use subset api set depending additional profiles supported specification developed java community process personal basis profile extends foundation profile include lightweight gui support form awt subset platform bd-j built upon sun provides reference implementation configurations profiles midp cdc starting javame 3.0 sdk netbeans-based ide support single ide contrast numerous binary implementations java platform built sun servers workstations sun provide binaries platforms java targets exception midp 1.0 jre jvm palm os sun provides j2me jre microsoft windows mobile pocket pc based devices despite open-letter campaign sun release rumored internal implementation personaljava known code name captain america third party implementations widely used windows mobile vendors operating systems targeting java implemented docomo form doja savaje savaje os latter company purchased sun april 2007 forms basis sun javafx mobile open-source mika vm aims implement javame cdc/fp certified certified implementations required charge royalties impractical open-source project consequently devices use implementation allowed claim javame cdc compatibility linux-based android operating system uses proprietary version java similar identical java esr consortium devoted standards embedded java especially cost effective standards typical applications domains industrial control machine-to-machine medical e-metering home automation consumer human-to-machine-interface ... I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	3,561	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: spanner_(database).spanner database spanner google newsql database spanner globally distributed database service gives developers production-ready storage solution provides key features global transactions strongly consistent reads automatic multi-site replication failover spanner stores large amounts mutable structured data spanner allows users perform arbitrary queries using sql relational data maintaining strong consistency high availability data synchronous replication key features spanner spanner joined google platform february 2017 available part google cloud platform spanner uses paxos algorithm part operation shard partition data across hundreds servers makes heavy use hardware-assisted clock synchronization using gps clocks atomic clocks ensure global consistency google f1 sql database management system dbms built top spanner replacing google custom mysql variant 1-hop neighbor's text information: x86.x86 x86 family instruction set architectures based intel 8086 microprocessor 8088 variant 8086 introduced 1978 fully 16-bit extension intel 8-bit 8080 microprocessor memory segmentation solution addressing memory covered plain 16-bit address term x86 came names several successors intel 8086 processor end 86 including 80186 80286 80386 80486 processors many additions extensions added x86 instruction set years almost consistently full backward compatibility architecture implemented processors intel cyrix amd via many companies also open implementations zet soc platform nevertheless intel amd via hold x86 architectural licenses producing modern 64-bit designs term synonymous ibm pc compatibility implies multitude computer hardware embedded systems well general-purpose computers used x86 chips pc-compatible market started ibm pc 1981 2018 majority personal computers laptops sold based x86 architecture categories—especially high-volume mobile categories smartphones tablets—are dominated arm high end x86 continues dominate compute-intensive workstation cloud computing segments 1980s early 1990s 8088 80286 still common use term x86 usually represented 8086 compatible cpu today however x86 usually implies binary compatibility also 32-bit instruction set 80386 due fact instruction set become something lowest common denominator many modern operating systems probably also term became common introduction 80386 1985 years introduction 8086 8088 intel added complexity naming scheme terminology iapx ambitious ill-fated intel iapx 432 processor tried successful 8086 family chips applied kind system-level prefix 8086 system including coprocessors 8087 8089 well simpler intel-specific system chips thereby described iapx 86 system also terms irmx operating systems isbc single-board computers isbx multimodule boards based 8086-architecture together heading microsystem 80 however naming scheme quite temporary lasting years early 1980s although 8086 primarily developed embedded systems small multi-user single-user computers largely response successful 8080-compatible zilog z80 x86 line soon grew features processing power today x86 ubiquitous stationary portable personal computers also used midrange computers workstations servers new supercomputer clusters top500 list large amount software including large list using x86-based hardware modern x86 relatively uncommon embedded systems however small low power applications using tiny batteries well low-cost microprocessor markets home appliances toys lack significant x86 presence simple 8-bit 16-bit based architectures common although x86-compatible via c7 via nano amd geode athlon neo intel atom examples 32- 64-bit designs used relatively low power low cost segments several attempts including intel end market dominance inelegant x86 architecture designed directly first simple 8-bit microprocessors examples iapx 432 project originally named intel 8800 intel 960 intel 860 intel/hewlett-packard itanium architecture however continuous refinement x86 microarchitectures circuitry semiconductor manufacturing would make hard replace x86 many segments amd 64-bit extension x86 intel eventually responded compatible design scalability x86 chips eight-core intel xeon 12-core amd opteron underlining x86 example continuous refinement established industry standards resist competition completely new architectures table lists processor models model series implementing variations x86 instruction set chronological order line item characterized significantly improved commercially successful processor microarchitecture designs various times companies ibm nec amd ti stm fujitsu oki siemens cyrix intersil c nexgen umc dm p started design manufacture x86 processors cpus intended personal computers well embedded systems x86 implementations seldom simple copies often employ different internal microarchitectures well different solutions electronic physical levels quite naturally early compatible microprocessors 16-bit 32-bit designs developed much later personal computer market real quantities started appear around 1990 i386 i486 compatible processors often named similarly intel original chips companies designed manufactured x86 x87 processors include itt corporation national semiconductor ulsi system technology weitek following fully pipelined i486 intel introduced pentium brand name unlike numbers could trademarked new set superscalar x86 designs x86 naming scheme legally cleared x86 vendors choose different names x86-compatible products initially chose continue variations numbering scheme ibm partnered cyrix produce 5x86 efficient 6x86 m1 6x86mx mii lines cyrix designs first x86 microprocessors implementing register renaming enable speculative execution amd meanwhile designed manufactured advanced delayed 5k86 k5 internally closely based amd earlier 29k risc design similar nexgen nx586 used strategy dedicated pipeline stages decode x86 instructions uniform easily handled micro-operations method remained basis x86 designs day early versions microprocessors heat dissipation problems 6x86 also affected minor compatibility problems nx586 lacked floating point unit fpu crucial pin-compatibility k5 somewhat disappointing performance eventually introduced customer ignorance alternatives pentium series contributed designs comparatively unsuccessful despite fact k5 good pentium compatibility 6x86 significantly faster pentium integer code amd later managed establish serious contender k6 set processors gave way successful athlon opteron also contenders centaur technology formerly idt rise technology transmeta via technologies energy efficient c3 c7 processors designed centaur company sold many years centaur newest design via nano first processor superscalar speculative execution introduced time intel first in-order processor since p5 pentium intel atom instruction set architecture twice extended larger word size 1985 intel released 32-bit 80386 later known i386 gradually replaced earlier 16-bit chips computers although typically embedded systems following years extended programming model originally referred i386 architecture like first implementation intel later dubbed ia-32 introducing unrelated ia-64 architecture 1999-2003 amd extended 32-bit architecture 64 bits referred x86-64 early documents later amd64 intel soon adopted amd architectural extensions name ia-32e later using name em64t finally using intel 64 microsoft sun microsystems/oracle also use term x64 many linux distributions bsds also use amd64 term microsoft windows example designates 32-bit versions x86 64-bit versions x64 installation files 64-bit windows versions required placed directory called amd64 x86 architecture variable instruction length primarily cisc design emphasis backward compatibility instruction set typical cisc however basically extended version simple eight-bit 8008 8080 architectures byte-addressing enabled words stored memory little-endian byte order memory access unaligned addresses allowed valid word sizes largest native size integer arithmetic memory addresses offsets 16 32 64 bits depending architecture generation newer processors include direct support smaller integers well multiple scalar values handled simultaneously via simd unit present later generations described immediate addressing offsets immediate data may expressed 8-bit quantities frequently occurring cases contexts -128..127 range enough typical instructions therefore 2 3 bytes length although much longer single-byte conserve encoding space registers expressed opcodes using three four bits latter via opcode prefix 64-bit mode one operand instruction memory location however memory operand may also destination combined source destination operand source either register immediate among factors contributes code size rivals eight-bit machines enables efficient use instruction cache memory relatively small number general registers also inherited 8-bit ancestors made register-relative addressing using small immediate offsets important method accessing operands especially stack much work therefore invested making accesses fast register accesses i.e one cycle instruction throughput circumstances accessed data available top-level cache dedicated floating point processor 80-bit internal registers 8087 developed original 8086 microprocessor subsequently developed extended 80387 later processors incorporated backward compatible version functionality microprocessor main processor addition modern x86 designs also contain simd-unit see sse instructions work parallel one two 128-bit words containing two four floating point numbers 64 32 bits wide respectively alternatively 2 4 8 16 integers 64 32 16 8 bits wide respectively presence wide simd registers means existing x86 processors load store 128 bits memory data single instruction also perform bitwise operations although integer arithmetic full 128-bits quantities parallel intel sandy bridge processors added avx advanced vector extensions instructions widening simd registers 256 bits knights corner architecture used intel xeon phi co-processors uses 512-bit wide simd registers execution current x86 processors employ extra decoding steps split instructions smaller pieces called micro-operations handed control unit buffers schedules compliance x86-semantics executed partly parallel one several less specialized execution units modern x86 designs thus pipelined superscalar also capable order speculative execution via branch prediction register renaming memory dependence prediction means may execute multiple partial complete x86 instructions simultaneously necessarily order given instruction stream intel amd starting amd zen cpus also capable simultaneous multithreading two threads per core xeon phi four threads per core case intel transactional memory tsx introduced mid-1990s method sometimes referred risc core risc translation partly marketing reasons also micro-operations share properties certain types risc instructions however traditional microcode used since 1950s also inherently shares many properties new method differs mainly translation micro-operations occurs asynchronously synchronize execution units decode steps opens possibilities analysis buffered code stream therefore permits detection operations performed parallel simultaneously feeding one execution unit latest processors also opposite appropriate combine certain x86 sequences compare followed conditional jump complex micro-op fits execution model better thus executed faster less machine resources involved another way try improve performance cache decoded micro-operations processor directly access decoded micro-operations special cache instead decoding intel followed approach execution trace cache feature netburst microarchitecture pentium 4 processors later decoded stream buffer core-branded processors since sandy bridge transmeta used completely different method x86 compatible cpus used just-in-time translation convert x86 instructions cpu native vliw instruction set transmeta argued approach allows power efficient designs since cpu forgo complicated decode step traditional x86 implementations minicomputers late 1970s running 16-bit 64-kb address limit memory become cheaper minicomputers like pdp-11 used complex bank-switching schemes case digital vax redesigned much expensive processors could directly handle 32-bit addressing data original 8086 developed simple 8080 microprocessor primarily aiming small inexpensive computers specialized devices instead adopted simple segment registers increased memory address width 4 bits multiplying 64-kb address 16 20-bit address could address total one megabyte 1,048,576 bytes quite large amount small computer time concept segment registers new many mainframes used segment registers swap quickly different tasks practice x86 much-criticized implementation greatly complicated many common programming tasks compilers however architecture soon allowed linear 32-bit addressing starting 80386 late 1985 major actors microsoft took several years convert 16-bit based systems 80386 80486 therefore largely used fast still 16-bit based 8086 many years data code could managed within near 16-bit segments within 64 kb portions total 1 mb address space compiler could operate far mode using 32-bit codice_1 pairs reaching 1 mb would also prove quite limiting mid-1980s working emerging pc market made simple translate software older 8008 8080 8085 z80 newer processor 1985 16-bit segment addressing model effectively factored introduction 32-bit offset registers 386 design real mode segmentation achieved shifting segment address left 4 bits adding offset order receive final 20-bit address example ds a000h si 5677h ds si point absolute address ds × 10h si a5677h thus total address space real mode 2 bytes 1 mb quite impressive figure 1978 memory addresses consist segment offset every type access code data stack default segment register associated data register usually ds code cs stack ss data accesses segment register explicitly specified using segment override prefix use four segment registers scheme two different segment/offset pairs point single absolute location thus ds a111h si 4567h ds si point a5677h scheme makes impossible use four segments cs ss vital correct functioning program ds es used point data segments outside program precisely outside currently executing segment program stack protected mode introduced 80286 segment register longer contains physical address beginning segment contain selector points system-level structure called segment descriptor segment descriptor contains physical address beginning segment length segment access permissions segment offset checked length segment offsets referring locations outside segment causing exception offsets referring locations inside segment combined physical address beginning segment get physical address corresponding offset segmented nature make programming compiler design difficult use near far pointers affects performance addressing modes 16-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 32-bit x86 processors 32-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula addressing modes 64-bit code 64-bit x86 processors summarized formula instruction relative addressing 64-bit code rip displacement rip instruction pointer register simplifies implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems 8086 eight-bit alternatively i/o space one segment stack memory supported computer hardware words two bytes pushed stack stack grows toward numerically lower addresses pointing recently pushed item 256 interrupts invoked hardware software interrupts cascade using stack store return address original intel 8086 8088 fourteen 16-bit registers four ax bx cx dx general-purpose registers gprs although may additional purpose example cx used counter loop instruction accessed two separate bytes thus bx high byte accessed bh low byte bl two pointer registers special roles sp stack pointer points top stack bp base pointer often used point place stack typically local variables see frame pointer registers si di bx bp address registers may also used array indexing four segment registers cs ds ss es used form memory address flags register contains flags carry flag overflow flag zero flag finally instruction pointer ip points next instruction fetched memory executed register directly accessed read written program intel 80186 80188 essentially upgraded 8086 8088 cpu respectively on-chip peripherals added cpu registers 8086 8088 addition interface registers peripherals 8086 8088 80186 80188 use optional floating-point coprocessor 8087 8087 appears programmer part cpu adds eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 hold numeric data one seven formats 32- 64- 80-bit floating point 16- 32- 64-bit binary integer 80-bit packed decimal integer intel 80286 support protected mode three special registers hold descriptor table addresses gdtr ldtr idtr fourth task register tr used task switching 80287 floating-point coprocessor 80286 registers 8087 data formats advent 32-bit 80386 processor 16-bit general-purpose registers base registers index registers instruction pointer flags register segment registers expanded 32 bits nomenclature represented prefixing e extended register names x86 assembly language thus ax register corresponds lowest 16 bits new 32-bit eax register si corresponds lowest 16 bits esi general-purpose registers base registers index registers used base addressing modes registers except stack pointer used index addressing modes two new segment registers fs gs added greater number registers instructions operands machine code format expanded provide backward compatibility segments executable code marked containing either 16-bit 32-bit instructions special prefixes allow inclusion 32-bit instructions 16-bit segment vice versa 80386 optional floating-point coprocessor 80387 eight 80-bit wide registers st 0 st 7 like 8087 80287 80386 could also use 80287 coprocessor 80486 subsequent x86 models floating-point processing unit fpu integrated on-chip pentium mmx added eight 64-bit mmx integer registers mmx0 mmx7 share lower bits 80-bit-wide fpu stack pentium iii intel added 32-bit streaming simd extensions sse control/status register mxcsr eight 128-bit sse floating point registers xmm0 xmm7 starting amd opteron processor x86 architecture extended 32-bit registers 64-bit registers way similar 16 32-bit extension took place r-prefix identifies 64-bit registers rax rbx rcx rdx rsi rdi rbp rsp rflags rip eight additional 64-bit general registers r8-r15 also introduced creation x86-64 however extensions usable 64-bit mode one two modes available long mode addressing modes dramatically changed 32-bit mode except addressing extended 64 bits virtual addresses sign extended 64 bits order disallow mode bits virtual addresses selector details dramatically reduced addition addressing mode added allow memory references relative rip instruction pointer ease implementation position-independent code used shared libraries operating systems simd registers xmm0–xmm15 simd registers ymm0–ymm15 simd registers zmm0–zmm31 x86 processors protected mode i.e 80286 later processors also three descriptor registers gdtr ldtr idtr task register tr 32-bit x86 processors starting 80386 also include various special/miscellaneous registers control registers cr0 4 cr8 64-bit debug registers dr0 3 plus 6 7 test registers tr3 7 80486 model-specific registers msrs appearing pentium although main registers exception instruction pointer general-purpose 32-bit 64-bit versions instruction set used anything originally envisioned used following purposes segment registers particular purposes envisioned 8 registers available 64-bit mode instructions compile execute efficiently using registers designed purpose example using al accumulator adding immediate byte value produces efficient add al opcode 04h whilst using bl register produces generic longer add register opcode 80c3h another example double precision division multiplication works specifically ax dx registers modern compilers benefited introduction sib byte scale-index-base byte allows registers treated uniformly minicomputer-like however using sib byte universally non-optimal produces longer encodings using selectively necessary main benefit sib byte orthogonality powerful addressing modes provides make possible save instructions use registers address calculations scaling index special instructions lost priority hardware design became slower equivalent small code sequences notable example lodsw instruction note pl registers available 64-bit mode note il registers available 64-bit mode real address mode commonly called real mode operating mode 8086 later x86-compatible cpus real mode characterized 20-bit segmented memory address space meaning 1 mib memory addressed—actually slightly direct software access peripheral hardware concept memory protection multitasking hardware level x86 cpus 80286 series later start real mode power-on 80186 cpus earlier one operational mode equivalent real mode later chips ibm pc platform direct software access ibm bios routines available real mode since bios written real mode however characteristic x86 cpu ibm bios design order use 64 kb memory segment registers must used created great complications compiler implementors introduced odd pointer modes near far huge leverage implicit nature segmented architecture different degrees pointers containing 16-bit offsets within implied segments pointers containing segment addresses offsets within segments technically possible use 256 kb memory code data 64 kb code setting four segment registers using 16-bit offsets optionally default-segment override prefixes address memory puts substantial restrictions way data addressed memory operands combined violates architectural intent intel designers separate data items e.g arrays structures code units contained separate segments addressed segment addresses new programs ported earlier 8-bit processors 16-bit address spaces addition real mode intel 80286 supports protected mode expanding addressable physical memory 16 mb addressable virtual memory 1 gb providing protected memory prevents programs corrupting one another done using segment registers storing index descriptor table stored memory two tables global descriptor table gdt local descriptor table ldt holding 8192 segment descriptors segment giving access 64 kb memory 80286 segment descriptor provides 24-bit base address base address added 16-bit offset create absolute address base address table fulfills role literal value segment register fulfills real mode segment registers converted direct registers indirect registers segment assigned one four ring levels used hardware-based computer security segment descriptor also contains segment limit field specifies maximum offset may used segment offsets 16 bits segments still limited 64 kb 80286 protected mode time segment register loaded protected mode 80286 must read 6-byte segment descriptor memory set hidden internal registers therefore loading segment registers much slower protected mode real mode changing segments frequently avoided actual memory operations using protected mode segments slowed much 80286 later hardware check offset segment limit parallel instruction execution intel 80386 extended offsets also segment limit field segment descriptor 32 bits enabling segment span entire memory space also introduced support protected mode paging mechanism making possible use paged virtual memory 4 kb page size paging allows cpu map page virtual memory space page physical memory space uses additional mapping tables memory called page tables protected mode 80386 operate paging either enabled disabled segmentation mechanism always active generates virtual addresses mapped paging mechanism enabled segmentation mechanism also effectively disabled setting segments base address 0 size limit equal whole address space also requires minimally-sized segment descriptor table four descriptors since fs gs segments need used paging used extensively modern multitasking operating systems linux 386bsd windows nt developed 386 first intel architecture cpu support paging 32-bit segment offsets 386 architecture became basis development x86 series x86 processors support protected mode boot real mode backward compatibility older 8086 class processors upon power-on a.k.a booting processor initializes real mode begins executing instructions operating system boot code might stored rom may place processor protected mode enable paging features instruction set protected mode similar used real mode however certain constraints apply real mode able use ax cx dx addressing apply protected mode conversely segment arithmetic common practice real mode code allowed protected mode also sub-mode operation 32-bit protected mode a.k.a 80386 protected mode called virtual 8086 mode also known v86 mode basically special hybrid operating mode allows real mode programs operating systems run control protected mode supervisor operating system allows great deal flexibility running protected mode programs real mode programs simultaneously mode exclusively available 32-bit version protected mode exist 16-bit version protected mode long mode mid 1990s obvious 32-bit address space x86 architecture limiting performance applications requiring large data sets 32-bit address space would allow processor directly address 4 gb data size surpassed applications video processing database engines using 64-bit addresses possible directly address 16 eib data although 64-bit architectures support access full 64-bit address space example amd64 supports 48 bits 64-bit address split four paging levels 1999 amd published nearly complete specification 64-bit extension x86 architecture called x86-64 claimed intentions produce design currently used almost x86 processors exceptions intended embedded systems mass-produced x86-64 chips general market available four years later 2003 time spent working prototypes tested refined time initial name x86-64 changed amd64 success amd64 line processors coupled lukewarm reception ia-64 architecture forced intel release implementation amd64 instruction set intel previously implemented support amd64 opted enable hopes amd would bring amd64 market itanium new ia-64 instruction set widely adopted branded implementation amd64 em64t later re-branded intel 64 literature product version names microsoft sun refer amd64/intel 64 collectively x64 windows solaris operating systems linux distributions refer either x86-64 variant x86_64 amd64 bsd systems use amd64 macos uses x86_64 long mode mostly extension 32-bit instruction set unlike 16–to–32-bit transition many instructions dropped 64-bit mode affect actual binary backward compatibility would execute legacy code modes retain support instructions changes way assembler compilers new code work first time major extension x86 architecture initiated originated manufacturer intel also first time intel accepted technology nature outside source early x86 processors could extended floating-point hardware form series floating point numerical co-processors names like 8087 80287 80387 abbreviated x87 also known npx numeric processor extension apt name since coprocessors used mainly floating-point calculations also performed integer operations binary decimal formats exceptions 80486 subsequent x86 processors integrated x87 functionality chip made x87 instructions de facto integral part x86 instruction set x87 register known st 0 st 7 80 bits wide stores numbers ieee floating-point standard double extended precision format registers organized stack st 0 top done order conserve opcode space registers therefore randomly accessible either operand register-to-register instruction st0 must always one two operands either source destination regardless whether operand st x memory operand however random access stack registers obtained instruction exchanges specified st x st 0 operations include arithmetic transcendental functions including trigonometric exponential functions well instructions load common constants 0 1 e base natural logarithm log2 10 log10 2 one stack registers integer capability often overlooked x87 operate larger integers single instruction 8086 80286 80386 x86 cpu without 64-bit extensions repeated integer calculations even small values e.g 16-bit accelerated executing integer instructions x86 cpu x87 parallel x86 cpu keeps running x87 coprocessor calculates x87 sets signal x86 finished interrupts x86 needs attention error mmx simd instruction set designed intel introduced 1997 pentium mmx microprocessor mmx instruction set developed similar concept first used intel i860 supported subsequent ia-32 processors intel vendors mmx typically used video processing multimedia applications instance mmx added 8 new registers architecture known mm0 mm7 henceforth referred mmn reality new registers aliases existing x87 fpu stack registers hence anything done floating point stack would also affect mmx registers unlike fp stack mmn registers fixed relative therefore randomly accessible instruction set adopt stack-like semantics existing operating systems could still correctly save restore register state multitasking without modifications mmn registers 64-bit integers however one main concepts mmx instruction set concept packed data types means instead using whole register single 64-bit integer quadword one may use contain two 32-bit integers doubleword four 16-bit integers word eight 8-bit integers byte given mmx 64-bit mmn registers aliased fpu stack floating point registers 80 bits wide upper 16 bits floating point registers unused mmx bits set ones mmx instruction correspond floating point representation nans infinities 1997 amd introduced 3dnow introduction technology coincided rise 3d entertainment applications designed improve cpu vector processing performance graphic-intensive applications 3d video game developers 3d graphics hardware vendors use 3dnow enhance performance amd k6 athlon series processors 3dnow designed natural evolution mmx integers floating point uses exactly register naming convention mmx mm0 mm7 difference instead packing integers registers two single precision floating point numbers packed register advantage aliasing fpu registers instruction data structures used save state fpu registers also used save 3dnow register states thus special modifications required made operating systems would otherwise know 1999 intel introduced streaming simd extensions sse instruction set following 2000 sse2 first addition allowed offloading basic floating-point operations x87 stack second made mmx almost obsolete allowed instructions realistically targeted conventional compilers introduced 2004 along prescott revision pentium 4 processor sse3 added specific memory thread-handling instructions boost performance intel hyperthreading technology amd licensed sse3 instruction set implemented sse3 instructions revision e later athlon 64 processors athlon 64 support hyperthreading lacks sse3 instructions used hyperthreading sse discarded legacy connections fpu stack also meant instruction set discarded legacy connections previous generations simd instruction sets like mmx freed designers allowing use larger registers limited size fpu registers designers created eight 128-bit registers named xmm0 xmm7 note amd64 number sse xmm registers increased 8 16 however downside operating systems awareness new set instructions order able save register states intel created slightly modified version protected mode called enhanced mode enables usage sse instructions whereas stay disabled regular protected mode os aware sse activate enhanced mode whereas unaware os enter traditional protected mode sse simd instruction set works floating point values like 3dnow however unlike 3dnow severs legacy connection fpu stack larger registers 3dnow sse pack twice number single precision floats registers original sse limited single-precision numbers like 3dnow sse2 introduced capability pack double precision numbers 3dnow possibility since double precision number 64-bit size would full size single 3dnow mmn register 128 bits sse xmmn registers could pack two double precision floats one register thus sse2 much suitable scientific calculations either sse1 3dnow limited single precision sse3 introduce additional registers physical address extension pae first added intel pentium pro later amd athlon processors allow 64 gb ram addressed without pae physical ram 32-bit protected mode usually limited 4 gb pae defines different page table structure wider page table entries third level page table allowing additional bits physical address although initial implementations 32-bit processors theoretically supported 64 gb ram chipset platform limitations often restricted could actually used x64 processors define page table structures theoretically allow 52 bits physical address although chipset platform concerns like number dimm slots available maximum ram possible per dimm prevent large physical address space realized x64 processors pae mode must active switch long mode must remain active long mode active long mode non-pae mode pae mode affect width linear virtual addresses 2000s 32-bit x86 processors limitations memory addressing obstacle utilization high-performance computing clusters powerful desktop workstations aged 32-bit x86 competing much advanced 64-bit risc architectures could address much memory intel whole x86 ecosystem needed 64-bit memory addressing x86 survive 64-bit computing era workstation desktop software applications soon start hitting limitations present 32-bit memory addressing however intel felt right time make bold step use transition 64-bit desktop computers transition away x86 architecture general experiment ultimately failed 2001 intel attempted introduce non-x86 64-bit architecture named ia-64 itanium processor initially aiming high-performance computing market hoping would eventually replace 32-bit x86 ia-64 incompatible x86 itanium processor provide emulation capabilities translating x86 instructions ia-64 affected performance x86 programs badly rarely ever actually useful users programmers rewrite x86 programs ia-64 architecture performance itanium would orders magnitude worse true x86 processor market rejected itanium processor since broke backward compatibility preferred continue using x86 chips programs rewritten ia-64 amd decided take another path toward 64-bit memory addressing making sure backward compatibility would suffer april 2003 amd released first x86 processor 64-bit general-purpose registers opteron capable addressing much 4 gb virtual memory using new x86-64 extension also known amd64 x64 64-bit extensions x86 architecture enabled newly introduced long mode therefore 32-bit 16-bit applications operating systems could simply continue using amd64 processor protected modes without even slightest sacrifice performance full compatibility back original instructions 16-bit intel 8086 market responded positively adopting 64-bit amd processors high-performance applications business home computers seeing market rejecting incompatible itanium processor microsoft supporting amd64 intel respond introduced x86-64 processor prescott pentium 4 july 2004 result itanium processor ia-64 instruction set rarely used x86 x86-64 incarnation still dominant cpu architecture non-embedded computers x86-64 also introduced nx bit offers protection security bugs caused buffer overruns result amd 64-bit contribution x86 lineage subsequent acceptance intel 64-bit risc architectures ceased threat x86 ecosystem almost disappeared workstation market x86-64 began utilized powerful supercomputers amd opteron intel xeon incarnations market previously natural habitat 64-bit risc designs ibm power microprocessors sparc processors great leap toward 64-bit computing maintenance backward compatibility 32-bit 16-bit software enabled x86 architecture become extremely flexible platform today x86 chips utilized small low-power systems example intel quark intel atom fast gaming desktop computers example intel core i7 amd fx/ryzen even dominate large supercomputing clusters effectively leaving arm 32-bit 64-bit risc architecture competitor smartphone tablet market prior 2005 x86 architecture processors unable meet popek goldberg requirements specification virtualization created 1974 gerald j. popek robert p. goldberg however proprietary open-source x86 virtualization hypervisor products developed using software-based virtualization proprietary systems include hyper-v parallels workstation vmware esx vmware workstation vmware workstation player windows virtual pc free open-source systems include qemu kqemu virtualbox xen introduction amd-v intel vt-x instruction sets 2005 allowed x86 processors meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements 1-hop neighbor's text information: android_one.android one android one near-stock version android operating system released google android one altered companies make phones runs certain smartphones android one brand promises regular security updates three years android os updates two years android one started google 2014 focusing entry-level devices emerging markets though evolved including mid-range high-end smartphones android one runs 100 phones jon gold head android one partnerships google described program evolution including higher-end devices continuation google nexus program phones vetted google included software allowing years quick updates made companies android one started sundar pichai former product chief current ceo google android one often took least year latest android update arrived non-google devices project targeted indian market low-tier devices pichai said initial set devices shared common hardware based reference platform increasing range devices launched future security system updates handled google first set android one devices featured mediatek quad-core mt6582 mobile system-on-chip mobile soc 2014 android one phones initially rolled india pakistan bangladesh nepal indonesia philippines sri lanka myanmar south asian countries first android one smartphones indian brands micromax spice karbonn september 2014 second generation android one smartphones indonesia brands mito impact evercoss one x nexian journey february 2015 first android one preinstalled android 5.0 lollipop manufacturers including qmobile launched android one device named qmobile a1 july 6 2015 pakistan android one launched nigeria august 2015 infinix hot 2 x510 1 2 gb ram version became first android one africa infinix hot 2 x510 also exported african countries egypt ghana ivory coast morocco kenya cameroon uganda also asian countries united arab emirates pakistan indonesia 2 gb ram version manufactures follow gradually 2016 softbank announced would first carrier japan introduce android one phone country namely sharp 507sh released late july 2016 netherlands italy developed countries android one available market retailer media markt sells turkish smartphone brand general mobile 4g android one devices two countries well turkey since 2017 may 25 2017 turkish smartphone brand general mobile released next addition fully committed portfolio android one phones gm 6 softbank soon followed introducing sharp x1 japan subsidiary telecommunications company mobile june 30 september 5 2017 android one xiaomi jointly announced xiaomi mi a1 first android one device evolved program charter bring users smartphones running unmodified android operating system latest google technology easy use interface regular security os upgrades mi a1 first android one device released globally thirty-six markets sold various online offline distributors including xiaomi ’ mi homes device sales concentrated india indonesia russia taiwan september 2017 mvno google fi introduced first android one device available u.s. android one moto x4 november android one entered german market htc u11 life end november 2017 softbank announced addition four new devices android one lineup mobile x2 htc x3 kyocera s3 sharp s4 kyocera february 2018 hmd global maker nokia smartphones announced joined android one program devices approved google original equipment manufacturers oems agree requirements android one features concerning android operating system os security updates official android one entry page says fine print end confirm exact duration support phones territory smartphone manufacturer monthly security updates supported least three years initial phone release february 22 2018 google blog article says faster access android os updates two years including latest ai innovations google amongst secure devices ecosystem regular security updates three years google play protect built google confirms promise provide 2 years updates android one devices still stands website design impact promise program android one continues expand line smartphones geographic availability oem carrier partnerships countries release likely expand beyond initial countries regions listed snapdragon 410 devices rebrands longcheer l8150 based qualcomm seed reference design explaining similarities direct competitor based fully custom pcb design wileyfox swift available worldwide officially supported wileyfox recent android versions community supported lineageos roms Target text information: android_version_history.android version history version history android mobile operating system began public release android beta november 5 2007 first commercial version android 1.0 released september 23 2008 android continually developed google open handset alliance seen number updates base operating system since initial release versions android 1.0 1.1 released specific code names although android 1.1 unofficially known petit four android code names confectionery-themed alphabetical order since 2009 android 1.5 cupcake recent version android android 9 pie released august 2018 development android started 2003 android inc. purchased google 2005 beta released november 5 2007 software development kit sdk released november 12 2007 november 5 date popularly celebrated android birthday public beta versions sdk released following order following tables show release dates key features android operating system updates date listed chronologically official application programming interface api levels main hardware platform android arm architecture armv7 armv8-a architectures formerly also armv5 x86 mips architectures also officially supported later versions android mips support since deprecated support removed ndk r17 unofficial android-x86 project used provide support x86 mips architectures ahead official support 2012 android devices intel processors began appear including phones tablets gaining support 64-bit platforms android first made run 64-bit x86 arm64 since android 5.0 lollipop 64-bit variants platforms supported addition 32-bit variants requirements minimum amount ram devices running android 7.1 depend screen size density type cpu ranging 816mb–1.8gb 64-bit 512mb–1.3gb 32-bit meaning practice 1gb common type display minimum android watch 416mb recommendation android 4.4 least 512 mb ram low ram devices 340 mb required minimum amount include memory dedicated various hardware components baseband processor android 4.4 requires 32-bit armv7 mips x86 architecture processor latter two unofficial ports together opengl es 2.0 compatible graphics processing unit gpu android supports opengl es 1.1 2.0 3.0 3.2 since android 7.0 vulkan version 1.1 available devices applications may explicitly require certain version opengl es suitable gpu hardware required run applications android used require autofocus camera relaxed fixed-focus camera I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,892	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: hacker_(video_game).hacker video game hacker 1985 computer game activision designed steve cartwright released amiga amstrad cpc apple ii atari 8-bit family atari st commodore 64 macintosh ms-dos msx zx spectrum activision executive jim levy introduced hacker reporters pretending something gone wrong attempt connect line company headquarters demonstrate new game several attempts logged mysterious non-activision computer explaining ladies gentlemen game player assumes role hacker person experienced breaking secure computer systems accidentally acquires access non-public system game shipped information play thus building concept player hack system player must attempt hack magma ltd. computer system beginning game guessing logon password password becomes obvious gaining access another means entry later stage game typing help h initial command line gives clue since initial attempts consist guessing likely failing access eventually granted due supposed malfunction security system player player asked identify various parts robot unit pointing cursor relevant parts pressing joystick button parts exotic technical names asynchronous data compactor phlamson joint —this allows room error initially trying guess part name belongs failure identify part correctly forces player take retest 100 percent identification made point player allowed continue player gains control robot travel around globe via secret tunnels deep within earth game text states robot powered manner magma evident player logged magma company network acting remote user global subterranean transport network various strange messages broadcast hinting dangerous experiments company getting far player informed shredded portions secret document containing magma ltd. plans world domination stolen player instructed retrieve document bargaining spies stole located various locations throughout globe player warned must retrieved order prevent u.s. government thwarting plans point player objective clear retrieve strips stolen document deliver washington d.c robot tunnel system extensive unmarked getting around initially exercise trial error throughout globe several cities robot surface interact people primarily spies want bargain piece evidence various surfacing cities player must try convince agents turn piece evidence initially player 5,000 bargain arsenal items grows time bargaining real challenge game determining spy wants get eventually spies whims satisfied pieces secret document note different copies game even computer platform differences items spies want n't enough however magma ltd. discovers player break-in shortly penetration launches security satellite intersects player position demands information supposedly legitimate user would know information queried given player previously game questions answered player taken careful notes information asked rather obscure put pressure player satellites allow player pass checks 4 times another catch cause player get disconnected due suspicious activity addition player time limit tracked movements sru makes player take long system automatically disconnect anyway regardless satellites sensors network also start fail limiting player ability see turns tunnels ahead eventually sru located forcing player rely maps tunnel network make player goes near australia network automatic game issued however knowledge may help future play evading check since game lacks save game feature player fails must start beginning try solve game puzzles late 1987 50,000 copies hacker sold activision third best-selling commodore game info rated hacker four stars five describing interesting concept fair good graphics sound compute praised game initial realism concluded worthy addition software collection especially enjoy adventure games require bit thought investment time ahoy wrote puzzle nature certain enthrall repel others ... repeated play integral part reaching solution enjoy protracted battle wits find hacker lively test abilities game followed 1986 much difficult sequel player actually recruited based upon assumed success activities original game tasked controlling robot time infiltrate secure facility order retrieve documents known doomsday papers well-guarded vault ensure security united states Target text information: hacker_ii:_the_doomsday_papers.hacker ii doomsday papers hacker ii doomsday papers computer game written steve cartwright published activision 1986 sequel 1985 game hacker hacker ii released amiga apple ii apple iigs amstrad cpc atari st commodore 64 ibm pc macintosh zx spectrum hacker ii difficult involved first game hacker ii player actually recruited based upon assumed success activities original game tasked controlling robot time infiltrate secure facility order retrieve documents known doomsday papers well guarded vault ensure security united states eventually escape papers player confronted agents united states reveal actually working former magma employee wanted papers revenge happened company player presumably exposed first game building player unwittingly broken government facility player go back facility part gambit expose magma agent avoiding security threatened player gameplay considerably changed previous game packaging notable including manual describing function four way monitor system provided player hooked camera security network facility player asked infiltrate handful robots available hidden facility case lost using camera system in-game map helps track guard patrols location robots player must explore one floor facility find codes needed open vault escape papers aid player also pre-recorded security tape typical day every camera facility player bypass actual camera feed need area extended time although care needed ensure time stamp matches actual time game discovery guards must avoided costs alerted call huge machine resembles large plate hung looks like metal frame wheels machine pursues player defenseless robot attempt crush plate player try avoid drone although relentless pursuit much faster player robot player robots destroyed game things set alarms include seen patrolling guard constant line sight corridors one cameras see robot incorrectly disabling vault security failing sync bypassed camera feed actual time giving evidence tampering going game also featured escalating problems part player interface begins fail ingame map starts lose progress player robot monitored security cameras guard eventually map player defeated system eventually get vault player may well forced control robot blindly relying maps made player saves available game first title compute described hacker ii original plot criticized inability save favorably reported game graphics detail user interface magazine stated exciting harrowing scenarios 'll find computer game advised recommend anyone weak heart computer gaming world praised hacker ii graphics design atari st stated game accurately depicted system cracking hacker cautioned difficulty scale would appeal everyone info gave commodore 64 version four stars five describing superior sequel original ... engrossing challenging espionage game I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	391	none
[''] Target text information: golfboo.golfboo golfboo golf course search engine optimized towards finding golf courses online bargains co-founded 2013 antonio conde fabio peral headquartered marbella spain engine provides search tool find locations descriptions facility list reviews golf courses europe golfboo golf course search engine locates golf courses golf vacation travel packages real estate options website uses algorithms rating system search filters golfboo founded january 2013 antonio conde online marketer fabio peral former golf consultant royal troon golf club golf director la quinta lumine buenaventura located panama first version website launched june 2013 former version site focused advertised golf courses golf bargain packages later site expanded listing tee times hotels deals real estate located specific golfing spots golfboo received online exposure initial debut due fact golf-specific travel search engine comparison website first travel website curtail search optimization towards finding real estate golf recreational areas I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	6,736	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: live_usb.live usb live usb usb flash drive external hard disk drive containing full operating system booted evolutionary next step live cds added benefit writable storage live usb allowing customizations booted operating system live usbs used embedded systems system administration data recovery test driving persistently save settings install software packages usb device many operating systems including windows xp embedded large portion linux bsd distributions run usb flash drive windows 8 enterprise feature titled windows go similar purpose repair computer booting issues technicians often use lightweight operating systems bootable media command line interface development first live cds graphical user interface made feasible non-technicians repair malfunctioning computers live cds linux based addition repairing computers would occasionally used right operating systems personal computers introduced usb booting early 2000s macintosh computers introducing functionality 1999 beginning power mac g4 agp graphics slot-loading imac g3 models intel-based macs carried functionality booting macos usb specialized usb-based booting proposed ibm 2004 reincarnating pcs portable soulpads boot gnu/linux firewire device live usbs share many benefits limitations live cds also incorporate various applications exist create live usbs examples include rufus fedora live usb creator unetbootin wintousb win32diskimager yumi works variety distributions linux distributions live cds ready-made scripts perform steps automatically addition knoppix ubuntu extra applications installed persistent file system used store changes base install ranges little 16 mib tiny core linux large dvd-sized install 4 gigabytes set live usb system commodity pc hardware following steps must taken knoppix live cds utility boot allows users declare intent write operating system file structures either temporarily ram disk permanently disk flash media preserve added configurations security updates easier recreating usb system may moot since many live usb tools simple use alternative live solution traditional operating system installation elimination swap partitions installation advantage efficient software live installation would still contain software removed persistent file due operating systems installer still included media however full installation without disadvantages due additional write cycles occur full installation life flash drive may slightly reduced mitigate live systems designed store changes ram user powers system writes changes another factor speed storage device destitute performance comparable legacy computers even machines modern parts flash drive transfers speeds one way solve use usb hard drive generally give better performance flash drives regardless connector although many live usbs rely booting open-source operating system linux possible create live usbs windows using diskpart wintousb syslinux common program make bootable usb storage device 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_tools_to_create_live_usb_systems.list tools create live usb systems list utilities creating live usb multiboot means tool allows multiple systems usb stick well bootloader usb flash drive choose system load boot time 1-hop neighbor's text information: software_remastering.software remastering software remastering software development recreates system software applications incorporating customizations intent copied run elsewhere off-label usage remastered codebase continue parallel ongoing upstream software development fork remastered version term comes remastering media production similarly distinguished mere copying remastering popularized klaus knopper creator knoppix free software foundation promotes universal freedom recreate distribute computer software example funding projects like gnu project remastered linux bsd opensolaris operating system distributions common copy protected also allowance operating systems grow application taking snapshot installing onto bootable media thumb drive virtual machine hypervisor since 2001 1000 computer operating systems arisen download internet global community linux providers pushes practice remastering developer switching project overtaking merging sharing internet distributions start remastered version another distribution evidenced announcements made distrowatch notably remastering sls linux forked slackware remastering red hat linux helped fork yellow dog linux mandriva turbolinux remastering debian distribution ubuntu started remastered linux mint team might involve critical system software extent customizations made remastering trivial change default setting distribution subsequent provision acquaintance installation media remastered version becomes public becomes distribution microsoft windows also modified remastered various utilities exist combine windows updates device drivers original windows cd/dvd installation media process known slipstreaming remastering distro remastering software applied inside live operating system clone installation package remastering necessarily require remastering software facilitates process example application remastered acquiring modifying recompiling original source code many video games modded upgrading additional content levels features notably counter-strike remastered half-life went marketed commercial product software remastering creates application rebuilding code base software objects existing master repository mastering process assembles distribution release version remaster process subtraction modification addition master repository similarly modified makefile orchestrates computerized version application amount unneeded code cut wanted minimum removes unwanted features original publisher maintainer needs new features added evolves software remastered version may consider feature original bug provides modified copy feature works better way published software remaster maintains integrity named product derived adherence shared software repository modifications intention maintaining good name needing approval approval happen name repository option become master creator published software remaster work evolve software must least arrange maintenance support channels updating user documentation providing forum internet relay chat line wiki providing intent maintain version life usefulness remastering centers around reputation product distribution process requires official sanctioned version differs attitude much free software many cases name product cheap plentiful stable guarantees liabilities offered permission inherently granted redistribution modified version name original repository master creative flavors spins may already offered original producers remaster production supports additional software outside supports new mixture software original repository keeps modifications original masters outside master repository software remastering tolerated maintainers master repository free software modifications encouraged social conventions mklivecd runs linux machine make bootable portable media image linux system works linux distribution probably needs installed first remaster personalized version pclinuxos created according needs individual created using mklivecd script applied installation official flavors pclinuxos official remaster include software components official repository version control community remaster may contain software components outside reference pclinuxos derived pclinuxos based pclinuxos intended distribution several third-party distributions years though may mention connection follow strict guidelines concerning quality maintainability distribution channels subject approval officiating members forum pclinuxos gnome edition example community remaster unity linux intended base platform acts distribution template ensures interoperability packages upon one encouraged remaster new gnu/linux os distributions linux mint remastering tool called mintconstructor creating distributions based linux mint creating iso files also package manager uses .mint files linux mint based ubuntu linux distribution ubuntu based debian distribution linux mint also offers debian edition provide example meeting kind codebase challenges goes remastering branch two distributions gentoo linux uses catalyst user installs configures runs gets one big archive-formatted file /var/tmp/catalyst/builds configuration options target machine architecture development version stamp differentiation stamp example version hardened extra security user must provide catalyst snapshot portage tree point target profile branch portage tree portage tree hierarchy directories oriented names categories packages package managers use normal everyday maintenance software fedora linux uses revisor enable user compose customized installation live media arch linux uses archiso remaster arch installation target machine rare hardware internet connection cases modified deployment occur multiple times remastered isos bootable also used system rescue demonstrations arch setup task testing new software installed rollout custom installation onto many machines etc arch linux wiki also gives procedure manually archiso automatically involves copying portions installation iso using linux commands mount mkdir chroot mksquashfs arch package manager pacman mx linux uses mx-snapshot gui tool remaster live installation single .iso file quickly conveniently cloned image bootable disk usb-thumbdrive maintaining settings way installation conveniently migrated distributed new hard-disk usb-thumbdrive requiring next administrative effort since advanced method copying file system developed antix-linux utilizing bind-mounts performs heavy lifting snapshot also serves essentially complete convenient backup installation examples section show historical operational aspects software remastering occurred microsoft windows 98lite remastering tool windows 95 windows 98 windows without internet explorer written shane brooks written response microsoft claim antitrust proceedings ie integrated windows removed without breaking features 98lite created 1998 original release windows 98 necessity since time brooks slower laptop computer ran windows 95 operating system fine windows 98 simply slow brooks liked stability windows 98 offered well new features need internet explorer browser original 98lite simple dos based installer ran windows 98 installation installer made modifications fresh installation windows preventing installation internet explorer active desktop installation first release 98lite required user extract certain files windows 95 disk 98lite uses windows 95 shell second program called shell swap swapped explorer shell windows 95 explorer contain web features 98 explorer therefore considerably faster lightweight designed existing installations windows 98 original 98lite designed new installation windows third program converted required components addable removable options version 2.0 98lite three programs merged combined single program ie remover combined components converter making ie uninstallable reinstallable add/remove programs control panel applet components user could also choose windows 95 shell keep internet explorer installed user three installation options sleek option allowed user install 98lite windows 95 shell like original release user could choose chubby used windows 98 shell active desktop features disabled final option overweight installed 98lite windows 98 shell nothing disabled internet explorer still removed version 3.0 added support windows 98 second edition upgraded version windows 98 internet explorer 5.0 made 98lite 1.0 2.0 obsolete current 4.x line many improvements including bugfixes support windows installing version directx 98lited windows requires least temporary presence pc health otherwise directx refuses install finishing installation attempt error message directx copy required file revenge mozilla another free application removes internet explorer windows 98 restores windows 95 explorer.exe two versions one original windows 98 release another win98 se version windows longer supported updated also company spun lite-pc produces windows 98 installations small enough easily fit embedded microchips small 8mb using 98eos also many free alternatives mindows nano98 provide either smaller file sizes broad functionality creator 98lite also built similar tool windows 2000 windows xp called 2000-xplite removes windows components intended removable includes out-of-box experience internet explorer outlook express windows media player others 2000-xplite also allows tweaks operating system enhance performance 2000-xplite use text interface 98lite like 98lite 2000-xplite installs windows components removes unwanted components installation nlite designed remove unwanted windows 2000 windows xp 32 64 bit windows server 2003 system components create cut-down customized installation cds nlite built dino nuhagić free personal use purchase options available september 2014 beta-version windows 7 later publicly released user chooses wanted 'functionality options nlite attempts warn user removing dependent components creation custom installer also lets users add device drivers integrate service packs windows updates well remove drivers obsolete unwanted hardware remove unwanted language keyboard options unwanted applications allows customization installation process including product key entry administrator password regional settings creating user account names options normally set control panel installation well numerous 'tweaks various degrees 'unattended installation also possible end installer creation process nlite burn installation direct cd create .iso image later use also option saving loading previous session choices .txt format speed checking modification custom installation required since custom installer contain unwanted components lead smaller installation package faster installation considerable benefit staff still using manual 'roll approach without benefit microsoft sysprep software-minimized cds also allow windows system installed hard disks 512 mb size hfslip open source command line hotfix service pack slipstreaming tool designed update windows 2000 windows xp windows server 2003 installation sources addition hotfixes service packs hfslip slipstreams microsoft updates internet explorer directx 9.0c windows media player windows media codecs also integrates third-party device driver updates including driverpacks hfslip slipstreams replaces original files newer versions found updates microsoft download center hfslip places hotfixes non-standard required special installation procedure svcpack folder installed automatically near end windows setup may 2010 hfslip longer developed main website taken autostreamer free slipstreaming tool windows xp integrate service pack windows xp installation cd-rom image main interface autostreamer wizard guides user slipstreaming process according pc world simplifies once-intimidating chore slipstreaming windows xp cd—producing xp sp2 cd sp1 even vintage original xp cd driverpacks project open source project started wim leers jeff herre leers released first pack 2005 collections device drivers called driverpacks exist cpu chipsets cpu graphics/video ethernet mass storage/removable/usb audio/sound wireless wi-fi/wlan hardware driverpacks base tool integrates driverpacks one uniform windows installation cd works every piece hardware needs additional device drivers installation compatible windows versions based nt 5.1 32-bit kernel windows 2000 windows xp windows server 2003 windows vista windows 7 vlite windows vista 32 64 bit version nlite create cut-down customized installation cd bootable usb stick people reported success using vlite windows 7 vlite fully compatible windows 7 intended support windows 7 sept. 2014 ntlite released support windows 7 later ntlite software tool creator nlite support windows 7 windows 8 windows 8.1 windows 10. ntlite also prevents components installed remove already-installed system using paid version win toolkit create cut-down customized installation cd bootable usb stick windows 7 later versions Target text information: remastersys.remastersys remastersys free open-source program debian ubuntu-based linux mint derivative software systems april 28 2013 originator direct development ceased. br project development ceased originator fragadelic group developers members copper linux user group arizona began respin development project fork transition new supporters original code received originator team members discussed fork fork released working version late july 2015 early october 2015 debian principal developer reverted maintaining remastersys kept linux respin open project future features development ubuntu developer/maintainer sergio mejia debian developer/maintainer marcia wilbur keep respin available github launchpad respectively initially created able easily back create distributable copy ubuntu derivative installation inspiration tool came mklivecd script mandriva uses remasterme script pclinuxos since scripts easy port ubuntu written scratch remastersys intended serve easy way create customized live cd/dvd version ubuntu resulting iso also installed usb pendrive creating live usb distro using either command-line approach graphical tool unetbootin future enhancements discussion include possible rescue software incorporated remastersys command line version gui version I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,618	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sap_se.sap se sap se systems applications products data processing german multinational software corporation makes enterprise software manage business operations customer relations sap headquartered walldorf baden-württemberg germany regional offices 180 countries company 425,000 customers 180 countries component euro stoxx 50 stock market index xerox exited computer hardware manufacturing industry 1971 asked ibm migrate business systems ibm technology part ibm compensation migration ibm given rights scientific data systems sds /sape software reportedly contract credit 80,000 five ibm engineers ai department dietmar hopp klaus tschira hans-werner hector hasso plattner claus wellenreuther mannheim baden-württemberg working enterprise-wide system based software told would longer necessary rather abandoning project decided leave ibm tech start another company june 1972 founded sap system analysis program development sapd company private partnership german civil code first client german branch imperial chemical industries östringen developed mainframe programs payroll accounting instead storing data punch cards mechanically ibm stored locally electronic system using common logical database activities organization therefore called software real-time system since need process punch cards overnight reason flagship product carried r name late 1990s first version also standalone software could offered interested parties 1973 first commercial product launched sap completes first financial accounting system rf system serves cornerstone ongoing development software modules system eventually bear name sap r/1 offered common system multiple tasks permitted use centralized data storage improving maintenance data technical point view therefore database necessary 1976 sap gmbh systeme anwendungen und produkte der datenverarbeitung systems applications products data processing founded sales support subsidiary five years later private partnership dissolved rights passed sap gmbh headquarters moved following year walldorf germany three years later 1979 sap launched sap r/2 expanding capabilities system areas material management production planning 1981 sap brought re-designed product market however sap r/2 improve period 1985 1990 sap released new sap r/3 1992 sap developed released several versions r/3 1995 mid-1990s sap followed trend mainframe computing client/server architectures development sap internet strategy mysap.com redesigned concept business processes integration via internet result r/3 replaced introduction sap erp central component ecc 5.0 2004 architectural changes also made support enterprise service architecture transition customers services-oriented architecture latest version sap erp 6.0 released 2006 sap erp 6.0 since updated sap enhancement packs recent sap enhancement package 8 sap erp 6.0 2016 august 1988 sap gmbh became sap ag public trading started 4 november 1988 shares listed frankfurt stuttgart stock exchanges 1995 sap included german stock index dax 22 september 2003 sap included stoxx europe 50 company official name became sap ag public limited company 2005 annual general meeting 2014 sap changed ag european company societas europaea se since 2012 sap acquired several companies sell cloud-based products several multibillion-dollar acquisitions seen analysts attempt challenge competitor oracle 2014 sap bought concur technologies provider cloud-based travel expense management software 8.3 billion sap expensive purchase date analysts reactions purchase mixed thomas becker commerzbank questioning whether concur right choice sap credit suisse called acquisition aggressive move 2014 ibm sap began partnership sell cloud-based services likewise 2015 sap also partnered hpe provide secure hybrid cloud-based services running sap platform hpe ibm provide infrastructure services sap sap runs sap hana cloud solution top sap announced additional partnerships microsoft order give customers tools data visualization well improved mobile applications sap exceeded revenue projections due expansion cloud business success sap hana growth also partially attributed acquisitions concur fieldglass company announced plans 2016 invest heavily technology relating internet things iot part strategy capitalize growth market purpose €2 billion planned investment relevant sectors end 2020 sap also launch new product line called sap iot combine large amounts data things connected internet machine learning sap real-time database s/4 hana 2015 company launched sap s/4hana newest generation sap business suite written natively sap hana platform offers cloud on-premises hybrid deployment options customers benefits including smaller data footprint higher throughput faster analytics faster access data also allows existing sap business suite customers upgrade product sap business suite 2016 sap introduced sap hana express edition meant run personal computers cloud computing platforms students small-scale developers january 29 2019 sap announced plans cut approximately 4,000 positions company strategic plan shift modern cloud-based technologies blockchain quantum computing machine learning internet things artificial intelligence fiscal year 2017 sap reported earnings eur€4 billion annual revenue eur€23.5 billion increase 6.3 previous fiscal cycle sap shares traded usd105 per share market capitalization valued usd128 billion december 2018 makes sap valuable company germany sap world third largest software programming company corporation operates europe asia africa middle east north america south america sap focuses 25 industries six industry sectors process industries discrete industries consumer industries service industries financial services public services offers integrated product sets large enterprises mid-sized companies small businesses service-oriented architecture incorporated sap erp enterprise resource planning system products defined within sap enterprise services architecture enterprise soa sap enterprise service oriented architecture enterprise soa sap se service-oriented architecture implementation enterprise soa enabled sap netweaver platform builds benefits web services sap positioned enterprise soa deliver benefits offered service-oriented architecture including enabling flexibility business efficiency sap markets enterprise soa cost-effective way adding new applications existing infrastructure sap solutions currently use enterprise soa mysap crm mysap erp mysap srm sap partners include global services partners cross-industry multinational consulting capabilities global software partners providing integrated products complement sap business suite solutions global technology partners providing user companies wide range products support sap technology including vendors hardware database storage systems networks mobile computing technology extensions partners companies provide functionality complements sap product capabilities products certified sold supported sap partner companies include adobe ca technologies gk software hewlett-packard ids scheer mendix opentext knoa software backoffice associates sap also partnered apple work mobile experience sap enterprise customers part partnership new sap hana cloud platform sdk would delivered exclusively ios result developers build applications based sap hana cloud platform iphone ipad devices partnership announced may 2016 sap products small businesses midsize companies delivered global partner network sap partneredge programme sap partner programme offers set business enablement resources program benefits help partners including value-added resellers vars independent software vendors isvs profitable successful implementing selling marketing developing delivering sap products broad range customers sap community network scn community sap customers partners employees influencers – typically roles developers consultants integrators business analysts – gain share knowledge abap java .net soa technologies plus analytics dashboards business process best practices cloud mobile big data range topics via blogs discussion forums downloads code samples training materials technical library sap uses two-tier structure boards executive board supervisory board 2016 members executive board bill mcdermott ceo chairman joined 2008 robert enslin 2014 bernd leukert 2014 luka mucic cfo 2014 michael kleinemeier 2015 stefan ries 2016 steve singh 2016 gerhard oswald 1996 juergen mueller join executive board 2019 functional units sap split across different organizational units r needs field activities customer support sap labs mainly responsible product development whereas field organizations spread across country responsible field activities sales marketing consulting headquarters responsible overall management well core engineering activities related product development worldwide customer support provided field organizations unified organization called active global support ags sap labs r locations develop improve sap core products sap labs strategically located high-tech clusters around globe four prominent labs sap se located germany india china us labs walldorf founded 1972 became sap primary location beginning focus sap expansion entering highly developed markets 1993 palo alto became part sap labs aiming acquire talented employees sap opened another lab bangalore 2003 among latest sap labs labs czech republic slovakia poland three labs established 2016 labs india largest labs outside germany order manage sap labs sap labs network sln created sln global unit manages regional labs shares best business practices coordinates distributes development projects among individual sap labs locations accelerates product delivery gives sap full access talent drives sap corporate strategy regarding innovation business growth sap user groups independent nonprofit organizations sap customers sap partners serve communications channel members towards sap sap towards markets americas sap users group asug company largest user group 100,000 individuals 3,800 companies asug members professionals work 17 industries many technical business process experts sap ecosystem varied levels experience come small businesses global corporations well universities 2007 sap user group executive network sugen established sap provoked controversy frustration among users 2008 raising cost maintenance contracts issue subject intense discussion among user groups sap cloud platform sap platform-as-a-service paas used deliver in-memory capabilities microservices building extending mobile-enabled cloud applications infrastructure offered global network sap managed data centers sap cloud platform open platform-as-a-service includes in-memory sap hana database management system connects premises cloud-based systems running sap third-party software relies open standards like java javascript node.js cloud foundry integration options sap cloud platform promoted build extend business applications rapid innovation cycles sap apple inc. partnered develop mobile applications ios using cloud-based software development kits sdks sap cloud platform sap founding development partners cloud platform include accenture celonis enterprisealumni walmart sap cloud platform based open source technology developed supported partnership suse company also partnership cloud foundry beta offering sap cloud platform enables customers test give feedback functionalities coming cloud foundry sap launched sap store march 2015 principal e-commerce property allow customers buy products directly web rather traditional sales channels customers purchase free trials starter editions pay credit card paypal launched 2016 sap app center online application marketplace third-party applications integrate extend sap products applications available free well via yearly monthly subscription models applications available range integrations content management software mobile approval management payment platforms july 2018 features 1,500 applications sap two annual conferences sap competitors primarily enterprise resource planning software industry field oracle corporation sap major competitor sap also competes customer relationship management marketing sales software manufacturing warehousing industrial software supply chain management logistics software sectors oracle corporation filed lawsuit sap malpractice unfair competition california courts 2007 sap lost case 2010 ordered pay 1.3 billion cited largest copyright infringement judgment history verdict overturned 2011 lawsuit finally settled 2014 356.7 million resulting pressure saw sap sugen sap user group executive network agree major benchmarking exercise prove value new support pricing policy customers december 2009 sap delayed enterprise support price rises agreement reached benchmarks kpis key performance indicators january 2010 sap reversed direction enterprise support reintroduced standard support package customers move reinstate standard support – 18 percent annual license fees enable customers choose option best meets requirements company said august 2013 sap acquired german software company hybris ecommerce capabilities sap donated several millions dollars variety global health causes including product red campaign global fund addition sap distributed free software south africa part effort towards developing future markets company also encourages employees volunteer social sabbaticals sending teams people different countries aid non-profits sap employees volunteered china india brazil south africa sap arena opened mannheim 2005 home adler mannheim ice hockey team rhein-neckar löwen handball team since 2013 company name sponsor sap center san jose california team also sponsors formula one racing team mclaren nfl teams new york giants new york jets city football group esports squad team liquid sap ambassadors include german tennis player angelique kerber german eventing rider ingrid klimke south african golfers ernie els gary player branden grace sap also engages outreach activities within company 2013 company launched initiative hire employees autism asperger syndrome citing undervalued ability contribute workforce sap aims compose 1 workforce individuals autism year 2020 february 2019 sap accused ‘ improper conduct ’ linked state contracts kenya tanzania anonymous whistle-blower claims firm attorneys sap used twenty third century systems ttcs bribe officials tanzania ports authority tpa win us 6.6-million enterprise resource planning software tender involved provision software licenses services july 2017 allegations made sap involved business transactions controversial politically influential gupta family south africa sap accused paying cad house gupta-controlled company r100 million order secure transnet deal sap denied allegations claiming money paid extension sales force despite cad house prior sap experience guptas dealings sap revealed widely publicized e-mail leak consequence allegations sap launched investigation led four south african managers placed administrative leave along seizure mobile phones computers claas kuehnemann named acting managing director africa investigation continued 26 october 2017 sap announced voluntarily reported u.s. securities exchange commission possible violation us law including foreign corrupt practices act related south african bribery allegations sap investigation conducted law firm baker mckenzie revealed sap paid 7.7 million commissions third-parties linked gupta family securing contracts worth 48 million transnet eskom may 2015 sap agreed pay 3.9 million settle u.s. securities exchange commission civil charges former executive scheme bribe panama government officials order win lucrative technology contracts 1-hop neighbor's text information: unicore.unicore unicore uniform interface computing resources grid computing technology resources supercomputers cluster systems information stored databases unicore developed two projects funded german ministry education research bmbf european-funded projects unicore evolved middleware system used several supercomputer centers unicore served basis research projects unicore technology open source bsd licence available sourceforge concept grid computing first introduced book grid blueprint new computing infrastructure end 1998 1997 development unicore initiated german supercomputer centers alternative globus toolkit first prototype developed german unicore project foundations production version laid follow-up project unicore plus ended 2002 follow-up european projects extended functionality worked towards providing implementations open grid forum standards resulted release unicore 6 28 august 2007 unicore consists three layers user server target system tier user tier represented various clients primary clients unicore rich client graphical user interface based eclipse framework unicore commandline client ucc clients use soap web services communicate server tier xml documents used transmit platform site independent descriptions computational data related tasks resource information workflow specifications client server servers accessible via secure socket layer protocol single secure entry point unicore site gateway accepts authenticates requests forwards target service server unicore/x used access particular set grid resources site unicore supports many different system architectures ensures organization full control resources unicore/x servers may used access supercomputer linux cluster single pc unicore/x server creates concrete target system specific actions xml job description abstract job objects ajo received client available unicore services include job submission job management file access file transfer client-server server-server storage operations mkdir ls etc workflow submission management target system tier consists target system interface tsi directly interfaces underlying local operating system resource management system security within unicore relies usage permanent x.509 certificates issued trusted certification authority ca certificates used provide single sign-on unicore client i.e password requests handed user addition certificates used authentication authorization including mapping unicore user certificates local accounts e.g unix uid/gid signing xml requests sent ssl based communication channels across 'insecure internet links using x.509 certificates one example consideration well-known standards e.g released global grid forum ggf within unicore architecture trust delegation unicore uses signed saml assertions local authorisation controlled xacml policies components unicore technology open source software bsd license downloaded sourceforge repository many european international research projects base grid software implementations unicore e.g eurogrid grip openmolgrid viola japanese naregi project projects extended extending set core unicore functions including new features specific research project focus goals projects limited computer science community scientific domains bioengineering computational chemistry also using unicore basis work research like openmolgrid chemomentum projects within european deisa project leading hpc centers europe joined deploy operate pervasive distributed heterogeneous multi-tera-scale supercomputing platform unicore used grid middleware access deisa resources unicore deployed distributed computing infrastructures europe prace european grid infrastructure egi foreseen deployed upcoming extreme science engineering discovery environment xsede infrastructure united states unicore successfully used production environments e.g within john von neumann-institute computing nic access 294912 core jugene ibm bluegene/p supercomputer 26304 core juropa cluster users resources come broad field scientific domains including e.g astrophysics quantum physics medicine biology computational chemistry climatology 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm Target text information: d-grid.d-grid d-grid initiative german grid initiative government project fund computer infrastructure education research e-science germany uses term grid computing d-grid started september 1 2005 six community projects integration project dgi well several partner projects d-grid integration project intended integrate community projects d-grid integration project acted service provider science community germany project office located institute scientific computing iwr forschungszentrum karlsruhe resources ensure sustainable grid infrastructure provided four work packages six community projects participated d-grid initiative astrogrid-d also referred german astronomy community grid gacg joint research project thirteen astronomical institutes grid-oriented computer science groups supported supercomputing centers main objective astrogrid-d integration german research facilities unified nationwide research infrastructure field astronomy goal improve efficiency usability hardware software resources including computer clusters astronomical data archives observational facilities robotic telescopes astrogrid-d supports standards international virtual observatory alliance ivoa cooperates closely international projects grid development astrogrid-d managed astrophysical institute potsdam aip collaborative climate community data processing grid c3-grid scientific researchers trying understand earth system including subsystems like oceans atmosphere biosphere last decades amount data increased enormously field climate research one hand due rapid rise computing power scientists able use models higher resolution perform long term simulations scientists able couple models mentioned subsystems complex cumulative simulations producing petabytes output collected distributed data archives hand monitoring earth satellites results second huge data stream climate research uniform access distributed data available creates bottleneck scientific research c3-grid proposes link distributed data archives management c3-grid alfred wegener institute polar marine research awi bremerhaven gdi-grid geodateninfrastrukturen-grid spatial data infrastructure grid project focuses solutions efficient integration processing geodata based gis sdi technologies project integrate gdi grid technologies working gdi-grid infrastructure thus demonstrate complementarity fields science distributed geospatial data—currently accessed via standardized gis sdi services—will build basis endeavour data basis put use processing merging data creating standards-based multi-functional generic sdi services project focuses data models services workflows spatial data infrastructures services integration processing management spatial data developed implemented within d-grid infrastructure proof concept given using number representative scenarios emergency routing disaster management flood simulation sound propagation simulation project managed university hanover regional computing center lower saxony rrzn hep-grid project focused high energy physics nuclear well astroparticle physics main task hep-grid optimize data analysis using distributed computing storage resources project developments extensions grid middleware enabling grids e-sciencee project european grid infrastructure large hadron collider lhc computing grid lcg project provide significant improvements data analysis experiments currently taking data planned proposed international linear collider ilc hep-grid deutsches elektronen synchrotron desy german electron synchrotron hamburg collaborates eight german research facilities universities set associate partners ingrid community project field grid computing engineering sciences ingrid aims enable engineering projects grid-based applications allow common efficient use common compute software resources grid technologies promised combine competences modeling simulation optimization five typical applications foundry technologies metal forming technologies groundwater flow transport turbine simulation fluid-structure interaction considered showcases cover three central areas computationally intensive engineering applications coupled multi-scale problems coupled multi-discipline problems distributed simulation-based optimization particular adaptive scalable process models grid based runtime environments tasks developed support virtual prototyping optimization scientific engineering operational sequences emphasis project project management ingrid provided high performance computing center höchstleistungsrechenzentrum stuttgart hlrs university stuttgart joint project medigrid unifies research institutes medicine biomedical informatics life sciences consortium partners industry healthcare research facilities main goal medigrid development aggrid middleware integration platform enabling escience services biomedical life science project formed four modules middleware ontology resource fusion escience developed grid infrastructure biomedical users user communities represented three research modules biomedical informatics image processing clinical research sugi sustainable grid infrastructure gap project german grid initiative major task disseminate knowledge grid technology enhance use thus sugi addresses academic computing centers well enterprises still adopted grid technology supported providing grid resources services experiences d-grid projects made available institutions thus sugi offers training courses attends external courses create video audio recordings provide online d-grid communities via scaling training infrastructure sugi-portal sugi claimed develop training systems grid middleware simplify installation servicing procedures work development evaluation legal organizational structures grid technologies developed natural life sciences opportunities deploying grid computing e-science concepts areas well textgrid grid project humanities uses buzzword e-humanities textgrid promised create grid-based infrastructure collaborative editing annotation analysis publication specialist texts researchers philology linguistics related fields addition providing comprehensive toolset project establishes open platform projects plug textgrid valuegrids developed service level management service value networks supposed enable providers software-as-a-service solutions utilize grid infrastructures leverage german national grid infrastructure valuegrids project partners sap ag coordinator conemis ag ibm deutschland research development gmbh university freiburg karlsruhe institute technology several partner projects involved d-grid e-science project wisent wissensnetz energiemeteorologie promised optimize cooperation scientific organizations energy meteorology employing grid technologies main focus research influence weather climate transformation transport utilisation energy 100 german research facilities funded 20 billion euros 3 years german federal ministry education research I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	5,258	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: xtradb.xtradb percona xtradb storage engine mariadb percona server databases intended drop-in replacement innodb one default engines available mysql database 10.1 mariadb mariadb server used percona xtradb default storage engine mariadb 10.2 innodb engine default xtradb xtradb incorporates innodb acid-compliant design mvcc architecture allows greater degree tuning scalability engine also better suited multi-core processing addresses issues known innodb 1-hop neighbor's text information: mysql_cluster.mysql cluster mysql cluster technology providing shared-nothing clustering auto-sharding mysql database management system designed provide high availability high throughput low latency allowing near linear scalability mysql cluster implemented ndb ndbcluster storage engine mysql ndb stands network database mysql cluster designed around distributed multi-master acid compliant architecture single point failure mysql cluster uses automatic sharding partitioning scale read write operations commodity hardware accessed via sql non-sql nosql apis internally mysql cluster uses synchronous replication two-phase commit mechanism order guarantee data written multiple nodes upon committing data contrast usually referred mysql replication two copies known replicas data required guarantee availability mysql cluster automatically creates “ node groups ” number replicas data nodes specified user updates synchronously replicated members node group protect data loss support fast failover nodes also possible replicate asynchronously clusters sometimes referred mysql cluster replication geographical replication typically used replicate clusters data centers disaster recovery reduce effects network latency locating data physically closer set users unlike standard mysql replication mysql cluster geographic replication uses optimistic concurrency control concept epochs provide mechanism conflict detection resolution enabling active/active clustering data centers starting mysql cluster 7.2 support synchronous replication data centers supported multi-site clustering feature mysql cluster implemented fully distributed multi-master database ensuring updates made application sql node instantly available nodes accessing cluster data node accept write operations data within mysql cluster ndb tables automatically partitioned across data nodes system done based hashing algorithm based primary key table transparent end application clients connect node cluster queries automatically access correct shards needed satisfy query commit transaction mysql cluster able support cross-shard queries transactions users define partitioning schemes allows developers add “ distribution awareness ” applications partitioning based sub-key common rows accessed high running transactions ensures data used complete transactions localized shard thereby reducing network hops mysql cluster allows datasets larger capacity single machine stored accessed across multiple machines mysql cluster maintains indexed columns distributed memory non-indexed columns also maintained distributed memory maintained disk in-memory page cache storing non-indexed columns disk allows mysql cluster store datasets larger aggregate memory clustered machines mysql cluster writes redo logs disk data changes well check pointing data disk regularly allows cluster consistently recover disk full cluster outage redo logs written asynchronously respect transaction commit small number transactions lost full cluster fails however mitigated using geographic replication multi-site cluster discussed current default asynchronous write delay 2 seconds configurable normal single point failure scenarios result data loss due synchronous data replication within cluster mysql cluster table maintained memory cluster access disk storage write redo records checkpoints writes sequential limited random access patterns involved mysql cluster achieve higher write throughput rates limited disk hardware compared traditional disk-based caching rdbms checkpointing disk in-memory table data disabled per-table basis disk-based persistence n't needed mysql cluster designed single point failure provided cluster set correctly single node system piece hardware fail without entire cluster failing shared disk san required interconnects nodes standard ethernet gigabit ethernet infiniband sci interconnects mysql cluster stores tables data nodes rather mysql server multiple interfaces available access database part commercial mysql cluster cge mysql cluster manager tool designed simplify creation administration mysql cluster cge database automating common management tasks including on-line scaling upgrades backup/restore reconfiguration mysql cluster manager also monitors automatically recovers mysql server application nodes management nodes well mysql cluster data nodes mysql cluster uses three different types nodes processes generally expected node run separate physical host vm cloud instance although common co-locate management nodes mysql servers best practice recommended co-locate nodes within node group single physical host would represent single point failure mysql cluster version numbers longer tied mysql server example recent version mysql cluster 7.5 even though based on/contains server component mysql 5.7 higher versions mysql cluster include features lower versions plus new features older versions longer development currently available versions evaluation purposes possible run mysql cluster single physical server production deployments minimum system requirements 3 x instances hosts configurations follows tips recommendations deploying highly performant production grade clusters found mysql cluster evaluation guide guide optimizing performance mysql cluster database mysql ab acquired technology behind mysql cluster alzato small venture company started ericsson ndb originally designed telecom market high availability high performance requirements mysql cluster based ndb storage engine since integrated mysql product first release mysql 4.1 mysql cluster licensed gplv2 license commercial support available part mysql cluster cge also includes non-open source addons mysql cluster manager mysql enterprise monitor addition mysql enterprise security mysql enterprise audit 1-hop neighbor's text information: myrocks.myrocks myrocks open-source software developed facebook order use mysql features rocksdb implementations based oracle mysql 5.6 percona making myrocks accessible users bringing percona server starting version 10.2.5 mariadb includes myrocks alpha-stage storage engine library maintained facebook database engineering team rocksdb optimized fast low-latency storage myrocks aimed keeping storage savings efficient myrock ’ efficiency focuses better space efficiency better write efficiency better read efficiency benchmark tests 3 different instances – myrocks compressed innodb uncompressed innodb compressed 8 kb page size – found ssd database storage means less space used higher endurance storage time officially supported subset platforms compiler toolsets verify builds best effort made support following oss Target text information: percona_server_for_mysql.percona server mysql percona server mysql distribution mysql relational database management system created percona percona server mysql open source relational database management system rdbms free fully compatible drop replacement oracle mysql software includes number scalability availability security backup features available mysql commercial enterprise edition software includes xtradb enhanced distribution innodb storage engine developers aim retain close compatibility official mysql releases focusing performance increased visibility server operations I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	9,687	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: nextcloud.nextcloud nextcloud suite client-server software creating using file hosting services nextcloud application functionally similar dropbox unlike dropbox nextcloud offer off-premises file storage hosting nextcloud free open-source means anyone allowed install operate private server devices contrast proprietary services like dropbox open architecture allows adding functionality server form applications enables users full control data original owncloud developer frank karlitschek forked owncloud created nextcloud continues actively developed karlitschek members original owncloud team nextcloud files stored conventional directory structures accessible via webdav necessary user files encrypted transit optionally rest nextcloud synchronise local clients running windows windows xp vista 7 8 10 macos 10.6 later various linux distributions nextcloud permits user group administration via openid ldap content shared defining granular read/write permissions users groups alternatively nextcloud users create public urls sharing files logging file-related actions well disallowing access based file access rules also available nextcloud introducing new features monitoring capabilities full-text search kerberos authentication well audio/video conferencing expanded federation smaller user interface improvements since software modular extended plugins implement extra functionality developers offer extensions users installation via manufacturer-operated platform platform communicates nextcloud instances via open protocol app store already contains 200 extensions help extensions many functionalities added including order desktop machines synchronize files nextcloud server desktop clients available pcs running windows macos freebsd linux mobile clients exist ios android devices files data calendars contacts bookmarks also accessed managed uploaded using web browser without additional software updates file system pushed computers mobile devices connected user account nextcloud server written php javascript scripting languages remote access employs sabre/dav open-source webdav server nextcloud designed work several database management systems including sqlite mariadb mysql oracle database postgresql nextcloud 12 new architecture developed name global scale goal scaling hundreds millions users splits users separate nodes introduces components manage interaction september 2016 nextcloud cooperation western digital labs canonical company behind ubuntu released nextcloud box announcement made jane silber ceo canonical frank karlitschek nextcloud box based raspberry pi running ubuntu core snappy intended serve reference device vendors june 2017 western digital shut western digital labs caused production box end alternative hardware available vendors including others announced april 2016 karlitschek core contributors left owncloud inc included owncloud staff according sources near owncloud community fork preceded blog post karlitschek asking questions owns community owns owncloud matters short term money long term responsibility growth official statements reason fork however karlitschek mentioned fork several times talk 2018 fosdem conference emphasizing cultural mismatch open source developers business oriented people used open source community june 2 within 12 hours announcement fork american entity owncloud inc. announced shutting immediate effect stating … main lenders us cancelled credit following american law forced close doors owncloud inc. immediate effect terminate contracts 8 employees. owncloud inc. accused karlitschek poaching developers nextcloud developers arthur schiwon stated decided quit everything owncloud inc. company world evolved imagined owncloud gmbh continued operations secured financing new investors took business owncloud inc nextcloud originally fork owncloud project many differences owncloud offers open-source community edition also offer proprietary enterprise edition additional features support subscriptions — nextcloud instead uses public code base free paid users nextcloud popularity also appears overtaken owncloud least based google trends data maintenance release schedule 1-hop neighbor's text information: macos_server.macos server macos server product formerly called mac os x server os x server mac os x server stand-alone operating system whereas macos server sold operating system add-on app provides additional server programs along management administration tools ios macos prior version 10.7 lion mac os x server separate similar unix server operating system apple inc. architecturally identical desktop counterpart mac os x release version 10.7 lion mac os x mac os x server combined one release separate server operating system longer sold server-specific server applications work group management administration software tools mac os x server offered macos server add-on package macos sold mac app store 19.99 june 2019 along workgroup manager 10.8 available apple support web site tools simplify access key network services including mail transfer agent afp smb servers ldap server domain name server others also included particularly later versions numerous additional services tools manage web server wiki server chat server calendar server many others mac os x server provided operating system xserve computers rack mounted server computers designed apple also optionally pre-installed mac mini mac pro sold separately use macintosh computer meeting minimum requirements macos server based open source foundation called darwin uses open industry standards protocols included services applications file sharing sharing contact information calendars schedule events send secure instant messages conduct live video conferences send receive email contribute comment wikis publish company-wide blog produce distribute podcasts set websites first version mac os x mac os x server 1.0 mac os x server 1.0 – 1.2v3 based rhapsody hybrid openstep next computer mac os 8.5.1 gui looked like mixture mac os 8 platinum appearance openstep next-based interface included runtime layer called blue box running legacy mac os-based applications within separate window discussion implementing 'transparent blue box would intermix mac os applications written rhapsody yellow box environment would happen mac os x classic environment apple file services macintosh manager quicktime streaming server webobjects netboot included mac os x server 1.0 – 1.2v3 could use firewire devices released may 21 2001 mac os x server 10.0 included new aqua user interface apache php mysql tomcat webdav support macintosh manager netboot released september 25 2001 released august 23 2002 10.2 mac os x server release includes updated open directory user file management release based ldap beginning deprecation next-originated netinfo architecture new workgroup manager interface improved configuration significantly release also saw major updates netboot netinstall many common network services provided ntp snmp web server apache mail server postfix cyrus ldap openldap afp print server inclusion samba version 3 allows tight integration windows clients servers mysql v4.0.16 php v4.3.7 also included released october 24 2003 10.3 mac os x server release includes updated open directory user file management release based ldap beginning deprecation next-originated netinfo architecture new workgroup manager interface improved configuration significantly many common network services provided ntp snmp web server apache mail server postfix cyrus ldap openldap afp print server inclusion samba version 3 allows tight integration windows clients servers mysql v4.0.16 php v4.3.7 also included released april 29 2005 10.4 release adds 64-bit application support access control lists xgrid link aggregation e-mail spam filtering spamassassin virus detection clamav gateway setup assistant servers software update ichat server using xmpp boot camp assistant dashboard weblogs august 10 2006 apple announced first universal binary release mac os x server version 10.4.7 supporting powerpc intel processors time apple announced release intel-based mac pro xserve systems released october 26 2007 leopard server sold 999 unlimited client license features released august 28 2009 snow leopard server sold 499 included unlimited client licenses new features released july 20 2011 releasing developer preview mac os x lion february 2011 apple indicated beginning lion mac os x server would bundled operating system would marketed separate product however months later company said would instead sell server components us 49.99 add-on lion distributed mac app store well lion combined cost upgrade lion purchase os x server add-on costs approximately us 50 nonetheless significantly lower retail cost snow leopard server us 499 lion server came unlimited client licenses snow leopard server lion server includes new versions ical server wiki server mail server significantly lion server used ios mobile device management released july 25 2012 like lion mountain lion separate server edition os x server package available mountain lion mac app store us 19.99 included server management application called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan mountain lion server like lion server provided unlimited client licenses purchased could run unlimited number systems released october 22 2013 separate server edition mavericks separate server edition mountain lion package available mac app store 19.99 includes server management app called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan purchased run unlimited number machines enrolled mac ios developer programs given code download os x server free released october 16 2014 separate server edition yosemite separate server edition mavericks package available mac app store 19.99 includes server management app called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan purchased run unlimited number machines enrolled mac ios developer programs given code download os x server free released september 16 2015 version 5.0.3 os x server operates either os x yosemite 10.10.5 os x el capitan 10.11 released march 21 2016 os x server 5.1 requires 10.11.4 el capitan previous versions os x server ’ work 10.11.4 el capitan released september 20 2016 version 5.2 macos server operates either os x el capitan 10.11 macos sierra 10.12 released march 17 2017 version 5.3 macos server operates macos sierra 10.12.4 later released september 25 2017 version 5.4 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13 later released january 23 2018 version 5.5 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13.3 later released april 24 2018 version 5.6 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13.5 later released september 28 2018 version 5.7 macos server operates macos mojave 10.14 later version apple stopped bundling open source services calendar server contacts server mail server dns dhcp vpn server websites macos server included services limited profile manager open directory xsan released march 25 2019 version 5.8 macos server operates macos mojave 10.14 later profile manager supports new restrictions payloads commands file print services directory services authentication mail services calendaring web hosting collaboration services application servers media streaming client management networking vpn distributed computing high-availability features file systems management features macos server available english japanese french german simplified chinese dutch italian korean spanish traditional chinese 1-hop neighbor's text information: client_(computing).client computing client computer program part operation relies sending request another program computer hardware software accesses service made available server may may located another computer example web browsers clients connect web servers retrieve web pages display email clients retrieve email mail servers online chat uses variety clients vary depending chat protocol used multiplayer video games online video games may run client computer term client may also applied computers devices run client software users use client software client part client–server model still used today clients servers may computer programs run machine connect via inter-process communication techniques combined internet sockets programs may connect service operating possibly remote system internet protocol suite servers wait potential clients initiate connections may accept term first applied devices capable running stand-alone programs could interact remote computers via network computer terminals clients time-sharing mainframe computer one classification client computers devices either thick clients thin clients hybrid clients thick client also known rich client fat client client performs bulk data processing operations necessarily rely server personal computer common example fat client relatively large set features capabilities light reliance upon server example computer running art program krita sketchup ultimately shares result work network thick client computer runs almost entirely standalone machine save send receive files via network standard called workstation thin client minimal sort client thin clients use resources host computer thin client generally presents processed data provided application server performs bulk required data processing device using web application office web apps thin client hybrid client mixture two client models similar fat client processes locally relies server storing persistent data approach offers features fat client multimedia support high performance thin client high manageability flexibility device running online version video game diablo iii example hybrid client Target text information: caldav.caldav calendaring extensions webdav caldav internet standard allowing client access scheduling information remote server extends webdav http-based protocol data manipulation specification uses icalendar format data access protocol defined allows multiple client access information thus allowing cooperative planning information sharing many server client applications support protocol extensions caldav automated scheduling also standardized caldav specification first published 2003 internet draft submitted internet engineering task force ietf lisa dusseault march 2007 caldav specification finished published ietf rfc 4791 authored cyrus daboo apple bernard desruissaux oracle lisa dusseault commercenet caldav designed implementation collaborative software client server needs maintain access share collections events developed open standard foster interoperability software different implementers architecture caldav partially inherited underlying specifications organizes data events tasks free-busy info notes directories collections multiple items resources reside resources collections accessed one users using standard http dav semantics detect conflicting changes provide locking access control concept acls used operation view edit delete etc denied granted per user therefore specification requires caldav servers must support webdav access control protocol rfc 3744 calendar resources must use icalendar format allows server understand process data parsing icalendar items necessary server support number calendaring-specific operations free-busy time reports expansion recurring events functionality user may synchronize calendar caldav server share among multiple devices users protocol also supports non-personal calendars calendars sites organizations list caldav clients includes list caldav server includes I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	2,695	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: attack_surface.attack surface attack surface software environment sum different points attack vectors unauthorized user attacker try enter data extract data environment keeping attack surface small possible basic security measure examples attack vectors include user input fields protocols interfaces services due increase countless potential vulnerable points enterprise increasing advantage hackers attackers need find one vulnerable point succeed attack three steps towards understanding visualizing attack surface step 1 visualize visualize system enterprise first step mapping devices paths networks step 2 find indicators exposures second step correspond indicator vulnerability potentially exposed visualized map last step one ioe missing security controls systems software step 3 find indicators compromise indicator attack already succeeded one approach improving information security reduce attack surface system software basic strategies attack surface reduction include following reduce amount code running reduce entry points available untrusted users eliminate services requested relatively users less code available unauthorized actors tend fewer failures turning unnecessary functionality fewer security risks although attack surface reduction helps prevent security failures mitigate amount damage attacker could inflict vulnerability found 1-hop neighbor's text information: technical_features_new_to_windows_vista.technical features new windows vista windows vista formerly codenamed windows longhorn many significant new features compared previous microsoft windows versions covering aspects operating system addition new user interface security capabilities developer technologies several major components core operating system redesigned notably audio print display networking subsystems results work visible software developers end-users see appear evolutionary changes user interface part redesign networking architecture ipv6 incorporated operating system number performance improvements introduced tcp window scaling prior versions windows typically needed third-party wireless networking software work properly longer case windows vista includes comprehensive wireless networking support graphics windows vista introduces new well major revisions direct3d new display driver model facilitates new desktop window manager provides tearing-free desktop special effects cornerstones windows aero graphical user interface new display driver model also able offload rudimentary tasks gpu allow users install drivers without requiring system reboot seamlessly recover rare driver errors due illegal application behavior core operating system many improvements made memory manager process scheduler heap manager i/o scheduler kernel transaction manager implemented used data persistence services enable atomic transactions service used give applications ability work file system registry using atomic transaction operations windows vista features completely re-written audio stack designed provide low-latency 32-bit floating point audio higher-quality digital signal processing bit-for-bit sample level accuracy 144 db dynamic range new audio apis created team including steve ball larry osterman new audio stack runs user level thus increasing stability windows vista audio engine designed run faster windows xp audio engine tighter requirements audio buffer position accuracy also new universal audio architecture uaa model introduced replacing wdm audio allows compliant audio hardware automatically work windows without needing device drivers audio hardware vendor three major apis windows vista audio architecture applications communicate audio driver sessions sessions programmed windows audio session api wasapi general wasapi operates two modes exclusive mode also called dma mode unmixed audio streams rendered directly audio adapter application audio play signal processing effect exclusive mode useful applications demand least amount intermediate processing audio data want output compressed audio data dolby digital dts wma pro s/pdif wasapi exclusive mode similar kernel streaming function kernel mode programming required shared mode audio streams rendered application optionally applied per-stream audio effects known local effects lfx per-session volume control streams mixed global audio engine set global audio effects gfx may applied finally 're rendered audio device higher level apis waveform-audio interface wavexxx functions directsound use shared mode results pre-mixed pcm audio sent driver single format terms sample rate bit depth channel count format configurable end user control panel passing wasapi host-based audio processing including custom audio processing take place sample rate conversion mixing effects host-based processing modules referred audio processing objects apos components operate user mode portion architecture runs kernel mode audio driver contains port class driver vendor miniport driver vendor hal windows kernel mixer kmixer completely gone direct path directsound audio drivers directsound mme emulated session instances since whole point directsound acceleration allow hardware process unmixed audio content directsound accelerated audio model directsound3d supported also breaks eax extensions apis asio openal affected windows vista also includes new multimedia class scheduler service mmcss allows multimedia applications register time-critical processing run elevated thread priority thus ensuring prioritized access cpu resources time-sensitive dsp processing mixing tasks audio professionals new wavert port driver introduced strives achieve real-time performance using multimedia class scheduler supports audio applications reduce latency audio streams consequently user mode applications completely govern streams audio without code execution kernel runtime wavert allows user mode application direct access internal audio hardware buffers sample position counters data memory mapped audio hardware dma engine allows applications poll current position dma memory window hardware accessing wavert also supports notion hardware generated clock notification event similar asio api applications need poll current position n't want existing audio apis re-plumbed emulated use apis internally audio goes three apis applications work fault mme wavein/waveout emulation introduced windows vista sample rate conversion needed audible noise sometimes introduced playing audio web browser uses apis internal resampler longer configurable defaults linear interpolation lowest-quality conversion mode could set previous versions windows resampler set high-quality mode via hotfix windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 new digital signal processing functionalities room correction bass management loudness equalization speaker fill introduced speaker fill mixes 2-channel content use available speakers manner similar creative cmss bass management used redirect subwoofer signal main speakers channel missing feature called channel phantoming allows best use speakers redirecting sound missing channels speakers whether multi-channel stereo sound system home theater living room windows vista also includes ability calibrate speakers room placing microphone listener plans sit running wizard measures room response windows vista automatically set levels delay frequency balance channel accordingly position pcs equipped stereo headphones vista adds ability surround sound using new feature called headphone virtualization uses technology based upon head-related transfer function windows vista also includes ability use custom host-based digital signal processing effects part audio device manufacturer-supplied driver value-added features effects packaged user-mode system effect audio processing objects sapos sapos also reusable third-party software windows vista builds universal audio architecture new class driver definition aims reduce need third-party drivers increase overall stability reliability audio windows microsoft also included new high quality voice capture directx media object dmo part directshow allows voice capture applications instant messengers speech recognition applications apply acoustic echo cancellation microphone array processing speech signals windows vista first windows operating system include fully integrated support speech recognition windows 2000 xp speech recognition installed office 2003 included windows xp tablet pc edition windows speech recognition allows users control machine voice commands enables dictation many applications application fairly high recognition accuracy provides set commands assists dictation brief speech-driven tutorial included help familiarize user speech recognition commands training could also completed improve accuracy speech recognition windows vista includes speech recognition 8 languages release time english u.s. british spanish german french japanese chinese traditional simplified support additional languages planned post-release speech recognition vista utilizes version 5.3 microsoft speech api sapi version 8 speech recognizer speech synthesis first introduced windows windows 2000 significantly enhanced windows vista code name mulan old voice microsoft sam replaced two new natural sounding voices generally greater intelligibility anna lili latter capable speaking chinese screen-reader narrator uses voices also updated microsoft agent text speech applications use newer sapi 5 voices windows vista includes redesigned print architecture built around windows presentation foundation provides high-fidelity color printing improved use color management removes limitations current gdi-based print subsystem enhances support printing advanced effects gradients transparencies etc. color laser printers use xml paper specification xps print subsystem windows vista implements new xps print path well legacy gdi print path legacy support windows vista transparently makes use xps print path printers support otherwise using gdi print path documents intensive graphics xps printers expected produce much greater quality prints gdi printers networked environment print server running windows vista documents rendered client machine rather server using feature known client side rendering rendered intermediate form transferred server printed without additional processing making print servers scalable offloading rendering computation clients xps print path introduced windows vista supports high quality 16-bit color printing xps print path uses xml paper specification xps print spooler file format serves page description language pdl printers xps spooler format intended replacement enhanced metafile emf format print spooler format graphics device interface gdi print path xps xml-based specifically xaml-based color-managed device resolution independent vector-based paged document format encapsulates exact representation actual printed output xps documents packed zip container along text fonts raster images 2d vector graphics drm information printers supporting xps eliminates intermediate conversion printer-specific language increasing reliability fidelity printed output microsoft claims major printer vendors planning release printers built-in xps support provide better fidelity original document core xps print path xpsdrv xps-based printer driver includes filter pipeline contains set filters print processing modules xml-based configuration file describe filters loaded filters receive spool file data input perform document processing rendering pdl post-processing output pdl data printer consume filters perform single function watermarking page color transformations perform several print processing functions specific document parts individually collectively convert spool file page description language supported printer windows vista also provides improved color support windows color system higher color precision dynamic range also supports cmyk colorspace multiple ink systems higher print fidelity print subsystem also support named colors simplifying color definition images transmitted printer supporting colors xps print path automatically calibrate color profile settings used display subsystem conversely xps print drivers express configurable capabilities printer virtue xps printcapabilities class enable fine-grained control print settings tuned individual printing device applications use windows presentation foundation display elements directly print xps print path without need image colorspace conversion xps format used spool file represents advanced graphics effects 3d images glow effects gradients windows presentation foundation primitives processed printer drivers without rasterization preventing rendering artifacts reducing computational load legacy gdi print path used xps spool file used processing converted gdi image minimize processing done raster level print schemas provide xml-based format expressing organizing large set properties describe either job format print capabilities hierarchically structured manner print schemas intended address problems associated internal communication components print subsystem external communication print subsystem applications windows vista contains new networking stack brings large improvements areas network-related functionality includes native implementation ipv6 well complete overhaul ipv4 ipv6 supported networking components services user interface ipv6 mode windows vista use link local multicast name resolution llmnr protocol resolve names local hosts network dns server running new tcp/ip stack uses new method store configuration settings enables dynamic control require computer restart settings changed new stack also based strong host model features infrastructure enable modular components dynamically inserted removed user interface configuring troubleshooting working network connections changed significantly prior versions windows well users make use new network center see status network connections access every aspect configuration network browsed using network explorer replaces windows xp network places network explorer items shared device scanner file share network location awareness uniquely identifies network exposes network attributes connectivity type windows vista graphically presents different devices connected network network map view using lltd protocol addition network map uses lltd determine connectivity information media type wired wireless device implement lltd appear network map icon representing device allowing users one-click access device user interface lltd invoked provides metadata device contains static state information mac address ipv4/ipv6 address signal strength etc support wireless networks built network stack emulate wired connections case previous versions windows allows implementation wireless-specific features larger frame sizes optimized error recovery procedures windows vista uses various techniques like receive window auto-scaling explicit congestion notification tcp chimney offload compound tcp improve networking performance quality service qos policies used prioritize network traffic traffic shaping available applications even explicitly use qos apis windows vista includes in-built support peer-to-peer networks smb 2.0 improved network security windows vista supports 256-bit 384-bit diffie-hellman dh algorithms well 128-bit 192-bit 256-bit advanced encryption standard aes included network stack integrating ipsec windows firewall windows vista introduces overhaul previous windows nt operating system loader architecture ntldr used versions windows nt since inception windows nt 3.1 ntldr completely replaced new architecture designed address modern firmware technologies unified extensible firmware interface new architecture introduces firmware-independent data store backward compatible previous versions windows operating system windows vista introduces improved driver model windows driver foundation opt-in framework replace older windows driver model includes windows vista includes following changes enhancements processor power management windows vista first client version windows ship .net framework specifically includes .net framework 2.0 .net framework 3.0 previously known winfx version 1.0 1.1 .net framework set managed code apis slated succeed win32 win32 api also present windows vista give direct access new functionality introduced .net framework addition .net framework intended give programmers easier access functionality present windows .net framework 3.0 includes apis ado.net asp.net windows forms among others adds four core frameworks .net framework windows presentation foundation codenamed avalon overhaul graphical subsystem windows flagship resolution independent api 2d 3d graphics raster vector graphics xaml fixed adaptive documents xps advanced typography animation xaml data binding audio video windows vista wpf enables richer control design development visual aspects windows programs based directx renders graphics using direct3d routing graphics direct3d allows windows offload graphics tasks gpu reducing workload computer cpu capability used desktop window manager make desktop windows shell elements 3d surfaces wpf applications deployed desktop hosted web browser xbap 3d capabilities wpf limited compared available direct3d however wpf provides tighter integration features like user interface ui documents media makes possible 3d ui 3d documents 3d media set built-in controls provided part wpf containing items button menu list box controls wpf provides ability perform control composition control contain control layout wpf also built-in set data services enable application developers bind data controls images supported using windows imaging component media wpf supports audio video formats windows media player play addition wpf supports time-based animations contrast frame-based approach delinks speed animation slow fast system performing text anti-aliased rendered using cleartype wpf uses extensible application markup language xaml variant xml intended use developing user interfaces using xaml develop user interfaces also allows separation model view xaml every element maps onto class underlying api attributes set properties instantiated classes elements wpf may also coded .net language c xaml code ultimately compiled managed assembly way .net languages means use xaml development incur performance cost windows communication foundation codenamed indigo new communication subsystem enable applications one machine across multiple machines connected network communicate wcf programming model unifies web services .net remoting distributed transactions message queues single service-oriented architecture model distributed computing server exposes service via interface defined using xml clients connect wcf runs sandbox provides enhanced security model .net applications provide wcf capable using soap communication two processes thereby making wcf based applications interoperable process communicates via soap wcf process communicates non-wcf process xml based encoding used soap messages communicates another wcf process soap messages encoded optimized binary format optimize communication encodings conform data structure soap format called infoset windows vista also incorporates microsoft message queuing 4.0 msmq supports subqueues poison messages messages continually fail processed correctly receiver transactional receives messages remote queue windows workflow foundation microsoft technology defining executing managing workflows technology part .net framework 3.0 therefore targeted primarily windows vista operating system windows workflow foundation runtime components provide common facilities running managing workflows hosted clr application domain workflows comprise 'activities developers write domain-specific activities use workflows windows workflow foundation also provides set general-purpose 'activities cover several control flow constructs also includes visual workflow designer workflow designer used within visual studio 2005 including integration visual studio project system debugger windows cardspace codenamed infocard part .net framework 3.0 implementation identity metasystem centralizes acquiring usage management digital identity digital identity represented logical security tokens consist one claims provide information different aspects identity name address etc identity system centers around three entities — user identified identity provider provides identifying information regarding user relying party uses identity authenticate user identity provider may service like active directory even user provides authentication password biometric authentication data relying party issues request application identity means policy states claims needs physical representation security token application passes request windows cardspace contacts suitable identity provider retrieves identity provides application identity along information use windows cardspace also keeps track identities used represents visually identifiable virtual cards accessible user centralized location whenever application requests identity windows cardspace informs user identity used needs confirmation provides requestor identity windows cardspace presents api allows application use windows cardspace handle authentication tasks similarly api allows identity providers hook windows cardspace relying party appears service provides authentication credentials media foundation set com-based apis handle audio video playback provides directx video acceleration 2.0 better resilience cpu i/o memory stress glitch-free low-latency playback audio video also enables high color spaces multimedia processing pipeline directshow windows media sdk gradually deprecated future versions windows vista instant search index also accessed programmatically using managed well native code native code connects index catalog using data source object retrieved windows vista shell indexing service ole db provider managed code use msidxs ado.net provider index catalog name catalog remote machine also specified using unc path criteria search specified using sql-like syntax default catalog called systemindex stores properties indexed items predefined naming pattern example name location documents system exposed table column names system itemname system itemurl respectively sql query directly refer tables index catalogues use msidxs provider run queries search index also used via ole db using collatordso provider however ole db provider read-only supporting select group sql statements windows search api also used convert search query written using advanced query syntax natural query syntax natural language version aqs sql queries exposes method generatesqlfromuserquery method isearchqueryhelper interface searches also performed using search-ms protocol pseudo protocol lets searches exposed uri contains operators search terms specified aqs refer saved search folders well uri activated windows search registered handler protocol parses uri extract parameters perform search winsock kernel wsk new transport-independent kernel-mode network programming interface npi provides tdi client developers sockets-like programming model similar supported user-mode winsock sockets programming concepts exist user-mode winsock socket creation bind connect accept send receive winsock kernel completely new programming interface unique characteristics asynchronous i/o uses irps event callbacks enhance performance tdi supported windows vista backward compatibility windows vista includes specialized qos api called qwave quality windows audio/video experience pre-configured quality service module time dependent multimedia data audio video streams qwave uses different packet priority schemes real-time flows multimedia packets best-effort flows file downloads e-mails ensure real time data gets little delays possible providing high quality channel data packets windows filtering platform allows external applications access hook packet processing pipeline networking subsystem windows vista features update microsoft crypto api known cryptography api next generation cng cng extensible user mode kernel mode api includes support elliptic curve cryptography number newer algorithms part national security agency nsa suite b also integrates smart card subsystem including base csp module encapsulates smart card api developers write complex csps 1-hop neighbor's text information: securityfocus.securityfocus securityfocus online computer security news portal purveyor information security services home well-known bugtraq mailing list securityfocus columnists writers included former department justice cybercrime prosecutor mark rasch hacker-turned-journalist kevin poulsen securityfocus acquired symantec august 2002 Target text information: security_and_safety_features_new_to_windows_vista.security safety features new windows vista number security safety features new windows vista available prior microsoft windows operating system release beginning early 2002 microsoft announcement trustworthy computing initiative great deal work gone making windows vista secure operating system predecessors internally microsoft adopted security development lifecycle underlying ethos secure design secure default secure deployment new code windows vista developed sdl methodology existing code reviewed refactored improve security specific areas windows vista introduces new security safety mechanisms include user account control parental controls network access protection built-in anti-malware tool new digital content protection mechanisms user account control new infrastructure requires user consent allowing action requires administrative privileges feature users including users administrative privileges run standard user mode default since applications require higher privileges action attempted needs administrative privileges installing new software changing system settings windows prompt user whether allow action user chooses allow process initiating action elevated higher privilege context continue standard users need enter username password administrative account get process elevated over-the-shoulder credentials administrator choose prompted consent ask credentials uac asks credentials secure desktop mode entire screen faded temporarily disabled present elevation ui prevent spoofing ui mouse application requesting elevation application requesting elevation focus switch secure desktop occurs taskbar icon blinks focussed elevation ui presented however possible prevent malicious application silently obtaining focus since secure desktop allows highest privilege system applications run user mode application present dialog boxes desktop prompt elevation consent safely assumed genuine additionally also help protect shatter attacks intercept windows inter-process messages run malicious code spoof user interface preventing unauthorized processes sending messages high privilege processes process wants send message high privilege process must get elevated higher privilege context via uac applications written assumption user running administrator privileges experienced problems earlier versions windows run limited user accounts often attempted write machine-wide system directories program files registry keys notably hklm uac attempts alleviate using file registry virtualization redirects writes subsequent reads per-user location within user ’ profile example application attempts write “ c \program files\appname\settings.ini ” user ’ permissions write directory write get redirected “ c \users\username\appdata\local\virtualstore\program files\appname\. ” bitlocker formerly known secure startup feature offers full disk encryption system volume using command-line utility possible encrypt additional volumes bitlocker utilizes usb key trusted platform module tpm version 1.2 tcg specifications store encryption key ensures computer running windows vista starts known-good state also protects data unauthorized access data volume encrypted full volume encryption key fvek encrypted volume master key vmk stored disk windows vista first microsoft windows operating system offer native support tpm 1.2 providing set apis commands classes services use management tpm new system service referred tpm base services enables access sharing tpm resources developers wish build applications support device encrypting file system efs windows vista used encrypt system page file per-user offline files cache efs also tightly integrated enterprise public key infrastructure pki supports using pki-based key recovery data recovery efs recovery certificates combination two also new group policies require smart cards efs enforce page file encryption stipulate minimum key lengths efs enforce encryption user ’ documents folder prohibit self-signed certificates efs encryption key cache cleared user locks workstation certain time limit efs rekeying wizard allows user choose certificate efs select migrate existing files use newly chosen certificate certificate manager also allows users export efs recovery certificates private keys users reminded back efs keys upon first use balloon notification rekeying wizard also used migrate users existing installations software certificates smart cards wizard also used administrator users recovery situations method efficient decrypting reencrypting files windows vista significantly improves firewall address number concerns around flexibility windows firewall corporate environment windows vista includes windows defender microsoft anti-spyware utility according microsoft renamed 'microsoft antispyware features scanning system spyware similar free products market also includes real time security agents monitor several common areas windows changes may caused spyware areas include internet explorer configuration downloads auto-start applications system configuration settings add-ons windows windows shell extensions windows defender also includes ability remove activex applications installed block startup programs also incorporates spynet network allows users communicate microsoft send consider spyware check applications acceptable windows vista allow administrators enforce hardware restrictions via group policy prevent users installing devices restrict device installation predefined white list restrict access removable media classes devices windows vista includes range parental controls non-domain user accounts parental controls allows administrators set restrictions monitor computer activity parental controls relies user account control much functionality features include features extensible replaced parental control applications using parental controls application programming interfaces apis windows vista uses address space layout randomization aslr load system files random addresses memory default system files loaded randomly possible 256 locations executables specifically set bit header portable executable pe file file format windows executables use aslr executables stack heap allocated randomly decided loading system files random addresses becomes harder malicious code know privileged system functions located thereby making unlikely predictably use helps prevent remote execution attacks preventing return-to-libc buffer overflow attacks portable executable format updated support embedding exception handler address header whenever exception thrown address handler verified one stored executable header match exception handled otherwise indicates run-time stack compromised hence process terminated function pointers obfuscated xor-ing random number actual address pointed hard retrieve would manually change pointer obfuscation key used pointer would hard retrieve thus made hard unauthorized user function pointer able actually use also metadata heap blocks xor-ed random numbers addition check-sums heap blocks maintained used detect unauthorized changes heap corruption whenever heap corruption detected application killed prevent successful completion exploit windows vista binaries include intrinsic support detection stack-overflow stack overflow windows vista binaries detected process killed used carry exploit also windows vista binaries place buffers higher memory non buffers like pointers supplied parameters lower memory area actually exploit buffer underrun needed gain access locations however buffer underruns much less common buffer overruns windows vista offers full support nx no-execute feature modern processors dep introduced windows xp service pack 2 windows server 2003 service pack 1 feature present nx evp amd amd64 processors xd edb intel processors flag certain parts memory containing data instead executable code prevents overflow errors resulting arbitrary code execution processor supports nx-bit windows vista automatically enforces hardware-based data execution prevention processes mark memory pages non-executable data segments like heap stack subsequently data prevented interpreted executed code prevents exploit code injected data executed dep enabled applications users gain additional resistance zero-day exploits applications dep-compliant generate dep exceptions therefore dep enforced applications default 32-bit versions windows turned critical system components however windows vista introduces additional nx policy controls allow software developers enable nx hardware protection code independent system-wide compatibility enforcement settings developers mark applications nx-compliant built allows protection enforced application installed runs enables higher percentage nx-protected code software ecosystem 32-bit platforms default system compatibility policy nx configured protect operating system components x86-64 applications backward compatibility issue therefore dep enforced default 64-bit programs also processor-enforced dep used x86-64 versions windows vista greater security new digital rights management content-protection features introduced windows vista help digital content providers corporations protect data copied inclusion new digital rights management features source criticism windows vista windows vista introduces mandatory integrity control set integrity levels processes low integrity process access resources higher integrity process feature used enforce application isolation applications medium integrity level applications running standard user context hook system level processes run high integrity level administrator mode applications hook onto lower integrity processes like windows internet explorer 7 8 lower privilege process perform window handle validation higher process privilege sendmessage postmessage higher privilege application windows use thread hooks attach higher privilege process use journal hooks monitor higher privilege process perform dll–injection higher privilege process windows service hardening compartmentalizes services one service compromised easily attack services system prevents windows services operations file systems registry networks supposed thereby reducing overall attack surface system preventing entry malware exploiting system services services assigned per-service security identifier sid allows controlling access service per access specified security identifier per-service sid may assigned service installation via changeserviceconfig2 api using sc.exe command sidtype verb services also use access control lists acl prevent external access resources private services windows vista also run less privileged account local service network service instead system account previous versions windows ran system services login session locally logged-in user session 0 windows vista session 0 reserved services interactive logins done sessions intended help mitigate class exploits windows message-passing system known shatter attacks process hosting service privileges specified requiredprivileges registry value hklm\system\currentcontrolset\services services also need explicit write permissions write resources per-service basis using write-restricted access token resources modified service given write access trying modify resource fails services also pre-configured firewall policy gives much privilege needed function properly independent software vendors also use windows service hardening harden services windows vista also hardens named pipes used rpc servers prevent processes able hijack graphical identification authentication gina used secure authentication interactive logon replaced credential providers combined supporting hardware credential providers extend operating system enable users log biometric devices fingerprint retinal voice recognition passwords pins smart card certificates custom authentication package schema third party developers wish create smart card authentication flexible certificate requirements relaxed enterprises may develop deploy optionally enforce custom authentication mechanisms domain users credential providers may designed support single sign-on sso authenticating users secure network access point leveraging radius technologies well machine logon credential providers also designed support application-specific credential gathering may used authentication network resources joining machines domain provide administrator consent user account control authentication also supported using ipv6 web services new security service provider credssp available security support provider interface enables application delegate user ’ credentials client using client-side ssp target server server-side ssp credssp also used terminal services provide single sign-on windows vista authenticate user accounts using smart cards combination passwords smart cards two-factor authentication windows vista also use smart cards store efs keys makes sure encrypted files accessible long smart card physically available smart cards used logon efs operates single sign-on mode uses logon smart card file encryption without prompting pin fast user switching limited workgroup computers windows xp also enabled computers joined domain starting windows vista windows vista also includes authentication support read-only domain controllers introduced windows server 2008 windows vista features update crypto api known cryptography api next generation cng cng api user mode kernel mode api includes support elliptic curve cryptography ecc number newer algorithms part national security agency nsa suite b extensible featuring support plugging custom cryptographic apis cng runtime also integrates smart card subsystem including base csp module implements standard backend cryptographic functions developers smart card manufacturers need write complex csps microsoft certificate authority issue ecc certificates certificate client enroll validate ecc sha-2 based certificates revocation improvements include native support online certificate status protocol ocsp providing real-time certificate validity checking crl prefetching capi2 diagnostics certificate enrollment wizard-based allows users input data enrollment provides clear information failed enrollments expired certificates certenroll new com-based enrollment api replaces xenroll library flexible programmability credential roaming capabilities replicate active directory key pairs certificates credentials stored stored user names passwords within network windows vista introduces network access protection nap ensures computers connecting communicating network conform required level system health set administrator network depending policy set administrator computers meet requirements either warned granted access allowed access limited network resources denied access completely nap also optionally provide software updates non-compliant computer upgrade level required access network using remediation server conforming client given health certificate uses access protected resources network network policy server running windows server 2008 acts health policy server clients need use windows xp sp3 later vpn server radius server dhcp server also act health policy server number specific security reliability changes made I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,027	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: the_hessling_editor.hessling editor hessling editor open source text editor first released august 1992 ten years written maintained mark hessling along original author also maintainer regina open source rexx interpreter ported unix platforms according developers text editor modeled vm/cms editor xedit adding best features mansfield software kedit folding controlled command permits one display work lines file contain given pattern example command codice_1 display lines include string global changes one makes slice example replace string command reflected file cases convenient way make global changes file order restore visibility lines one needs enter without target string similar xedit uses ibms rexx macro language makes highly configurable versatile provides ability create powerful extensions editor and/or customize specialized needs example one create edit commands would allows one manipulate columns text e.g copy/move insert/delete column text within file rexx one also integrate os commands external functions edit session since version 3.0 also user-configurable syntax highlighting xedit gui editors syntax highlighting language definition codice_2 file format comparable kedit codice_3 format free software distributed terms gnu general public license available many operating systems posix unix platforms program text-mode native x11 qnx os/2 dos beos amiga windows 95/98/me/nt/2000/xp 1-hop neighbor's text information: oasis_(organization).oasis organization organization advancement structured information standards oasis global nonprofit consortium works development convergence adoption open standards security internet things energy content technologies emergency management areas oasis founded name sgml open 1993 began trade association sgml tool vendors cooperatively promote adoption standard generalized markup language sgml mainly educational activities though amount technical activity also pursued including update cals table model specification specifications fragment interchange entity management 1998 movement high tech industry xml sgml open changed emphasis sgml xml changed name oasis open inclusive xml reflect expanded scope technical work standards focus consortium activities also moved promoting adoption xml getting lots attention developing technical specifications july 2000 new technical committee process approved adoption process manner technical committees created operated progressed work regularized adoption process five technical committees 2004 nearly 70 1999 oasis approached un/cefact committee united nations dealing standards business jointly develop new set specifications electronic business joint initiative called ebxml first met november 1999 chartered three-year period final meeting original charter vienna un/cefact oasis agreed divide remaining work two organizations coordinate completion work coordinating committee 2004 oasis submitted completed ebxml specifications iso tc154 approved iso 15000 consortium headquarters burlington massachusetts shared companies september 4 2014 consortium moved 25 corporate drive suite 103 35 corporate dr suite 150 still loop route following standards development oasis technical committees adhesion consortium requires fees paid must renewed annually depending membership category adherents want access among adherents members american bar association collabora dell eclecticiq general motors ibm iso/iec kde e.v. microsoft novell oracle redhat document foundation universities government agencies individuals employees less-known companies like many bodies producing open standards e.g ecma oasis added reasonable non-discriminatory licensing rand clause policy february 2005 amendment required participants disclose intent apply software patents technologies consideration standard contrary w3c requires participants offer royalty-free licenses anyone using resulting standard oasis offers similar royalty free limited terms mode along royalty free rand terms mode rand reasonable non-discriminatory mode committees compared w3c oasis less restrictive regarding obligation companies grant royalty-free license patents controversy rapidly arisen licensing added silently allows publication standards could require licensing fee payments patent holders situation could effectively eliminate possibility free/open source implementations standards contributors could initially offer royalty-free use patent later imposing per-unit fees standard accepted april 11 2005 new york times reported ibm committed free patents oasis group larry rosen software law expert leader reaction rose oasis quietly included rand clause policy welcomed initiative supposed oasis continue using policy companies involved would follow history proved wrong rand policy still removed commercial companies published free statement towards oasis patrick gannon president ceo oasis 2001 2008 minimized risk company could take advantage standard request royalties established option nobody uses harm sam hiser former marketing lead defunct openoffice.org explained patents towards open standard counterproductive inappropriate also argued ibm microsoft shifting standardization efforts w3c oasis way leverage probably patents portfolio future hiser also attributed rand change oasis policy microsoft rand term could indeed theoretically allow company involved leverage patent future amendment probably added way attract companies consortium encourage contributions potential participants big actors like microsoft could indeed applied pressure made sine-qua-non condition access consortium possibly jeopardize/boycott standard clause present doug mahugh — working microsoft promoter office open xml microsoft document format competing oasis iso/iec 26300 i.e odf v1.0 senior product manager specializing office client interoperability — claimed many countries expressed frustration pace oasis responses defect reports submitted iso/iec 26300 inability sc 34 members participate maintenance odf however rob weir co-chair oasis odf technical committee noted time odf tc received zero defect reports iso/iec national body japan added submitter original japanese defect report murata mokoto satisfied preparation errata also self-published blog post blaming microsoft involving people improve modify accuracy odf openxml wikipedia articles trying make odf sound risky adopt 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_terminal.computer terminal computer terminal electronic electromechanical hardware device used entering data displaying printing data computer computing system teletype example early day hardcopy terminal predated use computer screen decades acronym crt cathode-ray tube referred computer terminal come refer type screen personal computer early terminals inexpensive devices slow compared punched cards paper tape input technology improved video displays introduced terminals pushed older forms interaction industry related development timesharing systems evolved parallel made inefficiencies user typing ability ability support multiple users machine terminal function terminal confined display input data device significant local programmable data processing capability may called smart terminal fat client terminal depends host computer processing power called dumb terminal thin client personal computer run terminal emulator software replicates function terminal sometimes allowing concurrent use local programs access distant terminal host system terminal first working programmable fully automatic digital turing-complete computer z3 keyboard row lamps show results early user terminals connected computers electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters teletypewriter tty teletype model 33 asr originally used telegraphy friden flexowriter keyboard/printer terminals came later included ibm 2741 1965 decwriter la30 1970 respective top speeds teletypes ibm 2741 la30 10 15 30 characters per second although time paper king speed interaction relatively limited early video computer displays sometimes nicknamed glass ttys glass teletypes visual display units vdus used cpu instead relying individual logic gates primitive lsi chips nevertheless quickly became extremely popular input-output devices many different types computer system several suppliers gravitated set common standards datapoint 3300 computer terminal corporation announced 1967 shipped 1969 making one earliest stand-alone display-based terminals solved memory space issue mentioned using digital shift-register design using 72 columns rather later common choice 80 starting datapoint 3300 late 1970s early 1980s dozens manufacturers terminals including lear-siegler adds data general dec hazeltine corporation heath/zenith hewlett packard ibm televideo volker-craig wyse many incompatible command sequences although many used early adm-3 starting point great variations control codes makers gave rise software identified grouped terminal types system software would correctly display input forms using appropriate control codes unix-like systems termcap terminfo files stty utility term environment variable would used data general business basic software example login-time sequence codes sent terminal try read cursor position 25th line contents using sequence different manufacturer control code sequences terminal-generated response would determine single-digit number 6 data general dasher terminals 4 adm 3a/5/11/12 terminals 0 2 tty special features would available programs say set codes use great majority terminals monochrome manufacturers variously offering green white amber sometimes blue screen phosphors amber claimed reduce eye strain terminals modest color capability also available widely used example color version popular wyse wy50 wy350 offered 64 shades character cell intelligent terminal processing usually implying microprocessor built terminals microprocessors real processing input main computer attached would respond quickly keystroke term intelligent context dates 1969. notable examples include ibm 2250 ibm 2260 predecessors ibm 3270 introduced system/360 1964 terminals connected minicomputers mainframe computers often green amber screen typically terminals communicate computer via serial port via null modem cable often using eia rs-232 rs-422 rs-423 current loop serial interface ibm systems communicated coaxial cable using ibm sna protocol many dec data general ncr computers many visual display suppliers competing computer manufacturer terminals expand systems fact instruction design intel 8008 originally conceived computer terminal corporation processor datapoint 2200 introduction ibm 3270 dec vt100 1978 user programmer could notice significant advantages vdu technology improvements yet programmers used features new terminals backward compatibility vt100 later televideo terminals example dumb terminals allowed programmers continue use older software dumb terminals able respond escape sequences without needing microprocessors used multiple printed circuit boards many integrated circuits single factor classed terminal intelligent ability process user-input within terminal—not interrupting main computer keystroke—and send block data time example user finished whole field form terminals early 1980s adm-3a tvi912 data general d2 dec vt52 despite introduction ansi terminals 1978 essentially dumb terminals although later adm tvi models primitive block-send capability common early uses local processing power included features little off-loading data processing host computer added useful features printing local printer buffered serial data transmission serial handshaking accommodate higher serial transfer speeds sophisticated character attributes display well ability switch emulation modes mimic competitor models became increasingly important selling features 1980s especially buyers could mix match different suppliers equipment greater extent advance microprocessors lower memory costs made possible terminal handle editing operations inserting characters within field may previously required full screen-full characters re-sent computer possibly slow modem line around mid 1980s intelligent terminals costing less dumb terminals would years earlier could provide enough user-friendly local editing data send completed form main computer providing even processing possibilities workstations like televideo ts-800 could run cp/m-86 blurring distinction terminal personal computer another motivations development microprocessor simplify reduce electronics required terminal also made practicable load several personalities single terminal qume qvt-102 could emulate many popular terminals day sold organizations wish make software changes frequently emulated terminal types included ansi x3.64 escape code standard produced uniformity extent significant differences remained example vt100 heathkit h19 ansi mode televideo 970 data general d460 qume qvt-108 terminals followed ansi standard yet differences might exist codes function keys character attributes available block-sending fields within forms foreign character facilities handling printers connected back screen term intelligent terminal refer store check-out computer early ibm pcs single color green screens screens terminals screen pc contain character generation hardware video signals video formatting generated video display card pc graphics modes cpu software ibm pc monitor whether green monochrome display 16-color display technically much similar analog tv set without tuner terminal suitable software pc could however emulate terminal capacity could connected mainframe minicomputer data general one could booted terminal emulator mode rom eventually microprocessor-based personal computers greatly reduced market demand conventional terminals 1990s especially thin clients x terminals combined economical local processing power central shared computer facilities retain advantages terminals personal computers today pc telnet clients provide emulation common terminal dec vt100 using ansi escape code standard x3.64 could run x terminals using software cygwin/x microsoft windows x.org server software linux since advent subsequent popularization personal computer genuine hardware terminals used interface computers today using monitor keyboard modern operating systems like linux bsd derivatives feature virtual consoles mostly independent hardware used using graphical user interface gui like x window system one display typically occupied collection windows associated various applications rather single stream text associated single process case one may use terminal emulator application within windowing environment arrangement permits terminal-like interaction computer running command line interpreter example without need physical terminal device even allow running multiple terminal emulators device character-oriented terminal type computer terminal communicates host one character time opposed block-oriented terminal communicates blocks data common type data terminal easy implement program connection mainframe computer terminal server achieved via rs-232 serial links ethernet proprietary protocols text terminal often terminal sometimes text console serial computer interface text entry display information presented array pre-selected formed characters devices use video display cathode-ray tube called video display unit visual display unit vdu video display terminal vdt system console text terminal used operate computer modern computers built-in keyboard display console unix-like operating systems linux freebsd virtual consoles provide several text terminals single computer fundamental type application running text terminal command line interpreter shell prompts commands user executes command press enter includes unix shells interactive programming environments shell commands small applications another important application type text editor text editor occupies full area display displays one text documents allows user edit documents text editor many uses replaced word processor usually provides rich formatting features text editor lacks first word processors used text communicate structure document later word processors operate graphical environment provide wysiwyg simulation formatted output programs telix minicom control modem local terminal let user interact remote servers internet telnet ssh work similarly simplest form text terminal like file writing file displays text reading file produces user enters unix-like operating systems several character special files correspond available text terminals operations special escape sequences control characters codice_1 functions program use easily via library ncurses complex operations programs use terminal specific ioctl system calls application simplest way use terminal simply write read text strings sequentially output text scrolled last several lines typically 24 visible unix systems typically buffer input text enter key pressed application receives ready string text mode application need know much terminal many interactive applications sufficient one common enhancements command line editing assisted libraries readline also may give access command history helpful various interactive command line interpreters even advanced interactivity provided full-screen applications applications completely control screen layout also respond key-pressing immediately mode useful text editors file managers web browsers addition programs control color brightness text screen decorate underline blinking special characters e.g box drawing characters achieve application must deal plain text strings also control characters escape sequences allow move cursor arbitrary position clear portions screen change colors display special characters also respond function keys great problem many different terminals terminal emulators set escape sequences order overcome special libraries curses created together terminal description databases termcap terminfo dumb terminals interpret limited number control codes cr lf etc ability process special escape sequences perform functions clearing line clearing screen controlling cursor position context dumb terminals sometimes dubbed glass teletypes essentially limited functionality mechanical teletype type dumb terminal still supported modern unix-like systems setting environment variable term dumb smart intelligent terminals also ability process escape sequences particular vt52 vt100 ansi escape sequences graphical terminal display images well text graphical terminals divided vector-mode terminals raster mode vector-mode display directly draws lines face cathode-ray tube control host computer system lines continuously formed since speed electronics limited number concurrent lines displayed one time limited vector-mode displays historically important longer used practically modern graphic displays raster-mode descended picture scanning techniques used television visual elements rectangular array pixels since raster image perceptible human eye whole short time raster must refreshed many times per second give appearance persistent display electronic demands refreshing display memory meant graphic terminals developed much later text terminals initially cost much terminals today graphical show images screen modern term graphical terminal thin client thin client typically uses protocol like x11 unix-terminals rdp microsoft windows bandwidth needed depends protocol used resolution color depth modern graphic terminals allow display images color text varying sizes colors fonts type faces early 1990s industry consortium attempted define standard alphawindows would allow single crt screen implement multiple windows behave distinct terminal unfortunately like i2o suffered run closed standard non-members unable obtain even minimal information realistic way small company independent developer could join consortium possibly standard disappeared without trace terminal emulator piece software emulates text terminal past widespread use local area networking broadband internet access many computers would use serial access program communicate computers via telephone line serial device first macintosh released program called macterminal used communicate many computers including ibm pc dec terminal one first terminal programs popular altair win32 console windows emulate physical terminal supports escape sequences ssh telnet programs logging textually remote computers windows including telnet program bundled versions windows often incorporate code process escape sequences terminal emulators unix-like systems example gnome-terminal qterminal xterm terminal.app emulate physical terminals including support escape sequences e.g xterm emulate vt220 tektronix 4010 hardware terminals terminals operate various modes relating send input typed user keyboard receiving system whatever may distinction keys multiple-mode terminals switch modes pressing key block mode thing pressing key whilst key cause input line sent host line-at-a-time mode key rather cause terminal transmit contents character row cursor currently positioned host host-issued prompts different computer operating systems require different degrees mode support terminals used computer terminals posix terminal interface provided unix posix-compliant operating systems accommodate block-mode terminals rarely requires terminal line-at-a-time mode since operating system required provide canonical input mode terminal device driver operating system emulates local echo terminal performs line editing functions host end usually especially host system support non-canonical input mode terminals posix-compliant systems always character-at-a-time mode contrast ibm 3270 terminals connected mvs systems always required block mode block-oriented terminal block mode terminal type computer terminal communicates host blocks data opposed character-oriented terminal communicates host one character time ibm 3270 perhaps familiar implementation block-oriented terminal mainframe computer manufacturers several companies produced block-oriented terminals typically incorporate buffer stores one screen data also stores data attributes indicating appearance color brightness blinking etc also marks data enterable terminal operator vs. protected entry allowing entry numeric information vs. allowing characters etc typical application host sends terminal preformatted panel containing static data fields data may entered terminal operator keys data updates database entry appropriate fields entry complete enter pf key pressed 3270 block data usually data entered operator modified data sent host one transmission 3270 terminal buffer device could updated single character basis necessary existence set buffer address order sba usually preceded data written/overwritten within buffer complete buffer could also read replaced using codice_2 command codice_3 command unformatted formatted case 3270 block-oriented terminals cause less system load host less network traffic character-oriented terminals also appear responsive user especially slow connections since editing within field done locally rather depending echoing host system early terminals limited editing capabilities – 3270 terminals example could check entries valid numerics subsequent smart intelligent terminals incorporated microprocessors supported local processing programmers block-oriented terminals often used technique storing context information transaction progress screen possibly hidden field rather depending running program keep track status precursor html technique storing context url data passed arguments cgi program unlike character-oriented terminal typing character last position screen usually causes terminal scroll one line entering data last screen position block-oriented terminal usually causes cursor wrap — move start first enterable field programmers might protect last screen position prevent inadvertent wrap likewise protected field following enterable field might lock keyboard sound audible alarm operator attempted enter data field allowed Target text information: xedit.xedit xedit visual editor vm/cms using block mode ibm 3270 terminals line-mode terminals also supported xedit much line-oriented modern pc unix editors example xedit supports automatic line numbers many commands operate blocks lines pair features allows selective line column editing command example hides lines matching described pattern col column command allows hiding columns specified hence changing example word appears columns 24 thru 28 yes lines word flexible doable another feature command line allows user type arbitrary editor commands ibm 3270 terminals transmit data computer certain special keys pressed program function key pfk program access key pak xedit less interactive many pc unix editors example continuous spell-checking user types problematic notable features screen layout xedit macros scripts written rexx exec 2 exec xedit exposes majority internal state macro environment allowing macros easily read set internal variables control operation kedit 5 dos os/2 supports external rexx interpreter native os/2 rexx quercus rexx dos quercus rexx replacing older mansfield rexx rather limited kexx subset keditw 1.6.1 windows supports internal kexx 5.62 version rexx language macros arranged codice_1 file format xedit written ibm employee xavier de lamberterie first released 1980 predecessor edit sp sp initialism system product used ibm key influences edit older editor cms edgar ibm program product editor cms xedit supported many edgar commands sos screen output simulation major one xedit also supported exec 2 predecessor rexx pcs unix computers began supplant ibm 3270 terminals users wanted text editors resembled xedit accustomed fill need several developers provided similar programs kedit mansfield software group inc. first xedit clone although originally released 1983 first major release version 3.53 dos released 1985 1990 kedit 4.0 version supporting os/2 included command last version dos os/2 kedit 5.0p4 keditw windows version 1.6.1 dated december 2012 earlier windows versions kedit 1.6 supports syntax highlighting various languages including c cobol fortran html java pascal xbase defined codice_2 file format kedit supports built-in rexx-subset called kexx mansfield software created first non-ibm implementation rexx personal rexx 1985 december 2012 mansfield software released 1.6.1 provide compatibility windows 8 extended support least june 32bit versions work also 64bit versions windows 7 vista directly support unicode may 2018 kedit supports windows 10 mansfield promised website support least end 2018 email support least june 2019 sedit first released 1989 another implementation windows unix supports variant rexx language called s/rexx announced 1994 hessling editor written compatibility kedit xedit mind uses regina open source version rexx begun 1990 first released august 1992 also built several implementations rexx including uni-rexx I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,463	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: wbadmin.wbadmin computing codice_1 command-line utility built windows vista windows server 2008 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 windows 8 windows server 2012 windows 10 operating systems command used perform backups restores operating systems drive volumes computer files folders applications command-line interface codice_1 disk-based backup system create bare metal backup used restore windows operating system similar dissimilar hardware backup file created primarily form microsoft virtual hard disk .vhd files accompanying .xml configuration files backup .vhd file mounted windows disk manager view content however .vhd backup file direct disk clone utility replaces previous microsoft windows backup command-line tool ntbackup came built-into windows nt 4.0 windows 2000 windows xp windows server 2003 command-line version backup restore codice_1 also graphical user interface gui option available simplify creation computer backup restore workstation editions windows 7 use backup wizard located control panel server version done easily installed windows feature using windows management console wbadmin.msc wbadmin management console simplifies restoration whether single file multiple folders using command-line graphical user interface codice_1 creates backup quickly restored using windows media install dvd backup files located removable usb disk without need re-install scratch codice_1 uses differencing engine update backup files original backup file created volume shadow copy service updates changes subsequent full backups take matter moments rather many minutes taken create original backup file automatic backups scheduled regular basis using wizard two kinds restore operations supported 1-hop neighbor's text information: ping_(networking_utility).ping networking utility ping computer network administration software utility used test reachability host internet protocol ip network available virtually operating systems networking capability including embedded network administration software ping measures round-trip time messages sent originating host destination computer echoed back source name comes active sonar terminology sends pulse sound listens echo detect objects water ping operates sending internet control message protocol icmp echo request packets target host waiting icmp echo reply program reports errors packet loss statistical summary results typically including minimum maximum mean round-trip times standard deviation mean command-line options ping utility output vary numerous implementations options may include size payload count tests limits number network hops ttl probes traverse interval requests many systems provide companion utility ping6 testing internet protocol version 6 ipv6 networks implement icmpv6 ping utility written mike muuss december 1983 employment ballistic research laboratory us army research laboratory created tool troubleshoot problems ip network mike muuss inspired remark david mills using icmp echo packets ip network diagnosis measurements author named sound sonar makes since methodology analogous sonar echo location first released version public domain software subsequent versions licensed bsd license ping first included 4.3bsd freedos version developed erick engelke licensed gpl tim crawford developed reactos version licensed mit license rfc 1122 prescribes host must process icmp echo requests issue echo replies return following output running ping linux sending five probes target host www.example.com output lists probe message results obtained finally lists statistics entire test example shortest round trip time 9.674 ms average 10.968 ms maximum value 11.726 ms measurement standard deviation 0.748 ms cases response target host implementations display either nothing periodically print notifications timing possible ping results indicating problem include following case error target host intermediate router sends back icmp error message example host unreachable ttl exceeded transit addition messages include first eight bytes original message case header icmp echo request including quench value ping utility match responses originating queries generic composition icmp packet echo request ping icmp/icmp6 message identifier sequence number used client match reply request caused reply practice linux systems use unique identifier every ping process sequence number increasing number within process windows uses fixed identifier varies windows versions sequence number reset boot time echo reply icmp message generated response echo request mandatory hosts must include exact payload received request payload packet generally filled ascii characters output tcpdump utility shows last 32 bytes following example eight-byte icmp header starting payload may include timestamp indicating time transmission sequence number found example allows ping compute round trip time stateless manner without needing record time transmission packet payload may also include magic packet wake-on-lan protocol minimum payload case longer shown echo request typically receive reply host sleeping hibernation state host still wakes sleep state interface configured accept wakeup requests host already active configured allow replies incoming icmp echo request packets returned reply include payload may used detect remote host effectively woken repeating new request delay allow host resume network services host sleeping low power active state single request wakes host enough allow echo reply service reply instantly service enabled host need completely wake devices may return low power mode short delay configuration may used avoid host enter hibernation state much longer wake delay time passed low power active mode conduct denial-of-service attack attacker may send ping requests fast possible possibly overwhelming victim icmp echo requests technique called ping flood ping requests multiple addresses ping sweeps may used obtain list hosts network 1-hop neighbor's text information: ntfs_symbolic_link.ntfs symbolic link ntfs symbolic link symlink filesystem object ntfs filesystem points another filesystem object object pointed called target symbolic links transparent users links appear normal files directories acted upon user application exactly manner symbolic links directories volumes called junction points mount points introduced ntfs 3.0 shipped windows 2000 ntfs 3.1 onwards symbolic links created kind file system object ntfs 3.1 introduced together windows xp functionality made available ntfs.sys user mode applications third-party filter drivers masatoshi kimura opensource codice_1 driver could however installed make feature available user mode well ntfs.sys released windows vista made functionality available user mode applications default windows symbolic links files distinct windows symbolic links directories unlike ntfs junction point ntfs 3.1 symbolic link also point file remote smb network path ntfs junction points support absolute paths local drives ntfs symbolic links allow linking using relative paths additionally ntfs symbolic link implementation provides full support cross-filesystem links however functionality enabling cross-host symbolic links requires remote system also support effectively limits support windows vista later windows operating systems ntfs symbolic link windows shortcut file regular file latter may created filesystem earlier fat32 may contain metadata icon display shortcut viewed windows explorer transparent applications default security settings windows vista/windows 7 disallow non-elevated administrators non-administrators creating symbolic links behavior changed running secpol.msc local security policy management console security settings\local policies\user rights assignment\create symbolic links worked around starting cmd.exe run administrator option codice_2 command starting windows 10 insiders build 14972 requirement elevated administrator privileges removed windows developer mode allowing symlinks created without needing elevate console administrator codice_3 command used create symbolic link built-in command codice_4 windows vista later command-syntax windows xp codice_11 utility mark russinovich capable working reparse points offered microsoft part sysinternals suite windows exposes createsymboliclink function api starting windows vista since codice_3 command depends codice_4 may possible use contexts codice_14 function uses aforementioned api implement soft link functionality using powershell community extensions also contains function codice_14 symbolic links point non-existent targets operating system check see target exists symbolic links work boot impossible redirect e.g windows installer fully support symbolic links redirected \windows\installer cause .msi-based windows installers fail error 2755 and/or error 1632 nevertheless possible redirect creating symbolic links \users \programdata pointing another drive recommended breaks updates windows store apps creating symbolic links \users \programdata \program files \program files x86 pointing locations breaks installation resp upgrade windows creating symbolic links \program files \program files x86 pointing another drive breaks windows component based servicing hardlinks files repository \windows\winsxs installation directory since windows xp uses ntfs format version later releases feasible enable symbolic links support using ntfs symbolic links windows 2000 xp third-party driver exists installing file system filter Target text information: robocopy.robocopy robocopy robust file copy command-line directory and/or file replication command microsoft windows robocopy functionally replaces xcopy options available part windows resource kit starting windows nt 4.0 first introduced standard feature windows vista windows server 2008 command robocopy robocopy noted capabilities beyond built-in windows copy xcopy commands including following requiring appropriate command-line options examples usage one option specified must separated spaces directory names non-standard characters spaces put double quotes usual command-line commands full reference see microsoft technet robocopy page robocopy syntax markedly different predecessors copy xcopy accepts folder names without trailing backslash source destination arguments file names wildcard characters codice_23 codice_24 valid source destination arguments files selected excluded using optional file filtering argument supports wildcards along various options example copy two files folder codice_25 codice_26 following syntax used copy pdf files codice_25 codice_26 files named copied folder selected copying fully qualified path names supported robocopy outputs screen optionally log file directories encounters alphabetical order directory preceded number files directory fulfill criteria copied directory yet exist target marked new dir directory empty /e option used contains files meeting criteria new directory created /nfl file names log option used files copied listed name directory end output table giving numbers directories files bytes table gives total number found source number copied includes directories marked new dir even copied number skipped already exist target number mismatches failed extras failed mean i/o error prevented file copied access denied also row time taken time spent failed files seems wrong column robocopy inter-packet gap ipg option allows control network bandwidth used session theory following formula expresses delay milliseconds required simulate desired bandwidth b kilobits per second network link available bandwidth b kbps formula_1 practice however experimentation usually required find suitable delay due factors nature volume traffic network methodology employed ipg option may offer level control provided bandwidth throttling technologies bits used windows update branchcache although robocopy command-line tool microsoft technet provides gui front-end called robocopy gui developed derk benisch systems engineer msn search group microsoft required .net framework 2.0 includes copy robocopy version xp026 non-microsoft guis robocopy ken tamaru microsoft developed copying program similar robocopy called richcopy available microsoft technet based robocopy offers similar features require .net framework note several versions robocopy show version number executing codice_35 command line version stored inside executable queried powershell example codice_36 inside windows explorer right-clicking robocopy.exe selecting properties clicking details tab I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	2,568	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: sql.sql sql s-q-l sequel structured query language domain-specific language used programming designed managing data held relational database management system rdbms stream processing relational data stream management system rdsms particularly useful handling structured data relations different entities/variables data sql offers two main advantages older read/write apis like isam vsam first introduced concept accessing many records one single command second eliminates need specify reach record e.g without index originally based upon relational algebra tuple relational calculus sql consists many types statements may informally classed sublanguages commonly data query language dql data definition language ddl data control language dcl data manipulation language dml scope sql includes data query data manipulation insert update delete data definition schema creation modification data access control although sql often described great extent declarative language 4gl also includes procedural elements sql one first commercial languages edgar f. codd relational model model described influential 1970 paper relational model data large shared data banks despite entirely adhering relational model described codd became widely used database language sql became standard american national standards institute ansi 1986 international organization standardization iso 1987 since standard revised include larger set features despite existence standards sql code completely portable among different database systems without adjustments sql initially developed ibm donald d. chamberlin raymond f. boyce learning relational model ted codd early 1970s version initially called sequel structured english query language designed manipulate retrieve data stored ibm original quasi-relational database management system system r group ibm san jose research laboratory developed 1970s chamberlin boyce first attempt relational database language square difficult use due subscript notation moving san jose research laboratory 1973 began work sequel acronym sequel later changed sql sequel trademark uk-based hawker siddeley dynamics engineering limited company testing sql customer test sites determine usefulness practicality system ibm began developing commercial products based system r prototype including system/38 sql/ds db2 commercially available 1979 1981 1983 respectively late 1970s relational software inc. oracle corporation saw potential concepts described codd chamberlin boyce developed sql-based rdbms aspirations selling u.s. navy central intelligence agency u.s. government agencies june 1979 relational software inc. introduced first commercially available implementation sql oracle v2 version2 vax computers 1986 ansi iso standard groups officially adopted standard database language sql language definition new versions standard published 1989 1992 1996 1999 2003 2006 2008 2011 recently 2016 sql deviates several ways theoretical foundation relational model tuple calculus model table set tuples sql tables query results lists rows row may occur multiple times order rows employed queries e.g limit clause critics argue sql replaced language strictly returns original foundation example see third manifesto however known proof exists uniqueness added sql least variation sql words quite possible sql fixed least improved regard industry may switch completely different query language obtain uniqueness debate remains open /math sql language subdivided several language elements including sql designed specific purpose query data contained relational database sql set-based declarative programming language imperative programming language like c basic however extensions standard sql add procedural programming language functionality control-of-flow constructs include addition standard sql/psm extensions proprietary sql extensions procedural object-oriented programmability available many sql platforms via dbms integration languages sql standard defines sql/jrt extensions sql routines types java programming language support java code sql databases sql server 2005 uses sqlclr sql server common language runtime host managed .net assemblies database prior versions sql server restricted unmanaged extended stored procedures primarily written c. postgresql lets users write functions wide variety languages—including perl python tcl javascript pl/v8 c. sql implementations incompatible vendors necessarily completely follow standards particular date time syntax string concatenation codice_1s comparison case sensitivity vary vendor vendor particular exceptions postgresql mimer sql strive standards compliance though postgresql adhere standard folding unquoted names done folding unquoted names lower case postgresql incompatible sql standard says unquoted names folded upper case thus codice_2 equivalent codice_3 codice_4 according standard popular implementations sql commonly omit support basic features standard sql codice_5 codice_6 data types obvious examples incidentally popular commercial proprietary sql dbmss oracle whose codice_5 behaves codice_8 lacks codice_6 type ms sql server 2008 version result sql code rarely ported database systems without modifications several reasons lack portability database systems sql adopted standard american national standards institute ansi 1986 sql-86 international organization standardization iso 1987 maintained iso/iec jtc 1 information technology subcommittee sc 32 data management interchange standard commonly denoted pattern iso/iec 9075-n yyyy part n title shortcut iso/iec 9075 iso/iec 9075 complemented iso/iec 13249 sql multimedia application packages sql/mm defines sql based interfaces packages widely spread applications like video audio spatial data 1996 national institute standards technology nist data management standards program certified sql dbms compliance sql standard vendors self-certify compliance products original standard declared official pronunciation sql initialism ess cue el regardless many english-speaking database professionals including donald chamberlin use acronym-like pronunciation sequel mirroring language pre-release development name sequel sql standard gone number revisions interested parties may purchase sql standards documents iso iec ansi draft sql:2008 freely available zip archive sql standard divided ten parts iso/iec 9075 complemented iso/iec 13249 sql multimedia application packages closely related separate standard developed committee defines interfaces packages based sql aim unified access typical database applications like text pictures data mining spatial data iso/iec 9075 also accompanied series technical reports published iso/iec tr 19075 8 parts technical reports explain justification usage features sql giving examples appropriate technical reports non-normative discrepancy 9075 text 9075 holds currently available 19075 technical reports distinction made alternatives sql language alternatives relational model proposed relational alternatives sql language see navigational database nosql alternatives relational model distributed relational database architecture drda designed work group within ibm period 1988 1994 drda enables network connected relational databases cooperate fulfill sql requests interactive user program issue sql statements local rdb receive tables data status indicators reply remote rdbs sql statements also compiled stored remote rdbs packages invoked package name important efficient operation application programs issue complex high-frequency queries especially important tables accessed located remote systems messages protocols structural components drda defined distributed data management architecture chamberlin 2012 paper discusses four historical criticisms sql early specifications support major features primary keys result sets could named sub-queries defined added 1992 sql controversial null three-value logic predicates evaluated nulls return logical value unknown rather true false features outer-join depend nulls null equivalent space null represents data row another popular criticism allows duplicate rows making integration languages python whose data types might make difficult accurately represent data difficult terms parsing absence modularity avoided declaring unique constraint one fields identifies uniquely row table constraint could also become primary key table similar sense object-relational impedance mismatch mismatch declarative sql language procedural languages sql typically embedded iso/iec information technology task force publishes publicly available standards including sql technical corrigenda corrections technical reports discussion documents published sql -- part 1 framework sql/framework formal sql standards available iso ansi fee informative use opposed strict standards compliance late drafts often suffice 1-hop neighbor's text information: client_(computing).client computing client computer program part operation relies sending request another program computer hardware software accesses service made available server may may located another computer example web browsers clients connect web servers retrieve web pages display email clients retrieve email mail servers online chat uses variety clients vary depending chat protocol used multiplayer video games online video games may run client computer term client may also applied computers devices run client software users use client software client part client–server model still used today clients servers may computer programs run machine connect via inter-process communication techniques combined internet sockets programs may connect service operating possibly remote system internet protocol suite servers wait potential clients initiate connections may accept term first applied devices capable running stand-alone programs could interact remote computers via network computer terminals clients time-sharing mainframe computer one classification client computers devices either thick clients thin clients hybrid clients thick client also known rich client fat client client performs bulk data processing operations necessarily rely server personal computer common example fat client relatively large set features capabilities light reliance upon server example computer running art program krita sketchup ultimately shares result work network thick client computer runs almost entirely standalone machine save send receive files via network standard called workstation thin client minimal sort client thin clients use resources host computer thin client generally presents processed data provided application server performs bulk required data processing device using web application office web apps thin client hybrid client mixture two client models similar fat client processes locally relies server storing persistent data approach offers features fat client multimedia support high performance thin client high manageability flexibility device running online version video game diablo iii example hybrid client 1-hop neighbor's text information: database_connection.database connection database connection facility computer science allows client software talk database server software whether machine connection required send commands receive answers usually form result set connections key concept data-centric programming since dbms engines require considerable time connect connection pooling invented improve performance command performed database without open available connection connections built supplying underlying driver provider connection string way addressing specific database server instance well user authentication credentials example server=sql_box database=common user id=uid pwd=password connection built opened closed properties command time-out length transaction one exists set connection string composed set key/value pairs dictated data access interface data provider used many databases postgresql allow one operation performed time connection request data sql select statement sent database result set returned connection open available operations client finishes consuming result set databases like sql server 2005 later impose limitation however databases provide multiple operations per connection usually incur far overhead permit single operation task time database connections finite expensive take disproportionately long time create relative operations performed inefficient application create use close database connection whenever needs update database connection pooling technique designed alleviate problem pool database connections created shared among applications need access database application needs database access requests connection pool finished returns connection pool becomes available use applications connection object obtained connection pool often wrapper around actual database connection wrapper understands relationship pool hides details pool application example wrapper object implement close method called like close method database connection unlike method database connection method wrapper may actually close database connection instead return pool application need aware connection pooling calls methods wrapper object approach encourages practice opening connection application needed closing soon work done rather holding connection open entire life application manner relatively small number connections service large number requests also called multiplexing client/server architecture hand persistent connection typically used server state managed state includes server-side cursors temporary products connection-specific functional settings application failure occurs connection pool overflows occur connection pool use application requests connection example application may use connection long many clients attempt access web site one operations blocked simply inefficient Target text information: autocommit.autocommit context data management autocommit mode operation database connection individual database interaction i.e. sql statement submitted database connection autocommit mode executed transaction implicitly committed sql statement executed autocommit mode rolled back autocommit mode theory incurs per-statement transaction overhead often undesirable performance resource utilization impact nonetheless systems microsoft sql server well connection technologies odbc microsoft ole db autocommit mode default statements change data order ensure individual statements conform acid atomicity-consistency-isolation-durability properties transactions alternative autocommit mode non-autocommit means sql client application responsible issuing transaction initiation start transaction termination commit rollback commands non-autocommit mode enables grouping multiple data manipulation sql commands single atomic transaction dbms e.g mariadb force autocommit every ddl statement even non-autocommit mode ddl statement starts previous dml statements transaction auto committed ddl executed new autocommit transaction following ddl statements new transaction automatically started needed I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	8,006	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_http_server.apache http server apache http server colloquially called apache free open-source cross-platform web server software released terms apache license 2.0 apache developed maintained open community developers auspices apache software foundation vast majority apache http server instances run linux distribution current versions also run microsoft windows wide variety unix-like systems past versions also ran openvms netware os/2 operating systems including ports mainframes originally based ncsa httpd server development apache began early 1995 work ncsa code stalled apache played key role initial growth world wide web quickly overtaking ncsa httpd dominant http server remained popular since april 1996 2009 became first web server software serve 100 million websites estimated serve 29 active websites ranked 2nd nginx 32 32 top million websites ranked 2nd 33 number explanations origin apache name offered years inception apache project 1995 official documentation stated april 2000 interview brian behlendorf one creators apache said since 2013 apache foundation explained origin name apache running unix process name httpd short http daemon apache supports variety features many implemented compiled modules extend core functionality range authentication schemes supporting server-side programming languages perl python tcl php popular authentication modules include mod_access mod_auth mod_digest mod_auth_digest successor mod_digest sample features include secure sockets layer transport layer security support mod_ssl proxy module mod_proxy url rewriting module mod_rewrite custom log files mod_log_config filtering support mod_include mod_ext_filter popular compression methods apache include external extension module mod_gzip implemented help reduction size weight web pages served http modsecurity open source intrusion detection prevention engine web applications apache logs analyzed web browser using free scripts awstats/w3perl visitors virtual hosting allows one apache installation serve many different websites example one computer one apache installation could simultaneously serve codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 etc apache features configurable error messages dbms-based authentication databases content negotiation supports several graphical user interfaces guis supports password authentication digital certificate authentication source code freely available anyone adapt server specific needs large public library apache add-ons detailed list features provided instead implementing single architecture apache provides variety multiprocessing modules mpms allow run either process-based mode hybrid process thread mode event-hybrid mode order better match demands particular infrastructure choice mpm configuration therefore important compromises performance must made apache designed reduce latency increase throughput relative simply handling requests thus ensuring consistent reliable processing requests within reasonable time-frames delivering static pages apache 2.2 series considered significantly slower nginx varnish address issue apache developers created event mpm mixes use several processes several threads per process asynchronous event-based loop architecture implemented apache 2.4 series performs least well event-based web servers according jim jagielski independent sources however independent significantly outdated benchmarks show still half fast nginx e.g apache http server codebase relicensed apache 2.0 license previous 1.1 license january 2004 apache http server 1.3.31 2.0.49 first releases using new license openbsd project like change continued use pre-2.0 apache versions effectively forking apache 1.3.x purposes initially replaced nginx soon made replacement openbsd httpd based relayd project version 1.1 apache license 1.1 approved asf 2000 primary change 1.0 license 'advertising clause section 3 1.0 license derived products longer required include attribution advertising materials documentation version 2.0 asf adopted apache license 2.0 january 2004 stated goals license included making license easier non-asf projects use improving compatibility gpl-based software allowing license included reference instead listed every file clarifying license contributions requiring patent license contributions necessarily infringe contributor patents apache http server project collaborative software development effort aimed creating robust commercial-grade feature-rich freely available source code implementation http web server project jointly managed group volunteers located around world using internet web communicate plan develop server related documentation project part apache software foundation addition hundreds users contributed ideas code documentation project apache 2.4 dropped support beos tpf even older platforms 1-hop neighbor's text information: http/3.http/3 http/3 h3 upcoming third major version hypertext transfer protocol used exchange binary information world wide web http/3 draft based previous rfc draft named hypertext transfer protocol http quic quic transport layer network protocol initially developed google user space congestion control used user datagram protocol udp 28 october 2018 mailing list discussion mark nottingham chair ietf http quic working groups made official request rename http-over-quic http/3 clearly identify another binding http semantics wire protocol ... people understand separation quic pass development quic working group http working group finalizing publishing draft subsequent discussions followed stretched several days nottingham proposal accepted fellow ietf members november 2018 gave official seal approval http-over-quic become http/3 1-hop neighbor's text information: firefox.firefox mozilla firefox simply firefox free open-source web browser developed mozilla foundation subsidiary mozilla corporation firefox officially available windows 7 newer macos linux unofficial ports available various unix unix-like operating systems including freebsd openbsd netbsd illumos solaris unix sibling firefox android also available firefox uses gecko layout engine render web pages implements current anticipated web standards 2017 firefox began incorporating new technology code name quantum promote parallelism intuitive user interface additional version firefox ios released november 12 2015 due platform restrictions uses webkit layout engine instead gecko ios web browsers firefox created 2002 codename phoenix mozilla community members desired standalone browser rather mozilla application suite bundle beta phase firefox proved popular testers praised speed security add-ons compared microsoft then-dominant internet explorer 6 firefox released november 9 2004 challenged internet explorer dominance 60 million downloads within nine months firefox spiritual successor netscape navigator mozilla community created netscape 1998 acquisition aol firefox usage grew peak 32.21 end 2009 version 3.5 overtaking internet explorer 7 although versions internet explorer whole usage declined competition google chrome firefox 9.53 usage share desktop browser according statcounter making second-most popular browser google chrome 71.03 usage share across platforms lower 4.48 third-most popular overall according mozilla december 2014 half billion firefox users around world project began experimental branch mozilla project dave hyatt joe hewitt blake ross believed commercial requirements netscape sponsorship developer-driven feature creep compromised utility mozilla browser combat saw mozilla suite software bloat created stand-alone browser intended replace mozilla suite april 3 2003 mozilla organization announced planned change focus mozilla suite firefox thunderbird community-driven seamonkey formed eventually replaced mozilla application suite 2005 firefox project undergone several name changes nascent browser originally named phoenix mythical bird rose triumphantly ashes dead predecessor case ashes netscape navigator sidelined microsoft internet explorer first browser war phoenix renamed due trademark claim phoenix technologies replacement name firebird provoked intense response firebird database software project mozilla foundation reassured browser would always bear name mozilla firebird avoid confusion pressure mozilla firebird became mozilla firefox february 9 2004 name firefox said derived nickname red panda became mascot newly named project firefox project went many versions version 1.0 released november 9 2004 abbreviation firefox mozilla prefers fx fx though often abbreviated ff 2016 mozilla announced project known quantum sought improve firefox gecko engine components improve firefox performance modernize architecture transition browser multi-process model improvements came wake decreasing market share google chrome well concerns performance lapsing comparison despite improvements changes required existing add-ons firefox made incompatible newer versions favor new extension system designed similar chrome recent browsers firefox 57 released november 2017 first version contain enhancements quantum thus named firefox quantum mozilla executive stated quantum biggest update browser since version 1.0 may 3 2019 expiration intermediate signing certificate caused firefox automatically disable browser extensions add-ons mozilla began roll-out fix shortly thereafter using mozilla studies component features include tabbed browsing spell checking incremental search live bookmarking smart bookmarks download manager private browsing location-aware browsing also known geolocation based google service integrated search system uses google default markets additionally firefox provides environment web developers use built-in tools error console dom inspector extensions firebug recently integration feature pocket firefox hello implementation webrtc added october 2014 allows users firefox compatible systems video call extra feature screen file sharing sending link firefox hello scheduled removed september 2016 functions added add-ons created third-party developers add-ons primarily coded using html javascript api known webextensions designed similar google chrome microsoft edge extension systems firefox previously supported add-ons using xul xpcom apis allowed directly access manipulate much browser internal functionality compatible multi-process architecture xul add-ons deemed legacy add-ons longer supported firefox 57 newer firefox themes added users create download third parties change appearance browser firefox add-on website also gives users ability add applications games ad-blockers screenshot apps many apps firefox implements many web standards including html4 almost full html5 xml xhtml mathml svg 2 partial css extensions ecmascript javascript dom xslt xpath apng animated png images alpha transparency firefox also implements standards proposals created whatwg client-side storage canvas element standards implemented gecko layout engine spidermonkey javascript engine firefox passed acid2 standards-compliance test since version 3.0 mozilla originally stated intend firefox pass acid3 test fully believed svg fonts part test become outdated irrelevant due woff agreed upon standard major browser makers svg font tests removed acid3 test september 2011 firefox 4 greater scored 100/100 firefox also implements safe browsing proprietary protocol google used exchange data related phishing malware protection since version 38 windows vista newer firefox supports playback video content protected html5 encrypted media extensions eme security privacy reasons eme implemented within wrapper open source code allows execution proprietary drm module adobe systems—adobe primetime content decryption module cdm cdm runs within sandbox environment limit access system provide randomized device id prevent services uniquely identifying device tracking purposes drm module downloaded enabled disabled manner plug-ins since version 47 google widevine cdm windows mac os x streaming services like amazon video switch silverlight encrypted html5 video also supported mozilla justified partnership adobe google stating important step mozilla roadmap remove npapi plugin support upon introduction eme support builds firefox windows also introduced exclude support eme free software foundation cory doctorow condemned mozilla decision support eme html5 web standards test firefox 68 scores 513 582 points firefox allowed sandbox security model manage privileges accorded javascript code feature since deprecated limits scripts accessing data websites based same-origin policy also provides support smart cards web applications authentication purposes uses tls protect communications web servers using strong cryptography using https protocol freely available https everywhere add-on enforces https even regular http url entered firefox supports http/2 mozilla foundation offers bug bounty us 3,000 us 7,500 cash reward researchers discover severe security holes firefox official guidelines handling security vulnerabilities discourage early disclosure vulnerabilities give potential attackers advantage creating exploits firefox generally fewer publicly known security vulnerabilities internet explorer see comparison web browsers improved security often cited reason switch internet explorer firefox washington post reported exploit code known critical security vulnerabilities internet explorer available 284 days 2006 comparison exploit code known critical security vulnerabilities firefox available nine days mozilla issued patch remedy problem 2006 symantec study showed although firefox surpassed browsers number vendor-confirmed vulnerabilities year september vulnerabilities patched far quickly found browsers firefox vulnerabilities fixed average one day exploit code made available compared nine days internet explorer symantec later clarified statement saying firefox still fewer security vulnerabilities internet explorer counted security researchers 2010 study national institute standards technology nist based data compiled national vulnerability database nvd firefox listed fifth-most vulnerable desktop software internet explorer eighth google chrome first infoworld cited security experts saying firefox becomes popular vulnerabilities found claim mitchell baker president mozilla foundation denied idea market share alone make vulnerabilities relational said october 2009 microsoft security engineers acknowledged firefox vulnerable security issue found 'windows presentation foundation browser plug-in since february year .net framework 3.5 sp1 windows update silently installed vulnerable plug-in firefox vulnerability since patched microsoft firefox 3.6 known unpatched security vulnerabilities according secunia internet explorer 8 five unpatched security vulnerabilities worst rated less critical secunia mozilla claims patched vulnerabilities mozilla products publicly listed january 28 2013 mozilla recognized trusted internet company privacy 2012 study performed ponemon institute result survey 100,000 consumers united states february 2013 plans announced firefox 22 disable third-party cookies default however introduction feature delayed mozilla developers could collect analyze data effect blocking third-party cookies mozilla also collaborated stanford university cookie clearinghouse project develop blacklist whitelist sites used filter version 23 released august 2013 followed lead competitors blocking iframe stylesheet script resources served non-https servers embedded https pages default additionally javascript could also longer disabled firefox preferences javascript automatically re-enabled users upgraded 23 higher disabled change made due use across majority websites potential repercussions non-experienced users unaware impact along availability extensions noscript disable javascript controlled fashion following release added ability disable javascript developer tools testing purposes january 2015 torrentfreak reported using firefox connected internet using vpn serious security issue due browser support webrtc beginning firefox 44 extensions must signed mozilla used release beta versions firefox firefox 43 blocked unsigned extensions allowed enforcement extension signing disabled extensions must submitted mozilla add-ons subject code analysis order signed although extensions listed service order signed may 2 2019 mozilla announced would strengthening signature enforcement methods included retroactive disabling old extensions deemed insecure firefox update may 3 led bug reports extensions disabled found result overlooked certificate policy change set go effect june 10 firefox versions prior 7.0 information bar appears browser first start asking users whether would like send performance statistics telemetry mozilla enabled default development versions firefox release versions according mozilla privacy policy statistics stored aggregate format personally identifiable information transmitted user ip address november 2018 firefox began using sandbox isolate web tabs rest system lack feature previously earned negative comparisons google chrome microsoft edge since version 60 firefox includes option use dns https doh causes dns lookup requests sent encrypted https protocol use feature user must set certain preferences beginning network.trr trusted recursive resolver network.trr.mode 0 doh disabled 1 activates doh addition unencrypted dns 2 causes doh used unencrypted dns use doh value must 3 setting network.trr.uri url https //mozilla.cloudflare-dns.com/dns-query special cloudflare servers activated mozilla privacy agreement server host restricts collection information incoming dns requests may 21 2019 firefox updated include ability block scripts used computer cpu mine cryptocurrency without user permission firefox version 67.0 update also allowed users block known fingerprinting scripts track activity across web however resist fingerprinting july 2 2019 mozilla introduced mechanism allow firefox automatically trust os-installed certificates prevent tls errors firefox widely localized web browser first official release november 2004 available 24 different languages 28 locales including british english american english european spanish argentine spanish chinese traditional chinese characters simplified chinese characters currently supported versions 68.0.2 68.0.2esr 60.8.0esr available 89 locales 79 languages desktop version firefox available supported microsoft windows macos linux firefox android available android formerly firefox mobile also ran firefox os firefox source code may compiled various operating systems however officially distributed binaries provided following firefox 1.0 released windows 9x well windows nt 4.0 later users reported 1.x builds operable installable windows nt 3.51 september 2013 metro-style version firefox optimized touchscreen use introduced aurora release channel however project since cancelled mozilla citing lack user adoption beta versions version 43.0 included first x64 builds made windows 7 server 2008 r2 version 49.0 dropped support processors without sse2 instruction set windows april 2017 users firefox 52.0.2 windows xp windows vista windows server 2003 windows server 2008 automatic updates enabled migrated firefox 52 esr support projected end operating systems last release june 2018 first official release firefox version 1.0 supported macos called mac os x powerpc architecture mac os x builds ia-32 architecture became available via universal binary debuted firefox 1.5.0.2 2006 starting version 4.0 firefox released x64 architecture macos migrated since inception firefox linux supported 32-bit memory architecture ia-32 instruction set 64-bit builds introduced 4.0 release 46.0 release replaced gtk+ 2.18 3.4 system requirement linux systems running x.org starting 53.0 32-bit builds require sse2 instruction set firefox android codenamed fennec web browser smaller non-pc devices mobile phones pdas originally first released nokia maemo operating system specifically nokia n900 january 28 2010 march 29 2011 besides maemo version 4 added android release mobile version browser version number bumped 2 4 synchronizing future desktop releases firefox rendering engines used browsers version 7 last release maemo n900 user interface completely redesigned optimized small screens controls hidden away web content shown screen uses touchscreen interaction methods includes awesome bar tabbed browsing add-on support password manager location-aware browsing ability synchronize user computer firefox browser using firefox sync april 2013 then-mozilla ceo gary kovacs said firefox would come ios long apple required use webkit layout engine one reason given mozilla prior ios 8 apple supplied third-party browsers inferior version javascript engine hobbled performance making impossible match safari javascript performance ios platform apple later opened nitro javascript engine third-party browsers 2015 mozilla announced moving forward firefox ios preview release made available new zealand september year november 2016 firefox released new ios app titled firefox focus private web browser firefox also ported freebsd netbsd openbsd openindiana os/2 skyos beos/haiku unofficial rebranded version called timberwolf available amigaos 4 unofficial continuation mac os x powerpc release continues tenfourfox firefox port openbsd maintained landry breuil since 2010 firefox regularly built current branch operating system latest versions packaged release remain frozen next release 2017 landry began hosting packages newer firefox versions openbsd releases 6.0 onwards making available installations without ports system solaris port firefox including opensolaris maintained oracle solaris desktop beijing team march 2017 team disbanded also unofficial port firefox 3.6.x ibm aix v1.7.x unixware besides official releases mozilla provides development builds firefox distribution channels named order least stable beta developer edition former aurora renamed november 10 2014 nightly starting firefox 54 developer edition based beta build firefox esr version firefox organizations groups need extended support mass deployments esr release based regular version released time supported approximately one year unlike regular rapid releases esrs updated new features performance enhancements every six weeks rather updated high-risk-reduction high-impact security fixes major stability fixes point releases end esr cycle firefox source code free software released mozilla public license mpl version 2.0 license permits anyone view modify redistribute source code result several publicly released applications built netscape flock miro gnu icecat iceweasel songbird pale moon comodo icedragon past firefox licensed solely mpl version 1.1 free software foundation criticized weak copyleft license permitted limited ways proprietary derivative works additionally code licensed mpl 1.1 could legally linked code gpl address concerns mozilla re-licensed firefox tri-license scheme mpl 1.1 gpl 2.0 lgpl 2.1 since re-licensing developers free choose license received code suit intended use gpl lgpl linking derivative works one licenses chosen mpl use including possibility proprietary derivative works chose mpl however january 3 2012 mozilla released gpl-compatible mpl 2.0 release firefox 13 june 5 2012 mozilla used replace tri-licensing scheme crash reporting service initially closed-source switched version 3 program called talkback open-source breakpad socorro server name mozilla firefox registered trademark along official firefox logo may used certain terms conditions anyone may redistribute official binaries unmodified form use firefox name branding distribution restrictions placed distributions modify underlying source code name firefox derives nickname red panda mozilla placed firefox logo files open-source licenses trademark guidelines allow displaying altered similar logos contexts trademark law applies controversy mozilla foundation intentions stopping certain open source distributions using firefox trademark open source browsers enable greater choice innovation market rather aiming mass-market domination mozilla foundation chairperson mitchell baker explained interview 2007 distributions could freely use firefox trademark modify source-code mozilla foundation concern users getting consistent experience used firefox allow distributions code without using official branding firefox build system contains branding switch switch often used alphas auroras future firefox versions allows code compiled without official logo name allow derivative work unencumbered restrictions firefox trademark produced unbranded build trademarked logo name replaced freely distributable generic globe logo name release series modified version derived distributing modified versions firefox firefox name required explicit approval mozilla changes made underlying code required use official branding example permissible use name firefox without also using official logo debian project decided stop using official firefox logo 2006 mozilla copyright restrictions time incompatible debian guidelines told representative mozilla foundation acceptable asked either comply published trademark guidelines cease using firefox name distribution ultimately debian switched branding modified version firefox iceweasel 2016 switched back firefox along mozilla software gnu icecat another derived version firefox distributed gnu project maintains separate branding early firebird phoenix releases firefox considered reasonable visual designs fell short compared many professional software packages october 2003 professional interface designer steven garrity wrote article covering everything considered wrong mozilla visual identity shortly afterwards mozilla foundation invited garrity head new visual identity team release firefox 0.8 february 2004 saw introduction new branding efforts included new icon designs silverorange group web developers long-standing relationship mozilla final renderings jon hicks worked camino logo later revised updated fixing several flaws found enlarged animal shown logo stylized fox although firefox usually common name red panda panda according hicks n't really conjure right imagery widely known firefox icon trademark used designate official mozilla build firefox software builds official distribution partners reason software distributors distribute modified versions firefox use icon june 2019 firefox announced rebranding introduced new logo new logo meant encompass larger family products firefox adopted rapidly 100 million downloads first year availability followed series aggressive marketing campaigns starting 2004 series events blake ross asa dotzler called marketing weeks firefox continued heavily market releasing marketing portal dubbed spread firefox sfx september 12 2004 debuted along firefox preview release creating centralized space discussion various marketing techniques release manifesto stated mozilla project global community people believe openness innovation opportunity key continued health internet two-page ad edition december 16 new york times placed mozilla foundation coordination spread firefox featured names thousands people worldwide contributed mozilla foundation fundraising campaign support launch firefox 1.0 web browser sfx portal enhanced get firefox button program giving users referrer points incentive site lists top 250 referrers time time sfx team sfx members launch marketing events organized spread firefox website part spread firefox campaign attempt break world download record release firefox 3 resulted official certified guinness world record eight million downloads february 2011 mozilla announced would retiring spread firefox sfx three months later may 2011 mozilla officially closed spread firefox mozilla wrote currently plans create new iteration website spread firefox later date celebration third anniversary founding mozilla foundation world firefox day campaign established july 15 2006 ran september 15 2006 participants registered friend website nomination names displayed firefox friends wall digital wall displayed headquarters mozilla foundation firefox community also engaged promotion web browser 2006 firefox contributors oregon state university made crop circle firefox logo oat field near amity oregon near intersection lafayette highway walnut hill road firefox reached 500 million downloads february 21 2008 firefox community celebrated visiting freerice earn 500 million grains rice initiatives included live chat service mozilla launched 2007 allowed users seek technical support volunteers service later retired promote launch firefox quantum november 2017 mozilla partnered reggie watts produce series tv ads social media content december 2005 internet week ran article many readers reported high memory usage firefox 1.5 mozilla developers said higher memory use firefox 1.5 least partially due new fast backwards-and-forwards fastback feature known causes memory problems malfunctioning extensions google toolbar older versions adblock plug-ins older versions adobe acrobat reader pc magazine 2006 compared memory usage firefox 2 opera 9 internet explorer 7 found firefox used approximately much memory two browsers softpedia noted firefox 1.5 took longer start browsers confirmed speed tests ie 6 launched swiftly firefox 1.5 windows xp since many components built os loaded system startup workaround issue preloader application created loaded components firefox startup similar internet explorer windows vista feature called superfetch performs similar task preloading firefox used often enough tests performed pc world zimbra 2006 indicated firefox 2 used less memory internet explorer 7 firefox 3 used less memory internet explorer 7 opera 9.50 beta safari 3.1 beta firefox 2 tests performed mozilla cybernet browser world mid-2009 betanews benchmarked firefox 3.5 declared performed nearly ten times better xp microsoft internet explorer 7 january 2010 lifehacker compared performance firefox 3.5 firefox 3.6 google chrome 4 stable dev versions safari 4 opera 10.1 stable 10.5 pre-alpha versions lifehacker timed long browsers took start reach page right boot-up running least already timed long browsers took load nine tabs tested javascript speeds using mozilla dromaeo online suite implements apple sunspider google v8 tests measured memory usage using windows 7 process manager concluded firefox 3.5 3.6 fifth- sixth-fastest browsers respectively startup 3.5 third- 3.6 sixth-fastest load nine tabs 3.5 sixth- 3.6 fifth-fastest javascript tests also concluded firefox 3.6 efficient memory usage followed firefox 3.5 february 2012 tom hardware performance tested chrome 17 firefox 10 internet explorer 9 opera 11.61 safari 5.1.2 windows 7 tom hardware summarized tests four categories performance efficiency reliability conformance performance category tested html5 java javascript dom css 3 flash silverlight webgl webgl 2 current version 51 java silverlight stop working version 52 —they also tested start time page load time performance tests showed firefox either acceptable strong categories winning three categories html5 html5 hardware acceleration java finishing weak css performance efficiency tests tom hardware tested memory usage management category determined firefox acceptable performing light memory usage strong performing heavy memory usage reliability category firefox performed strong amount proper page loads final category conformance determined firefox strong conformance javascript html5 conclusion tom hardware determined firefox best browser windows 7 os narrowly beat google chrome june 2013 tom hardware performance tested firefox 22 chrome 27 opera 12 internet explorer 10 found firefox slightly edged browsers performance index examined wait times javascript execution speed html5/css3 rendering hardware acceleration performance firefox also scored highest non-performance index measured memory efficiency reliability security standards conformance finishing substantially ahead chrome runner-up tom hardware concluded declaring firefox sound winner performance benchmarks january 2014 benchmark testing memory usage firefox 29 google chrome 34 internet explorer 11 indicated firefox used least memory substantial number tabs open benchmark testing early 2015 high-end windows machine comparing microsoft edge internet explorer firefox chrome opera firefox achieved highest score three seven tests four different javascript performance tests gave conflicting results firefox bested others peacekeeper benchmark behind microsoft products tested sunspider measured mozilla kraken came second place chrome google octane challenge took third behind chrome opera firefox took lead webxprt runs several typical html5 javascript tasks firefox chrome opera achieved highest possible score oort online test measuring webgl rendering speed webgl 2 current terms html5 compatibility testing firefox ranked middle group similar set benchmark tests 2016 showed firefox javascript performance kraken newer jetstream tests trailing slightly behind tested browsers except internet explorer performed relatively poorly octane firefox came ahead ie safari slightly behind rest including vivaldi microsoft edge edge took overall first place jetstream octane benchmarks adoption firefox 57 mozilla quantum project entering production browsers november 2017 firefox tested faster chrome independent javascript tests demonstrated use less memory many browser tabs opened techradar rated fastest web browser may 2019 report downloads continued increasing rate since firefox 1.0 released november 9 2004 firefox already downloaded one billion times number include downloads using software updates third-party websites represent user count one download may installed many machines one person may download software multiple times software may obtained third-party july 2010 ibm asked employees 400,000 use firefox default browser firefox second-most used web browser november 2011 google chrome surpassed according mozilla firefox 450 million users firefox second-most widely used desktop browser position makes fourth-most popular approximately 11.78 worldwide usage share web browsers across platforms according firefox public data report mozilla active monthly count desktop clients decreased around 310 million 2017 260 million 2019 Target text information: http/2.http/2 http/2 originally named http/2.0 major revision http network protocol used world wide web derived earlier experimental spdy protocol originally developed google http/2 developed hypertext transfer protocol working group httpbis means second internet engineering task force http/2 first new version http since http 1.1 standardized rfc 2068 1997 working group presented http/2 iesg consideration proposed standard december 2014 iesg approved publish proposed standard february 17 2015 http/2 specification published rfc 7540 may 2015 standardization effort supported chrome opera firefox internet explorer 11 safari amazon silk edge browsers major browsers added http/2 support end 2015 according w3techs 40.1 top 10 million websites supported http/2 proposed successor http/3 forthcoming new major revision http protocol builds concepts established http/2 working group charter mentions several goals issues concern proposed changes require changes existing web applications work new applications take advantage new features increased speed http/2 leaves http 1.1 high-level syntax methods status codes header fields uris new data framed transported client server websites efficient minimize number requests required render entire page minifying reducing amount code packing smaller pieces code bundles without reducing ability function resources images scripts however minification necessarily convenient efficient may still require separate http connections get page minified resources http/2 allows server push content respond data queries client requested allows server supply data knows web browser need render web page without waiting browser examine first response without overhead additional request cycle additional performance improvements first draft http/2 copy spdy come multiplexing requests responses avoid head-of-line blocking problem http 1 even http pipelining used header compression prioritization requests however http/2 runs top single tcp connection still potential head-of-line blocking occur tcp packets lost delayed transmission http/2 longer supports http 1.1 chunked transfer encoding mechanism provides efficient mechanisms data streaming spdy pronounced like speedy previous http-replacement protocol developed research project spearheaded google primarily focused reducing latency spdy uses tcp pipe different protocols accomplish reduction basic changes made http 1.1 create spdy included true request pipelining without fifo restrictions message framing mechanism simplify client server development mandatory compression including headers priority scheduling even bi-directional communication httpbis working group considered google spdy protocol microsoft http speed+mobility proposal spdy based network-friendly http upgrade july 2012 facebook provided feedback proposals recommended http/2 based spdy initial draft http/2 published november 2012 based straight copy spdy biggest difference http/1.1 spdy user action spdy given stream id meaning single tcp channel connecting user server spdy split requests either control data using simple parse binary protocol two types frames spdy showed evident improvement http new page load speedup ranging 11.81 47.7 development http/2 used spdy jumping-off point among many detailed differences protocols notable http/2 uses fixed huffman code-based header compression algorithm instead spdy dynamic stream-based compression helps reduce potential compression oracle attacks protocol crime attack february 9 2015 google announced plans remove support spdy chrome favor support http/2 took effect starting chrome 51 http/2 defined http uris i.e without encryption https uris tls using alpn extension tls 1.2 newer required although standard require usage encryption ref name= http/2 frequently asked questions /ref major client implementations firefox chrome safari opera ie edge stated support http/2 tls makes encryption de facto mandatory http/2 development process protocol faced criticism freebsd varnish developer poul-henning kamp asserts standard prepared unrealistically short schedule ruling basis new http/2 spdy protocol resulting missed opportunities improvement kamp criticizes protocol inconsistent needless overwhelming complexity also states protocol violates protocol layering principle example duplicating flow control belongs transport layer tcp concerns however related encryption issues initially members working group tried introduce encryption requirement protocol faced criticism critics stated encryption non-negligible computing costs many http applications actually need encryption providers desire spend additional resources encryption proponents stated encryption overhead negligible practice poul-henning kamp criticised ietf following particular political agenda http/2 criticism agenda mandatory encryption within existing certificate framework new unique members open-source community cisco employee stated 2013 present certificate model compatible small devices like routers present model requires annual enrollment remission non-trivial fees certificate must continually repeated annual basis working group finally reach consensus mandatory encryption although client implementations require makes encryption de facto requirement http/2 protocol also faced criticism supporting opportunistic encryption measure passive monitoring similar starttls mechanism long available internet protocols like smtp critics stated http/2 proposal goes violation ietf rfc7258 pervasive monitoring attack also status best current practice 188 rfc7258/bcp188 mandates passive monitoring considered attack protocols designed ietf take steps protect passive monitoring example use opportunistic encryption number specifications opportunistic encryption http/2 provided draft-nottingham-http2-encryption adopted official work item working group leading publication rfc 8164 may 2017 although design http/2 effectively addresses http-transaction-level head-of-line blocking problem allowing multiple concurrent http transactions transactions multiplexed single tcp connection meaning packet-level head-of-line blocking tcp stream simultaneously blocks transactions accessed via connection head-of-line blocking http/2 widely regarded design flaw much effort behind quic http/3 devoted reduce head-of-line blocking issues I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	64	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: machine_code.machine code machine code computer program written machine language instructions executed directly computer central processing unit cpu instruction causes cpu perform specific task load store jump alu operation one units data cpu registers memory machine code strictly numerical language intended run fast possible may regarded lowest-level representation compiled assembled computer program primitive hardware-dependent programming language possible write programs directly machine code tedious error prone manage individual bits calculate numerical addresses constants manually reason programs rarely written directly machine code modern contexts may done low level debugging program patching especially assembler source available assembly language disassembly overwhelming majority practical programs today written higher-level languages assembly language source code translated executable machine code utilities compilers assemblers linkers important exception interpreted programs translated machine code however interpreter may seen executor processor performing instructions source code typically consists directly executable machine code generated assembly high-level language source code machine code definition lowest level programming detail visible programmer internally many processors use microcode optimise transform machine code instructions sequences micro-ops generally considered machine code per se every processor processor family instruction set instructions patterns bits physical design correspond different commands machine thus instruction set specific class processors using mostly architecture successor derivative processor designs often include instructions predecessor may add additional instructions occasionally successor design discontinue alter meaning instruction code typically needed new purposes affecting code compatibility extent even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior instructions rarely problem systems may also differ details memory arrangement operating systems peripheral devices program normally relies factors different systems typically run machine code even type processor used processor instruction set may instructions length may variable-length instructions patterns organized varies strongly particular architecture often also type instruction instructions one opcode fields specifies basic instruction type arithmetic logical jump etc actual operation add compare fields may give type operand addressing mode addressing offset index actual value constant operands contained instruction called immediates machines individual instructions explicit operands accumulator machine combined left operand result implicit accumulator arithmetic instructions architectures 8086 x86-family accumulator versions common instructions accumulator regarded one general registers longer instructions stack machine operands implicit stack special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands cpuid x86 architecture writes values four implicit destination registers instance distinction explicit implicit operands important code generators especially register allocation live range tracking parts good code optimizer track implicit well explicit operands may allow frequent constant propagation constant folding registers register assigned result constant expression freed replacing constant code enhancements computer program list instructions executed central processing unit program execution done order cpu executing solve specific problem thus accomplish specific result simple processors able execute instructions one another superscalar processors capable executing variety different instructions program flow may influenced special 'jump instructions transfer execution instruction numerically following one conditional jumps taken execution continues another address execution continues next instruction depending condition much readable rendition machine language called assembly language uses mnemonic codes refer machine code instructions rather using instructions numeric values directly example zilog z80 processor machine code codice_1 causes cpu decrement codice_2 processor register would represented assembly language codice_3 mips architecture provides specific example machine code whose instructions always 32 bits long general type instruction given op operation field highest 6 bits j-type jump i-type immediate instructions fully specified op r-type register instructions include additional field funct determine exact operation fields used types rs rt rd indicate register operands shamt gives shift amount address immediate fields contain operand directly example adding registers 1 2 placing result register 6 encoded load value register 8 taken memory cell 68 cells location listed register 3 jumping address 1024 computer architectures machine code implemented even fundamental underlying layer called microcode providing common machine language interface across line family different models computer widely different underlying dataflows done facilitate porting machine language programs different models example use ibm system/360 family computers successors dataflow path widths 8 bits 64 bits beyond nevertheless present common architecture machine language level across entire line using microcode implement emulator enables computer present architecture entirely different computer system/360 line used allow porting programs earlier ibm machines new family computers e.g ibm 1401/1440/1460 emulator ibm s/360 model 40 machine code generally different bytecode also known p-code either executed interpreter compiled machine code faster direct execution exception processor designed use particular bytecode directly machine code case java processors machine code assembly code sometimes called native code referring platform-dependent parts language features libraries harvard architecture computer architecture physically separate storage signal pathways code instructions data today processors implement separate signal pathways performance reasons implement modified harvard architecture support tasks like loading executable program disk storage data executing harvard architecture contrasted von neumann architecture data code stored memory read processor allowing computer execute commands point view process code space part address space code execution stored multitasking systems comprises program code segment usually shared libraries multi-threading environment different threads one process share code space along data space reduces overhead context switching considerably compared process switching pamela samuelson wrote machine code unreadable united states copyright office identify whether particular encoded program original work authorship however us copyright office allow copyright registration computer programs program machine code sometimes decompiled order make functioning easily understandable humans cognitive science professor douglas hofstadter compared machine code genetic code saying looking program written machine language vaguely comparable looking dna molecule atom atom 1-hop neighbor's text information: arc_(programming_language).arc programming language arc programming language dialect language lisp developed paul graham robert morris free open-source software released artistic license 2.0 2001 paul graham announced working new dialect lisp named arc years since written several essays describing features goals language internal projects graham startup business incubator named combinator written arc notably hacker news web forum news aggregator program arc written racket essay popular graham describes goals language many goals general arc hackable good libraries give specifics example believes important language terse also stated better language implement small number axioms even means language may features large organizations want object-orientation oo graham thinks oo useful methods patterns good design views language features used implement oo partly mistaken arc introduction 2008 graham stated one benefits brevity controversy among lisp programmers whether much s-expressions language complemented forms syntax graham thinks added syntax used situations pure s-expressions would overly verbose saying n't think religiously opposed introducing syntax lisp graham also thinks efficiency problems solved giving programmer good profiler released 2008 arc generated mixed reactions calling simply extension lisp scheme programming language right others applauded arc stripping lisp bare essentials shortly release arc ported javascript supported schemescript integrated development environment ide based eclipse hello world arc illustrate arc terseness graham uses brief program produces form one field url /said form submitted leads page link says click leads page value original input field first publicly released version arc made available 29 january 2008 implemented racket named plt-scheme release comes form .tar archive containing racket source code arc tutorial discussion forum also available forum uses program hacker news written arc due lack updates official arc branch members arc community started repositories unofficial modifications extensions libraries one version anarki permitted anyone submit changes project community managed wiki rainbow implementation arc java arcadia implementation arc c 1-hop neighbor's text information: macintosh_common_lisp.macintosh common lisp macintosh common lisp mcl implementation ide common lisp programming language various versions mcl run classic mac os m68k ppc mac os x versions mcl including 5.1 proprietary version 5.2 open sourced 2009 new different version mcl open sourced rmcl rmcl based mcl 5.1 run rosetta intel-based macs mcl famous integration macintosh toolbox later apple carbon allowed direct access mac os functionality directly lisp achieved low-level interface allowed direct manipulation native mac os data structures lisp together high-level interface convenient use 2001 article dr. dobb journal peter norvig wrote mcl favorite ide macintosh platform language serious rival platforms development mcl began 1984 history mcl known different names running 68k-based apple macintosh computers running powerpc-based apple macintosh computers also spawned least one separately maintained fork Target text information: common_lisp.common lisp common lisp cl dialect lisp programming language published ansi standard document ansi incits 226-1994 r2004 formerly x3.226-1994 r1999 common lisp hyperspec hyperlinked html version derived ansi common lisp standard common lisp language developed standardized improved successor maclisp early 1980s several groups already work diverse successors maclisp lisp machine lisp aka zetalisp spice lisp nil s-1 lisp common lisp sought unify standardise extend features maclisp dialects common lisp implementation rather language specification several implementations common lisp standard available including free open-source software proprietary products common lisp general-purpose multi-paradigm programming language supports combination procedural functional object-oriented programming paradigms dynamic programming language facilitates evolutionary incremental software development iterative compilation efficient run-time programs incremental development often done interactively without interrupting running application also supports optional type annotation casting added necessary later profiling optimization stages permit compiler generate efficient code instance codice_1 hold unboxed integer range supported hardware implementation permitting efficient arithmetic big integers arbitrary precision types similarly compiler told per-module per-function basis type safety level wanted using optimize declarations common lisp includes clos object system supports multimethods method combinations often implemented metaobject protocol common lisp extensible standard features lisp macros code transformations reader macros input parsers characters common lisp provides backwards compatibility maclisp john mccarthy original lisp allows older lisp software ported common lisp work common lisp started 1981 initiative arpa manager bob engelmore develop single community standard lisp dialect much initial language design done via electronic mail 1982 guy l. steele jr. gave first overview common lisp 1982 acm symposium lisp functional programming first language documentation published 1984 common lisp language first edition second edition published 1990 incorporated many changes language made ansi common lisp standardization process final ansi common lisp standard published 1994 since update standard published various extensions improvements common lisp examples unicode concurrency clos-based io provided implementations libraries many available via quicklisp common lisp dialect lisp uses s-expressions denote code data structure function calls macro forms special forms written lists name operator first examples common lisp many data types number types include integers ratios floating-point numbers complex numbers common lisp uses bignums represent numerical values arbitrary size precision ratio type represents fractions exactly facility available many languages common lisp automatically coerces numeric values among types appropriate common lisp character type limited ascii characters modern implementations allow unicode characters symbol type common lisp languages largely unknown outside symbol unique named data object several parts name value function property list package value cell function cell important symbols lisp often used similarly identifiers languages hold value variable however many uses normally symbol evaluated value returned symbols evaluate example symbols keyword package self-evaluating boolean values common lisp represented self-evaluating symbols nil common lisp namespaces symbols called 'packages number functions available rounding scalar numeric values various ways function codice_2 rounds argument nearest integer halfway cases rounded even integer functions codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 round towards zero respectively functions return discarded fractional part secondary value example codice_6 yields -3 0.5 codice_7 yields -2 -0.5 codice_8 yields 2 0.5 codice_9 yields 4 -0.5 sequence types common lisp include lists vectors bit-vectors strings many operations work sequence type almost lisp dialects lists common lisp composed conses sometimes called cons cells pairs cons data structure two slots called car cdr list linked chain conses empty list cons car refers member list possibly another list cons cdr refers next cons—except last cons list whose cdr refers codice_10 value conses also easily used implement trees complex data structures though usually advised use structure class instances instead also possible create circular data structures conses common lisp supports multidimensional arrays dynamically resize adjustable arrays required multidimensional arrays used matrix mathematics vector one-dimensional array arrays carry type members even mixed types array specialized contain specific type members vector bits usually types supported many implementations optimize array functions array used type-specialized two type-specialized array types standard string vector characters bit-vector vector bits hash tables store associations data objects object may used key value hash tables automatically resized needed packages collections symbols used chiefly separate parts program namespaces package may export symbols marking part public interface packages use packages structures similar use c structs pascal records represent arbitrary complex data structures number type fields called slots structures allow single-inheritance classes similar structures offer dynamic features multiple-inheritance see clos classes added late common lisp conceptual overlap structures objects created classes called instances special case generic functions generic functions functions instances common lisp supports first-class functions instance possible write functions take functions arguments return functions well makes possible describe general operations common lisp library relies heavily higher-order functions example codice_11 function takes relational operator argument key function optional keyword argument used sort type data also sort data structures according key evaluation model functions simple evaluator encounters form codice_12 presumes symbol named f one following f name function arguments a1 a2 ... evaluated left-to-right order function found invoked values supplied parameters macro codice_14 defines functions function definition gives name function names arguments function body function definitions may include compiler directives known declarations provide hints compiler optimization settings data types arguments may also include documentation strings docstrings lisp system may use provide interactive documentation anonymous functions function literals defined using codice_13 expressions e.g codice_16 function squares argument lisp programming style frequently uses higher-order functions useful provide anonymous functions arguments local functions defined codice_17 codice_18 number operators related definition manipulation functions instance function may compiled codice_19 operator lisp systems run functions using interpreter default unless instructed compile others compile every function macro codice_20 defines generic functions generic functions collection methods macro codice_21 defines methods methods specialize parameters clos standard classes system classes structure classes individual objects many types corresponding system classes generic function called multiple-dispatch determine effective method use generic functions also first class data type many features generic functions methods described namespace function names separate namespace data variables key difference common lisp scheme common lisp operators define names function namespace include codice_14 codice_17 codice_18 codice_21 codice_20 pass function name argument another function one must use codice_27 special operator commonly abbreviated codice_28 first codice_11 example refers function named symbol codice_30 function namespace code codice_31 conversely call function passed way one would use codice_32 operator argument scheme evaluation model simpler one namespace positions form evaluated order -- arguments code written one dialect therefore sometimes confusing programmers experienced instance many common lisp programmers like use descriptive variable names list string could cause problems scheme would locally shadow function names whether separate namespace functions advantage source contention lisp community usually referred lisp-1 vs. lisp-2 debate lisp-1 refers scheme model lisp-2 refers common lisp model names coined 1988 paper richard p. gabriel kent pitman extensively compares two approaches common lisp supports concept multiple values expression always single primary value might also number secondary values might received inspected interested callers concept distinct returning list value secondary values fully optional passed via dedicated side channel means callers may remain entirely unaware secondary values need makes convenient use mechanism communicating information sometimes useful always necessary example multiple values supported handful standard forms common codice_35 special form accessing secondary values codice_36 returning multiple values data types common lisp include like programs many programming languages common lisp programs make use names refer variables functions many kinds entities named references subject scope association name entity name refers called binding scope refers set circumstances name determined particular binding circumstances determine scope common lisp include understand symbol refers common lisp programmer must know kind reference expressed kind scope uses variable reference dynamic versus lexical scope also run-time situation environment reference resolved binding introduced environment et cetera environments lisp globally pervasive instance new type defined known everywhere thereafter references type look global environment one type environment common lisp dynamic environment bindings established environment dynamic extent means binding established start execution construct codice_51 block disappears construct finishes executing lifetime tied dynamic activation deactivation block however dynamic binding visible within block also visible functions invoked block type visibility known indefinite scope bindings exhibit dynamic extent lifetime tied activation deactivation block indefinite scope visible functions called block said dynamic scope common lisp support dynamically scoped variables also called special variables certain kinds bindings necessarily dynamically scoped also restarts catch tags function bindings dynamically scoped using codice_17 provides lexically scoped function bindings function objects first-level object common lisp assigned dynamically scoped variables bound using codice_51 dynamic scope called using codice_32 codice_57 dynamic scope extremely useful adds referential clarity discipline global variables global variables frowned upon computer science potential sources error give rise ad-hoc covert channels communication among modules lead unwanted surprising interactions common lisp special variable top-level binding behaves like global variable programming languages new value stored value simply replaces top-level binding careless replacement value global variable heart bugs caused use global variables however another way work special variable give new local binding within expression sometimes referred rebinding variable binding dynamically scoped variable temporarily creates new memory location variable associates name location binding effect references variable refer new binding previous binding hidden execution binding expression terminates temporary memory location gone old binding revealed original value intact course multiple dynamic bindings variable nested common lisp implementations support multithreading dynamic scopes specific thread execution thus special variables serve abstraction thread local storage one thread rebinds special variable rebinding effect variable threads value stored binding retrieved thread created binding thread binds special variable codice_58 codice_58 behaves like thread-local storage among threads rebind codice_58 behaves like ordinary global threads refer top-level binding codice_58 dynamic variables used extend execution context additional context information implicitly passed function function without appear extra function parameter especially useful control transfer pass layers unrelated code simply extended extra parameters pass additional data situation like usually calls global variable global variable must saved restored scheme n't break recursion dynamic variable rebinding takes care variable must made thread-local else big mutex must used scheme n't break threads dynamic scope implementations take care also common lisp library many standard special variables instance standard i/o streams stored top-level bindings well-known special variables standard output stream stored standard-output suppose function foo writes standard output capture output character string standard-output bound string stream called common lisp supports lexical environments formally bindings lexical environment lexical scope may either indefinite extent dynamic extent depending type namespace lexical scope means visibility physically restricted block binding established references textually i.e lexically embedded block simply see binding tags tagbody lexical scope expression go x erroneous actually embedded tagbody contains label x however label bindings disappear tagbody terminates execution dynamic extent block code re-entered invocation lexical closure invalid body closure try transfer control tag via go tagbody executed first evaluates setf form stores function special variable stashed go end-label transfers control end-label skipping code print hello since end-label end tagbody tagbody terminates yielding nil suppose previously remembered function called situation erroneous one implementation response error condition containing message go tagbody tag some-label already left function tried evaluate go some-label lexically embedded tagbody resolves label however tagbody n't executing extent ended control transfer take place local function bindings lisp lexical scope variable bindings also lexical scope default contrast go labels indefinite extent lexical function variable binding established binding continues exist long references possible even construct established binding terminated references lexical variables functions termination establishing construct possible thanks lexical closures lexical binding default binding mode common lisp variables individual symbol switched dynamic scope either local declaration global declaration latter may occur implicitly use construct like defvar defparameter important convention common lisp programming special i.e dynamically scoped variables names begin end asterisk sigil codice_62 called “ earmuff convention ” adhered convention effectively creates separate namespace special variables variables intended lexical accidentally made special lexical scope useful several reasons firstly references variables functions compiled efficient machine code run-time environment structure relatively simple many cases optimized stack storage opening closing lexical scopes minimal overhead even cases full closures must generated access closure environment still efficient typically variable becomes offset vector bindings variable reference becomes simple load store instruction base-plus-offset addressing mode secondly lexical scope combined indefinite extent gives rise lexical closure turn creates whole paradigm programming centered around use functions first-class objects root functional programming thirdly perhaps importantly even lexical closures exploited use lexical scope isolates program modules unwanted interactions due restricted visibility lexical variables private one module binds lexical variable x calls another module b references x b accidentally resolve x bound b simply access x situations disciplined interactions variable desirable common lisp provides special variables special variables allow module set binding variable x visible another module b called able advantage able prevent happening also advantage consequently common lisp supports lexical dynamic scope macro lisp superficially resembles function usage however rather representing expression evaluated represents transformation program source code macro gets source surrounds arguments binds parameters computes new source form new form also use macro macro expansion repeated new source form use macro final computed form source code executed runtime typical uses macros lisp various standard common lisp features also need implemented macros macros defined defmacro macro special operator macrolet allows definition local lexically scoped macros also possible define macros symbols using define-symbol-macro symbol-macrolet paul graham book lisp describes use macros common lisp detail doug hoyte book let lambda extends discussion macros claiming macros single greatest advantage lisp programming language single greatest advantage programming language hoyte provides several examples iterative development macros macros allow lisp programmers create new syntactic forms language one typical use create new control structures example macro provides codice_73 looping construct syntax macro definition tagbody primitive common lisp special operator provides ability name tags use go form jump tags backquote provides notation provides code templates value forms preceded comma filled forms preceded comma at-sign spliced tagbody form tests end condition condition true jumps end tag otherwise provided body code executed jumps start tag example form using macro code expanded using function macroexpand-1 expansion example looks like macro expansion value variable test random 10 0 value variable body write-line hello body list forms symbols usually automatically upcased expansion uses tagbody two labels symbols labels computed gensym interned package two go forms use tags jump since tagbody primitive operator common lisp macro expanded something else expanded form uses macro also expanded fully expanding source form called code walking fully expanded walked form form replaced primitive macros must expanded source code containing evaluated compiled normally macros considered functions accept return s-expressions similar abstract syntax trees limited functions invoked evaluator compiler produce final source code macros written normal common lisp may use common lisp third-party operator available common lisp macros capable commonly called variable capture symbols macro-expansion body coincide calling context allowing programmer create macros wherein various symbols special meaning term variable capture somewhat misleading namespaces vulnerable unwanted capture including operator function namespace tagbody label namespace catch tag condition handler restart namespaces variable capture introduce software defects happens one following two ways scheme dialect lisp provides macro-writing system provides referential transparency eliminates types capture problem type macro system sometimes called hygienic particular proponents regard macro systems automatically solve problem unhygienic common lisp macro hygiene ensured one two different ways one approach use gensyms guaranteed-unique symbols used macro-expansion without threat capture use gensyms macro definition manual chore macros written simplify instantiation use gensyms gensyms solve type 2 capture easily applicable type 1 capture way macro expansion rename interfering symbols surrounding code capture references gensyms could used provide stable aliases global symbols macro expansion needs macro expansion would use secret aliases rather well-known names redefinition well-known names would ill effect macro another approach use packages macro defined package simply use internal symbols package expansion use packages deals type 1 type 2 capture however packages n't solve type 1 capture references standard common lisp functions operators reason use packages solve capture problems revolves around use private symbols symbols one package imported otherwise made visible packages whereas common lisp library symbols external frequently imported made visible user-defined packages following example unwanted capture operator namespace occurring expansion macro codice_73 macro expand form calls codice_75 intended refer standard common lisp macro codice_75 however context codice_75 may completely different meaning codice_73 may work properly common lisp solves problem shadowing standard operators functions forbidding redefinition redefines standard operator codice_75 preceding actually fragment non-conforming common lisp allows implementations diagnose reject condition system responsible exception handling common lisp provides conditions handler restart s. condition objects describing exceptional situation example error condition signaled common lisp system searches handler condition type calls handler handler search restarts use one restarts automatically repair current problem using information condition type relevant information provided part condition object call appropriate restart function restarts unhandled code presented users part user interface debugger example user select invoke one available restarts since condition handler called context error without unwinding stack full error recovery possible many cases exception handling systems would already terminated current routine debugger also customized replaced using codice_80 dynamic variable code found within unwind-protect forms finalizers also executed appropriate despite exception following example using symbolics genera user tries open file lisp function test called read-eval-print-loop repl file exist lisp system presents four restarts user selects retry open using different pathname restart enters different pathname lispm-init.lisp instead lispm-int.lisp user code contain error handling code whole error handling restart code provided lisp system handle repair error without terminating user code common lisp includes toolkit object-oriented programming common lisp object system clos one powerful object systems available language example peter norvig explains many design patterns simpler implement dynamic language features clos multiple inheritance mixins multimethods metaclasses method combinations etc. several extensions common lisp object-oriented programming proposed included ansi common lisp standard eventually clos adopted standard object-system common lisp clos dynamic object system multiple dispatch multiple inheritance differs radically oop facilities found static languages c++ java dynamic object system clos allows changes runtime generic functions classes methods added removed classes added redefined objects updated class changes class objects changed clos integrated ansi common lisp generic functions used like normal functions first-class data type every clos class integrated common lisp type system many common lisp types corresponding class potential use clos common lisp specification say whether conditions implemented clos pathnames streams could implemented clos usage possibilities clos ansi common lisp part standard actual common lisp implementations use clos pathnames streams input–output conditions implementation clos lisp interpreter directly executes lisp source code provided lisp objects lists symbols numbers ... read s-expressions lisp compiler generates bytecode machine code lisp source code common lisp allows individual lisp functions compiled memory compilation whole files externally stored compiled code fasl files several implementations earlier lisp dialects provided interpreter compiler unfortunately often semantics different earlier lisps implemented lexical scoping compiler dynamic scoping interpreter common lisp requires interpreter compiler use lexical scoping default common lisp standard describes semantics interpreter compiler compiler called using function compile individual functions using function compile-file files common lisp allows type declarations provides ways influence compiler code generation policy latter various optimization qualities given values 0 important 3 important speed space safety debug compilation-speed also function evaluate lisp code codice_81 codice_81 takes code pre-parsed s-expressions like languages text strings way code constructed usual lisp functions constructing lists symbols code evaluated function codice_81 several common lisp implementations like clozure cl sbcl implementing codice_81 using compiler way code compiled even though evaluated using function codice_81 file compiler invoked using function compile-file generated file compiled code called fasl fast load file fasl files also source code files loaded function load running common lisp system depending implementation file compiler generates byte-code example java virtual machine c language code compiled c compiler directly native code common lisp implementations used interactively even though code gets fully compiled idea interpreted language thus apply interactive common lisp language makes distinction read-time compile-time load-time run-time allows user code also make distinction perform wanted type processing wanted step special operators provided especially suit interactive development instance codice_86 assign value provided variable n't already bound codice_87 always perform assignment distinction useful interactively evaluating compiling loading code live image features also provided help writing compilers interpreters symbols consist first-level objects directly manipulable user code codice_88 special operator allows create lexical bindings programmatically packages also manipulable lisp compiler available runtime compile files individual functions make easy use lisp intermediate compiler interpreter another language following program calculates smallest number people room probability completely unique birthdays less 50 birthday paradox 1 person probability obviously 100 2 364/365 etc. answer 23 convention constants common lisp enclosed characters calling example function using repl read eval print loop define class codice_89 method displaying name age person next define group persons list codice_89 objects iterate sorted list prints three names descending age use loop macro demonstrated example use compare built exponentiation with-open-file macro opens file provides stream form returning file automatically closed funcall calls function object loop collects lines match predicate function available-shells calls function list-matching-lines pathname anonymous function predicate predicate returns pathname shell nil string filename shell example results mac os x 10.6 common lisp frequently compared contrasted scheme—if two popular lisp dialects scheme predates cl comes lisp tradition engineers—guy l. steele gerald jay sussman designed scheme chaired standards committee common lisp common lisp general-purpose programming language contrast lisp variants emacs lisp autolisp extension languages embedded particular products gnu emacs autocad respectively unlike many earlier lisps common lisp like scheme uses lexical variable scope default interpreted compiled code lisp systems whose designs contributed common lisp—such zetalisp franz lisp—used dynamically scoped variables interpreters lexically scoped variables compilers scheme introduced sole use lexically scoped variables lisp inspiration algol 68 widely recognized good idea cl supports dynamically scoped variables well must explicitly declared special differences scoping ansi cl interpreters compilers common lisp sometimes termed lisp-2 scheme lisp-1 referring cl use separate namespaces functions variables fact cl many namespaces go tags block names codice_72 keywords long-standing controversy cl scheme advocates tradeoffs involved multiple namespaces scheme broadly necessary avoid giving variables names clash functions scheme functions frequently arguments named codice_92 codice_93 codice_94 conflict system function codice_95 however cl necessary explicitly refer function namespace passing function argument—which also common occurrence codice_11 example cl also differs scheme handling boolean values scheme uses special values f represent truth falsity cl follows older lisp convention using symbols nil nil standing also empty list cl non-nil value treated true conditionals codice_68 whereas scheme non- f values treated true conventions allow operators languages serve predicates answering boolean-valued question returning useful value computation scheme value equivalent nil common lisp evaluates true boolean expression lastly scheme standards documents require tail-call optimization cl standard cl implementations offer tail-call optimization although often programmer uses optimization directive nonetheless common cl coding style favor ubiquitous use recursion scheme style prefers—what scheme programmer would express tail recursion cl user would usually express iterative expression codice_75 codice_99 codice_72 recently codice_101 package see category common lisp defined specification like ada c rather one implementation like perl version 6 many implementations standard details areas may validly differ addition implementations tend come extensions provide functionality covered standard free open-source software libraries created support extensions common lisp portable way notably found repositories common-lisp.net clocc common lisp open code collection projects common lisp implementations may use mix native code compilation byte code compilation interpretation common lisp designed support incremental compilers file compilers block compilers standard declarations optimize compilation function inlining type specialization proposed language specification common lisp implementations compile source code native machine code implementations create optimized stand-alone applications others compile interpreted bytecode less efficient native code eases binary-code portability also compilers compile common lisp code c code misconception lisp purely interpreted language likely lisp environments provide interactive prompt code compiled one-by-one incremental way common lisp incremental compilation widely used unix-based implementations clisp sbcl used scripting language invoked system transparently way perl unix shell interpreter see category common lisp used develop research applications often artificial intelligence rapid development prototypes deployed applications common lisp used many commercial applications including yahoo store web-commerce site originally involved paul graham later rewritten c++ perl notable examples include also exist open-source applications written common lisp since 2011 zach beane support common lisp foundation maintained quicklisp library manager allows automatic download installing loading 3600 libraries required work one implementation common lisp license allows redistribution chronological list books published published common lisp language programming common lisp especially ai programming I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,062	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: qualcomm_hexagon.qualcomm hexagon hexagon qdsp6 brand family 32-bit multi-threaded microarchitectures implementing instruction set digital signal processor dsp developed qualcomm according 2012 estimation qualcomm shipped 1.2 billion dsp cores inside system chip socs average 2.3 dsp core per soc 2011 year 1.5 billion cores planned 2012 making qdsp6 shipped architecture dsp ceva around 1 billion dsp cores shipped 2011 90 ip-licenseable dsp market hexagon architecture designed deliver performance low power variety applications features hardware assisted multithreading privilege levels long instruction word vliw single instruction multiple data simd instructions geared toward efficient signal processing cpu capable in-order dispatching 4 instructions packet 4 execution units every clock hardware multithreading implemented barrel temporal multithreading threads switched round-robin fashion cycle 600 mhz physical core presented three logical 200 mhz cores v5 hexagon v5 switched dynamic multithreading dmt thread switch l2 misses interrupt waiting special instructions hot chips 2013 qualcomm announced details hexagon 680 dsp qualcomm announced hexagon vector extensions hvx hvx designed allow significant compute workloads advanced imaging computer vision processed dsp instead cpu march 2015 qualcomm announced snapdragon neural processing engine sdk allow ai acceleration using cpu gpu hexagon dsp qualcomm snapdragon 855 contains 4th generation on-device ai engine includes hexagon 690 dsp hexagon tensor accelerator hta ai acceleration port linux hexagon runs hypervisor layer hexagon virtual machine merged 3.2 release kernel original hypervisor closed-source april 2013 minimal open-source hypervisor implementation qdsp6 v2 v3 hexagon minivm released qualcomm bsd-style license support hexagon added 3.1 release llvm tony linthicum hexagon/hvx v66 isa support added 8.0.0 release llvm also non-fsf maintained branch gcc binutils qualcomm hexagon dsps available qualcomm snapdragon soc since 2006 snapdragon s4 msm8960 newer three qdsp cores two modem subsystem one hexagon core multimedia subsystem modem cores programmed qualcomm multimedia core allowed programmed user also used femtocell processors qualcomm including fsm98xx fsm99xx fsm90xx march 2016 announced semiconductor company conexant audiosmart audio processing software integrated qualcomm hexagon six versions qdsp6 architecture released v1 2006 v2 2007–2008 v3 2009 v4 2010–2011 qdsp6 v5 2013 snapdragon 800 qdsp6 v6 2016 snapdragon 820 v4 20 dmips per milliwatt operating 500 mhz clock speed hexagon varies 400–2000 mhz qdsp6 256–350 mhz previous generation architecture qdsp5 hexagon qdsp6 pre-hexagon qdsp5 cores used modern qualcomm socs qdsp5 mostly low-end products modem qdsps often pre-hexagon shown table qdsp5 usage qdsp6 hexagon usage single instruction packet inner loop fft packet claimed qualcomm equal 29 classic risc operations includes vector add 4x 16-bit complex multiply operation hardware loop support instructions packet done cycle 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_rockchip_products.list rockchip products list rockchip products rk3399 flagship soc rockchip dual a72 quad a53 mali-t860mp4 gpu providing high computing multi-media performance rich interfaces peripherals software supports multiple apis opengl es 3.2 vulkan 1.0 opencl 1.1/1.2 openvx1.0 ai interfaces support tensorflow lite/androidnn api rk3399 linux source code hardware documents github wiki opensource website rk3288 high performance iot platform quad-core cortex-a17 cpu mali-t760mp4 gpu 4k video decoding 4k display applied products various industries including vending machine commercial display medical equipment gaming intelligent pos interactive printer robot industrial computer rk3288 linux source code hardware documents github wiki opensource website rk3326 px30 newly announced 2018 designed smart ai solutions px30 variant rk3326 targeting iot market supporting dual vop arm new generation cpu cortex-a35 gpu g31 rk3308 another newly released chipset targeting smart ai solutions entry-level chipset aimed mainstream devices chip multiple audio input interfaces greater energy efficiency featuring embedded vad voice activation detection announcement rv1108 indicated rockchip moves ai/computer vision territory ceva dsp embedded rv1108 powers smart cameras including 360° video camera ipc drone car camcoder sport dv vr etc also deployed new retail intelligent marketing applications integrated algorithms rk1808 rockchip first chip neural processing unit npu artificial intelligence applications rk1808 specifications include rk3530 rk3530 soc ship q3 2019 targeting set-top box market rk3530 specifications include rv1109 rk3358 rv1109 vision processor soc ship q4 2019 rv1109 specifications include rk3358 high-end soc ship q1 2020 rk3358 specifications include rk26xx series released 2006 rk27xx series rockchip first known rk 27xx series efficient mp3/mp4 decoding integrated many low-cost personal media player pmp products rk28xx series rk2806 targeted pmps rk2808a arm926ej-s derivative along arm core dsp coprocessor included native clock speed 560 mhz arm rates performance arm926ej-s 1.1 dmips/mhz performance rockchip 2808 executing arm instructions therefore 660 dmips roughly 26 speed apple a4 processor dsp coprocessor support real-time decoding 720p video files bitrates 2.5 mbit/s chip core many android windows mobile-based mobile internet devices.. rk2816 targeted pmp devices mids specifications rk2806 also includes hdmi output android support 720p hardware video acceleration rk29xx series rockchip rk291x family socs based arm cortex-a8 cpu core presented first time ces 2011 rk292x single core socs based arm cortex-a9 first introduced 2012 rk2918 first chip decode google webm vp8 hardware uses dynamically configurable companion core process various codecs encodes decodes h.264 1080p decode many standard video formats including xvid h.263 avs mpeg4 rv wmv includes vivante gc800 gpu compatible opengl es 2.0 openvg rk2918 compatible android froyo 2.2 gingerbread 2.3 honeycomb 3.x ice cream sandwich 4.0 unofficial support ubuntu linux flavours exists 2013 targeted e-readers rk2906 basically cost-reduced version rk2918 also targeted e-readers 2013 rockchip rk2926 rk2928 feature single core arm cortex a9 running speed 1.0 ghz replaces vivante gc800 gpu older rk291x series arm mali-400 gpu 2013 rk2926 targeted tablets rk2928 targeted tablets android tv dongles boxes rk30xx series rk3066 high performance dual-core arm cortex-a9 mobile processor similar samsung exynos 4 dual core chip terms performance rk3066 samsung exynos 4210 samsung exynos 4212 2013 targeted tablets android tv dongles boxes popular choice tablets devices since 2012 rk3068 version rk3066 specifically targeted android tv dongles boxes package much smaller rk3066 rk3028 low-cost dual-core arm cortex-a9-based processor clocked 1.0 ghz arm mali-400 gpu pin-compatible rk2928 used kids tablets low-cost android hdmi tv dongles rk3026 updated ultra-low-end dual-core arm cortex-a9-based tablet processor clocked 1.0 ghz arm mali-400 mp2 gpu manufactured 40 nm pin-compatible rk2926 features 1080p h.264 video encoding 1080p decoding multiple formats supporting android 4.4 adopted low-end tablets 2014 rk3036 low-cost dual-core arm cortex-a7-based processor released q4 2014 smart set-top boxes support h.265 video decoding rk3188 first product rk31xx series announced production 2nd quarter 2013 rk3188 features quad-core arm cortex-a9 clocked 1.6 ghz frequency targeted tablets android tv dongles boxes popular choice tablets devices requiring good performance rk3188t lower-clocked version rk3188 cpu cores running maximum speed 1.4 ghz instead 1.6 ghz mali-400mp4 gpu also clocked lower speed early 2014 many devices advertised using rk3188 maximum clock speed 1.6 ghz actually rk3188t clock speed limited 1.4 ghz operating system roms specifically made rk3188 may work correctly rk3188t rk3168 first shown april 2013 dual-core cortex a9-based cpu also manufactured using 28 nm process targeted low-end tablets chip seen limited use may 2014 rk3126 entry-level tablet processor introduced q4 2014 manufactured using 40 nm process features quad-core cortex-a7 cpu 1.3 ghz mali-400 mp2 gpu pin-compatible rk3026 rk2926 rk3128 higher-end variant rk3126 also introduced q4 2014 features integrated external interfaces including cvbs hdmi ethernet mac s/pdif audio dac usb targets fully featured tablets set-top boxes rockchip announced rk3288 production second quarter 2014 recent information suggests chip uses quad-core arm cortex-a17 cpu although technically arm cortex-a12 october 1 2014 arm decided also refer cortex-a17 latest production version cortex-a12 performs similar performance level cortex-a17 early reports including rockchip first suggested summer 2013 rk3288 originally designed using quad-core arm cortex-a12 configuration rockchip primary foundry partner globalfoundries announced partnership arm optimize arm cortex-a12 28 nm-slp process process used earlier rockchip chips rk3188 matches choice cortex-a12 cores design rk3288 january 2014 official marketing materials listed cpu cores arm cortex-a17 ces electronics show january 2014 someone apparently corrected cpu specification arm cortex-a12 instead cortex-a17 one panels show booth however since official specifications rockchip website marketing materials well specifications used device manufacturers continued describe cpu quad-core arm cortex-a17 recent testing early rk3288-based tv boxes august/september 2014 provided evidence rk3288 technically contains cortex-a12 cores since arm 0xc0d cpu archtitecture reported cpu-z android reference cortex-a12 original cortex-a17 referred arm 0xc0e however arm community website arm clarified situation october 1 2014 saying cortex-a12 rockchip one known customers called cortex-a17 references cortex-a12 removed arm website arm explained latest production revision cortex-a12 performs close level cortex-a17 improvements cortex-a17 also applied latest version cortex-a12 way rockchip gets official blessing arm listing cores inside rk3288 cortex-a17 first android tv stick based rk3288 launched november 2014 zero devices z5c thinko rockchip announced first member rk33xx family ces show january 2015 rk3368 soc targeting tablets media boxes featuring 64-bit octa-core cortex-a53 cpu opengl es 3.1-class gpu rk3399 announced arm mobile world congress february 2016 features six 64 bit cpu cores including 2 cortex-a72 4 cortex-a53 consumer devices include rockchip provides open source software github maintains wiki linux sdk website offer free downloads soc hardware documents software development resources well third-party development kits info chipsets available rk3399 rk3288 rk3328 rk3036 market socs tablets rockchip faces competition allwinner technology mediatek intel actions semiconductor spreadtrum leadcore technology samsung semiconductor qualcomm broadcom via technologies amlogic establishing position early developing chinese tablet soc market 2012 faced challenge allwinner 2012 rockchip shipped 10.5 million tablet processors compared 27.5 million allwinner however q3 2013 rockchip forecast ship 6 million tablet-use application processors china compared 7 million allwinner mainly shipped single-core products rockchip reported number one supplier tablet-use application processors china q4 2013 q1 2014 q2 2014 chinese soc suppliers cellular baseband technology disadvantage compared companies mediatek also supply smartphone market white-box tablet makers increasingly add phone cellular data functionality products intel corporation made investments tablet processor market heavily subsidizing entry low-cost tablet market 2014 may 2014 intel announced agreement rockchip jointly deliver intel-branded mobile soc platform based intel atom processor 3g modem technology terms agreement two companies deliver intel-branded mobile soc platform quad-core platform based intel atom processor core integrated intel 3g modem technology expected available first half 2015 intel rockchip sell new part oems odms primarily company existing customer base october 2014 rockchip already offering intel xmm 6321 low-end smartphones two chips dual-core application processor either intel processor cores arm cortex-a5 cores integrated modem xg632 integrated rf chip ag620 originates cellular chip division infineon technologies intel acquired time ago application processor may also originate infineon intel rockchip earlier targeted smartphone space material way 1-hop neighbor's text information: bluetooth_mesh_networking.bluetooth mesh networking bluetooth mesh networking conceived 2015 adopted protocol based upon bluetooth low energy allows many-to-many communication bluetooth radio defined mesh profile specification mesh model specification communication carried messages may 384 bytes long using segmentation reassembly sar mechanism messages fit one segment 11 bytes message starts opcode may single byte special messages 2 bytes standard messages 3 bytes vendor-specific messages every message source destination address determining devices process messages devices publish messages destinations single things groups things everything message sequence number protects network replay attacks message encrypted authenticated two keys used secure messages 1 network keys – allocated single mesh network 2 application keys – specific given application functionality e.g turning light vs reconfiguring light messages time live ttl time message received retransmitted ttl decremented limits number hops eliminating endless loops bluetooth mesh flood network based nodes relaying messages every relay node receives network packet authenticates known network key message cache ttl ≥ 2 retransmitted ttl ttl 1 message cache used prevent relaying messages recently seen bluetooth mesh layered architecture multiple layers yet determined practical limits bluetooth mesh technology limits built specification though version 1.0 bluetooth mesh specification following standard models model groups defined foundation models defined core specification two mandatory mesh nodes provisioning process installing device network mandatory step build bluetooth mesh network provisioning process provisioner securely distributes network key unique address space device provisioning protocol uses p256 elliptic curve diffie-hellman key exchange create temporary key encrypt network key information provides security passive eavesdropper also provides various authentication mechanisms protect network information active eavesdropper uses man-in-the-middle attack provisioning process key unique device known device key derived elliptic curve shared secret provisioner device provisioning process device key used provisioner encrypt messages specific device security provisioning process analyzed paper presented ieee cns 2018 conference provisioning performed using bluetooth gatt connection advertising using specific bearer Target text information: ceva_(semiconductor_company).ceva semiconductor company ceva publicly listed semiconductor intellectual property ip company headquartered mountain view california specializes digital signal processor dsp technology company main development facility located herzliya israel sophia antipolis france ceva recently named israeli 100 companies list technologies changed world ceva created november 2002 combination dsp ip licensing division dsp group parthus technologies plc irish company founded 1993 company develops semiconductor intellectual property core technologies multimedia wireless communications technology ceva claimed largest number baseband processors 2010 90 dsp ip market share 2011 july 2014 acquired rivierawaves sas private company based france I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,276	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: network_time_protocol.network time protocol network time protocol ntp networking protocol clock synchronization computer systems packet-switched variable-latency data networks operation since 1985 ntp one oldest internet protocols current use ntp designed david l. mills university delaware ntp intended synchronize participating computers within milliseconds coordinated universal time utc uses intersection algorithm modified version marzullo algorithm select accurate time servers designed mitigate effects variable network latency ntp usually maintain time within tens milliseconds public internet achieve better one millisecond accuracy local area networks ideal conditions asymmetric routes network congestion cause errors 100 ms protocol usually described terms client-server model easily used peer-to-peer relationships peers consider potential time source implementations send receive timestamps using user datagram protocol udp port number 123 also use broadcasting multicasting clients passively listen time updates initial round-trip calibrating exchange ntp supplies warning impending leap second adjustment information local time zones daylight saving time transmitted current protocol version 4 ntpv4 proposed standard documented backward compatible version 3 specified /small 1979 network time synchronization technology used possibly first public demonstration internet services running trans-atlantic satellite network national computer conference new york technology later described 1981 internet engineering note ien 173 public protocol developed documented technology first deployed local area network part hello routing protocol implemented fuzzball router experimental operating system used network prototyping ran many years related network tools available include daytime time protocols recording time events well icmp timestamp ip timestamp option complete synchronization systems although lacking ntp data analysis clock disciplining algorithms include unix daemon timed uses election algorithm appoint server clients digital time synchronization service dtss uses hierarchy servers similar ntp stratum model 1985 ntp version 0 ntpv0 implemented fuzzball unix ntp packet header round-trip delay offset calculations persisted ntpv4 documented despite relatively slow computers networks available time accuracy better 100 milliseconds usually obtained atlantic spanning links accuracy tens milliseconds ethernet networks 1988 much complete specification ntpv1 protocol associated algorithms published drew experimental results clock filter algorithm documented first version describe client-server peer-to-peer modes 1991 ntpv1 architecture protocol algorithms brought attention wider engineering community publication article david l. mills ieee transactions communications 1989 published defining ntpv2 means state machine pseudocode describe operation introduced management protocol cryptographic authentication scheme survived ntpv4 bulk algorithms era also largely survived ntpv4 1992 defined ntpv3 rfc included analysis sources error reference clock final client enabled calculation metric helps choose best server several candidates appear disagree broadcast mode introduced subsequent years new features added algorithm improvements made became apparent new protocol version required 2010 published containing proposed specification ntpv4 protocol significantly moved since 2014 updated rfc yet published following retirement mills university delaware reference implementation currently maintained open source project led harlan stenn ntp uses hierarchical semi-layered system time sources level hierarchy termed stratum assigned number starting zero reference clock top server synchronized stratum n server runs stratum n 1 number represents distance reference clock used prevent cyclical dependencies hierarchy stratum always indication quality reliability common find stratum 3 time sources higher quality stratum 2 time sources brief description strata 0 1 2 3 provided upper limit stratum 15 stratum 16 used indicate device unsynchronized ntp algorithms computer interact construct bellman-ford shortest-path spanning tree minimize accumulated round-trip delay stratum 1 servers clients addition stratum protocol able identify synchronization source server terms reference identifier refid 64-bit timestamps used ntp consist 32-bit part seconds 32-bit part fractional second giving time scale rolls every 2 seconds 136 years theoretical resolution 2 seconds 233 picoseconds ntp uses epoch january 1 1900 therefore first rollover occurs february 7 2036 ntpv4 introduces 128-bit date format 64 bits second 64 bits fractional-second most-significant 32-bits format era number resolves rollover ambiguity cases according mills 64-bit value fraction enough resolve amount time takes photon pass electron speed light 64-bit second value enough provide unambiguous time representation universe goes dim typical ntp client regularly polls one ntp servers client must compute time offset round-trip delay time offset θ difference absolute time two clocks defined round-trip delay δ values θ δ passed filters subjected statistical analysis outliers discarded estimate time offset derived best three remaining candidates clock frequency adjusted reduce offset gradually creating feedback loop accurate synchronization achieved incoming outgoing routes client server symmetrical nominal delay routes common nominal delay systematic bias exists half difference forward backward travel times ntp reference implementation along protocol continuously developed 20 years backwards compatibility maintained new features added contains several sensitive algorithms especially discipline clock misbehave synchronized servers use different algorithms software ported almost every computing platform including personal computers runs daemon called ntpd unix service windows reference clocks supported offsets filtered analysed way remote servers although usually polled frequently implementation audited 2017 finding numerous potential security issues simple network time protocol sntp less complex implementation ntp using protocol without requiring storage state extended periods time used embedded systems applications full ntp capability required microsoft windows versions since windows 2000 include windows time service w32time ability synchronize computer clock ntp server w32time originally implemented purpose kerberos version 5 authentication protocol required time within 5 minutes correct value prevent replay attacks version windows 2000 windows xp implements sntp violates several aspects ntp version 3 standard beginning windows server 2003 windows vista compliant implementation ntp included microsoft states w32time reliably maintain time synchronization one second accuracy higher accuracy desired microsoft recommends using newer version windows different ntp implementation windows 10 windows server 2016 support 1 ms time accuracy certain operating conditions 2004 henning brauer presented openntpd ntp implementation focus security encompassing privilege separated design whilst aimed closely simpler generic needs openbsd users also includes protocol security improvements whilst still compatible existing ntp servers originally designed openbsd portable version available made available package linux package repositories new ntp client ntimed started poul-henning kamp 2014 new implementation sponsored linux foundation replacement reference implementation determined easier write new implementation scratch fix existing issues large existing code base june 2015 official release done yet ntimed synchronize clocks reliably ntimed works debian freebsd remains ported windows macos ntpsec fork reference implementation systematically security-hardened fork point june 2015 response rash compromises 2014 first production release shipped october 2017 removal unsafe features removal support obsolete hardware removal support obsolete unix variants ntpsec able pare away 75 original codebase making remainder auditable 2017 audit code showed eight security issues including two present original reference implementation ntpsec suffer eight issues remained reference implementation chrony comes default red hat distributions available ubuntu repositories chrony aimed ordinary computers unstable go sleep mode intermittent connection internet chrony also designed virtual machines much unstable environment characterized low resource consumption cost supports ptp well ntp two main components chronyd daemon executed computer starts chronyc command line interface user configuration evaluated safe incidents advantage versatility code written scratch avoid complexity code chrony written gnu general public license version 2 created richard curnow 1997 others along time currently maintained miroslav lichvar development supported red hat software day leap second event ntpd receives notification either configuration file attached reference clock remote server requirement time must appear monotonically increasing leap second inserted sequence 23:59:59 23:59:60 00:00:00 although clock actually halted event processes query system time cause increase tiny amount preserving order events negative leap second ever become necessary would deleted sequence 23:59:58 00:00:00 skipping 23:59:59 alternative implementation called leap smearing consists introducing leap second incrementally period 24 hours noon noon utc time implementation used google internally public ntp servers amazon aws security problems identified reference implementation ntp codebase ones appeared 2009 cause significant concern protocol undergoing revision review entire history january 2011 security revisions ntp specification reports cert current codebase reference implementation undergoing security audits several sources several years known high-risk vulnerabilities current released software several security concerns arose late 2014 previously researchers became aware ntp servers susceptible man-in-the-middle attacks unless packets cryptographically signed authentication computational overhead involved make impractical busy servers particularly denial service attacks ntp message spoofing used move clocks client computers allow number attacks based bypassing cryptographic key expiration services affected fake ntp messages identified tls dnssec various caching schemes dns cache bgp bitcoin number persistent login schemes 2017 security audit three ntp implementations conducted behalf linux foundation core infrastructure initiative suggested ntp ntpsec problematic chrony security standpoint ntp used distributed denial service ddos attacks small query sent ntp server return address spoofed target address similar dns amplification attack server responds much larger reply allows attacker substantially increase amount data sent target avoid participating attack servers configured ignore external queries upgraded version 4.2.7p26 later stack-based buffer overflow exploit discovered patch available december 19 2014 includes ntp version 4 releases version 4.2.8 apple concerned enough used auto-update capability first time though recent versions macos case version 10.6.8 manual fixes server version normal client users turn automatic time updating system preferences date time implementation errors basic missing return statement routine lead unlimited access systems running versions ntp root daemon systems use root daemon bsd subject flaw 1-hop neighbor's text information: point-to-point_protocol.point-to-point protocol computer networking point-to-point protocol ppp data link layer layer 2 communications protocol used establish direct connection two nodes connects two routers directly without host networking device provide connection authentication transmission encryption compression ppp used many types physical networks including serial cable phone line trunk line cellular telephone specialized radio links fiber optic links sonet internet service providers isps used ppp customer dial-up access internet since ip packets transmitted modem line without data link protocol two derivatives ppp point-to-point protocol ethernet pppoe point-to-point protocol atm pppoa used commonly isps establish digital subscriber line dsl internet service connection customers ppp commonly used data link layer protocol connection synchronous asynchronous circuits largely superseded older serial line internet protocol slip telephone company mandated standards link access protocol balanced lapb x.25 protocol suite requirement ppp circuit provided duplex ppp designed work numerous network layer protocols including internet protocol ip trill novell internetwork packet exchange ipx nbf decnet appletalk like slip full internet connection telephone lines via modem reliable slip double checks make sure internet packets arrive intact resends damaged packets ppp designed somewhat original hdlc specifications designers ppp included many additional features seen proprietary data-link protocols time ppp specified rfc 1661 rfc 2516 describes point-to-point protocol ethernet pppoe method transmitting ppp ethernet sometimes used dsl rfc 2364 describes point-to-point protocol atm pppoa method transmitting ppp atm adaptation layer 5 aal5 also common alternative pppoe used dsl ppp layered protocol three components lcp initiates terminates connections gracefully allowing hosts negotiate connection options integral part ppp defined standard specification lcp provides automatic configuration interfaces end setting datagram size escaped characters magic numbers selecting optional authentication lcp protocol runs top ppp ppp protocol number 0xc021 therefore basic ppp connection established lcp able configure rfc 1994 describes challenge-handshake authentication protocol chap preferred establishing dial-up connections isps although deprecated password authentication protocol pap still sometimes used another option authentication ppp extensible authentication protocol eap described rfc 2284 link established additional network layer 3 configuration may take place commonly internet protocol control protocol ipcp used although internetwork packet exchange control protocol ipxcp appletalk control protocol atcp popular internet protocol version 6 control protocol ipv6cp see extended use future ipv6 replaces ipv4 dominant layer-3 protocol ppp permits multiple network layer protocols operate communication link every network layer protocol used separate network control protocol ncp provided order encapsulate negotiate options multiple network layer protocols negotiates network-layer information e.g network address compression options connection established example internet protocol ip uses ip control protocol ipcp internetwork packet exchange ipx uses novell ipx control protocol ipx/spx ncps include fields containing standardized codes indicate network layer protocol type ppp connection encapsulates following ncps may used ppp ppp detects looped links using feature involving magic numbers node sends ppp lcp messages messages may include magic number line looped node receives lcp message magic number instead getting message peer magic number previous section introduced use lcp options meet specific wan connection requirements ppp may include following lcp options ppp frames variants hdlc frames peers agree address field control field compression lcp fields omitted likewise peers agree protocol field compression 0x00 byte omitted protocol field indicates type payload packet 0xc021 lcp 0x80xy various ncps 0x0021 ip 0x0029 appletalk 0x002b ipx 0x003d multilink 0x003f netbios 0x00fd mppc mppe etc ppp limited contain general layer 3 data unlike ethertype information field contains ppp payload variable length negotiated maximum called maximum transmission unit default maximum 1500 octets might padded transmission information particular protocol padded protocol must allow information distinguished padding ppp frames encapsulated lower-layer protocol provides framing may provide functions checksum detect transmission errors ppp serial links usually encapsulated framing similar hdlc described ietf rfc 1662 flag field present ppp hdlc-like framing used address control fields always value hex ff stations hex 03 unnumbered information omitted whenever ppp lcp address-and-control-field-compression acfc negotiated frame check sequence fcs field used determining whether individual frame error contains checksum computed frame provide basic protection errors transmission crc code similar one used layer two protocol error protection schemes one used ethernet according rfc 1662 either 16 bits 2 bytes 32 bits 4 bytes size default 16 bits polynomial x x x 1 fcs calculated address control protocol information padding fields message encapsulated multilink ppp also referred mlppp mp mppp mlp multilink provides method spreading traffic across multiple distinct ppp connections defined rfc 1990 used example connect home computer internet service provider using two traditional 56k modems connect company two leased lines single ppp line frames arrive order possible frames divided among multiple ppp connections therefore multilink ppp must number fragments put right order arrive multilink ppp example link aggregation technology cisco ios release 11.1 later supports multilink ppp ppp one establish several simultaneous distinct ppp connections single link possible multilink ppp either multilink ppp uses contiguous numbers fragments packet consequence possible suspend sending sequence fragments one packet order send another packet prevents running multilink ppp multiple times links multiclass ppp kind multilink ppp class traffic uses separate sequence number space reassembly buffer multiclass ppp defined rfc 2686 pptp point-to-point tunneling protocol form ppp two hosts via gre using encryption mppe compression mppc many protocols used tunnel data ip networks like ssl ssh l2tp create virtual network interfaces give impression direct physical connections tunnel endpoints linux host example interfaces would called tun0 ppp0 two endpoints tunnel tunnel point-to-point connection ppp natural choice data link layer protocol virtual network interfaces ppp assign ip addresses virtual interfaces ip addresses used example route networks sides tunnel ipsec tunneling mode create virtual physical interfaces end tunnel since tunnel handled directly tcp/ip stack l2tp used provide interfaces technique called l2tp/ipsec case ppp provides ip addresses extremities tunnel ppp defined rfc 1661 point-to-point protocol july 1994 rfc 1547 requirements internet standard point-to-point protocol december 1993 provides historical information need ppp development series related rfcs written define variety network control protocols-including tcp/ip decnet appletalk ipx others-work ppp 1-hop neighbor's text information: session_initiation_protocol.session initiation protocol session initiation protocol sip signaling protocol used initiating maintaining terminating real-time sessions include voice video messaging applications sip used signaling controlling multimedia communication sessions applications internet telephony voice video calls private ip telephone systems instant messaging internet protocol ip networks well mobile phone calling lte volte protocol defines specific format messages exchanged sequence communications cooperation participants sip text-based protocol incorporating many elements hypertext transfer protocol http simple mail transfer protocol smtp call established sip may consist multiple media streams separate streams required applications text messaging exchange data payload sip message sip works conjunction several protocols specify carry session media commonly media type parameter negotiation media setup performed session description protocol sdp carried payload sip messages sip designed independent underlying transport layer protocol used user datagram protocol udp transmission control protocol tcp stream control transmission protocol sctp secure transmissions sip messages insecure network links protocol may encrypted transport layer security tls transmission media streams voice video sdp payload carried sip messages typically employs real-time transport protocol rtp secure real-time transport protocol srtp sip originally designed mark handley henning schulzrinne eve schooler jonathan rosenberg 1996 protocol standardized 1999 november 2000 sip accepted 3gpp signaling protocol permanent element ip multimedia subsystem ims architecture ip-based streaming multimedia services cellular networks june 2002 specification revised various extensions clarifications published since sip designed provide signaling call setup protocol ip-based communications supporting call processing functions features present public switched telephone network pstn vision supporting new multimedia applications extended video conferencing streaming media distribution instant messaging presence information file transfer internet fax online games sip distinguished proponents roots internet community rather telecommunications industry sip standardized primarily ietf protocols h.323 traditionally associated international telecommunication union itu sip involved signaling operations media communication session primarily used set terminate voice video calls sip used establish two-party unicast multiparty multicast sessions also allows modification existing calls modification involve changing addresses ports inviting participants adding deleting media streams sip also found applications messaging applications instant messaging event subscription notification sip works conjunction several protocols specify media format coding carry media call set call setup body sip message contains session description protocol sdp data unit specifies media format codec media communication protocol voice video media streams typically carried terminals using real-time transport protocol rtp secure real-time transport protocol srtp every resource sip network user agents call routers voicemail boxes identified uniform resource identifier uri syntax uri follows general standard syntax also used web services e-mail uri scheme used sip sip typical sip uri form nowiki sip username domainname /nowiki nowiki sip username hostport /nowiki domainname requires dns srv records locate servers sip domain hostport ip address fully qualified domain name host port secure transmission required scheme sips used sip employs design elements similar http request response transaction model transaction consists client request invokes particular method function server least one response sip reuses header fields encoding rules status codes http providing readable text-based format sip carried several transport layer protocols including transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp stream control transmission protocol sctp sip clients typically use tcp udp port numbers 5060 5061 sip traffic servers endpoints port 5060 commonly used non-encrypted signaling traffic whereas port 5061 typically used traffic encrypted transport layer security tls sip-based telephony networks often implement call processing features signaling system 7 ss7 special sip protocol extensions exist although two protocols different ss7 centralized protocol characterized complex central network architecture dumb endpoints traditional telephone handsets sip client-server protocol equipotent peers sip features implemented communicating endpoints traditional ss7 architecture use switching centers network elements use session initiation protocol communication called sip user agents user agent ua performs function user agent client uac requesting service function user agent server uas responding request thus two sip endpoints may principle operate without intervening sip infrastructure however network operational reasons provisioning public services users directory services sip defines several specific types network server elements service elements also communicates within client-server model implemented user agent clients servers user agent logical network end-point sends receives sip messages manages sip sessions user agents client server components user agent client uac sends sip requests user agent server uas receives requests returns sip response unlike network protocols fix roles client server e.g. http web browser acts client never server sip requires peers implement roles roles uac uas last duration sip transaction sip phone ip phone implements client server functions sip user agent provides traditional call functions telephone dial answer reject call hold call transfer sip phones may implemented hardware device softphone vendors increasingly implement sip standard telephony platform distinction hardware-based software-based sip phones blurred sip elements implemented basic firmware functions many ip-capable communications devices smartphones sip http user agent may identify using message header field user-agent containing text description software hardware product name user agent field sent request messages means receiving sip server evaluate information perform device-specific configuration feature activation operators sip network elements sometimes store information customer account portals useful diagnosing sip compatibility problems display service status proxy server network server uac uas components functions intermediary entity purpose performing requests behalf network elements proxy server primarily plays role routing meaning job ensure request sent another entity closer targeted user proxies also useful enforcing policy determining whether user allowed make call proxy interprets necessary rewrites specific parts request message forwarding sip proxy servers route messages one destination called forking proxies forking sip requests means multiple dialogs established single request explains need two-sided dialog identifier without contribution recipients originator could disambiguate multiple dialogs established single request sip forking refers process forking single sip call multiple sip endpoints powerful feature sip single call ring many endpoints time sip forking allows desk phone ring time mobile allowing call taken either device redirect server user agent server generates 3xx redirection responses requests receives directing client contact alternate set uris redirect server allows proxy servers direct sip session invitations external domains registrar sip endpoint provides location service accepts register requests recording address parameters user agent subsequent requests provides essential means locate possible communication peers network location service links one ip addresses sip uri registering agent multiple user agents may register uri result registered user agents receive calls uri sip registrars logical elements often co-located sip proxies improve network scalability location services may instead located redirect server session border controllers serve middle boxes user agents sip servers various types functions including network topology hiding assistance nat traversal gateways used interconnect sip network networks public switched telephone network use different protocols technologies sip text-based protocol syntax similar http two different types sip messages requests responses first line request method defining nature request request-uri indicating request sent first line response response code requests initiate functionality protocol sent user agent client server answered one sip responses return result code transaction generally indicate success failure state transaction responses sent user agent server indicating result received request several classes responses recognized determined numerical range result codes sip defines transaction mechanism control exchanges participants deliver messages reliably transaction state session controlled various timers client transactions send requests server transactions respond requests one responses responses may include provisional responses response code form 1xx one multiple final responses 2xx – 6xx transactions categorized either type invite type non-invite invite transactions differ establish long-running conversation referred dialog sip include acknowledgment ack non-failing final response e.g. 200 ok session initiation protocol instant messaging presence leveraging extensions simple sip-based suite standards instant messaging presence information message session relay protocol msrp allows instant message sessions file transfer sip developer community meets regularly conferences organized sip forum test interoperability sip implementations ttcn-3 test specification language developed task force etsi stf 196 used specifying conformance tests sip implementations developing sip software deploying new sip infrastructure important test capability servers ip networks handle certain call load number concurrent calls number calls per second sip performance tester software used simulate sip rtp traffic see server ip network stable call load software measures performance indicators like answer delay answer/seizure ratio rtp jitter packet loss round-trip delay time sip connection marketing term voice internet protocol voip services offered many internet telephony service providers itsps service provides routing telephone calls client private branch exchange pbx telephone system public switched telephone network pstn services may simplify corporate information system infrastructure sharing internet access voice data removing cost basic rate interface bri primary rate interface pri telephone circuits sip trunking similar marketing term preferred service used simplify telecom infrastructure sharing carrier access circuit voice data internet traffic removing need primary rate interface pri circuits sip-enabled video surveillance cameras initiate calls alert operator events motion objects protected area sip used audio ip broadcasting applications provides interoperable means audio interfaces different manufacturers make connections one another u.s. national institute standards technology nist advanced networking technologies division provides public-domain java implementation serves reference implementation standard implementation work proxy server user agent scenarios used numerous commercial research projects supports full number extension rfcs including event notification reliable provisional responses numerous commercial open-source sip implementations exist see list sip software sip-i session initiation protocol encapsulated isup protocol used create modify terminate communication sessions based isup using sip ip networks services using sip-i include voice video telephony fax data sip-i sip-t two protocols similar features notably allow isup messages transported sip networks preserves detail available isup header important many country-specific variants isup implemented last 30 years always possible express detail using native sip message sip-i defined itu-t whereas sip-t defined via ietf rfc route concerns security calls via public internet addressed encryption sip protocol secure transmission uri scheme sips used mandate hop request forwarded target domain must secured transport layer security tls last hop proxy target domain user agent secured according local policies tls protects attackers try listen signaling link provide end-to-end security prevent espionage law enforcement interception encryption hop-by-hop every single intermediate proxy trusted end-to-end security may also achieved secure tunneling ipsec service providers offer secure connections use tls securing signaling tls connections use uris form nowiki sips user example.com /nowiki media streams separate connections signaling stream may encrypted secure real-time transport protocol srtp key exchange srtp performed sdes zrtp one may also add mikey exchange sip determine session keys use srtp Target text information: rtelnet.rtelnet rtelnet socks client version telnet unix-like systems rtelnet utility provides similar functionality telnet hosts behind firewall normally firewalls designed permit deny network transmissions based upon set rules network accessibility across firewall reduced order provide adequate security hosts within firewall many services directly access resources placed outside firewall rtelnet utility provides functionality telnet maintaining security requirement firewall nat though utility differs much counterpart implementation behaves almost indistinguishably users terms command interface communication scheme rtelnet versatile client used connections inside hosts directly outside hosts via socks proxy servers rtelnet starts prints version number name ip address default socks proxy server stderr stream channel consults configuration file /etc/socks.conf determine whether request allowed denied based requesting user destination host requested service allowable requests configuration file also dictates whether direct proxy connection used given destination optionally actual socks servers use proxy connection rtelnet utility requires libsocket.so shared library run rtelnet listed project sourceforge code repository I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	7,208	none

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